Compounds from Living Things

compounds found in living organisms

Examples: sugar, fats, plant oils, urea

Characteristics of Organic Compounds

All contain carbon element

Most come with hydrogen

Others with oxygen, nitrogen, or a halogen

Some uses of Organic Compounds

Fuels

plastic

rubber

detergents

insecticides

medicines

Classifying Organic Compounds

Homologeous series: a family of organic compounds with a general formula and a similar chemical
properties
Functional Groups

Is the special group of atoms available in homologous series compounds which is responsible for
the chemical properties of the compound

All compounds in homologous series have functional group except alkanes. Examples of
functional group homologous series: alcohol

Production of Organic Compounds

a. From crude oil refinery:

Crude oil is a mixture of complex hydrocarbons with varying boiling points, depending on the
number of carbon atoms and how they are arranged.

Fractional distillation uses this property to separate the hydrocarbons in crude oil.

b. From naphtha:

Naphtha fraction is used for production of petrochemicals, such as medicines, plastics and
synthetic fibres, aside from fuels.

When naphtha is treated, not only it becomes a better fuel, it also contain more aromatic
hydrocarbons, alkene and cyclic hydrocarbons which are important for petrochemical industry.

Crude oil is mostly used as fuel, though some allocated for chemical feedstock.

Saturated vs Unsaturated
Saturated hydrocarbons

hydrocarbons which the combining capacity of the carbon atoms is as fully used as possible in
bonding with hydrogen atoms.

They only have single bond () only.

Unsaturated hydrocarbons

hydrocarbons which the combining capacity of the carbon atoms is not fully used, e.g. only 2 or 3
hydrogen are attached to a carbon atom.

usually indicated by double bond (=) or triple bond with another carbon atoms.

Alkanes
Characteristics

Usually in fuels, examples: natural gas, petrol, diesel

Are homologous series

Have a formula of CnH2n+2

example: propane has three carbon atom, thus n=3. Then the formula of propane is C3H8

Ends with suffix ane

Next alkane formula differ by CH2 atoms. Eg: methane: CH4, ethane: C2H6

Structure of Alkanes

Shows how all atoms in a molecule joined together by drawing lines between atoms to represent
the bonds

Organic compound containing only single bond is saturated Eg: methane -

All alkanes are saturated

All alkenes are unsaturated

Physical Properties of Alkanes

Melting points and boiling points increase as the bonds become larger and heavier which
increases the forces of attraction between molecules so more energy (from heat) is needed to
separate them with the increase of strength of forces of attraction

insoluble in water but soluble in organic solvents such as tetrachloromethane as alkanes are
organic compounds

density increases down the series; all alkenes are less than 1g/cm

become more viscous going down the series as the longer molecules tangles together when it

flows

become less flammable down the series as boiling point increases

unreactive with either metals, water, acids or bases because the C C and C H covalent bonds
are harder to break

Reaction of Alkanes

Have same chemical properties they dont react with most chemicals

1) Combustion

Alkanes burn in air to ALWAYS form carbon dioxide and water.

When there is insufficient oxygen, the product is ALWAYS carbon monoxide and unburnt carbon.

Example: Butane is commonly used camping gas. State the chemical equation of combustion of butane in
air.
2 C4H10 (g) + 13 O2 (g) --> 8 CO2 (g) +10 H2O (l)

High alkanes burn less completely and gives soot (unburnt carbon) and CO

2) Reaction with Chlorine/Other Halogens (Alkyl Halides)

Chlorine molecule replaces alkane hydrogen atom with chlorine atom

Substitution reaction the reaction in which one or more atoms replace other atoms in a
molecule

Light is needed to break covalent bond between chlorine molecule --> atoms

Alkenes
Characteristics

- have general formula CnH2n.

- all alkene names end with ene.
- the formula of one alkene differs from the next by CH2.
- have similar properties like alkane going down the series.

Structure of Alkenes

organic compound containing C = C double bond, said to be unsaturated

Reason: not all C atoms are bonded to the maximum number of 4 other atoms

The Importance of Ethene

Ethanol solvent & fuel
Poly(ethene) PE plastic variations
Ethanoic acid vinegar

Reactions of Alkenes
1) Combustion

Burns in air to form carbon dioxide and water

Example: Ethene burns in air. Write the balanced equation for the reaction
C2H4 (g) + 3O2 (g) --> 2CO2 (g) + 2H2O (l)

Incomplete combustion forms soot and CO. Its produced more than alkane

2) Addition Reaction

Is the reaction of 2 or more molecules to form a single product

a. Addition of hydrogen:

Alkenes react with hydrogen to form alkanes, called hydrogenation. Must use nickel as catalyst
and heat.

b. Addition of bromine

Bromine adds to C = C double bond of alkane molecules.

Phosphoric acid (H3PO4), high temperature of 300 C and 60-70 atm pressure are needed as
catalyst.

