Thermobaric weapon

-ic.
Other terms used for this family of weapons are highimpulse thermobaric weapons (HITs), heat and pressure
weapons, vacuum bombs, or fuel-air explosives (FAE or
FAX).

2 Mechanism
In contrast to condensed explosive, where oxidation in a
conned region produces a blast front from essentially a
point source, a ame front accelerates to a large volume
producing pressure fronts both within the mixture of fuel
and oxidant and then in the surrounding air.[2]

Blast from a US Navy fuel air explosive used against a decommissioned ship, USS McNulty, 1972

Thermobaric explosives apply the principles underlying

accidental unconned vapor cloud explosions, which include those from dispersions of ammable dusts and
droplets.[3] Previously, such explosions were most often
encountered in our mills and their storage containers,
and later in coal mines; but, now, most commonly in discharged oil tankers and reneries, including an incident at
Bunceeld in the UK in 2005 where the blast wave woke
people 150 kilometres (93 mi) from its centre.[4]

A thermobaric weapon is a type of explosive that utilizes oxygen from the surrounding air to generate an intense, high-temperature explosion, and in practice the
blast wave typically produced by such a weapon is of a signicantly longer duration than a conventional condensed
explosive. The fuel-air bomb is one of the most wellknown types of thermobaric weapons.
Most conventional explosives consist of a fuel-oxidizer
premix (gunpowder, for example, contains 25% fuel and
75% oxidizer), whereas thermobaric weapons are almost
100% fuel, so thermobaric weapons are signicantly
more energetic than conventional condensed explosives
of equal weight. Their reliance on atmospheric oxygen
makes them unsuitable for use underwater, at high altitude, and in adverse weather. They do, however, cause
considerably more destruction when used inside conned
environments, such as tunnels, caves, and bunkers - partly
due to the sustained blast wave, and partly by consuming the available oxygen inside. Thermobaric weapons
have the longest sustained blast wave and most destructive force of any known explosive, excluding nuclear
weapons.

A typical weapon consists of a container packed with

a fuel substance, in the center of which is a small
conventional-explosive scatter charge. Fuels are chosen
on the basis of the exothermicity of their oxidation, ranging from powdered metals, such as aluminium or magnesium, to organic materials, possibly with a self-contained
partial oxidant. The most recent development involves
the use of nanofuels.[5][6]
A thermobaric bombs eective yield requires the most
appropriate combination of a number of factors; among
these are how well the fuel is dispersed, how rapidly it
mixes with the surrounding atmosphere, and the initiation of the igniter and its position relative to the container
of fuel. In some designs, strong munitions cases allow
the blast pressure to be contained long enough for the
fuel to be heated up well above its auto-ignition temperature, so that once the container bursts the super-heated
fuel will auto-ignite progressively as it comes into contact with atmospheric oxygen.[7] Conventional upper and
lower limits of ammability apply to such weapons. Close
in, blast from the dispersal charge, compressing and heating the surrounding atmosphere, will have some inuence
on the lower limit. The upper limit has been demonstrated strongly to inuence the ignition of fogs above
pools of oil.[8] This weakness may be eliminated by de-

There are many dierent types of thermobaric weapons

rounds that can be tted to hand-held launchers.[1]

Terminology

The term thermobaric is derived from the Greek

words for "heat" and "pressure":
thermobarikos
(), from thermos (), hot + baros
(), weight, pressure + sux -ikos (-), sux
1

3 DEVELOPMENT HISTORY

signs where the fuel is preheated well above its ignition

temperature, so that its cooling during its dispersion still
results in a minimal ignition delay on mixing. The continual combustion of the outer layer of fuel molecules as
they come into contact with the air, generates additional
heat which maintains the temperature of the interior of
the reball, and thus sustains the detonation.[9]
In connement, a series of reective shock waves are
generated,[10][11] which maintain the reball and can extend its duration to between 10 and 50 ms as exothermic recombination reactions occur.[12] Further damage
can result as the gases cool and pressure drops sharply,
leading to a partial vacuum. This eect has given rise to
the misnomer vacuum bomb. Piston-type afterburning
is also believed to occur in such structures, as ame-fronts
accelerate through it.[13][14]

