Professional Documents
Culture Documents
IN ENGINEERING
(Lecture Notes)
UDAY S. DIXIT
E-mail: uday@iitg.ernet.in
PREFACE
Finite Element Method (FEM) initially gained popularity as a method of stress analysis owing to
its origin in solving the problems of structural mechanics. At many places, FEM could actually
come as a replacement of experimental techniques. It was sooner realized that FEM can be very
helpful in solving the problems of heat transfer, fluid mechanics, electromagnetism, and
manufacturing process modeling, to speak of only a few areas. Precisely speaking, FEM is a
numerical method for solving the integral and differential equations. Therefore, this booklet
attempts to present FEM as a tool of solving governing equations of the physical systems. The
application examples and exercise problems have been chosen from a number of different fields
of engineering.
At present, due to its increasing importance in industries and academic research, each
year increasing number of students are learning FEM as a part of their curriculum at postgraduate or final year undergraduate level. However, there is a lack of good textbooks suited for a
one semester course, although there are a good number of reference books on the subject. Many
colleges in India lack teachers specialized to teach this course. My own learning of FEM was
through the excellent lectures of some of the professors of Indian Institute of Technology Kanpur
in early 1990s. I supplemented the lectures with a number of books and sometimes journal
papers. I started teaching this course at Indian Institute of Technology Guwahati since 1998.
Soon, I felt the need of providing some handouts to students for compensating their ability to
learn this subject from available books. Meantime, Quality Improvement Programme (QIP)
became very active in this Institute, which provided me with an opportunity to bring out the
collection of my lectures of a one-semester course in the form of this booklet. I am thankful to
QIP of Indian Institute of Technology Guwahati for sponsoring the publication of my lecture
notes. My personal thanks also go to QIP coordinator Prof. Rajeev Tiwari, who was always
available for providing the valuable suggestions.
The organization of the subject matter and content in this booklet has evolved as a result
of the experience gained in classroom teaching. For example, initially after just giving a brief
introduction to FEM, I used to teach calculus of variation, which appeared somewhat frightening
to some engineering students, whose closeness with mathematics had diminished over the years.
Considering this, I first introduced to them direct FEM formulation and made them solve a
number of one-dimensional problems in order to get confidence and interest in the subject. This
took initial 3 lectures (Chapter 1 of this booklet) after which I went in sequence to calculus of
variation, classical methods for solving boundary value problems, Galerkin and Ritz FEM
methods applied to one-dimensional problems, and finally 2-D & 3-D FEM problems. The
lectures put emphasis mainly on clear understanding of fundamental concepts. It is assumed that
the readers have sufficient knowledge of using computers. At the end of each chapter, I have
included a number of exercise problems including the problems requiring the use of a computer.
Solutions of some of these problems may be provided on demand.
I am thankful to my students for using these notes, providing valuable feedback and
discussing with me the exercise problems. I hope that these notes will be useful to students,
teachers and practicing engineers interested in learning FEM and after going through these
lecture-notes the readers will face no difficulty in referring to advanced topics from the books and
journals. I shall welcome any constructive feedback on these notes and will be grateful for
pointing out errors if any in these notes. The readers may send me an e-mail at uday@iitg.ernet.in
or usd1008@yahoo.com.in.
Uday S. Dixit
May 2007
Contents
1
1
1
2
2
3
5
6
6
7
7
8
10
11
12
12
12
13
19
19
19
20
28
32
33
33
34
34
39
39
39
42
44
45
45
46
vi
References
Exercise 3
46
47
51
51
51
52
55
59
60
61
63
63
63
68
71
71
72
75
75
75
76
76
77
78
78
79
80
81
85
85
86
89
92
93
93
vii
8
97
97
97
102
103
104
105
105
108
109
109
110
110
110
111
Numerical Integration
9.1 Introduction
9.2 One Dimensional Integration Formulae
9.2.1 Newton-Cotes Quadrature
9.2.2 Gauss Quadrature
9.3 Two Dimensional Integration Formulae
9.3.1 Integration over Square Region
9.3.2 Integration over Triangular Region
9.4 Conclusions
References
Exercise 9
113
113
113
114
116
117
117
118
119
120
122
10
125
125
125
137
11
127
128
130
131
131
131
viii
11.1 Introduction
11.2 Basic Equations
11.3 Boundary Conditions
11.4 FEM Formulation
11.5 Shape Functions
11.6 Numerical Evaluation of Elements Matrices and Vectors
11.7 Assembly of Element Matrices
11.8 Boundary Conditions and Solutions
11.9 Gradient Estimates
11.10 An Example
11.11 Summary
Exercise 11
137
138
139
139
142
143
145
145
145
146
146
148
12
151
151
151
152
156
157
13
161
161
161
162
164
165
165
165
14
167
167
167
169
169
170
171
171
171
174
174
ix
14.7 Summary and Conclusion
References
Exercise 14
176
176
177
15
179
179
180
181
182
184
186
190
192
192
193
16
197
197
197
200
200
200
201
201
201
201
202
204
207
Miscellaneous
17.1 Introduction
17.2 Difference Between FEM and FDM
17.3 Finite Element Solutions Versus Exact Solution
17.4 Accuracy of Derivatives of The Primary Variables
213
213
213
214
215
17
210
211
211
212
x
17.5 Essential and Natural Boundary Conditions
17.6 Mesh Refinement
17.7 Effect of The Geometry of A Particular Element
17.8 Solving The Problems of Fracture Mechanics using FEM
17.9 Infinite Elements
17.10 Ill-Conditioned System
17.11 Patch Test
17.12 Conclusions
Exercise 17
Bibliography
215
215
216
216
217
218
219
220
220
221
Chapter 1
1.1
INTRODUCTION
The finite element method (FEM) is a numerical method to solve differential and
integral equations. Since the behavior of physical systems can be represented by differential
equations, finite element method can be used to analyze a number of physical problems. Method
originated as a technique to analyze complex structural systems. The discovery of method is
often attributed to Courant (1943). The use of method in structural (aircraft) analysis was first
reported by Turner et al. (1956). The method received its name from Clough (1960). In finite
element method, region of interest is divided into a number of elements. Differential equations
are reduced to algebraic equations by using appropriate approximations for the variables over the
elements. Boundary conditions of any complexity can be applied very easily. Complicated
geometries and variations of material properties pose not much problem. Hence, the method has
emerged as a versatile and powerful tool of computational engineering.
Aim of this chapter is to introduce the reader to the finite element methodology. For this
purpose, two 1-dimensional problems have been considered- axial rod problem and beam
problem. In axial rod problem, one is usually interested to find out the axial displacement of
each point of the rod under the action of prescribed load, whereas in the beam problem, at each
point, vertical deflection and its slope need to be found out. Thus, the axial rod problem is a onedegree freedom per node problem and the beam problem is a two degrees freedom per node
problem. However, it will be seen that the finite element procedure is similar for both the
problems. In fact, it is similar for any problem irrespective of its dimension and degrees of
freedom. The finite element method follows the following steps:
Obtaining elemental equations: In this step, algebraic equations are obtained for each
element. A number of methods can be used for this purpose. In this article, they are
derived using direct FEM formulation, in which algebraic equations are obtained
directly from the physics of the problem.
Assembly: In this step, the elemental stiffness equations are assembled to yield a global
system of equations.
Solution: In this step, modified global system of equations is solved to obtain solution
in the form of values of primary variables at nodes, such as nodal displacements in axial
rod problem and nodal deflections and slopes in beam problem.
Post-processing: In this step, various secondary quantities are computed from the
obtained solution. For example, stresses and strains are computed from the obtained
nodal displacements in axial rod problem.
1.2
1.2.1
Pre-processing
First step in the finite element is to discretize the rod into a number of small segments,
each one being called an element. For example, in Fig. 1.2, the rod has been divided into three
elements. The end points of each element are called nodes. Thus in this problem, there are total
three elements and four nodes. Each element is designated by its two nodes and coordinates of
each node are stored. This step is called pre-processing or mesh generation.
1.2.2
to be linear. This will be indeed so, if the element is composed of homogeneous material
following Hooks law, has uniform cross-sectional area and loads are only point loads acting at
the ends. Fig. 1.2(b) shows a general element, with end nodes designated by i and j. The tensile
strain in the element is given by,
t =
ui
(1.1)
where ui and uj are axial deflections at nodes i and j respectively and h is the element length
(equal to L/3 in this case). Corresponding tensile stress is
t = E
u j ui
(1.2)
where E is the Youngs modulus of elasticity. The force Fj applied at the j th node is stress times
the cross-sectional area, A. Hence,
AE
u j ui
h
= Fj
(1.3)
Thus, a relationship between force Fj and nodal deflections is obtained. Similar relation between
force Fi and nodal deflections can be obtained in the following. The compressive strain, in the
element is
c =
ui u
(1.4)
c = E
ui u j
h
(1.5)
Hence,
AE
ui u j
h
= Fi
(1.6)
Note the negative sign at the right hand side of the above equation. This is because force Fi is
assumed tensile in Fig. 1.2(b). Note also that equation (1.3) and (1.6) suggest that Fi= Fj. These
indeed are the condition for the rod to be in equilibrium and equations (1.3) and (1.6) are same.
However, we retain two equations at this stage and write them in the matrix form as,
AE 1 1 u i
=
h 1 1 u j
Fi
Fj
(1.7)
[k ] {u } = {F }
(1.8)
1
1
(1.9)
where
1
[k ] = AE
h 1
e
ui
{u } = u
e
(1.10)
and
Fi
Fj
{F } =
e
Compare equation (1.8) with equation for a spring loaded with force F:
kx =F
(1.11)
(1.12)
In analogy with this, matrix [ke] is called elemental stiffness matrix and its elements have units
N/m in SI system, {u e } is elemental displacement or primary variable vector and {Fe} is the
elemental load vector.
Let us observe the elemental system of equations given by equation (1.7). This system
cannot be solved to yield the values of ui and uj, because of the following reasons:
1. In general, Fi and Fj are internal forces, which are unknown.
2. Even if the values of Fi and Fj are known, the elemental stiffness matrix cannot be
inverted to yield solution, because this matrix is singular and its rank is 1. Physically this
means that just by prescribing the values of two end forces, one cannot predict the
displacement, because infinite numbers of rigid body modes are possible.
In order to overcome the first difficulty i.e. to get rid of internal forces, the elemental stiffness
are assembled. Second difficulty is overcome by prescribing one geometric boundary conditions
(i.e. prescribing axial deflection at one node). Following subsection illustrates the assembly
procedure and the next subsection illustrates the application of boundary conditions.