Eg: ethene to 1,2 dibromoethene

c. Addition of water

Alkene reacts with water, in the form of steam, to produce alcohol.

Alkene + steam is passed over phosphoric acid (H3PO4) catalyst and temperature of 300 C.

H2O molecule adds to C = C bonds to form alcohol.

3) Polymerization

The joining of several identical alkene molecules to form a big molecule

Eg: Ethene --> poly(ethene)

Testing for Unsaturated Compounds

Mix bromine solution with alkene (for liquid alkenes shake).

Reddish-brown colour of bromine disappears.

This shows that the compound is an alkene.

Characteristics of a Homologous Series

All members of homologous series have same general formula

Formula of each member differs by CH2 group

Physical properties changes gradually in the increase of carbon atoms

The members have similar chemical properties

The Manufacture of Margarine

Polyunsaturated food food containing C=C bond in their molecules Eg: Vegetable oil

Hydrogen is reacted with vegetable oil with presence of nickel catalyst and heat, which adds to
C=C bond, increasing the molecular mass of the compound

With increase in mass, the compound has higher boiling point. Therefore, margarine is solid at
room temperature.

Since only some C=C bonds react with hydrogen, margarine is partially hydrogenated and each
has different hardness, depending on the number of C=C bonds.

The Cracking of Alkanes

Alkanes can be cracked into shorter chain hydrocarbons because of the higher value it has that it
can create more variety of products in petrochemical industries.

by catalytic cracking, which is, using catalyst to break alkane into simpler hydrocarbons.

crack alkane to get more valuable hydrocarbons.

The total number of carbon and hydrogen atoms from products should equal to the total number
of carbon and hydrogen atoms in cracked alkane.

E.g. Octane can be cracked into simpler hydrocarbons such as the reaction below. Suggest the
possible identity of product x.
C8H18 (l) --> C2H4 (g) + x + CH4 (g)
Number of C atoms in x = 8 2 1 = 5
Number of H atoms in x = 18 4 4 = 10
---> Product x is C5H10

Isomers

compounds with same molecular formula but different structural formula.

Due to different chain length, they have different physical properties (e.g. boiling point).

Isomerism can occur in both alkanes and alkenes.

For alkene, double bond position can be changed.

We therefore cant just say that C6H14 is simply hexane because there are more variations of C6H14and
each variation has its own name.

Alcohols

Characteristics

Are homologous series with general formula CnH2n+1OH

They have OH functional group (hydroxyl group)

All alcohols end with suffix -ol

First three members of the series (so that youd have idea on the next)

Methanol, CH3OH

Ethanol, C2H5OH or CH3CH2OH

Propanol, C3H7OH or CH3CH2CH2OH

For alcohol, the OH is not of hydroxide ion, OH , but is covalent bond between oxygen and
hydrogen, O H

Making Ethanol
1. Fermentation of sugars with yeast
2. Reacting ethene with steam
1. Fermenting glucose

Fermentation is breakdown of sugars into smaller molecules by microorganisms.

C6H12O6 (aq) --> 2C2H5OH (aq) + 2CO2 (g)

Temperature is kept constant at 37 C to prevent destruction of yeast at higher temperatures.

Oxygen is removed by limewater and carbon dioxide is produced during fermentation.

Alcohol is separated from solution by fractional distillation.

2. Reacting Ethene with Steam

Ethene and steam are passed over phosphoric acid H3PO4 (as a catalyst) under high temperature
o

of 300 C and pressure of 65 atm.

C2H4 (g) + H2O (g) C2H5OH (aq)

Since this is reversible reaction, both ethene and water are produced aside from ethanol.

The ethanol is separated by fractional distillation.

Uses of Alcohol

As organic solvent

alcoholic drink; preservatives

vehicle fuel

REACTIONS OF ALCOHOL
1) Combustion

Alcohols burn in air to produce carbon dioxide and water.

E.g. combustion of ethanol

C2H5OH (aq) + 3O2 (g) --> 2CO2 (g) + 3H2O (l)
Example:

2) Oxidation
a. Alcohol can be prepared in laboratory by warming alcohol with oxidizing agent (e.g. acidified potassium
chromate(VI)).

The product is carboxylic acid and water.

E.g. oxidation of ethanol produces water and ethanoic acid

C2H5OH (aq) + 2[O] {from oxidizing agent} ---> 2CH3COOH (g) + 3H2O (l)
2. Alcohol can be oxidized when left in air with bacterial enzymes as catalyst.

The products are carboxylic acid and water.

E.g. ethanol produces water and ethanoic acid when left in air.
C2H5OH (aq) + O2 (g) ---> 2CH3COOH (aq) + 3H2O (l)

3) Esterification

Carboxylic Acids

Characteristics

homologous series with general formula C nH2n+1COOH (first series, n = 0, ascending)

They have COOH functional group (carboxyl group)

All carboxylic acids end with suffix oic acid

First three members of the series (so that youd have idea on the next)

Methanoic acid, HCOOH

Ethanoic acid, CH3COOH

Propanoic acid, C2H5COOH

--> Propanoic acid

PREPARATION OF CARBOXYLIC ACIDS

1. From natural gas

Natural gas is passed over air and catalyst to form ethanoic acid and water.

