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Topic 1:
Membrane Theory of axisymmetric (thin walled) shells
The membrane theory of axisymmetric shells applies to the design of engineering
devices such as pressure vessels and tanks that have thin walls.
The usual rule of thumb is that a vessels walls are thin if its thickness is less than
10% of the radius a guideline, only.
The theory ignores bending stresses in the shell. The validity of this assumption
will be addressed.
It will be assumed that the shell has the form of a surface of revolution (i.e. is
axisymmetric). The stresses to be found are usually described either as a
longitudinal stress and a hoop stress or as meridional and circumferential stress
(depending on the book being referenced). These notes will use the terms
longitudinal and hoop and the symbols ! l and ! h (figure 1).
Axis of axisymmetry
!h
!l
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At any point on the shell there are two principal curvatures. The corresponding
radii are:
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Axis of axisymmetry
rh
l
Axis of axisymmetry
rl
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If the shell is spinning then the associated centrifugal load must be considered.
This is expressed as a force per unit area of the shell:
R = # t! 2 r = " t! 2 r / g
where ! is the density, ! is the angular velocity and ! is the specific weight of
the shell.
Consider the equilibrium of an infinitesimal element cut from the shell by two
meridians and two circumferences.
The element will have a wedge shape with:
Summing the forces in the direction n, perpendicular to the shell results in:
N l r d( h
#
d( l &
dN l
d(
d(
+ $$ N l +
ds l !!(r + dr )d( h l + 2 N h ds l h cos( l ' pr d( h ds l
2
ds l
2
2
%
"
dr #
&
' R ds l $ r + ! d( h cos( l = 0
2"
%
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dr
results in:
2
N l N h cos ! l
+
= p + R cos ! l
rl
r
Then since r = rh cos ! l and substituting for the forces per unit length:
$ l $ h p "# 2 r cos ! l
+
= +
rl
rh
t
g
(1)
Expanding and neglecting small terms, then substituting as before results in:
*
d
"# 2 r 2 '
%% sin ! l
($ l r ) = (($ h +
ds l
g
)
&
(2)
If the vessel is closed at an end, a third equation can be found by considering the
equilibrium of a portion of the vessel (figure 6).
Figure 6 shows the closed end of a vessel filled with liquid. The vessel has been
sectioned by a horizontal plane and only that part of the vessel below the
horizontal plane section plane is considered (static equilibrium).
At the section plane:
the weight of the fluid (and shell) below the section plane is W .
For vertical equilibrium:
2! rN l cos " l = ! r 2 p + W
Substituting:
#l =
pr
W
+
2t cos! l 2" rt cos! l
(3)
There are now three equations to solve and only two unknown stresses
(longitudinal " l and hoop " h ) to be found. Equations (2) and (3) do not conflict.
Only use one choose the one that best suits the specific problem.
!
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!
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Axis of
axisymmetry
B
dl/2
r + dr
dsl
Longitudinal
section
dl/2
A
dh
p
dsh
Hoop section
D
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Nl
Nl
r
p
Examples
1. Simple cylinders
Consider a cylindrical pressure vessel of radius R with internal pressure p , where:
total weight, W = 0 .
Substituting into equations (1) through (3):
!h =
pR
t
d
(! l R ) = 0
ds l
!l =
pR
2t
The first and the last of these should be familiar from earlier studies.
Since R ! 0 , the second equation solves for ! l = constant, which is in agreement
with the last equation but is not as useful. However the last equation only applies
if the pressure vessel has a closed end. If this were not so, for example if the
vessel were a hydraulic cylinder, then the last equation would not apply. For a
hydraulic cylinder it is clear that ! l = 0 at the free end, so the second equation
would then solve for ! l = 0 for the entire length.
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2. Simple spheres
r = R cos ! l
pR
.
2t
pR
pR
into equation (1) gives ! h =
, as expected.
2t
2t
d
(" l R cos ! l ) = PR which is not particularly useful because
ds l
2t
there is no obvious way of finding the constant of integration after this result is
integrated.
3. Ellipsoid of Revolution
y
rl
b
x
a
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rh
(a
=
y2 + b4 x2
b2
#
!!
"
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4. Torus
b
r = b + a cos ! l , and
rh =
r
b
=a+
.
cos ! l
cos ! l
One solution is for the complete torus (e.g. the inner tube of a car tire).
The second, and most useful, solution for pressure vessels is for a portion of
the torus closed in the middle to form a dish (figure 10).
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"l =
pr
2t cos ! l
pa &$ & b #
)h =
1' $
!
2t $% % a cos ( "
#
!
!
"
Torispherical ends
Pressure vessels used in the chemical industry are commonly made from a cylinder
with dished ends (figure 10).
The obvious shape for the ends is perhaps hemispherical, but the hemispherical
shape is too deep for easy manufacture and requires significant additional floor
space for the volume contained.
The formulae derived in the above examples indicate that the stress in a
hemispherical end would only be one half of the stress in the cylindrical section,
which indicates a poor use of material (i.e. an uneven design factor of safety).
An alternative is the use of an ellipsoidal end, which is sometimes used, but
generating an ellipsoidal shape is difficult, (and therefore expensive) so the
ellipsoid is usually approximated by a torispherical end where the ellipse is
approximated using two circular arcs (figure 11).
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pR 2
(1 " ! ).
us =
2 Et
!
For typical metallic materials with Poissons ratio, = 0.3, the cylinder expands
more than one and on half times as much as the spherical end.
This, of course, is impossible.
Figure 12 indicates that the edges of the two parts can be pulled together by
applying equal and opposite edge loads to both the cylinder and the sphere.
The slopes of the two would then not be the same unless equal and opposite edge
moments are applied.
M
F
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Cylinder displacement
Axis of axisymmetry
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The vessel is designed according to thin shell theory and the local bending
stresses are ignored.
A test pressure is calculated. This is usually based on the maximum pressure
likely to occur in service (usually associated with the safety valve opening
pressure), with a safety allowance and an allowance for the difference in
material properties at room temperature and at the working temperature and
environmental conditions of the shell.
The vessel is then filled with water and the pressure increased to that test
pressure. This may cause local yielding due to the local bending stresses.
Vessel welds may be struck with a hammer to check weld soundness.
In service, the vessel is inspected inside and out on a regular basis,
particularly inspecting for cracks in the locations where local bending stresses
would be found.
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Stiffening Rings
Structures such as grain silos are often built with cylindrical sides and conical
bottoms so that the contents can be drained from the bottom.
The conical portion of the shell is likely to have a longitudinal stress that has a
radial component.
That radial component is applied to the bottom of the cylinder and will introduce
hoop compression into both components.
The shell is likely to buckle at the joint between the two sections.
This risk of buckling can be overcome through the inclusion of a stiffening ring
(figure 14).
lcylinder
lcone
Stiffening ring
QR
A
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