1.2.3
Assembly procedure
For the given problem, let us write the elemental equations for three elements. These
are:
AE 1 1 u1 F1
=
h 1 1 u 2 F2
(1.13)
AE 1 1 u 2 F2
=
h 1 1 u 3 F3
(1.14)
AE 1 1 u3 F3
=
h 1 1 u 4 F4
(1.15)
These elemental stiffness equations can be assembled to yield global stiffness equations, having
u1, u2, u3 and u4 as unknowns. In the assembled system of equations, internal forces will be
eliminated. There are various ways to understand assembly operation. We follow a simple
approach, in which elemental system of equations for each element is written in global form and
then they are algebraically added. Thus, the equation (1.13-1.15) are written as,
1 1 0 0 u1 F1
AE 1 1 0 0 u 2 F2
=
0 0 0 u 3 0
h 0
0 0 0 u 4 0
0
0
AE 0
h 0
0 0 0 u1
1 1 0 u 2
=
1 1 0 u 3
0 0 0 u 4
AE 0
h 0
0
F
2
F3
0
0 0 0 u1
0 0 0 u 2
=
0 1 1 u3
0 1 1 u 4
0
0
3
F4
(1.16)
(1.17)
(1.18)
1 + 0 + 0 1 + 0 + 0
AE 1 + 0 + 0 1 + 1 + 0
0 1+ 0
h 0 + 0 + 0
0+0+0
0 + 0 + 0
0 + 0 + 0 0 + 0 + 0
0 1 + 0 0 + 0 + 0
0 +1 +1 0 + 0 1
0 + 0 1 0 + 0 +1
u1
u
2
=
u3
u4
F1
0
0
F4
(1.19)
Note that in system of equations (1.19), internal forces F2 and F3 got eliminated. However, F1
and F4 still remain. They can be eliminated only by putting boundary conditions. Also note that
the assembled global stiffness matrix is singular, with rank 3. Thus one nodal displacements
need to be prescribed.
1.2.4
or natural boundary condition. However, F1 is unknown. On the node at which F1 acts, u1=0.
This is called essential or geometric boundary condition. There are various ways to apply this
boundary condition. A simple way is to replace the first equation by u1=0. Thus, assembled
system of equations, after the application of boundary conditions, becomes,
0 0 0 u1 0
1
2 1 0 u 2 0
AE 1
=
2 1 u3 0
h 0 1
0 1 1 u 4 P
0
(1.20)
There are various methods to solve this linear system of equations. Solution yields,
u1=0,
u2=
PL
2 PL
PL
, u3=
, u4=
3 AE
AE
3 AE
(1.21)
Notice that these are exact displacements, obtainable from elementary strength of materials.
This is no surprise, as the exact displacement function is linear and a linear displacement field
(via constant strain) was assumed in each element.
1.2.5
Post-processing
After the nodal displacements have been obtained, strains and stresses in the elements
can be computed. This is a part of post-processing. In this example, strain in the element 2 is
( 2) =
u3 u 2 u3 u 2
P
=
=
(L / 3) AE
h
(1.22)
P
A
(1.23)
( 2) = E ( 2) =
In the same way, stresses in other elements may be computed. The displacement at any point
inside the element can be found by linear interpolation.
1.3
In general, beam can be of any arbitrary cross-section loaded with any complex loading function.
For the sake of simplicity, only a beam of uniform cross-sectional area is considered and
deflection due to only bending is considered. Deflection due to shear is not taken into
consideration.
1.3.1
Pre-processing
We divide the entire beam into two 2-noded equal elements (Fig. 1.4(a)). Element 1 is
composed of nodes 1 and 2 and element 2 is composed of nodes 2 and 3. We introduce here the
concept of connectivity matrix, which we have not done in Section 2 in order to avoid loading
lot of information in one go. Connectivity matrix is a simple representation of element-node
relations, in which row indicates element number, column indicates local (elemental) node
number and element of the matrix denotes global node number. Thus, the connectivity matrix for
the present mesh is:
1
2
2
3
(1.24)
Given connectivity matrix and coordinates of the node, the mesh can be easily constructed.
1.3.2
characterized by axial displacement of each point, where as in beam problem, at each point
vertical displacement as well as slope needs to be prescribed. Thus, a typical node in the element
has two degrees of freedom, vertical deflection and slope. Fig. 1.4(b) shows a typical two
nodded element. On two nodes i and j, forces Fi and Fj and moments Mi and Mj are acting. In
general, Fi depends on the elastic property of the element and displacements at the two nodes.
Hence
Fi = k11 vi+ k12 i+ k13 vj+ k14 j
(1.25)
where ks are coefficients dependent on the geometry and material of the element. Similar
equation can be written for Mi, Fj and Mj. Thus, the elemental equations become
k11
k
21
k31
k 41
k12 k13
k 22 k 23
k 32 k 33
k 42 k 43
k14
k 24
k 34
k 44
vi
Fi
M
i
i
v = F
j
j
j
M j
(1.26)
In order to derive the values of coefficients, we proceed as follows. Let us assume that vj and j =
0 in Fig. 1.4(b). First two equations of system of equation given by (1.26) reduce to
Fi
k11 k12 vi
k k = M
21 22 i
i
(1.27)
Element then becomes a cantilever beam loaded by a vertical force Fi and Moment Mi at one
end. The deflection and slope of that end can be obtained from elementary strength of materials
using the following equations:
Fi h 3 M i h 2
= vi
3EI
2 EI
(1.28)
Fi h 2 M i h
+
= i
EI
2 EI
(1.29)
where h is the element length equal to L/2. In the matrix form, the equations can be written as,
h3
3 EI
h2
2 EI
h2
2 EI
h
EI
F v
i = i
M i i
(1.30)
12 6h vi Fi
=
2
6h 4h i M i
EI
h3
(1.31)
k11 =
12 EI
h3
k12 = k 21 =
6 EI
h2
k 22 =
4 EI
h
(1.32)
In order to derive other terms of first two columns of (1.26), we make use of following equations
of equilibrium:
Fi + Fj = 0
(1.33)
Mi + Mj Fi h =0
(1.34)
(1.35)
k32 = - k12
(1.36)
(1.37)
(1.38)
To obtain other elements of the matrix, node i is fixed, then the third and fourth equations of
(1.26) reduce to
k 33 k 34 v j F j
k
=
43 k 44 j M j
(1.39)
Element then becomes a cantilever beam loaded by a vertical force Fj and moment Mj at one
end. The deflection and slope of that end can be obtained from elementary strength of materials.
They are given by the following equations:
Fj h3
3EI
Fj h2
2 EI
M j h2
2 EI
M jh
EI
=vj
(1.40)
= j
(1.41)
3 EI
h2
2 EI
h2
2 EI
h
EI
(1.42)
F j v j
=
M j j
EI
h3
12 6h v j F j
=
h
h
6
4
j M j
(1.43)
k 33 =
12 EI
h3
k 34 = k 43 =
6 EI
h2
k 44 =
4 EI
h
(1.44)
(1.45)
4h 2
EI 6h
h 3 12 6h
6h
2h 2
12
6h
12
6h
6h
2h 2
6h
4h 2
(1.46)
The resulting stiffness matrix is exact, not approximate, for the given problem.
1.3.3
Assembly procedure
10
In order to perform the assembly, elemental equations can be written in global form.
First elemental equation in global coordinate system is,
12 6h 12 6h
2
2
6 h 4 h 6 h 2 h
EI 12 6h 12 6h
h 3 6 h
2h 2 6h 4h 2
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
F1
v1
M
1
1
F2(1)
v 2
= (1)
2
M 2
v3
0
3
0
(1.47)
Here, superscript (1) on forces and moments indicate contribution from element 1. Second
elemental equation in global coordinates is
0
0
EI 0
h 3 0
0
0
0
0
0
12
6h
0 12
0
6h
6h 12 6h
4h 2 6h 2h 2
6h 12 6h
2h 2 6h 4h 2
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
v1
0
1
F2(2 )
v2
= (2 )
2
M 2
v3
F (1)
3
3
M 3(1)
(1.48)
6h
12
4h 2
6 h
EI 12 6h
h 3 6 h
2h 2
0
0
0
0
Note that,
1.3.4
12
6h
12 + 12
6h
2h 2
6 h + 6h
0
12
6h + 6h 4 h 2 + 4h 2
12
6h
6h
6h
2h
12
6h
0
6h
2h 2
6h
4h 2
F1
v1
M
1
1
P
v 2
= 0
2
v3
F3
3
M 3
(1.49)
(1.50)
minimum two essential boundary conditions are required. However, in this case, we have four
essential (geometric) boundary conditions:
v1=1= v3= 3=0
(1.51)
11
Hence unknowns for the problem are v2 and 2 and we need only two equations. We choose third
and fourth equations of equation (1.49) as the right hand side of these equations is known to us.
After substituting the values of prescribed degrees of freedom, these equations reduce to,
EI
h3
24
0 v 2
P
=
8 h 2 2
0
(1.52)
Ph 3
P(L / 2 )
PL3 and =0
2
=
=
v2 =
24 EI
24 EI
192 EI
3
(1.53)
Reader can verify that same values are obtained from elementary strength of materials.
1.3.5
Post-processing
By finite element analysis, we get nodal deflections and slope. The task of post-
processing is to find out the slopes and deflection at any point of the beam and shear force and
bending moment. Knowing the shear force and bending moment at any section of the beam, the
stresses can be calculated. In Section 1.2.5, it was suggested that the displacement at any point
inside the element can be found by linear interpolation of the nodal displacements. Many a
times, students do the mistake of linearly interpolating the nodal deflections in a beam problem
too. If you do this, you are not making use of the information of nodal slopes. With slopes and
defections known at the nodes, the displacement can be expressed as a cubic polynomial in an
element. The deflection at a point can be found by evaluating the value of the cubic polynomial
at that point. The slope at a point can be found by finding out the value of the first derivative of
the cubic polynomial. For bending moment calculation, second derivative and for shear force the
third derivative of the cubic polynomial is to be calculated.
1.4
CONCLUSIONS
In this chapter, finite element method has been introduced by taking the one-
12
solving elastic structure problem, of late it has been applied to plastic deformation problems
also. It has been widely used for solving heat transfer, fluid mechanics and electromagnetism
problems. In manufacturing area, FEM has been used to model metal forming, metal cutting and
non-traditional machining processes. The problems of dynamics and vibrations are also
successfully solved using finite element method.
REFERENCES
1. Clough, R. W., The Finite Element in Plane Stress Analysis, Proc. 2nd A. S. C. E. conf.
on Electronic Computation, Pittsburgh, Pa., Sept. 1960.
2. Courant, R., Variational Methods for the Solution of Problems of Equilibrium and
Vibrations, Bulletin of the American Mathematical Society, Vol. 49, 1943, pp. 1-23.
3.
Turner, M. J., Clough R. W., Martin, H. C. and Topp, L. J., Stiffness and Deflection
Analysis of Complex Structures, J. Aero. Sci., Vol. 23, 1956, pp. 805-823.
EXERCISE 1
Q.1: A short rod of length l is rigidly supported at both ends and an axial load P is applied at the
mid-length. Taking 2 equal finite elements, find out the displacement at the point of application
of load. Also find out the support reactions. The cross-sectional area of the rod is A and Youngs
modulus of elasticity E.
Figure: Q1
Q.2: The short rod (cross-sectional area A, Youngs modulus of elasticity E) shown in figure is
fixed at one end, the other end being held by a spring of spring constant k. A load P is applied at
the mid length. Using direct finite element formulation, find out the spring compression. (Solve
by two methods. In the first method, take 2 elements in the rod and put spring force as the
natural boundary condition. In the second method, taking 2 elements in the rod and treating
spring as the third element apply essential boundary conditions at the both ends.
13
Figure: Q2
Q.3: A cantilever beam of length l, second moment of inertia I and Youngs modulus of
elasticity E is loaded by a load P. Take only one finite element and find out the deflection and
slope at the free end. Compare it with the solution obtained using strength of materials
approach. Using the fact that deflection of any point of this beam is a cubic polynomial in x (the
distance of the point from the fixed end), find out the deflection at a distance of l/2 from the
fixed end.