E.g. production of ethanoic acid from methane

2CH4 (g) + 2O2 (g) ---> CH3COOH (aq) + 2H2O (l)

2. Oxidation

PROPERTIES OF CARBOXYLIC ACIDS

Carboxylic acids are weak acids (partially ionises in water)

Carboxylic acids react with metals to form metal ethanoate (salt) and hydrogen

E.g. Reaction between calcium and ethanoic acid forming calcium ethanoate and hydrogen
Ca (s) + 2CH3COOH (aq) ---> Ca(CH3COO)2 (aq) + H2 (g)

Carboxylic acids react with bases to form salt and water (neutralization)

E.g. Ethanoic acid reacts with sodium hydroxide to form sodium ethanoate and water.
CH3COOH (aq) + NaOH (aq) ---> CH3COONa (aq) + H2O(g)

Carboxylic acids react with carbonates and bicarbonates to form salt, carbon dioxide and
hydrogen.

E.g. Ethanoic acid reacts with sodium carbonate to form sodium ethanoate and water.
2CH3COOH (aq) + Na2CO3 (aq) ---> 2CH3COONa (aq) + CO2 (g) + H2O (g)

ESTERIFICATION

Ester is organic compound made from carboxylic acid and alcohol with the removal of one
molecule of water.

Sulfuric acid is added as catalyst then heat mixture.

The reaction is reversible.

We can add sodium hydroxide and heat mixture to obtain carboxylic acid and alcohol from ester -> This is HYDROLYSIS.

Synthetic Macromolecules

Macromolecule is a large molecule made by joining together many small molecules

Polymer is a long-chain macromolecule made by joining together many monomers

Polymerisation is the addition of monomers to make one large polymer

ADDITION POLYMERISATION

small molecules (monomers) join together to form one molecule as the only product.

a. From monomer to polymer

Example: Formation of poly(ethene) from ethene

Ethene has double bond.

Another ethene molecules add to this unsaturated compound during polymerisation to form
bigger compound.

Repeat unit is the simplest part of the polymer which is repeated many times to form the
polymer.

We take the repeat unit to write the simplified formula of the polymer, where n is a large number.

From this repeat unit, to find the monomer formula, we add double bond between C C and
remove the bonds on each of their sides.

CONDENSATION POLYMERISATION

The joining of monomers together to form polymers along with the elimination of water molecules.

Nylon --> Dicarboxylic acid and diamine undergo condensation polymerisation to form nylon.

The linkage between monomers in nylon is called amide linkage.

Therefore we can also call nylon as polyamide.

we use nylon as:

- a replacement of stockings and manufacture of garments to replace silk

- make tents and parachutes due to strength
- fishing lines
- rugs and carpets

Terylene --> Dicarboxylic acid (acid with 2 COOH groups) and diol (alcohol with 2 OH groups)
undergo condensation polymerisation to form terylene

The linkage between the monomers in terylene is called ester linkage.

Therefore we can call this polymer as polyester.

Terylene is used in fabrics as it is strong, resists stretching and sinking and doesnt crumple when
washed.

PROBLEMS ASSOCIATED WITH PLASTICS

non-biodegradable they cannot be decomposed by bacteria --> Therefore, many plastic waste
will pollute the Earth

produce toxic gas (such as hydrogen chloride) when burnt and this contributes to acid rain.

produce carbon dioxide when burnt increases global warming.

Plastics that require CFC during production may contribute to global warming when the CFC is
allowed to escape.

Natural Macromolecules
a. Carbohydrates

contain carbon, hydrogen & oxygen.

General formula is Cn(H2O)n.

The simplest carbohydrate is C6H12O6 (glucose).

Glucose polymerise each other to form starch.

The overall reaction is: nC6H12O6 ---> (C5H10O5)n + nH2O

Starch can also be broken down into glucose by heating with sulfuric acid. This is HYDROLYSIS.

b. PROTEINS

Proteins have similar linkage to that of a nylon.

Only that their monomers are only amino acids joined together.

formed by condensation polymerisation.

Proteins can be called as polyamide as it has amide linkage.

Proteins can also be broken down into amino acids by boiling protein with sulfuric acid.

This adds water molecule into the polymer.

c. FATS

Fats have similar linkage to that of a terylene (ester linkage).

Only that their monomers consists of glycerol and fatty acids; different from terylene.

Fats can also be broken down to sodium salts of fatty acids and glycerol by boiling it with an acid
or alkali. - This is HYDROLYSIS.