2.1

Fuel-air explosive

to personnel caught within the cloud as most

chemical agents.
According to a U.S. Central Intelligence Agency
study,[15] the eect of an FAE explosion within conned spaces is immense. Those near the ignition point
are obliterated. Those at the fringe are likely to suer
many internal, and thus invisible injuries, including burst
eardrums and crushed inner ear organs, severe concussions, ruptured lungs and internal organs, and possibly
blindness. Another Defense Intelligence Agency document speculates that because the shock and pressure
waves cause minimal damage to brain tissueit is possible that victims of FAEs are not rendered unconscious by
the blast, but instead suer for several seconds or minutes
while they suocate.[16]

3 Development history

A fuel-air explosive (FAE) device consists of a container

of fuel and two separate explosive charges. After the 3.1 Soviet and Russian developments
munition is dropped or red, the rst explosive charge
bursts open the container at a predetermined height and
disperses the fuel in a cloud that mixes with atmospheric
oxygen (the size of the cloud varies with the size of the
munition). The cloud of fuel ows around objects and
into structures. The second charge then detonates the
cloud, creating a massive blast wave. The blast wave destroys reinforced buildings and equipment and kills and
injures people. The antipersonnel eect of the blast wave
is more severe in foxholes, and in enclosed spaces, such
A RPO-A Shmel (Bumblebee) rocket and launcher
as caves, buildings, and bunkers.
Fuel-air explosives were rst developed, and used in
Vietnam, by the United States. Soviet scientists, however,
quickly developed their own FAE weapons, which were
reportedly used against China in the Sino-Soviet border
conict and in Afghanistan. Since then, research and
development has continued and currently Russian forces
eld a wide array of third-generation FAE warheads.
2.1.1

Eect

Such weapons were developed in the 1960s in the US and

at the same time in the Soviet Union; however, the rst
attempts had already been carried out during the Second
World War by the German Luftwae, their inventor being
Mario Zippermayr.[17]
The Soviet armed forces extensively developed FAE
weapons,[18] such as the RPO-A, and Russia used them
in Chechnya.[19]

The Russian armed forces have developed thermobaric

ammunition variants for several of their weapons, such
A Human Rights Watch report of 1 February 2000[15] as the TGB-7V thermobaric grenade with a lethality raquotes a study made by the US Defense Intelligence dius of 10 metres (33 ft), which can be launched from a
Agency:
RPG-7. The GM-94 is a 43 mm (1.7 in) pump-action
grenade launcher designed mainly to re thermobaric
grenades for close quarters combat. With the grenade
The [blast] kill mechanism against living
targets is uniqueand unpleasant.... What kills
weighing 250 grams (8.8 oz) and containing 160 grams
is the pressure wave, and more importantly,
(5.6 oz) of explosive, its lethality radius is 3 metres (9.8
the subsequent rarefaction [vacuum], which
ft); however, due to the deliberate fragmentation-free
ruptures the lungs.... If the fuel deagrates
design of the grenade, 4 metres (13 ft) is already considbut does not detonate, victims will be severely
ered a safe distance.[20] The RPO-A and upgraded RPOM are infantry-portable RPGs designed to re thermoburned and will probably also inhale the burnbaric rockets. The RPO-M, for instance, has a thermoing fuel. Since the most common FAE fuels,
ethylene oxide and propylene oxide, are highly
baric warhead with a TNT equivalence of 5.5 kilograms
toxic, undetonated FAE should prove as lethal
(12 lb) and destructive capabilities similar to a 152 mm

3.2

US developments

(6 in) high explosive fragmentation artillery shell.[21][22]

The RShG-1 and the RShG-2 are thermobaric variants
of the RPG-27 and RPG-26 respectively. The RShG1 is the more powerful variant, with its warhead having
a 10-metre (33 ft) lethality radius and producing about
the same eect as 6 kg (13 lb) of TNT.[23] The RMG is
a further derivative of the RPG-26 that uses a tandemcharge warhead, whereby the precursor HEAT warhead
blasts an opening for the main thermobaric charge to enter and detonate inside.[24] The RMGs precursor HEAT
warhead can penetrate 300 mm of reinforced concrete or
over 100 mm of rolled homogeneous armour, thus allowing the 105 mm (4.1 in)-diameter thermobaric warhead
to detonate inside.[25]