Figure: Q3
Q.4: Fouriers law of heat conduction in a rod gives:
q = kA
dT
dx
where k is the thermal conductivity, A is the area of the rod and T is the temperature. Using
direct FEM approach, obtain the elemental stiffness and right hand side (load) vector for solving
1-dimesional heat conduction problem. For the rod shown below, find out the temperature at
node 2 by taking 2 elements. The rod is made of steel having the thermal conductivity 50 W/mK.
14
Figure: Q4
Q.5: One end of a steel rod is fixed and other end is pulled by an unknown force F. It is known
that due to application of the load the mid-length point of the rod moves by a distance of 0.2
mm. Using FEM with 2 equal elements, find out the value of unknown force. The length of the
rod is 1 m, area 1cm2 and Youngs modulus of elasticity 200 GN/m2. Note that in this problem
you know only one boundary condition and in lieu of the other boundary condition you have the
information about mid-point displacement.
Figure: Q5
Q.6: Using direct FEM approach, find out the currents in all resistors of the circuit shown below.
Treat each resistor as one element and potentials at the two ends as primary variables. Elemental
equations can be derived using Ohms law and assembly can be carried out using Kirchhoffs
current law.
Figure: Q6
15
Q.7: Two beams of length l each are joined by a pin joint and then combined beam is subjected
to a load P. Can you find the deflection at the load using FEM? Do you have to make any special
comment about this problem?
Figure: Q7
Q.8: A cantilever beam of length is supported on a spring of spring constant k at its free end.
Using FEM, find out the deflection of the beam if a load P is applied at the mid-length of the
beam.
Figure: Q8
A( x) = A0 2
where A0 is the area at the fixed end, x is the longitudinal displacement from the fixed end and l
is the length of the rod. A load P is applied at the free end and you have to find the displacement
at free end using FEM. Solve this problem 10 times by discretizing the rod in 1 to 10 elements.
In each element average area of the element should be taken. Plot the obtained displacement
versus number of elements and comment on convergence. Take suitable numerical values for
plotting the graph. Otherwise express the displacement in some non-dimensional form.
16
Figure: Q9
Q.10: One dimensional seepage through a porous medium is governed by Darcys law, which
gives the flow in terms of the gradient of the total potential. The law is similar to Fouriers law
of heat conduction, i.e.,
q = kA
where q is the flow, k is the permeability coefficient and A is the cross-section area of the porous
medium. In the problem shown in figure, potentials on the two sides the porous medium is h1
and h2. The thickness of the porous medium is t, and permeability coefficient on left and right
sides is kl and kr, variation being linear across thickness. Solve this problem using FEM. Study
the convergence by taking various numbers of elements.
Figure: Q10
17
Chapter 2
2.1 INTRODUCTION
In the previous chapter, we introduced finite element method as a method to solve
differential equations. More often, the behavior of a physical system is described by governing
differential equations. However, sometimes, it is convenient to derive an integral expression
(called variational form), minimization or maximization of which leads to same solution as
obtained by solving the governing differential equations. Given a variational form, one can
obtain the governing differential equations and solve differential equations by suitable numerical
method including FEM. Differential equations can also be transformed into a variational form.
The branch of mathematics, which deals with transforming a variational form to differential
equation form and vice versa is called calculus of variation. We will study the necessary
techniques of calculus of variation in this chapter. Similar to calculus, where we are often
interested in finding out a point at which a function attains minimum/maximum value, in
calculus of variation, we find out the function that provides minimum/maximum value of the
variational form. This chapter will provide a brief introduction to calculus of variation.
2.2 FUNCTIONAL
In calculus, we come across functions. A function provides a dependent variable, whose
value depends on one or many independent variables. For example, y = f (x) = x3 is a function, in
which for each value of independent variable x, there is a scalar value of dependent variable y.
Similarly, in function z = x2 + y2, for each value of x and y, there is a value of z.
Now consider the definite integral
5
I = ydx = f ( x ) dx
(2.1)
Here, for each particular function, there is a scalar value of I. For example, when f(x) = 1, the
value of I is 5. When f(x) = x, the value of I becomes 2.5. In literature, I is called a functional
(function of function), whose value depends on independent function f (x). Following integral
expression is also a functional:
b
I ( y ) = F ( x, y, y ) dx
a
(2.2)
19
dy
. Mathematically, a functional is an operator I,
dx
l ( y + z ) = l ( y ) + l ( z )
(2.3)
for any scalars, and and independent functions y and z. A functional B(y, z) is said to be
bilinear, if it is linear in each of its argument y and z, i.e.,
B ( y1 + y 2 , z ) = B ( y1 , z ) + B ( y 2 , z )
(2.4)
B ( y, z1 + z 2 ) = B ( y, z1 ) + B ( y, z 2 )
(2.5)
B ( y, z ) = B ( z , y )
(2.6)
I ( u ) = u f dx
0
(2.7)
I ( u, v ) = E A
0
d u dv
dx
dx dx
(2.8)
where E and A are constant functions and u and v are independent variable function.
Let I = ab F x, y,
dy
dx be some functional. The relation between y and x is not known and
dx
the problem consists of finding this relation so that I is a maximum or a minimum. Assume that
y0(x) is some known relation between y and x, which extremizes I. Let another function in the
neighborhood of y0(x) is denoted by y0(x) + (x), where (x) is an arbitrary (but sufficiently
differentiable) function of x and is an arbitrary small quantity. The function (x) does not
violate the geometric boundary conditions of the problem. Hence, wherever y is prescribed is
zero. The function (x) is called y, the variation of y at a given x, being a variational
operator. Variational operator is in many ways similar to differential operator d and has similar
type of mathematical properties. However, they are conceptually different. Differential of a
function dy is a first order approximation to the change in function along a particular curve,
20
while the variational of a function y is a first order approximation to the change from curve to
curve.
dI
=0
d
(2.9)
However, if y0 itself is extremum, then above condition should hold good at = 0, i.e.,
dI
d
=0
(2.10)
=0
I = F ( x, y0 + , y0' + ) dx
b
(2.11)
where a dash in the superscript indicates differentiation with respect to x. At a fixed value of x,
one can write using Taylors theorem,
F
F ( x, y, y ) = F ( x, y 0 , y 0' ) +
2 F ( )
F
2F
2 F ( )
+
+ ...
+ 2
) + 2
(
2!
2!
y
yy
y'
y
2
(2.12)
where all the derivatives are evaluated at y0 and y'0 . Note that while expanding F by Taylor
series, we treat x as fixed and y and y' as two independent variables. Once x is fixed, y and
y' become variables instead of function and expression (2.12) is possible. Integrating the above
expression between a and b, and taking the derivative with respect to ,
21
b
dI
F 2 F 2
2F
2F
F
+ 2 + 2
+
= 0 + +
+ ... dx
2
a
y y
yy
y
d
y
(2.13)
The dI
d
b F
F
=0=
+ dx
a
y
=0
(2.14)
is also called the first variation of I, I. Thus, the condition for extremizing a
=0
2
functional is I=0. is Similarly, d I
d 2
the function is minimized, maximized or neither minimized nor maximized. Integrating the right
hand side of the above equation by parts, so as to reduce the order of derivative of , Eq. (2.14)
gets transformed to
F d F
F
a y dx y dx + y
b
(2.15)
a
Thus,
b
I =
a
F
F
d F
dx + = 0
dx y
y b y a
(2.16)
F d F
dx = 0
y dx y
(2.17)
F d F
=0
y dx y
(2.18)
Thus, extremization of the functional I requires the satisfaction of the above differential
equation. Substituting Eq. (2.18), in Eq. (2.16), we have
F
F
=0
y b y a
(2.19)
At a particular boundary, say at point a, either is zero or arbitrary and can be made zero. Thus,
F
=0
y b
(2.20)
22
F
=0
y a
(2.21)
Eqs. (2.20-2.21) are the two boundary conditions, which must be satisfied along with the
differential equation given by Eq. (2.18) for the extremization of the functional. Boundary
conditions imply that at the boundaries either should be 0 i.e. the value of y should be
prescribed or F should be zero. The first type of boundary condition is called geometric or
y
essential boundary condition, whilst the second type of boundary condition is called natural
boundary condition. The Eq. (2.18) is called Euler-Lagrangian equation.
Example 2.1:
functional:
I = ( y 2 + y 2 + 2 xy ) dx
1
(2.22)
2 y + 2x
d
( 2 y ) = 0 i.e., y + x y = 0
dx
(2.21)
As
F
= 2 y
y
(2.22)
(2.23)
Note that the variational form of the differential equation (2.21) does not depend on the
prescribed value of y at the boundaries.
If F depends on several dependent variable, i.e. F = F ( y1 , y1' , y2 , y'2 ,......., yn , y'n , x)
where each yi = yi (x), the analysis proceeds as before, leading to n separate but simultaneous
equations for the yi(x),
F d F
yi dx y'i
= 0, i = 1,......, n.
(2.24)
I = ..... F ( y,
y
y
,...... ,
, x1 ,......., xn ) dx1.....dxn
x1
xn
(2.25)
23
Using the same kind of analysis as before, we find that the extremising function y = y(x1,
..,xn) must satisfy
F n
y i =1 xi
will
=0
(2.26)
y
.
xi
y x
i
now
I = F ( x, y, y' , y'' ) dx .
derive
We
the
can
necessary
apply
the
differential
equation
for
extremizing
procedure
adopted
for
extremizing
dy
b
I = a F x, y, dx , however, we will now follow a short but not so rigorous approach. We will
dx
now make use of the variational operator , and the fact that this operator behaves in the same
way as a differential operator. We also make use of the following two properties:
Property 1: Differentiation and variation commute i.e., ( y )' = y' .
( y )' =
d
d
d
( y ) = ( ) =
dx
dx
dx
(2.27)
and
dy dy
d d y
d
dy d
= +
=
= ( y + )
dx dx
d x dx
dx
dx dx
( y' ) =
(2.28)
ab y ( x ) dx = ab ( y + )dx ab ( y ) dx
= ab ydx + ab ( )dx ab ydx
= ab ( )dx = ab ydx
24
I = ab F ( x, y, y, y ) dx
(2.29)
F ( x, y, y, y ) = F ( x, y + , y + , y + n ) F ( x, y, y, y )
(2.30)
F =
( )
F
F
F
y+
y +
y + O 2
y
y
y
(2.31)
F =
F
F
F
y+
y +
y
y
y
y
(2.32)
Thus,
b F
I = y+
y '+
y dx
y '
y
a y
(2.33)
F d
F d 2
( y ) +
(
)
I = y +
y
dx
y ' dx
y '' dx 2
a y
(2.34)
Integrating the second and third terms by parts,
b
b F
d F
d F d
F
F d
( y )
I = y ( ) y ( ) ( y ) dx +
y +
y '
y'' dx
dx y '
dx y '' dx
a y
a
a
(2.35)
I =
a
y
b F
b d F
b
F
d F
d 2 F
+
y
+
y'
y
(2.36)
y
y
d
x
+
a y''
a dx y ''
a
y '
dx y'
dx 2 y ''
At this point, note the point that if you had adopted the procedure of putting
y = y0 ( x) + ( x) in the functional, then the condition for extremum would have been
dI
d
=0
b F
F
F
=0= +
+
dx
a
y
y
y
(2.37)
25
Multiplying the integral in equation (2.37) by , we can see that this is same as equation (2.33).