MCQ
1. Which physical property of the alkanes does not increase as relative molecular mass increase?
a. boiling point
b. flammability
c. melting point
d. viscosity
2. In the polymerization of ethene to form polyethene, there is no change in
a. boiling point
b. density
c. mass
d. molecular formula
3. Which polymer has the same type of linkage between its monomers as in a fat?
a. polyamide
b. polyester
c. protein
d. starch
4. Cholesterol is an organic molecule that occurs in the blood stream. Which type of compound is
cholesterol?
a. acid
b. alcohol
c. alkane
d. alkene
5. Which of the following can best be used to distinguish between ethane and ethene?
a. lighted splint
b. aqueous bromine

c. limewater
d. litmus solution
6. Methane is used as a fuel. What property is essential for this use?
a. it burns exothermically
b. it is a gas
c. it is odourless
d. it has a low boiling point
7. All the members of a homologous series have the same
a. empirical formula
b. general formula
c. molecular formula
d. physical properties
8. Yeast can be used to convert simple sugars to
a. ethanoic acid and oxygen
b. ethanol and carbon dioxide
c. ethanol and oxygen
d. starch and carbon dioxide
9. Which type of reaction occurs when soap is formed from fats?
a. hydrolysis
b. polymerisation
c. fermentation
d. substitution
10. Octane is an alkane present in petrol. What are the products when octane is completely
burned in air?
a. carbon dioxide and hydrogen
b. carbon dioxide and water
c. carbon monoxide and water
d. carbon monoxide, carbon dioxide, and water
11. Which compound, on combustion, never forms soot.
a. carbon monoxide
b. ethanol
c. ethene
d. methane
12. What is produced when ethanol is boiled with an excess of acidified potassium

dichromate(VI)?
a. ethane
b. ethanoic acid
c. ethene
d. ethyl ethanoate
13. Which of the following is not made from crude oil?
a. aircraft fuel
b. diesel oil
c. furniture polish
d. margarine
14. Which of the following is an ester?
a. pvc
b. soap
c. starch
d. terylene
15. Starch can be broken down into smaller molecules by heating with a dilute acid. What is this
type of reaction called?
a. cracking
b. fermentation
c. hydrolysis
d. reduction
16. A margarine is described as 'high in polyunsaturates'. What does this type of margarine
contain?
a. long chain alkane molecules
b. many alkene molecules joined by addition polymerization
c. molecules containing many C=C bonds
d. polymer molecules with -O=C-N-H- linkages
17. Vinegar is a solution of ethanoic acid made by the reaction of ethanol with air. Which gas in air
takes part in this reaction?
a. carbon dioxide
b. nitrogen
c. oxygen
d. water vapour
18. When must a substance be an alkane?
a. when it burns easily in air or in oxygen

b. when it contains carbon and hydrogen only

c. when it has the general formula CnH2n+2
d. when it is generally unreactive
19. One mole of a hydrocarbon X reacted completely with one mole of hydrogen gas in the
presence of a heated catalyst. What could be the formula of X?
a. C2H6
b. C3H8
c. C5H10
d. C7H16
20. Nylon (a polyamide) and Terylene (a polyester) are both man-made fibres. Which type of
reaction is used to produce both of these polymers?
a. addition
b. condensation
c. fermentation
d. hydrolysis
21. Part of a polymer molecule has the following structure.
-CH2-CH2-CH2-CH2-CH2-CH2From which substance is this polymer made?
a. C2H4
b. C2H6
c. C3H6
d. C3H8
22. What type of reaction occurs when soap is formed from fats?
a. hydrolysis
b. polymerization
c. fermentation
d. substitution
23. Which of these equations does not represent an addition reaction?
a. CH2Cl2 + Cl2 --> CHCl3 + HCl
b. C2H4 + Br2 --> C2H4Br2
c. nC2H4 --> -(CH2 - CH2)nd. C3H6 + H2O --> C3H7OH
24. Which set contains all the possible combustion products of methane, CH 4?
a. carbon, carbon dioxide, carbon monoxide, water
b. carbon, carbon monoxide, hydrogen

c. carbon dioxide, carbon monoxide, hydrogen, water

d. carbon monoxide, water
25. Octane is an alkane containing eight carbon atoms per molecule. What is its molecular
formula?
a. C8H14
b. C8H16
c. C8H18
d. C8H20
26. What is produced when ethanol is boiled with an excess of acidified potassium
dichromate(VI)?
a. ethane
b. ethanoic acid
c. ethene
d. ethyl ethanoate
27. What is the linkage between the units in fats and also in Terylene?

28. The structure of butan-1-ol is shown.

Which structure is an isomer of that shown above?

29. The structures of an acid and an alcohol are shown.

Which pairing of names correctly identify the two compounds?

acid

alcohol

a. ethanoic

butanol

b. ethanoic

propanol

c. propanoic

propanol

d. propanoic

butanol

30. The structure of four organic compounds are shown.

Which compounds decolorise bromine water?

a. 1 and 2

b. 1, 2, and 4
c. 2 and 4
d. 3 and 4
31. Which polymer has the empirical formula CH?