3
500PM and ODAB-500PMV unguided bombs carry a
190 kg (420 lb) fuel-air explosive each. The KAB-1500S
GLONASS/GPS guided 1,500 kg (3,300 lb) bomb also
has a thermobaric variant. Its reball will cover a 150 m
(490 ft) radius and its lethal zone is a 500 m (1,600 ft)
radius.[29] The 9M120 Ataka-V and the 9K114 Shturm
ATGMs both have thermobaric variants.
In September 2007, Russia exploded the largest thermobaric weapon ever made. Its yield was reportedly
greater than the smallest dial-a-yield nuclear weapons
at their lowest settings.[30][31] Russia named this particular ordnance the "Father of All Bombs" in response
to the United States developed Massive Ordnance Air
Blast (MOAB) bomb whose backronym is the Mother
of All Bombs, and which previously held the title of
the most powerful non-nuclear weapon in history.[32] The
bomb contains an approximately 7 ton charge of a liquid fuel, such as ethylene oxide, mixed with an energetic
nanoparticle, such as aluminium, surrounding a high explosive burster[33] that when detonated created an explosion equivalent to 44 t (49 tons) of TNT.

The other examples include the SACLOS or millimeter

wave radar-guided thermobaric variants of the 9M123
Khrizantema, the 9M133F-1 thermobaric warhead variant of the 9M133 Kornet, and the 9M131F thermobaric
warhead variant of the 9K115-2 Metis-M, all of which
are anti-tank missiles. The Kornet has since been upgraded to the Kornet-EM, and its thermobaric variant has
a maximum range of 10 km (6 mi) and has a TNT equivalence of 7 kg (15 lb).[26] The 300 mm (12 in) 9M55S
thermobaric cluster warhead rocket was built to be red 3.2
from the BM-30 Smerch MLRS. A dedicated carrier of
thermobaric weapons is the purpose-built TOS-1, a 24tube MLRS designed to re 220 mm (8.7 in) thermobaric
rockets. A full salvo from the TOS-1 will cover a rectangle 200 by 400 m (220 by 440 yd).[27] The Iskander-M
theatre ballistic missile can also carry a 700 kg (1,540 lb)
thermobaric warhead.[28]

US developments

A BLU-72/B bomb on a USAF A-1E taking o from Nakhon

Phanom, in September 1968

Current US FAE munitions include:

BLU-73 FAE I
BLU-95 500-lb (FAE-II)
The reball blast from the Russian Air Force's FOAB, the largest
thermobaric device to have been detonated

Many Russian Air Force munitions also have thermobaric

variants. The 80 mm (3.1 in) S-8 rocket has the S-8DM
and S-8DF thermobaric variants. The S-8s 122 mm (4.8
in) brother, the S-13, has the S-13D and S-13DF thermobaric variants. The S-13DFs warhead weighs only 32
kg (71 lb), but its power is equivalent to 40 kg (88 lb)
of TNT. The KAB-500-OD variant of the KAB-500KR
has a 250 kg (550 lb) thermobaric warhead. The ODAB-

BLU-96 2,000-lb (FAE-II)

CBU-55 FAE I
CBU-72 FAE I
The XM1060 40-mm grenade is a small-arms thermobaric device, which was delivered to U.S. forces in April
2003.[34] Since the 2003 Invasion of Iraq, the US Marine Corps has introduced a thermobaric 'Novel Explosive' (SMAW-NE) round for the Mk 153 SMAW rocket
launcher. One team of Marines reported that they had