Thus it is seen that the necessary condition for extremization is I = 0 . We can argue it in a
different way also. Assume that I 0 . In that case it is possible to increase and decrease the
functional by giving a small variation. The extremum is reached when it is not possible to
increase or decrease the functional by giving a small variation. Note also that if a function can be
increased by giving a small variation, it can be decreased also by giving a variation in opposite
direction. Thus, the first variation must vanish for extremization.
Applying the necessary condition for extremization, we get
b F
I =
F d F
b F
b
d F
d 2 F
( )+ 2 (
) y dx +
y' = 0
( y ) +
a y''
a
dx y ' dx y ''
y ' dx y''
(2.38)
F d F d 2 F
+
=0
y dx y ' dx 2 y ''
(2.39)
F d F
(
) y = 0
y ' dx y ''
at x = a and at x = b
(2.40)
and
F
y'= 0
y ''
at x = a and at x = b
(2.41)
The equation (2.40) suggests that at a boundary point, we can have either y = 0 or the quantity
in curly bracket equal to 0. The former is called the essential (or geometric) boundary, whilst the
latter is called the natural boundary condition. Similarly in equation (2.41), the boundary
condition y ' = 0 is called essential boundary condition and F / y = 0 is natural boundary
condition. By convention, the boundary conditions associated with the variational operator are
always called essential boundary condition and other boundary conditions are called natural
boundary conditions. Note that y ' = 0 does not mean that the slope is zero. It means that the
slope has been prescribed.
Example 2.2: Total potential energy of a beam of length l is loaded by a load of intensity q(x) is
given by:
26
l 1
I = EIw ''2 qw dx
0 2
(2.42)
where E and I are the Youngs modulus of elasticity and second moment of area about the
perpendicular to the plane of bending respectively and are a known function of x, and w is the
unknown beam deflection function. Find out the governing differential equation and boundary
condition.
Solution: Minimization of the total potential energy will lead to finding out the beam deflection
under load intensity q.
Eq. (2.39 ) gives
d2
q 0 +
dx 2
( EIw '') = 0
or
d2
dx 2
( EIw '') = q
(2.43)
d
( EIw '')] w = 0 at x=0, l
dx
(2.44)
and
The term
(2.45)
d
( EIw '') represents the shear force and EIw'' the bending moment. We will not
dx
talk about the sign convention at this stage. Thus, at both the ends of the beam, two sets of the
boundary conditions need to be satisfied:
Set1: either the shear force is zero or the differential is prescribed.
Set2: either the bending moment is zero or the slope is prescribed.
27
The boundary conditions concerning the slope and deflection are called geometric or
essential boundary conditions. Boundary conditions involving shear and bending moment are
called natural or force boundary conditions. Boundary conditions for three differently
supported beams are shown in Fig. 2.2.
EIw'' = 0
EIw'' = 0
d
EIw'' = 0
dx
d
EIw'' = 0
dx
Free-free beam
w=0
w=0
EIw'' = 0
EIw'' = 0
Simply-supported beam
d
( EIw'' ) = 0
dx
w=0
w' = 0
EIw'' = 0
Cantilever beam
L ( ) f = 0
(2.46)
where L is linear or non linear differential operator, is a scalar function defined over the
domain D and f is a known scalar function. Multiplying the equation by a variation of and
integrating it over the domain
28
[ L ( )
f ] d D = 0
(2.47)
We keep on manipulating equation (2.47) using integration by parts till we are able to put it in
the variational form
[ L * ( ) f ]d D = 0
(2.48)
Then, we say that the variational form of the given differential equation is
I ( ) =
[ L * ( )
f ]d D
(2.49)
In the process, the order of derivatives gets reduced. Generally, in a particular term, we attempt
to keep the order of derivative on and on the assocaited expression same. The procedure will
be clear after seeing the Examples (2.3-2.5).
Example 2.3: The governing differential equation for a rod loaded with axial force is
d
du
EA
+q = 0
dx
dx
(2.50)
where E is Youngs modulus of elasticity, A is the cross-sectional area, q is the load intensity
(load per unit length in axial direction) and u is the axial displacement as a function of axial
coordinate x. Obtain the variational form of this equation. Assume that the boundary conditions
are
At x =0, u = 0; at x =l , EA
du
=P
dx
(2.51)
l
0
d
du
dx EA dx + q u dx = 0
(2.52)
u EA
du
dx
+
0
u qdx
0
du
d x ( u ) E A d x d x = 0
(2.53)
As the variational operator behaves like a differential operator and u at x=0 is 0, we can write
29
2
l
1
du
du
E
A
d
x
0 2 d x
0 ( q u )d x E A d x u l = 0
(2.54)
Therefore,
2
l1
du
q
u
d
x
P
u
(
l
)
EA
=0
0
dx
(2.55)
I =
2
1
du
EA
q u d x P u (l )
dx
(2.56)
The reader may observe that this is the total potential energy of the rod. Thus, the displacement
function of the rod will be one which extremizes the total potential energy amongst the functions
that satisfy the essential boundary condition i.e., u=0 at x=0.
Example 2.4: The heat conduction in a rod without heat generation is governed by
d 2T
=0
dx 2
(2.57)
where k is the thermal conductivity and T is the temperature. Assume that the temperatures at the
two ends of the rod are prescribed. Obtaining the variational form of the problem.
Solution: Multiplying the differential equation by T and integrating between 0 and l (length of
the rod),
l
0
d 2T
T dx = 0
dx 2
(2.58)
Integrating by parts
dT
T
dx
l
0
d
dT
dx = 0
(T ) k
dx
dx
(2.59)
Making use of the fact that variation of the temperature at the ends is 0 and the properties of the
variational operator, we can write
l
2 k
0
dT dT
dx = 0
dx dx
(2.60)
or
30
1 dT dT
k
dx = 0
2 dx dx
0
(2.61)
1 dT
I = k
dx
2 dx
0
(2.62)
Thus, for finding out the temperature distribution, extremize equation (2.62) while satisfying the
essential boundary condition at the ends. Unlike in the case of rod subjected to axial load, we
cannot assign any name to the functional I in equation (2.62).
Example 2.5: Steady-state heat conduction in a isotropic and homogeneous plate, in which the
temperature across thickness direction remains constant is governed by the following differential
equation:
2T 2T
+
=0
x 2 y 2
(2.63)
Assume that the temperatures at the edges have been prescribed. Obtain the variational form of
the problem.
Solution: We first multiply the differential equation by T and integrate it over the domain.
Thus,
2T 2T
A x2 + y 2
T dA = 0
(2.64)
Now, we can integrate this equation by parts to reduce the order of derivative; however, it is
better to make use of divergence theorem. Thus, the equation (2.64) can be written as
I = 2T T dA = . ( T T ) dA T . ( T ) dA = 0
A
(2.65)
I = ( T .n ) Td T . ( T ) dA = 0
(2.66)
where is the boundary of the domain. As the temperature is prescribed in the boundary, T
becomes 0 there. Thus, equation (2.66) becomes
T T T T
+
dA = 0
x x
y y
A
I = T . ( T ) dA =
A
(2.67)
31
2
2
1 T T
I = + dA = 0
2 x y
A
(2.68)
(2.69)
Wint =
d
du
( u ) EA dx
dx
dx
(2.63)
W ext =
u q d x + P u (l )
(2.64)
Wint Wext =
d
du
( u ) EA dx u qdx P u (l ) = 0
dx
dx
0
(2.64)
The equation (2.64) is called integral form of the problem. If we treat as the variational
operator, we can easily obtain equation (2.56) i.e., the variational form of the problem.
32
This principle is
33
developed for mechanical systems also. Thus, knowledge of calculus of variation will enable
you to obtain the variational form for other physical problems too.
REFERENCES (for further reading, not cited in the text)
1. J.N. Reddy, An Introduction to the Finite Element Method, McGraw-Hill, New York,
1993.
2. R.D. Cook, D.S. Malkus and M.E. Plesha, Concepts and Applications of Finite Element
Analysis, 3rd ed., John Wiley, New York 1989.
3. K.J. Bathe, Finite Element Procedures in Engineering Analysis, Prentice-Hall, Englewood
Cliffs, NJ 1982.
4. K.F. Riley, M.P. Hobson and S.J. Bence, Mathematical Methods for Physics and
Engineering, Cambridge University Press, Cambridge, 1998.
EXERCISE 2
Q.1: The functional governing static buckling of the column in the figure shown below is
1
=
2
d 2w
EI
2
dx
where w
P
dx
2
x=0
= 0,
1
dw
2
0 d x d x + 2 kw L
dw
dx
= 0
(a)
(b)
x=0
Figure: Q1
Q.2: Obtain the variational form of heat transfer problem in a rod.
34
Figure: Q2
Differential equation:
d 2T
r
+
= 0
2
dx
kA
Boundary conditions:
1. Essential boundary conditions: T = 0 at x = 0
2. Natural boundary conditions
T
dT
= 1 at x = 1
dx
2
2
0
2
,x
5 0 d x
D
q
2
2
( w, xx + w, yy ) 2(1 )( w, xx w, yy w, xy ) 2 dx dy
D
2
where D is a constant called flexural rigidity. Show that the governing differential equation
is 4 = q / D , where 4 is the bi-harmonic operator.
Q.5: Steady state heat conduction without heat generation is governed by the following
differential equation (for domain with constant thermal conductivity):
35
2T 2T
+
=0
x 2 y 2
If the temperatures at the boundary are specified, obtain the variational form of the above
equation.
Q.6: Consider the following boundary value problem
d2u
+u =1
dx 2
with u(0) = 0 and
0 x 1
du
= 0 at x = 1. Convert this problem into variational form.
dx
d2
d 2 v dmz
(
EI
)+
py = 0
zz
dx 2
dx 2
dx
with essential boundary conditions at x = 0 are v = v* and
conditions at x = l are EI zz
dv
= z* and natural boundary
dx
d2v
d
d2v
*
=
M
and
(
EI
) + mz = Vy* . Where, mz is the
z
zz
dx
dx 2
dx 2
distributed moment per unit length about z-axis and p y is the distributed force per unit length in
y-direction. Obtain the variational functional.
Q.8: Using calculus of variations, show that the shortest curve joining two points is a straight
line.
Q.9: frictionless wire in a vertical plane connects two points A and B, A being higher than B.
Let the position of A be fixed at the origin of an xy-coordinate system, but allow the B to lie
anywhere on the vertical line x = x0. Find the shape of the wire such that a bead of mass m placed
on it at A will slide under gravity to B in the shortest possible time.
Q.10: Consider a mechanical system whose configuration can be uniquely defined by a number
of coordinates qi (usually distances and angles) together with time t, and which only experiences
forces derivable from a potential. Hamiltons principle states that in moving from one
configuration at time t1 the motion of such a system is such as to make stationary.
36
t1
The Lagrangian L is defined in terms of the kinetic energy T and the potential energy V (with
respect to some reference situation) by L = T-V. Here V is a function of the qi only, not of the
L d L
=
qi dt qi
i = 1,..., n.
Using Hamiltons principle, derive the wave equation for small transverse oscillations of a taut
string.
37
Chapter 3
3.1 INTRODUCTION
In this chapter, we will study some methods invented before the advent of FEM for
solving the differential equations. Methods discussed in this chapter, approximate the function
globally as a weighted summation of several linearly independent functions. The weights of
various functions are found such that in some sense, the error is minimized.
u = aii
i =1
(3.1)
where i is the ith basis function, and ai is the corresponding weight or coefficient.