32. Which is the structure of ethyl ethanoate?

33. The structures of three compounds P, Q and R are shown.

Which compounds are isomers of each other?

a. P and Q only
b. P and R only
c. Q and R only
d. P, Q and R
34. The structural formula of butenedioic acid is shown.

Which statement about butenedioic acid is not correct?

a. it decolorises aqueous bromine
b. its aqueous solution reacts with sodium carbonate
c. its empirical formula is the same as its molecular formula
d. its relative molecular mass is 116
35. The diagram represents an organic compound that contains three different elements

What could be the compound?

a. ethanoic acid
b. ethanol
c. propane
d. propene
36. Which of the following reacts with sodium carbonate to produce carbon dioxide?

37. A polymer has the structure shown.

What is the molecular formula of the monomer?

a. C2H4
b. C2H6
c. C3H6
d. C3H8
38. The structure of the monomer of Perspex is shown.

Which description of Perspex is correct?

type of polymer

polymer formed by

a.

carbohydrate

condensation polymerization

b.

ester

addition polymerization

c.

hydrocarbon

addition polymerization

d.

polyester

condensation polymerization

39. Which of the following describes the ways in which isomers are identical and different?
identical

different

a.

chemical properties

molecular formulae

b.

molecular formulae

structures

c.

physical properties

chemical properties

d.

structure

molecular formulae

40. When an animal fat is boiled with aqueous sodium hydroxide, a soap and glycerol are formed.
This reaction is an example of
a. esterification
b. fermentation
c. hydrolysis
d. polymerization
41. In which chemical reaction does the named product formed have a lower molecular mass than
the reactant?
a. formation of an ester from ethanol
b. formation of ethanoic acid from ethanol
c. formation of ethanol from glucose
d. formation of ethanol from glucose
42. In the polymerisation of ethene to form poly(ethene), which does not change?
a. boiling point
b. density
c. empirical formula
d. molecular mass
43. Why are large alkane molecules cracked to form smaller molecules?
a. alkanes with large molecules are not useful

b. small alkane molecules can be polymerised

c. crude oil does not contain small alkane molecules
d. to meet the demand for small alkane molecules
44. What is the catalyst used in the preparation of ethyl ethanoate from ethanol and ethanoic
acid?
a. concentrated sulphuric acid
b. nickel
c. vanadium(V) oxide
d. yeast
45. Which of these polymers is a protein?
a. (C2H3Cl)n
b. (C2H3NO)n
c. (C5H8O2)n
d. (C6H10O5)n
46. Which element is least likely to be found in a macromolecule?
a. carbon
b. hydrogen
c. oxygen
d. sodium
47. Which statement is true about ethanol?
a. it is formed by the catalytic addition of steam to ethene
b. it is an unsaturated compound
c. it is formed by the oxidation of ethanoic acid
d. it reacts with ethyl ethanoate to form an acid
48. Which compound has the empirical formula CH 2O and reacts with sodium hydroxide?
a. ethanoic acid
b. ethanol
c. ethyl ethanoate
d. methanoic acid
49. Cholesterol is an organic molecule that occurs in the blood stream. What type of compound is
cholesterol?
a. acid
b. alcohol
c. alkane
d. alkene

50.

Name the processes X, Y, Z.

X

a.

respiration

reduction

acidification

b.

respiration

oxidation

hydrogenation

c.

cracking

oxidation

neutralisation

d.

combustion

oxidation

esterification

51. Cracking is a common process in the petroleum industry. Which of the following gives the
most appropriate explanation for carrying out cracking?
a. It forms more useful fractions for commercial use.
b. There is too much of the heavier fraction of petroleum present.
c. It is easier to form useful fuel fractions through this means than through fractional distillation of
petroleum.
d. The reaction is exothermic.

MCQ Answers
1. b
2. c
3. b
4. b
5. b
6. a
7. b
8. b
9. a
10. b
11. a
12. b
13. d
14. d
15. c
16. c
17. c

18. c
19. c
20. b
21. a
22. a
23. a
24. a
25. c
26. b
27. a
28. d
29. d
30. c
31. d
32. b
33. d
34. c
35. b
36. b
37. c
38. b
40. c
41. d
42. c
43. d
44. a
45. b
46. d
47. a
48. a
49. b
50. d
51. a

Structured Question Worked Solutions

1. Ethyl ethanoate is made by esterification.

ethanoic acid + ethanol <--> ethyl ethanoate + water

The table below gives the relative molecular masses for the reactants and products in the
reaction.

substance
ethanoic acid
ethanol
ethyl ethanoate
eater

relative molecular
mass Mr
60
46
88
18

a. In an experiment, 3.0g of ethanoic acid and 4.6g of ethanol were heated together with a catalyst.
i. how many moles of ethanoic acid were used?
ii. how many moles of ethanol were used?
iii. which reactant (ethanol or ethanoic acid) was in excess?
iv. what mass of ethyl ethanoate would be made if there was 100% conversion?
v. in an experiment, only 2.20g of ethyl ethanoate were obtained. What was the percentage yield of
ethyl ethanoate?
b. Propanoic acid has the following structural formula.