HISTORY

destroyed a large one-story masonry type building with high-temperature hurricane of re (presumably from
one round from 100 yards (91 m).[35]
the immediate formation of what is essentially a brief
The AGM-114N Hellre II, rst used by U.S. forces in local restorm with incoming air and ame travelling at
2003 in Iraq, uses a Metal Augmented Charge (MAC) tornadic velocities or above) with a radius on the order
warhead that contains a thermobaric explosive ll using of 900 to 4500 metres. The explosions reball would
aluminium powder coated or mixed with PTFE layered use up all of the oxygen in the area aected and prea protracted blast wave and signicant
between the charge casing and a PBXN-112 explosive sumably generate
[37]
The
peak pressure and the rate of the inioverpressure.
mixture. When the PBXN-112 detonates, the aluminium
tial rise in pressure at the leading edge of the blast wave
mixture is dispersed and rapidly burns. The resultant sustained high pressure is extremely eective against people (brisanceessentially the shattering power of an explosive) as well as whether the pressure of the blast wave
and structures.[36]
would rise to a peak then decay or climb to a plateau as
well as the rapidity and nature of the return to normal
3.3 BEAC Spanish thermobaric bomber atmospheric pressure are not mentioned in the literature.
Some reports on testing of the devices by the Zippermayr
project
organisation also make mention of what was strongly susSince 1983 there has been a program of military research pected to be some kind of atmospheric electrical disturwhich produced what appeared
with collaboration between the Ministry of Defence (Di- bance near the explosion
[37]
to
be
lightning
bolts.
rectorate General of Armament and Material, DGAM),
Explosives Alaveses (EXPAL) and Explosives Rio Tinto
(ERT) in order to develop the Spain BEAC (Bomba Explosiva de Aire-Combustible). The prototype was tested
successfully in the Chilean desert, and today the Spanish
Air Force has some BEACs in their inventory.

4
4.1

History
Military use

The TOS-1 system was test red in Panjshir valley during

Soviet war in Afghanistan in the early 1980s.[38]
Unconrmed reports suggest that Russian military forces
used ground delivered thermobaric weapons in the storming of the Russian parliament during the 1993 Russian
constitutional crisis and also during the Battle for Grozny
(rst and second Chechen wars) to attack dug in Chechen
ghters. The use of both TOS-1 heavy MLRS and "RPOA Shmel" shoulder-red rocket system in the Chechen
wars is reported to have occurred.[38][39]
It is theorized that a multitude of hand-held thermobaric weapons were used by the Russian Armed Forces
in their eorts to retake the school during the 2004
Beslan school hostage crisis. The RPO-A and either the
TGB-7V thermobaric rocket from the RPG-7 or rockets from either the RShG-1 or the RShG-2 is claimed to
have been used by the Spetsnaz during the initial storming of the school.[40][41][42] At least 3 and as many as 9
RPO-A casings were later found at the positions of the
Spetsnaz.[43][44] The Russian Government later admitted
to the use of the RPO-A during the crisis.[45]

US Navy BLU-118B being prepared for shipping for use in

Afghanistan, 5 March 2002

According to UK Ministry of Defence, British military forces have also used thermobaric weapons in their
AGM-114N Hellre missiles (carried by Apache helicopters and UAVs) against the Taliban in the War in
Afghanistan.[46]

The US military also used thermobaric weapons in

Afghanistan. On 3 March 2002, a single 2,000 lb (910
kg) laser guided thermobaric bomb was used by the
United States Army against cave complexes in which AlQaeda and Taliban ghters had taken refuge in the Gardez
region of Afghanistan.[47][48] The SMAW-NE was used
by the US Marines during the First Battle of Fallujah and
The most commonly cited example of this research and
Second Battle of Fallujah.
development was a bomb made of 40 per cent nely pulverised coal and 60 per cent liquid air or liquid oxygen. Reports by the rebel ghters of the Free Syrian Army
The desired eect was the generation of a very long- claim the Syrian Air Force used such weapons against
lived explosion reball in the form of an extraordinarily residential area targets occupied by the rebel ghters, as
The rst experiments with thermobaric weapon were conducted in Germany during World War II and were led by
Mario Zippermayr. The German bombs used coal dust
as fuel and were extensively tested in 1943 and 1944, but
did not reach mass production before the war ended.

5
for instance in the Battle for Aleppo[49] and also in Kafar
Batna.[50] A United Nations panel of human rights investigators reported that the Syrian government used thermobaric bombs against the rebellious town of Qusayr in
March 2013.[51]

4.2

Terrorist use

[6] Slavica Terzi, Mirjana Daki Kolundija, Milovan Azdejkovi and Gorgi Minov (2004) Compatibility Of Thermobaric Mixtures Based On Isopropyl Nitrate And Metal
Powders.
[7] Meyer, Rudolf; Josef Khler; Axel Homburg (2007). Explosives. Weinheim: Wiley-VCH. pp. 312. ISBN 3-52731656-6. OCLC 165404124.
[8] Nettleton, arch. combust.,1,131, (1981).