In Eq. (3.1), either the functions must be chosen in such a way that they satisfy the
essential boundary conditions, else put the boundary conditions in Eq. (3.1), which will
39
Put the modified equation that satisfies the essential boundary conditions into variational
form. The variational form will now be a function of the coefficients. Extremize the
variational form. For this purpose take partial derivatives of the variational form with
respect to the coefficients and make them 0. this will give the equations equal to the
number of coefficients, which can be solved to yield the coefficients. Having known the
coefficients, approximate solution can be constructed.
d 2u
dx 2
+ u = 1 0 x 1 with u ( 0 ) = 0 and
du
= 0 at x = 1
dx
(3.2)
d 2u
I = 01 2 + u 1 u dx
dx
(3.3)
We write the above expression again, after integrating the first term by parts. Thus,
I =
du 1 1 du d
u 0 0 ( u ) dx + 01 u udx 01 udx
dx
dx dx
(3.4)
In view of the boundary conditions and fact that variational and differential operators are
commutative, the expression becomes:
I = 01
du d u
dx + 01 u udx 01 udx
dx dx
(3.5)
I =
( )
du
11
1
2
dx + 0 u dx 0 udx
2 dx
2
1
01
(3.6)
or
40
1 1 du 2
1
I = 0 dx + 01 u 2 dx 01 udx
2
2 dx
( )
(3.7)
Therefore,
1 du 2 1
I = 01 + u 2 u dx
2 dx 2
(3.8)
Now let us solve this problem using Ritzs method. If we approximate u by u = a + bx , then in
view of the first essential boundary conditions i.e. u ( 0 ) = 0 , a = 0. Hence approximate u is bx
and
du
du
in the variational form,
= b . Putting the value of u and
dx
dx
1
1
I = 01 b 2 + b 2 x 2 bx dx
2
2
(3.9)
b 1
dI
= 01 b + bx 2 x dx = b + = 0
3 2
db
This gives b =
(3.10)
3
3
. Thus, u = x .
4
4
u = A sin x + B cos x + 1
(3.11)
where constants A and B are to be determined from the boundary conditions. Since u ( 0 ) = 0 ,
B = 1 . Also,
du
= A cos x B sin x
dx
At x = 1 ,
(3.12)
du
= 0 . Hence A cos (1) = B sin (1) , or A = B tan (1) = tan (1) .Thus,
dx
(3.13)
u ( 0.5) = 0.6242
u (1) = 0.8508
(3.14)
u ( 0.5) = 0.375
u (1) = 0.75
(3.15)
Now let us add one more term in the approximating function and take u = a + bx + cx 2 .
41
u = bx + cx 2
(3.16)
du
= b + 2cx
dx
(3.17)
(3.18)
2 1
1
I = 01 ( b + 2cx ) + bx + cx 2
2
2
(3.19)
(3.20)
I 1
= (b + 2cx) + (bx + cx 2 ) x x dx = 0
b 0
and
I 1
= (b + 2cx)2 x + (bx + cx 2 ) x 2 x 2 dx = 0
c 0
After integration and simplification, Eq. (3.18) and (3.19) provide respectively,
8b+9c=-6
(3.21)
(3.22)
Solving them, we get, b= -1.6402 and c=0.7913. Thus, the approximate solution is
u = 1.6402 x + 0.7913 x 2
(3.23)
It gives u(0.5)=-0.6223 and u(1)=-0.8489, very near to the exact solution (see Eq. (3.14)).
Increasing the terms in the approximation polynomial will keep on increasing the accuracy. Now,
let us see how the approximate solutions satisfy the natural boundary conditions. When we take
linear approximation,
large error in the natural boundary conditions. However, when we take quadratic approximation,
du
= 1.6402 + 1.5826 x
dx
(3.24)
giving the value 0.0576 at x=1, much nearer to exact value of 0. Thus, we see that with Ritzs
procedure, the natural boundary conditions also get satisfied.
3.3 GALERKIN METHOD
Boundary value problems may be solved without converting into variational form by the method
proposed by Soviet Scientist B.G. Galerkin (1871-1945). Galerkin published the method in 1915
[3]. Before this, Bubnov [4] had applied this method to some specific problems, but did not give
the method in general form. To recognize the work of Bubnov, some researchers call the method
42
(3.25)
where L is the differential operator and f is the know function. The boundary conditions may be
Bi u = qi on Si
i = 1, 2,..........
(3.26)
u = 0 + ai i
i =1
(3.27)
Substitute the approximating function in Eq. (3.25) and obtain the residue as follows:
n
R = L( ai i + 0 ) + f
i =1
(3.28)
If you are very lucky, the residue R will be zero and accidentally (?) you have found the
exact solution. In general, it will be non-zero and you have to minimize it by adjusting the
coefficients ai.
In Galerkins method coefficients are found by making the weighted integrals zero. The n
linearly independent basis functions i s act as weights. Thus,
R i dD = 0
i = 1, 2,...., n
(3.29)
where D is the domain and integral is the definite integral over the domain. Eq. (3.29)
provides us n simultaneous equations and we can determine n unknown coefficients, thus
obtaining the approximating function.
Example 3.2: Solve the differential equation of Example (3.1) using Galerkin method.
43
u = a + bx + cx 2
(3.30)
In view of the essential boundary conditions, a becomes 0. The natural boundary condition
gives
b + 2c = 0
(3.31)
u = c( x 2 2 x)
(3.32)
R = 2c + c( x 2 2 x) 1
(3.33)
The coefficient c is found by minimizing the weighted integral of R, the weight being (x22x). Thus,
1
2
2
( x 2 x)[2c + c( x 2 x) 1]dx
(3.34)
5
u = ( x 2 2 x)
6
(3.35)
This solution satisfies both the boundary conditions. Its values at x=0.5 and x=1 are -0.625
and 0.8333.
Let us compare the values at these points with the values obtained by Ritz
method and exact solution. Table 3.1 shows this comparison. At one point, Galerkin method is
closer to the exact method, while at other place Ritz method is closer.
Table 3.1 The values of u at two points obtain by Galerkin, Ritz and exact method
Point
The value of u
Galerkin method
Ritz method
Exact method
x=0.5
-0.6250
-0.6223
-0.6242
x=1.0
-0.8333
-0.8489
-0.8508
44
the residue given by equation (3.28) is minimized in a least square sense, we get n simultaneous
equations as follows:
2
R dD = 0
ai D
i = 1, 2,........., n
(3.36)
Example 3.3: Solve the differential equation of Example (3.1) by using the least square method.
Solution: Let us take the approximating function of Example (3.2). The residue is given by
equation (3.33). There is only one unknown c. Therefore,
2
1
2 c + c ( x 2 2 x ) 1 dx = 0
c 0
(3.37)
or
2(2 + (x
1
)(
2 x) 2c + c( x 2 2 x) 1 dx = 0
(3.38)
u=
5 2
( x 2 x)
7
(3.39)
u=
4 2
x 2x
5
(3.40)
u=
9 2
x 2x
13
(3.41)
Of course if we take many collocation points and approximate the function higher degree of
polynomial, we may expect to get better solution even by this method.
Supposing
the
approximating function is given by equation (3.27). To find out the unknown coefficients, we can
45
divide the whole domain into n sub-domain, integrate the residue over each subdomain and force
it to zero for each subdomain. Thus, we make the residue zero in an average sense over each subdomain.
If we take the approximating function of Example (3.2) and solved it by sub-domain
method, we
shall get the solution as
u=
3 2
x 2x
4
(3.42)
You can verify it easily. Ofcourse, as there is only one unknown in the approximating function,
the entire domain is taken as subdomain.
3.7 CONCLUSIONS
In this chapter, a number of classical methods have been introduced for solving the differential
equations. These methods can form the basis of finite element, each method giving rise to one
type of formulation. The main difference between these methods and finite element is that here a
continuous function is approximated for the whole domain, whereas in the finite element method
a number of locally continuous functions are chosen.
REFERENCES
1. Ritz, W., Uber
eine neue Methode zur Losung
gewisser Variationsproblem der
Reine und Angewande Mathematik, Vol. 135,
mathematischen Physik, Journal fur
1908, pp. 1-61.
2. Leissa, A. W., The historical bases of the Rayleigh and Ritz methods, Journal of
Sound and Vibration, Vol. 287, 2005, pp. 961-978.
3.
Galerkin, B.G., Rods and Plates. Series occurring in various questions concerning
the elastic equilibrium of rods and plates, Engineers Bulletin (Vestnik Inzhenerov),
Vol. 19, 1915, pp. 897-908 (in Russian).
4. Bubnov, I.G., Report on the works of Professor Timoshenko which were awarded the
Zhuranski Prize. Symposium of the Institute of Communication Engineers, No. 81,
All union Special Planing office (SPB), 1913 (in Russian).
46
EXERCISE 3
Q.1: A certain problem of one dimensional heat transfer is governed by the equation
d
d 2
= 1 at x = 1 . Solve this
+ + 1 = 0 and boundary conditions = 1 at x = 0 and
2
dx
dx
problem by using Galerkin method.
Q.2: Given a differential equation:
d 2 v0
d2
EI
2v0 = 0 ;
zz
2
2
dx
dx
with boundary conditions:
v0 =
dv0
= 0 at x = 0 and l (both essential).
dx
the algebraic equations satisfied by the unknown constants in the following form:
n
(k
j =1
ij
2 M ij ) a j = 0 for i =1,2,.n .
du
I = AE + pu dx + ( Pu ) x =l / 2
0
dx
2
a)
x (l x )
l2
47
p (distributed force)
P (point force)
l/2
l
Figure: Q3
Q.4: Solve the for the following differential equation by Galerkin method:
d 2u
cu + x 2 = 0
dx 2
for
0 x 1,
the
boundary
conditions
being
4
du
du
( x = 0 ) = 1, ( x = 1) = .
dx
dx
3
Q.5: Solve the following problem by Galerkin method:
Differential Equation:
d du
u f = 0 for 0 < x < 1 ;
dx dx
Boundary conditions: (1) Essential: u = 2 at x =0
(2) Natural :
du
=0
dx
at x=1
d
d 2
= 1 at x = 1 .
+ + 1 = 0 and boundary conditions = 1 at x = 0 and
2
dx
dx
Use Ritz method to solve this problem. Approximate the function by a quadratic polynomial and
compare with the exact solution.
48
d 2u
4
du
du
cu + x 2 = 0 for 0 x 1 for the boundary conditions:
( x = 0 ) = 1, ( x = 1) = .
2
dx
dx
3
dx
Solve it by all other methods which you have studied in this chapter.
49
Chapter 4
I=
u dx
dx
l du
0
(4.1)
51
du
by b + 2cx . However, u = a + cx 2 is not
dx
du
by 2cx . The reason is that it cannot approximate a
dx
du
will always be zero at x = 0. In practice, one may
dx
d 2u 2
d 3u
I = 2 qu dx 3
0 dx
dx x = l
(4.2)
For this, a complete approximate function will be u = a + bx + cx 2 + dx3 . We have taken cubic
polynomial because we have to represent
d3 y
at x = l , though inside the integrand highest order
dx 3
of derivative is 2 only. Thus, for finding out the completeness, the degree of approximating
polynomial should be equal to the highest order of derivative in the whole variational expression.