Draw the structural formula of the ester formed when propanoic acid reacts with ethanol.
Solution
1ai. amount of acid used = 3.0/60 = 0.05 mole
1aii. amount of ethanol used = 4.6/46 = 0.1 mole
1aiii. ethanol
1aiv. amount of ester produced = 0.05 mole

mass of ester produced = 0.05 x 88 = 44 g

1av. % yield = 2.20/4.4 x 100% = 50%
1b.

2. Ethanol, C2H5OH is used in Brazil as a liquid fuel instead of gasoline (petrol). The ethanol is
manufactured by a fermentation process from sugar cane.
ai. describe how cane sugar can be converted into ethanol by the process of fermentation.
aii. what is the name of the gas produced during this fermentation? How would you test for this
gas?
b. When ethanol is completely burnt in air, it forms carbon dioxide and water. One mole of ethanol
will release 1370 kJ of heat energy during this reaction.
i. Construct the balanced equation for the burning of ethanol.
ii. The mass of 1 litre of ethanol is 780 g. How much heat energy will be released when 1 litre
3

(1dm ) of ethanol is completely burnt?

c. When completely burnt, 1 litre of gasoline releases 38000 kJ of heat energy. Comparing ethanol
and gasoline as liquid fuels, suggest
i. one advantage of using ethanol rather than gasoline
ii. one advantage of using gasoline rather than ethanol
Solution
2ai. A mixture of sugar cane (which contains glucose) with some yeast is allowed to ferment in a closed
container in the absence of air for some time.
C6H12O6 --(yeast)--> 2C2H5OH + 2CO2
2aii. carbon dioxide. This gas can be tested by passing it through limewater and the solution turns milky
(white precipitate formed)
2bi. C2H5OH (l) + 3O2 (g) --> 2CO2 (g) + 3H2O (l)
2bii. Mr of ethanol = 2 x 12 + 6 x 1 + 16 = 46
amount of ethanol used = 780/46 moles

amount of energy released = 780/46 x 1370 = 23230 kJ

2ci. Burning ethanol produces less carbon dioxide, which is one of the components responsible for the
Greenhouse effect.
2cii. Burning gasoline produces more energy.
3. The following questions refer to compounds with the structures drawn below.

Using the letters A to F as appropriate, answer the following.

a. Which compound is an unsaturated hydrocarbon?
b. Which compounds are members of the same homologous series?
c. Which compound reacts with sodium carbonate?
d. Which compounds are isomers of each other?
Solution
3a. E
3b. B, F
3c. C
3d. A, D
4. Olive oil contains oleic acid which is unsaturated.
ai. By naming the reagent and giving the observation, describe a simple test to confirm that olive
oil contains an acid.
aii. Explain what is meant by unsaturated
aiii. By naming the reagent and giving the observation, describe a simple test to confirm that oleic
acid is unsaturated.

b. The molecular formula of oleic acid is C17H31CO2H. How many double bonds between carbon
atoms are present in one molecule of oleic acid? Explain your answer.
Solution
4ai. reagent: sodium carbonate
observation: effervescence. Gas turns limewater milky.
4aii. An unsaturated compound is one that contains multiple bonds eg double bonds
4aiii. reagent: bromine
observation: the brown color of bromine is discharged
4b. number: 2
Explain: If oleic acid does not contain C=C double bond, its formula should be C17H35CO2H
(CnH2n+1CO2H). Since its formula has 4 hydrogen less than 33, it should therefore contain 2 double bonds.
5. The structure of fluorochloroethane is shown below

a. Suggest a name for, and sketch the structure of, the macromolecule formed when
fluorochloroethene polymerizes.
b. When 20 tonnes of fluorochloroethene polymerised, 18 tonnes of the polymer were obtained.
Calculate the percentage yield.
c. Name and give a use for a commercially available polymer containing a halogen.
Solution
5a. poly(fluorochloroethene)

5b. Theoretically, 20 tonnes of products should be obtained. Therefore % yield = 18/20 x 100% = 90%
5c. polyvinylchloride (PVC). It is used as plastics.
6. Ethyne, C2H2, burns in oxygen to give a very hot flame. The temperature is so high that the
flame can be used to cut metal.
ai. Name the two products of the complete combustion of ethyne.
aii. Describe a chemical test for one of these products
b. Calcium carbide, CaC2, is a greyish-white solid. Ethyne can be made by the reaction of calcium
carbide with water. Calcium hydroxide, Ca(OH)2 is the other product of the reaction.
i. Construct an equation, including state symbols, for the reaction between carlcium carbide and
water.
ii. The mixture obtained after this reaction was tested using Universal Indicator. What was the final
color of the Universal Indicator? Explain your answer.
Solution
6ai. carbon dioxide and water
6aii. Bubble the gas through limewater. A white precipitate would be observed
6bi. CaC2 (s) + 2H2O (l) --> Ca(OH)2 (aq) + C2H2 (g)
6bii. Blue. Ca(OH)2 is alkaline.
7a. The following terms are used in the description of organic compounds.
alcohol
amide
alkane
hydrocarbon
alkene
polymer