Thermobaric and fuel-air explosives have been used in

guerrilla warfare since the 1983 Beirut barracks bombing in Lebanon, which used a gas-enhanced explosive
mechanism, probably propane, butane or acetylene.[52]
The explosive used by the bombers in the 1993 World
Trade Center bombing incorporated the FAE principle,
using three tanks of bottled hydrogen gas to enhance
the blast.[53][54] Jemaah Islamiyah bombers used a shockdispersed solid fuel charge,[55] based on the thermobaric
principle,[56] to attack the Sari nightclub in the 2002 Bali
bombings.[57]

See also
Bunker buster
Dust explosion
FOAB
Flame fougasse
MOAB
RPO-A
SMAW
Trocano
ALAC Brazilian thermobaric weapon antitank

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[3] Strehlow, 14th. Symp. (Int.) Comb. 1189, Comb. Inst.
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[4] Health and Safety Environmental Agency, 5th. and nal
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[5] See Nanofuel/Oxidizers For Energetic Compositions
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[9] Stephen B. Murray Fundamental and Applied Studies of

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[10] Nettleton, Comb. and Flame, 24,65 (1975).
[11] Fire Prev. Sci. and Tech. No. 19,4 (1976)
[12] May L.Chan (2001) Advanced Thermobaric Explosive
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[13] New Thermobaric Materials and Weapon Concepts.
[14] Robert C. Morris (2003) Small Thermobaric Weapons
An Unnoticed Threat. Archived June 29, 2009, at the
Wayback Machine.
[15] Backgrounder on Russian Fuel Air Explosives (Vacuum
Bombs) | Human Rights Watch. Hrw.org. 2000-02-01.
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[16] Defense Intelligence Agency, Future Threat to the Soldier System, Volume I; Dismounted Soldier--Middle East
Threat, September 1993, p. 73. Obtained by Human
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[17] http://www.faz.net/aktuell/wissen/physik-mehr/
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[18] Press | Human Rights Watch. Hrw.org. 2008-12-27.
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[23] Modern Firearms RShG-1. World.guns.ru. 2011-0124. Retrieved 2011-07-12.
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[25] RMG - A new Multi-Purpose Assault Weapon from
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[26] Kornet-EM: Multi-purpose Long-range Missile System.
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[27] TOS-1 Heavy amethrower system.

today.com. Retrieved 2012-08-27.

military-

[28] SS-26. Missilethreat.com. Retrieved 2013-12-28.

[29] Air Power Australia (2007-07-04). How to Destroy the
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[30] Russia unveils devastating vacuum bomb. ABC News.
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[31] Video of test explosion. BBC News. 2007. Retrieved
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[32] Harding, Luke (2007-09-12). Russia unveils the father
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[33] Berhie, Saba. Dropping the Big One | Popular Science.
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[34] John Pike (2003-04-22). XM1060 40mm Thermobaric
Grenade. Globalsecurity.org. Retrieved 2011-07-12.
[35] David Hambling (2005) Marines Quiet About Brutal
New Weapon
[36] John Pike (2001-09-11). AGM-114N Metal Augmented Charge (MAC) Thermobaric Hellre. Globalsecurity.org. Retrieved 2011-07-12.
[37] http://discaircraft.greyfalcon.us/FAULKER%
20FEUERSTURM.htm
[38] John Pike. TOS-1 Buratino 220mm Multiple Rocket
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EXTERNAL LINKS

[48] John Pike. BLU-118/B Thermobaric Weapon Demonstration / Hard Target Defeat Program. Globalsecurity.org. Retrieved 2013-04-23.
[49] Syria rebels say Assad using 'mass-killing weapons in
Aleppo. October 10, 2012. Retrieved November 11,
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[50] Dropping Thermobaric Bombs on Residential Areas in
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[51] Cumming-Bruce, Nick (2013-06-04). U.N. Panel Reports Increasing Brutality by Both Sides in Syria. The
New York Times.
[52] Richard J. Grunawalt. Hospital Ships In The War On Terror: Sanctuaries or Targets? (PDF), Naval War College
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[53] Paul Rogers (2000) Politics in the Next 50 Years: The
Changing Nature of International Conict
[54] J. Gilmore Childers; Henry J. DePippo (February 24,
1998). Senate Judiciary Committee, Subcommittee
on Technology, Terrorism, and Government Information
hearing on Foreign Terrorists in America: Five Years After the World Trade Center"". Fas.org. Retrieved 201107-12.
[55] P. Neuwald; H. Reichenbach; A. L. Kuhl (2003). ShockDispersed-Fuel Charges-Combustion in Chambers and
Tunnels (PDF).
[56] David Eshel (2006). Is the world facing Thermobaric
Terrorism?". Archived from the original on June 7, 2011.
[57] Wayne Turnbull (2003). "Bali:Preparations".