We should also ensure that whatever be the approximation, the I should not become
infinite. This means the approximating function should have continuity equal to at least one order
less than the highest order derivatives in the integral. In Eq, (4.1) approximate should be at least
du
is always finite inside the integral.
dx
The piece-wise continuous polynomial may be different in two neighboring elements. However,
the values of primary variables should come same from both the polynomials at the common
node. Eq. (4.1) requires C 1 continuity i.e. u and
du
should be same for both the elements at
dx
common nodes. Thus, for compatibility, one should check the highest order of the derivative
inside the integral expression. If the highest order of derivative is m, the function should be
continuous upto order (m-1) throughout the domain i.e. the function should be C m 1 continuous.
Note that for compatibility, we check the highest order of the derivative in the integral expression
of the full variational form.
52
we take a 2 noded element of length h, we can express the constants a and b in terms of the nodal
values of the primary variables. This will automatically ensure C 0 continuity. It the local
coordinate of the node 1 is 0 and that of node 2 is h and the values of the primary variable at these
nodes are u1 and u2 respectively, then
u1 = a + b ( 0 ) = a
(4.3)
u2 = a + bh = u1 + bh
(4.4)
and
Substituting the value of a from Eq. (4.1) into Eq. (4.3), we get
b=
u2 u1
h
(4.5)
Hence, by expressing the constants a and b in terms of the nodal values of the primary variable,
the piece-wise continuous polynomial can be expressed as,
u = u1 +
( u2 u1 ) x
h
x
x
= 1 u1 + u2
h
h
= N1u1 + N 2u2
(4.6)
where N1 and N2 are called shape functions, because seeing them we can know the shape of
piecewise continuous approximating polynomial. In this case, it is linear.
We can also have 3-noded elements. In that case, a quadratic interpolation function,
u = a + bx + cx 2 can be taken. Let the coordinates of 3 nodes be x1, x2, and x3 respectively. Then,
u1 = a + bx1 + cx12
(4.7)
u2 = a + bx2 + cx22
(4.8)
u3 = a + bx3 + cx32
(4.9)
Solving this, we express the coefficients a, b and c in terms of nodal values of the primary
variables and arrange the expression to get the following form:
(4.10)
where N1, N2 and N3 are the shape functions corresponding to 3 nodes respectively. The same
procedure can be extended to n-noded element. There one has to solve n simultaneous equation
for obtaining the coefficients of polynomial interpolation function in terms of the nodal values of
the primary variables. These coefficients are substituted back in the polynomial expression and a
rearrangement provides the following form:
n
(4.11)
53
where Ni is the ith shape function and ui is the value of primary variable at ith node. However, this
procedure of obtaining the shape functions is tedious. A somewhat simpler way is to obtain the
shape function on the basis of the three properties of the shape functions.
One-dimensional C0 polynomial shape functions will satisfy the following 3 properties:
Property 1: All shape functions of an n-noded element are polynomial of (n-1) degree. This is
because for an n-noded element, interpolation function will be of (n-1) degree. It should be
possible to represent a polynomial function of (n-1) degree such that its value is zero at all nodes
except one node. That one node can be any one out of the n nodes. Hence, the shape functions
associated with all nodes should be of the same degree.
Property 2: For any shape function
Ni ( x j ) = ij
(4.12)
where Ni (xj) is the value of ith shape function at jth node and ij is the Kronecker delta. This can be
justified as follows. Let us assume a variable field such that it is non-zero at ith node and all other
nodal values of the variable are zero. In that case,
u = Ni ui
(4.13)
ui = Ni ( xi )ui or Ni ( xi ) = 1
(4.14)
0 = Ni ( x j )ui or Ni ( x j ) = 0
(4.15)
c = cNi
i =1
or
Ni = 1
i =1
(4.16)
54
N1 =
N2 =
.
.
(4.17)
.
Nn =
It can be easily seen that for these shape functions, first two properties are satisfied. It is also easy
n
to show that N i = 1 at all nodes, in view of the property 2. However, we have to prove that
i =1
the sum of shape functions is 1 everywhere. We argue it as follows. It is clear that N i can be
i =1
2
n 1
N i = a0 + a1 x + a2 x + .......... + an x
i =1
(4.18)
(4.19)
.
.
.
1 =a0 + a1 xn + a2 xn 2 + .......... + an xn n1
This is a system of n equations in n unknowns and should give a unique solution. One solution is
a0=1 and all other coefficients 0 (by inspection). Hence, from Eq. (4.18),
n
Ni = 1
i =1
(4.20)
d 2u
+ u 1 = 0
dx 2
(4.21)
55
u (0) = 0 and
du
= 0 at x = 1
dx
(4.22)
Let us develop the element equations for this problem. Consider an element whose length is h.
Adopting the local coordinate system, the coordinate of the first node is 0 and that of second is h.
For obtaining the variational form of the differential equation:
h
d 2u
I = 2 + u 1 udx = 0
0 dx
(4.23)
du
1 du
I = u o dx + ( u 2 )dx udx = 0
0 2
0 2
0
dx
dx
h
(4.24)
Hence,
I =
h1
h
1 du
du h
2
u
x
udx + u 0
dx+
d
0
0
2 dx
2
dx
(4.25)
We observe that completeness upto first degree polynomial and C 0 continuity throughout the
domain is enough. Thus, 2-noded elements are enough. However, we can also take higher order
C 0 elements for better accuracy. Let u e be the approximation inside an n-noded element
u1
u
2
e
u = N1 N 2 ....... N n . = N {u ne } = u ne {N }
.
un
(4.26)
h1
h1
h
0
I = u ne { N , x } N , x {u ne } dx + u ne { N } N {u ne } dx u ne { N } dx + u1 u2 ... un
o 2
o 2
o
.
du
dx
h
(4.27)
56
du
dx
0
0
h1
h1
h
0 (4.28)
ne
ne
ne
ne
ne
ne
I = u { N,x } N, x {u } dx + u { N} N {u } dx u { N} dx + u
o 2
o 2
o
.
du
dx
h
I
=0
u ne
(4.29)
du
dx
0
0
h
h
h
0
ne
ne
{ N, x } N , x {u } dx + { N } N {u } dx { N }dx +
=0
0
0
0
.
du
dx
h
(4.30)
Hence,
du
dx
0
0
{ N } N dx h { N } N dx {u ne } = h { N }dx + 0
0 , x , x 0
0
.
du
dx
h
(4.31)
u
1 1 1 h 2 1 1 2
= +
h 1 1 6 1 2 u2 h
2
du
dx 0
du
dx h
(4.32)
57
Reader should verify equation (4.32) by substituting the expressions for the shape functions and
their derivatives for the 2-noded elements and integrating from 0 to h. Taking 2-elements and
assembling the elemental equations and putting the boundary condition that the first derivative of
u vanishes at x=1, we get
du
(0)
0 u1 0.25 dx
1.833 2.083
0
2.083 1.833 u3 0.25 0
(4.33)
(Note: At this stage, learn the faster way of assembly. You need not write the elemental
equations in global form. First, make a format of final global equations with empty entries. Then,
keep on putting the entries corresponding to elemental equations in corresponding places of
global system of equations. If 2 are more entries are kept at the same place, they simply get
added.)
As u1 =0, the first row and first column of Eq. (4.33) get eliminated. Solving the remaining 2-by2 matrix, we get
(4.34)
(4.35)
u ( 0.5) = 0.6242
and
u (1) = 0.8508
(4.36)
We have illustrated the Ritz-FEM by a simple one-dimensional problem, but the procedure
is same for all problems. For any element, we substitute the approximating function in terms of
the unknown nodal displacement and extremize the function with respect to the displacement
vector. When you develop the elemental equations for a differential equation containing the
independent variable x, do not forget to express this in the form of local variable.
58
d 2u
w 2 + u 1dx = 0
dx
(4.37)
Integrating by parts,
h
h dw du
h
h
du
w
dx + wudx wdx = 0
0
0
dx 0 0 dx dx
(4.38)
u
u = N1 N 2 1
u2
(4.39)
u = N {u ne }
(4.40)
In Galerkin method, w is approximated in the same way as the shape function, i.e.,
w = w ne { N }
(4.41)
Putting equations (4.40-4.41) in equation (4.38),
du
dx
0
.
h
h
h ne
wne .
w { N , x} N , x {u ne }dx + wne {N} N {u ne }dx wne {N}dx = 0 (4.42)
0
0
.
0
du
dx
h
As the nodal values of the weights are arbitrary, we get
59
du
dx
0
0
h { N } N d x h { N } N d x {u ne } = h { N }d x + 0
,x
,x
0
0
0
.
du
d x
h
(4.43)
This is the elemental equation, which is same as that obtained by Ritz method. Rest of the
procedure is similar to that described in the previous section.
If the variational form of a differential equation exists, the both methods provide the
same results for the same approximation. However, for many differential equations, the variational
form does not exist, for example, the differential equation
d2 y
dy
+5 + 7y = 0
2
dx
dx
(4.44)
does not have a variational form. For solving this equation by FEM, we can use Galerkin procedure
but not the Ritz procedure.
4.6 CONCLUSIONS
In this chapter two approaches of finite element formulation have been described- Ritz
FEM and Galerkin FEM. If the varaitional form is given, then it is convenient to apply Ritz FEM. If
the differential equation has been provided, then it is convenient to apply Galerkin FEM. One can
convert the problem from a variational form to differential form and vice versa and use any method.
However, for certain differential equations, the variational form does not exist at all.
60
EXERCISE 4
Q.1: Solve the following boundary value problem by Ritz and Galerkin FEM:
Differential Equation:
d2 y
+ 5 xy = 7
dx 2
d2 y
dy
+5 + 7y = 0
2
dx
dx
The boundary conditions are at x=0, y=0 and at x=1, dy/dx=0. Solve by taking 2 or 3 elements.
Q.3: To solve the following problem, use Ritz FEM:
2
du
Minimize I = 5 dx 10u (1) ;
0
dx
1
u(0)=0
Start by taking one element and keep on increasing the elements till the convergence is achieved.
Q.4: To solve the following problem, use Ritz FEM:
du 2
Minimize I = 5u dx ;
0 dx
u(0)=0
Start by taking one element and keep on increasing the elements till the convergence is achieved.
Q.5: At a point, the values of the shape functions of a 4-noded C0 continuity element are:
N1=0.1; N 2=N3= 0.2. Find our N4.
Q.6: Solve the problem in Q.4 by taking one 3-noded element.
Q.7: Solve the following problem by Ritz and Galerkin FEM:
d2 y
Differential equation: 2 + 5 ( x 0.5) = 0
dx
0 x 1
dy
= 0.
dx
61
Chapter 5
5.1 INTRODUCTION
In the previous chapter, you have learned the techniques of FEM formulation using Ritz and
Galerkin methods. In this chapter, we shall take up a number of one-dimensional problems of
interest to engineers and obtain the FEM formulations for them. Before starting the FEM
procedure, the governing equations for various problems have been developed.
q = k
T
x
(5.1)
where q is the heat flow per unit area (heat flux) in direction x, T is the temperature and k is the
thermal conductivity. The boundary conditions are at x=0, T=T0 and at x=xL, q=qR. For obtaining
the governing differential equation for this problem, we take an infinitesimal small element of
length dx as shown in Fig. 5.2 and obtain the heat balance. In steady-state the heat generated
will be equal to net heat coming out of the rod. If Q is heat generated per unit volume, then the
63
the convective heat transfer coefficient, Tf is the temperature of the surrounding fluid and p is the
average perimeter of the cross-section of the infinitesimal element.