From this list, choose two terms which can be applied to each of the compounds below.
i. methane
ii. hexene
iii. poly(ethene)
iv. nylon
b. One of the general characteristics of homologous series is that all the members can be
represented by a general formula.
i. What is the general formula of the alkene series?
ii. Give one other general characteristics of homologous series.
Solution
7ai. alkane, hydrocarbon
7aii. alkene, hydrocarbon
7aiii. alkane, polymer
7aiv. amide, polymer
7bi. CnH2n
7bii. The members show similar chemical reactions.
8a. Heptane is an alkane with seven carbon atoms per molecule. It is a colorless liquid with a
boiling point of 100C.
i. deduce the molecular formula of heptane
ii. suggest two tests you could use to decide whether a colorless liquid was heptane or water.
Predict the results of the tests for both heptane and water.
b. Fructose is a carbohydrate. One form of fructose has the following structure.

i. deduce the molecular formula of fructose

ii. suggest why the term 'carbohydrate' is used for this type of compound
iii. name another carbohydrate
Solution

8ai. C7H16
8aii. test 1: add anhydrous copper(II) sulphate
heptane: solid copper(II) sulphate remains white and insoluble
water: solid turns blue and then dissolves to give a blue solution
test 2: ignite with a flame
heptane: burns with a luminous flame
water: the flame dies off
8bi. C6H12O6
8bii. The molecular formula seems to suggest 6 units of carbon, and hydrogen and oxygen in the ratio 2:1
just like water C6(H20)6 ie. hydrate of carbon.
8biii. glucose
9a. Hydrogen can be manufactured by the reaction between methane and steam.
i. Name a source of the methane required for this reaction.
ii. Give the equation for this reaction between methane and steam.
iii. Calculate the maximum volume of hydrogen, measured at r.t.p. which can be obtained from 16g
of methane.
b. Margarine is manufactured using the addition reaction between hydrogen and a vegetable oil.
i. state the conditions used for this reaction
ii. what type of bond must be present in the vegetable oil for this reaction to take place?
c. The diagram represents the structure of a common plastic.

i. Name this plastic and draw the structure of the monomer from which it is made.
ii. This plastic is non-biodegradable. Explain the meaning of this term and describe the problems
which this property creates.
d. If this plastic is burned, a thick, black smoke and a very acidic gas are produced.
i. suggest the identity of the black particles in the smoke
ii. suggest the identity of the very acidic gas.
Solution

9ai. natural gas

9aii. CH4 (g) + H2O (g) --> CO (g) + 3H2 (g)
9aiii. Mr of CH4= 16
amount of CH4 = 16/16 = 1 mol
amount of H2 formed = 3 mol
volume of 1 mole of gas at r.t.p. = 24dm

volume of H2 formed = 3 x 24 = 72 dm at r.t.p.

9bi. Nickel catalyst, high pressure
9bii. double bonds
9ci. polyvinylchloride (PVC)

9cii. Non-biodegradable means cannot be broken down by biochemical reactions by bacteria.

9di. carbon
9dii. hydrogen chloride
10. Ethene is an unsaturated hydrocarbon.
ai. what is meant by 'unsaturated'?
b. Ethene is made by the cracking of long chain hydrocarbon molecules such as C 16H34.
Construct an equation to illustrate the cracking of C16H34 to make ethene and another hydrocarbon
as the only products.
c. Ethene is bubbled through aqueous bromine to form 1,2-dibromoethane. What would you
observe during the reaction?
d. Give the name of the product and the conditions needed for the reaction of ethene with water.
e. Calculate the volume of carbon dioxide, measured at r.t.p., produced by the complete
combustion of 1.40g of ethene.
f. Ethene can be made into poly(ethene). Draw the structure of poly(ethene).
Solution
10a. An unsaturated compound is one that contains multiple bonds eg C=C

10b. C16H34 --> 3C2H4 + C10H22

10c. Decolorization of brown bromine
10d. C2H4 (g) + 3O2 (g) --> 2CO2 (g) + 2H2O (l)
Mr of C2H4 = 28
3

25g of C2H4 give 48 dm of CO2 at r.t.p.

3

--> 1.40g of C2H4 give 1.40 x 48/28 = 2.4dm of CO2 at r.t.p.

10f.