[39] Foreign Military Studies Oce Publications - A 'Crushing' Victory: Fuel-Air Explosives and Grozny 2000.
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[40] Russian forces faulted in Beslan school tragedy.
Christian Science Monitor. 1 September 2006. Retrieved
14 February 2007.
[41] Russia: Independent Beslan Investigation Sparks Controversy, The Jamestown Foundation, 29 August 2006

7 External links
Fuel/Air Explosive (FAE)
Thermobaric Explosive (Global Security)
Thermobaric warhead for RPG-7

[42] Beslan still a raw nerve for Russia, BBC News, 1 September 2006

XM1060 40 mm Thermobaric Grenade (Global Security)

[43] ACHING TO KNOW, Los Angeles Times, 27 August

2005

Defense Update: Fuel-Air Explosive Mine Clearing

System

[44] Searching for Traces of Shmel in Beslan School,

Kommersant, 12 September 2005

Foreign Military Studies Oce A 'Crushing' Victory: Fuel-Air Explosives and Grozny 2000

[45] A Reversal Over Beslan Only Fuels Speculation, The

Moscow Times, 21 July 2005

Soon to make a comeback in Afghanistan

[46] MoDs Controversial Thermobaric Weapons Use in

Afghanistan. Armedforces-int.com. 2008-06-23. Retrieved 2013-04-23.
[47] US Uses Bunker-Busting 'Thermobaric' Bomb for First
Time. Commondreams.org. 2002-03-03. Retrieved
2013-04-23.

Russia claims to have tested the most powerful Vacuum weapon

Text and image sources, contributors, and licenses

8.1

Text

Thermobaric weapon Source: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Thermobaric_weapon?oldid=726250072 Contributors: Damian Yerrick,

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8.2

Images

File:A-1E_1SOS_PavePat_1968.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/c/cc/A-1E_1SOS_PavePat_1968.jpg

License: Public domain Contributors: U.S. Air Force photo [1] Original artist: USAF
File:Foab_blast.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/4/49/Foab_blast.jpg License: ? Contributors:
Russian Channel One
Original artist: ?
File:Question_book-new.svg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/9/99/Question_book-new.svg License: Cc-by-sa-3.0
Contributors:
Created from scratch in Adobe Illustrator. Based on Image:Question book.png created by User:Equazcion Original artist:
Tkgd2007
File:RPO-A_missile_and_launcher.jpg Source:
https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/6/62/RPO-A_missile_and_
launcher.jpg License: Public domain Contributors: From a PDF document on https://naveodtechdiv.navsea.navy.mil/ Original artist: User
Megapixie on en.wikipedia
File:USS_McNulty_(DDE-581)_sunk_as_target_with_FAE_1972.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/d/
d7/USS_McNulty_%28DDE-581%29_sunk_as_target_with_FAE_1972.jpg License: Public domain Contributors: U.S. Navy Naval Museum of Armament and Technology [1] FAE II photo Original artist: USN
File:US_Navy_020305-N-6208N-001_Thermobaric_bomb_ready_for_shipping.jpg Source:
https://upload.wikimedia.org/
Public domain
wikipedia/commons/b/b3/US_Navy_020305-N-6208N-001_Thermobaric_bomb_ready_for_shipping.jpg License:
Contributors:
This Image was released by the United States Navy with the ID 020305-N-6208N-001 <a class='external text' href='//commons.wikimedia.
org/w/index.php?title=Category:Files_created_by_the_United_States_Navy_with_known_IDs,<span>,&,</span>,lefrom=020305-N6208N-001#mw-category-media'>(next)</a>.
This tag does not indicate the copyright status of the attached work. A normal copyright tag is still required. See Commons:Licensing for more information.

Original artist: U.S. Navy photo

8.3

Content license

Creative Commons Attribution-Share Alike 3.0