Aq +d(Aq)
Aq
dx
Fig. 5.2 Heat transfer from an infinitesimal element
Thus,
Aq + d( Aq ) - Aq - hc (T f - T ) pdx = Q Adx
(5.2)
d
h (T T ) p = 0
( Aq ) QA
c
f
dx
(5.3)
64
d
dT
kA
QA hc (T f T ) p = 0
dx
dx
(5.4)
d
+ h (T T ) p = 0
( AkT , x ) + QA
c
f
dx
(5.5)
where ,x denotes the differentiation with respect to x. Remember qR is the heat flowing from left
to right.
From here we can proceed towards Galerkin FEM formulation. However, we shall show
Ritz FEM formulation for it. For this, we first obtain the variational form. The variation form of
this problem in an element of length h is given by
h 1
1
dT
= AkT, x2 + hc pT 2 QAT
+ hc pT f dx kA T
0
2
dx
2
(5.6)
Considering the completeness and compatibility, a 2-noded element with Lagrange shape
functions is good enough. Putting
T = [ N ]{Te }
T , x = [ N , x ]{Te }
(5.7)
(5.8)
e =
T
T
h
h
1
1
{Te }T [ N , x ] Ak [ N , x ] dx{Te } + {Te }T [ N ] hc p [ N ] dx{Te }
0
0
2
2
dT
kA
h
dx
[ N ]T dx {T }T h h pT [ N ]T dx + [T T ]
{Te }T QA
1
2
e
0 c f
0
kA d T
dx
(5.9)
65
0=
0 [ N , x ]
h
Ak [ N , x ] dx{Te } +
[N ]
0
h
hc p [ N ] dx{Te }
dT
kA
h
dx
[ N ]T dx h h pT [ N ]T dx +
QA
c
f
0
0
kA d T
dx
(5.10)
These elemental equations can be assembled and solved after applying the boundary conditions.
d dT
kr
dr dr
=0
(5.11)
We solve this problem using Galerkin FEM. For this purpose, we write the residual as the
weighted integral of the jth element and make it to 0. Thus,
h
Rj = w
0
d
dT
Rj + r k
dr
dr
dr = 0
where Rj is the radius of jth node and r is the local coordinate. The integration by part yields
dT
w Rj + r k
dr
h dw
dT
Rj + r)k
(
dr
dr
dr = 0
66
Observing the weak form, we assess that Completeness in T , T ' and continuity of T is adequate.
Thus, we can approximate the temperature as
r r
T = a + br = 1 ,
h h
T j
Tk
Therefore,
dT 1 1
= ,
dr h h
T j
Tk
k Rj + r
R1k
=
R k
2
dT
dr 2
dT
dr
or
1 2
h
k
1
h 2
h T j
h2
Rj + h =
1
2 Tk
h 2
'
R1k T1
'
R2 k T2
or
R j 1 1
+
k
h 2 1
1 T j 1 H j
=
1 Tk 2 H k
where Hj and Hk denote the heat flow rate, if the length of the cylinder is taken unity. Taking two
elements, the assembled matrix is
3
3
2
2
3
3 +5
2
2
2
0
5
5
2
5
2
T1
1
T2 =
T 2
3
H1
0
H
3
T1 = Ta*
T3 = Tb*
3
8
5
Ta* + T2 T0* = 0
2
2
2
67
T2(
FEM )
T( exact ) = Ta* +
Tb* Ta*
ln R
Ra
R
ln b
Ra
Thus,
T0* =100 0 C
(5.12)
(5.13)
68
du
=0
dx
(ii) At x = L,
(5.14)
You may easily derive this differential equation by writing the expression of the total
potential energy and applying Euler-Lagrange equations.
Let y e be the approximate solution of u for an element e whose end coordinates are xe
and xe +1 . Taking weighted residual with respect to the weight function w and obtaining the
weak form, we get
xe +1
xe
d
dy e
w EA
dx
dx
+ q dx =
xe +1
xe
dw
dy e
dy e
EA
+ qw dx + w EA
dx
dx
dx
xe +1
=0
xe
(5.15)
The highest order of derivative appearing in the weak form is 1, thus a complete function of
the form a+bx is enough. Since the highest order of derivative inside the integral is 1, the
function need to be C0 continuous everywhere in the domain (0<x<1). Thus, the value of y at
any node should come same from both the elements of which the node is the part. A suitable
linear approximation for the element is
y e = N1
y
N 2 1
y2
(5.16)
where N1 and N2 are called shape functions and y1 and y2 are the nodal values of the
displacement u. Their values can be found from the following expression:
N1 =
( x xe +1 )
( xe +1 + xe )
N2 =
( x xe )
( xe +1 xe )
(5.17)
dN 2 y1 '
' y1
= N1 N 2
dx y2
y2
(5.18)
N
w2 1
N2
(5.19)
where w1 and w2 are the weights at the nodes. With these approximations, the weak form of
equation (5.14) is approximated as,
xe +1
xe
'
N1 ' ' y1
w1 w2 EA ' N1 N 2 dx +
y2
N 2
xe +1
xe
e
N
E A ( y ) '
q w1 w2 1 dx + w1 w2 1 1 1 = 0
e
N2
E2 A2 ( y2 ) '
(5.20)
69
Without the loss of generality, we can take xe=0 and xe+1=he, where he is the length of the element
e. Then, Eq. (5.20) becomes
he
h
N1' ' ' y1
E1 A1 ( y1 ) '
N1
w1 w2 EA ' N1 N 2 dx w1 w2 q N dx = w1 w2
2
N 2
y2
E2 A2 ( y2 ) '
0
(5.21)
N1' '
y1 h N1
E A ( y ) '
'
EA N1 N 2 dx = q dx + 1 1 1
'
N 2
y2 0 N 2
E2 A2 ( y2 ) '
(5.22)
This is the finite element elemental equation. For Uniform load intensity in an element, the
equation becomes,
qhe
EA 1 1 y1 2 E1 A1 ( y1 ) '
+
=
he 1 1 y2 qhe E2 A2 ( y2 ) '
2
(5.23)
In the above equation, vectors on the right hand side are load vectors and internal load vectors
respectively.
If there is a concentrated load Q at the second node, the load vector becomes,
he
N1
dx
2
Q ( x h ) N
e
(5.24)
where the concentrated load has been converted into distributed load by using Dirac delta
function. The value of the above integral is the value of integrand at the second node. Thus,
the load vector is
0 0
Q =
1 Q
(5.25)
This means the concentrated loads can be accounted for by adding these loads at the position
of node.
70
d 2 u dP
=
dy 2 dx
(5.26)
where u is the velocity, is the viscosity and P is the pressure. If at a particular cross-section,
the pressure gradient dP/dx is specified, we can find out the velocity distribution along the
radial direction.
The boundary conditions are:
No-slip condition: At the plate surface, u = 0
Symmetry condition:
du
=0
dy
(5.27)
(5.28)
Symmetry condition comes because of the fact that at the line of symmetry there cannot be
any shear force.
The formulation of this problem is similar to the heat conduction or rod loaded with axial
loads problems. You may solve this problem and compare it with the exact solution. The
exact solution is quadratic in y. Therefore, if you take 3-noded element, you will get the
perfect matching with the exact solution with one element only. If you take 2-noded element,
you will never get zero error. Ofcourse, with more number of elements, the error will be very
small.
What is the point in solving this equation by using FEM? We already know the exact
solution. The importance of FEM will come when the viscosity will vary as a function of y. In
that case, it may be difficult to find out the exact solution. However, FEM can provide
approximate solution easily.
5.5 CONCLUSION
In this chapter, we have studied the problems of heat conduction, solid mechanics and
fluid flow problems. The problems from three different areas have been chosen to emphasize
the applicability of FEM as a general tool. By now you might have got the feeling that
although FEM was started as a tool of structural mechanics, it has the potential of application
in other areas too.
71
EXERCISE 5
Q.1: The elastic rod is divided into 2 elements of equal length with 3 nodes per element (2 end
points and the mid point) and 1 dof (i.e. u) per node .the corresponding expressions for the
elemental coefficient matrix and the right side vector are. Prove that the elemental stiffness and
load vector are:
[k ]
1
7 8
AE
= e 8 16 8
3l
1 8 7
[f]
1
pl e
=
4
6
1
where le is the length of the element. Find the global coefficient matrix and the right side vector.
Apply the essential boundary conditions. Assuming u2 = u4 , determine the nodal displacement
u2 and u3 .
Prove that the exact solution is:
u=
px ( l x )
2 AE
Compare the exact solution at the nodes 2 and 3 with their FEM values.
Figure: Q1
Q 2: In a one-dimensional stress analysis of an axial rod one end is fixed and the other end
just touches a wall at room temperature. The rod is heated by 100C . Model the rod by two
linear elements. Give all the finite element matrix equations to evaluate the reactions at the
ends. Also find the thermal stresses at point P at the center of element (2).
(Make use of initial strain approach)
72
Figure: Q2
A1 = 2 cm2
A2 = 1 cm2
E = 200 GPa
T = 100C
l1 = 50 cm
l2 = 50 cm
= 17.3 10-6
d dT
kA
+r = 0;
dx dx
dT
= - hA (T - T0 )
dx
at x = l.
dT
kA
= - hA (T - T0 )
dx
Origin
x
l
Fig.Q3
T = Temperature difference
A = area of cross section
r = heat generated per unit
length
k = Thermal conductivity
h = heat transfer coefficient
T0 = Ambient temperature
T * = Specified temperature at
x = 0.
Obtain FEM formulation using Ritz FEM and solve by taking 2 elements.
73
Q.4: The equation for one-dimensional steady-state heat conduction in absence of heat generation
is:
d
dT
(kA ) = 0
dx
dx
Let us take a rod with end-point coordinates of x=1 and x=3 respectively. Assume that k=1
throughout the domain and non-uniform cross-sectional area is given by A = x. Boundary
conditions are:
T(at x=1)=300K, T (at x=3)=400K.
You know that the stiffness matrix of an element for this problem is given by
kA 1 1
dx
2
1
0 h 1
74
Chapter 6
EI
d 4v
=q
dx 4
(6.1)
where EI is called the flexural rigidly, which is the product of Youngs modulus of elasticity and
second moment of the cross-section with respect to centroidal axis and perpendicular to the plane
of bending, v is the vertical defection as a function of longitudinal coordinate x and q is the load
intensity (load per unit length) function. To completely solve this equation, we need 4 boundary
conditions. However, out of these four boundary conditions, at least one boundary condition
should be in the form of prescribed deflection and in addition one other boundary condition
should be prescribed deflection or slope. It is not essential to prescribe the second or third
derivative of the deflection if in place of these the slope and deflections are prescribed. Thus, the
boundary conditions on slope and deflection are called essential boundary conditions, whilst the
other boundary conditions are called natural boundary condition. In the following subsections, we
explain the steps of Galerkin FEM formulation.
75
l
l
d 4v
d 3v
d 2 v dw
d 2 w d 2v
EI
q
w
d
x
=
EI
w
EI
+
EI
dx qwdx = 0
3
2
2
2
0 dx 4
0
dx 0
dx dx 0 0
dx dx
l
(6.2)
Here, l is the length of the beam. We have skipped certain steps in writing equation (6.2). You are
supposed to verify its correctness by doing it yourself.