11. The following is a list of formulae of organic compounds.

CH3COOH
C5H12
C2H5OH
C3H6
C7H14
Which of the above formula fit the following descriptions?
a. a compound which dissolves in water to form an acidic solution
b. a compound which is not a hydrocarbon
c. two compounds which are from the same homologous series
d. two compounds which react to form an ester
e. a compound which undergoes an addition reaction with steam
f. a compound which is oxidised by acidified potassium dichromate(VI) to give ethanoic acid
Solution
11a. CH3COOH
11b. CH3COOH or C2H5OH
11c. C3H6 or C7H14
11d. CH3COOH and C2H5OH
11e. C3H6 or C7H14
11f. C2H5OH

12. Ethanol, CH3CH2OH is a liquid fuel. Ethanol can be manufactured either from glucose
C6H12O6or from ethene.
a. Briefly describe the manufacture of ethanol from glucose. Include the balanced equation in your
answer.
bi. Draw the displayed formula for ethene
bii. Name the substance that reacts with ethene to make ethanol
biii. Give the conditions needed for this reaction.
Solution
12a. Yeast cells are added to a solution of glucose. The mixture is kept at 18-20C under anaerobic
conditions. Glucose will be broken down by zymase enzyme in yeast cells to form ethanol and carbon
dioxide. Ethanol is obtained by fractional distillation of the mixture.
C6H12O6 --> 2C2H5OH + CO2
12bi.

12bii. steam
12biii. 300C, 70 atmospheric pressure and phosphoric acid catalyst
13. Styrene-butadiene rubber is a synthetic rubber. It is made by polymerising a mixture of the
monomers butadiene and styrene.

a. What type of polymerization will take place when the monomers polymerise? Explain.
One possible structure for the polymer is shown below.

b. Give the full structural formula for the repeating unit in this polymer structure.
c. When the mixture of styrene and butadiene polymerises, the polymer is unlikely to contain only
this regular, repeating pattern. Explain why.
Butadiene can be made by cracking butane in a cracking tower.
di. Butane cracks to form butadiene and one other product. Write an equation to show this
reaction.
dii. Give a use of the other product of this reaction.
e. 2.90kg of butane entered the cracking tower. After the reaction, 2.16kg of butadiene had been
made. Calculate the percentage yield of butadiene.
Solution
13a. Addition polymerization. Addition polymerization is the joining together of two or more simple
molecules, called monomers, to form a long chain compound without any loss of small molecules. The
addition polymerization process can only occur when the monomer molecule is unsaturated (contain
double bonds or triple bonds)
13b.

13c. Since two different monomers are mixed together before being polymerized the chain will have the
different monomers distributed randomly along its length. Let styrene monomer be A and butadiene
monomer be B. One possible random distribution is
-A-A-B-A-B-B-A-B-A-A-B-B-B-ASometimes the same type of monomers may be polymerised to form short chains and then these chains
mixed and further addition polymerization occurs. For eg.

-A-A-A-A-A-A-A-B-B-B-B-B-B13di. hydrogen gas

13dii. used in the manufacture of ammonia in the Haber process

13e. Mr of butane = 58
Mr of butadiene = 54
no. of moles of butane = 2900/58 = 50
From the eq, 1 mol of butane undergoes cracking to form 1 mol of butadiene.
no. of mole of butadiene formed = 50
mass of butadiene = 50 x 54 = 2700g --> 2.7kg
experimental yield of butadiene = 2.16kg
% yield of butadiene = 2.16/2.7 x 100 = 80%
14. This is the structure of an ester made in a reversible reaction between a carboxylic acid and an
alcohol.

ai. State the conditions for this reaction

aii. Draw the structure of the carboxylic acid used in the reaction.
aiii. Write an equation for this reaction.
b. A student carried out some experiments to compare the relative strengths of dilute ethanoic
acid with dilute hydrochloric acid.
i. Describe a test that can be used to distinguish between dilute ethanoic acid and dilute
hydrochloric acid.
ii. Explain, using ideas about ions, why the two acids behave differently.
iii. Name a solid substance that will react with both acids. Describe what you will see during the
reaction.
Solution

14ai. Heat the carboxylic acid with alcohol ethanol using a few drops of concentrated sulphuric acid as
catalyst.
14aii.

14aiii. CH3COOH +C3H7OH --> CH3COOC3H7 + H2O

3

14bi. Place about 2cm of each acid in separate test tubes. Add a few drops of silver nitrate solution to
each test tube. A white precipitate will be observed in the test tube containing hydrochloric acid.
14bii. Dilute hydrochloric acid is a strong acid and ethanoic acid is a weak acid. Dilute HCl dissociates
fully in water whereas a weak acid dissociates partially in water to form hydrogen ions, H
+

HCl (aq) --> H (aq) + Cl (aq)

+

Ethanoic acid dissociates partially in water to form a solution containing H ions. There are more acid
+

molecules in a solution of weak acid than H ions.

-

CH3COOH <--> CH3COO + H

14biii. solid calcium carbonate.

observations: Effervescence occurs. Colorless, odourless gas formed white precipitate with limewater.