In the weak form, if we put w equal to v, we can get the variational form. Then, seeing
the terms on the boundary, we can recognize, that at x=0 and l:
Either EI
d 3v
= 0 or v =0
dx 3
(6.3)
and
d 2v
dv
Either EI 2 = 0 or
=0
dx
dx
(6.4)
The first boundary condition in each of the equations (6.3-6.4) is called the natural boundary
condition, whilst the boundary conditions of having 0 variation in the deflection v and slope
dv/dx are called the essential (geometric) boundary condition. From the strength of materials,
recall that EI d2v/dx2 is the bending moment and EI d3v/dx3 is the negative of the shear force. (The
sign convention for the bending moment and shear force may differ from book to book.)
6.2.2 CHOOSING SUITABLE APPROXIMATING FUNCTIONS
After obtaining the weak form, we have to choose the suitable approximating functions
within a element. Observing the weak form in equation (6.2), we see that highest order of the
derivative on v is 3, therefore, the approximating function should be thrice differentiable. A third
degree polynomial is that type function. Thus, one may take approximate v within an element as
v = a + bx + cx 2 + dx 3
(6.5)
Inside the integral, the highest order of derivative is 2, therefore, the overall approximation
should be C1 continuous. If we take a 4-noded Lagrange element, it will not guarantee that the
slope at the end points will be same from two adjacent elements. However, if we obtain the
constants a, b, c and d
76
deflections at the ends of the element, the continuity of slope is ensured. In Galerkin FEM, w is
approximated in the same way as v . In the next subsection, we shall express the approximating
functions in terms of nodal values of slope and deflection.
6.2.3 HERMITIAN SHAPE FUNCTION
We denote the end points (nodes) of a beam element by 1 and 2 and use them as
subscript for specifying the value at the point. The coordinate of point 1 is 0 and that of 2 is h.
Then,
v1 = a
dv
=b
dx 1
v2 = a + bh + ch 2 + dh3
(6.6)
dv
2
= b + 2ch + 3dh
dx 2
With the help of these set of equations, expressing the constants in terms of the nodal values of
slopes and deflection, putting them in equation (6.5) and rearranging, we get
(6.7)
where N1 , N2, N3 and N4 are called Hermitian shape function. Their values are given by
2
x
x
N1 = 1 3 + 2
h
h
x
N 2 = x 1
h
(6.8)
(6.9)
x
x
N3 = 3 2
h
h
(6.10)
x 2 x
N 4 = x
h h
(6.11)
If the coordinates of the first node is not 0, but is xi, the shape functions are given by
2
x xi
x xi
N1 = 1 3
+ 2
h
x xi
N 2 = ( x xi ) 1
(6.12)
(6.13)
77
x xi
x xi
N3 = 3
2
(6.14)
x x 2 x x
i
i
N 4 = ( x xi )
h
h
(6.15)
v1
'
v
N3 N 4 1
v2
v '
2
(6.16)
N1
N1
N
N
'
' 2
ne 2
w = w1 w1 w2 w2 = w
N3
N3
N 4
N 4
(6.17)
v = N1 N 2
and
Thus,
N1
N
wne EI 2 N1 N 2
N3
0
N 4
h
v1
N1
V1
h
v
N
1
ne 2
ne M 1
N3 N 4 dx = w q dx + w
V
v2
3
2
0
v2
N 4
M 2
(6.18)
As the nodal weights are arbitrary, equation (6.18) gives the following elemental equation:
N1
N
EI 2 N1 N 2
N3
0
N 4
v1
N1
V1
h
v
M
N
N3 N 4 1 dx = q 2 dx + 1
v
N
V
2
2
0 3
v2
N 4
M 2
(6.19)
Here, the first term on the left hand side of the equality sign is called the stiffness term, the last
term on the right hand side is called internal load vector and the middle term is called the load
vector.
6.2.5 ASSEMBLY BOUNDARY CONDITION AND SOLUTION
After obtaining the elemental equations, we assemble them as usual. In the process internal
loads viz. shear force and bending moments get cancelled except at boundary. These are tackled
by means of the boundary conditions. Either their values are specified or in lieu of that the slope
and/or deflections are prescribed. We can then solve the equations.
78
1 2v
EI
dx qv dx V1v1 + V2 v2 M 1v1 + M 2 v2
2 x 2
(6.20)
where the first term is the strain energy and all other terms are work potential. Here, v is the beam
deflection, V the shear force and M the moment. The subscript 1 and 2 indicate nodes. The
highest order of derivative in this expression is 3, since the shear force V contains the third
derivative of v. Hence, v should be of the form a + bx + cx 2 + dx3 . Since the highest order of
derivative inside the integral is 2, the approximating function should be C1 continuous. One
suitable approximation is
v e = N1
N2
N3
v1
v
N 4 1
v2
v2
(5.27)
Here, N1, N2, N3 and N4 are called Hermitian shape functions. Then,
h
2 [v
v1 v2
q [ v1 v1 v2
0
N1
v1
N
v
v2 ]EI 2 N1 N 2 N3 N 4 1 dx
N3
v2
N 4
v2
N1
V1
N
M
v2 ] 2 dx [ v1 v1 v2 v2 ] 1
N
V
3
2
N 4
M 2
(5.32)
For minimizing this expression, we differentiate the expression with respect to [v1 v1 v2 v2]
and set equal to zero. Thus,
[ v1
v1 v2
v2 ]
=0
(5.33)
79
N1
N
EI 2 N1 N 2
N3
0
N 4
h
v1
N1
V1
h
v
M
N
N3 N 4 1 dx = q 2 dx + 1
v
N
V
2
2
0 3
v2
N 4
M 2
(5.34)
This is the elemental formulation. The technique of assembly is carried as usual and followed
by application of boundary conditions to determine the solution.
6.4 SUMMARY
In this chapter FEM formulation of beam problem is carried out by using Galerkin and Ritz
FEM formulation. Both the formulations yield the same results. The procedure can be
employed for any fourth order differential equation.
80
EXERCISE 6
Q.1. A beam is modeled by one element. From finite element equation evaluate the
Figure: Q1
Given A, I, E and l are the cross-sectional area, second moment of inertia, Youngs
modulus of elasticity and length respectively.
Q.2. A load P is applied at the end of the cantilever which is supported on a spring of
81
Figure: Q2
(b) Take one element to solve this problem by FEM. The stiffness matrix for that
element is given by
12
L2
EI
L
SYM
6 12 6
L L2
L
6
4
2
L
12 6
L2
L
4
You have to generate load matrix, apply boundary conditions and obtain the slope and
deflection at the ends
1 L d2 w
P L dw
1
=
d
EI
x
2 0 dx2 2 0 dx dx + 2 kwL2
(a)
dw
=0
dx x =0
(b)
82
For the case, when load P is zero, carry out the FEM formulation by Ritz FEM.
Figure: Q3
Q.4. The distribution of bending moment M in a beam subjected to a loading by a
distributed load w(x) per unit length satisfies the equation d 2 M dx 2 = w ( x ) . A beam of
unit length is simply supported (i.e. , M = 0) at both ends and carries a load w( x) = sin x
per unit length.
Carry out FEM formulation for obtaining the bending moment distribution. Obtain the
bending moment distributions by taking 2 and 3 elements respectively.
83
Chapter 7
85
u
u
v = [ R ] v
w
w
(7.1)
where
l1
[ R ] = l2
l3
m1
m2
m3
n1
n2
n3
(7.2)
is called rotation matrix. It is orthogonal i.e. its inverse is equal to its transpose. Thus
u
T
v = [ R]
w
If
{d } = [ u
v w]
u
v
w
(7.3)
86
{d } = [ R ]{d }
If
{r} = Fx
Fz
Fy
{d } = [T ]{d }
(7.4)
{r } = [ R ]{r}
If
{d } = [ R ] {d }
and
and
{r} = [ R ] {r }
T
(7.5)
where [T ] is not necessarily orthogonal and may not even be square, then
{r} = [T ] {r }
T
(7.6)
{ d } {r} = { d } {r } or { d } {r} = { d } [T ] {r }
T
T
T
from which we can write, { d } {r} [T ] {r } = 0
Therefore
{r} = [T ] {r }
T
Now consider the elemental equations in the global x-y-z and the local x ' y ' z system,
[ k ] {d } = r
Now if
[ k ]{d } = {r }
(7.7)
{d } = [T ]{d }
then {r} = [T ]
As
or
{r }
[ k ]{d } = {r} = [T ] {r }
T
We get
[ k ] = [T ] [ k ][T ]
T
(7.8)
This is the equation for transforming the local stiffness equation into the global stiffness
equation.
For a plane truss, the local stiffness matrix is given as
87
[ k ] =
AE 1 1
L 1 1
(7.9)
The local degrees of freedom are related to the global degrees of freedom as
u1
u
v1
1
T
=
[ ]
u2
u2
v2
(7.10)
where
cos sin 0
0 cos
0
[T ]24 =
0
sin
(7.11)
Therefore, the formula for transforming the local stiffness matrix into the global one is
[ k ] = [T ]42
k ' [T ]24
22
cos 2
AE
[k ] =
L
cos sin
sin 2
cos 2
cos sin
cos 2
cos sin
sin 2
cos sin
sin 2
(7.12)
l m1 n1 0 0 0
0 0 0 l1 m1 n1
[T ]26 = 1
88
7.3 AN EXAMPLE
Figure 7.2 shows a plane truss. The point 1 is pinned and point 3 is supported on a roller support.
The roller can roll in a plane inclined at 450 from the horizontal. Let us solve this problem using
FEM.
1
2
3 2
3 2
1
2
1
2
1
2
1
2
1
2
1
1
2
U ( Fx )1
1
1
( F )1
V
2 1 y 1
=
1 U 2 ( F )1
x
2
2 V2
1
F
( y )2
1
89
( Fx )2
2
U
0 0 0 0 2
2
1 0 1 V ( Fy )
3
2
2 =
2
U
0 0 3 ( F )
3
x 3
2
1
V3
( Fy )3
For element 1-3, = 1800
1 0 1
3 0 0
1
3
( F )3
0 U1 x 1
3
0 V1 ( Fy )1
=
0 U 3 ( F )3
x 3
3
0 V3
( Fy )3
Assembling,
( F )
0.5
0 U1 x 1
1
0.5 + 1 0.5 + 0 0.5
0.5 + 0 0.5 + 0 0.5
0
0 V1 ( Fy )1
0.5
0.5
0.5
0.5 + 0 0.5 + 0 0
0 U 2 10
=
0.5
0.5 + 0 0.5 + 1 0
1 V2 0
0.5
0
0
0
1
0
U3
(F )
x 3
0
0
0 + 0 1 + 0 V3 F
1
0
( y )3
As U1 = 0, V1 = 0, we can eliminate first 2 rows and columns to get,
0.5 0.5
0.5 1.5
0
0
1
0
0 0 U 2 10
0 1 V2 0
= ( F )
1 0 U 3 x 3
0 1 V3 ( Fy )
3
90
( Fx )3 ( Fy )3 = 0
To enforce it, subtract fourth row from third, to get
0.5 0.5
0.5 1.5
0
1
1
0
0 0 U 2 10
0 1 V2 0
=
1 1 U 3 0
0 1 V3 ( Fy )3
0.5 0.5
0.5 1.5
0
1
0
0
0 0 U 2 10
0 1 V2 0
=
1 1 U 3 0
1 1 V3 0
91
AE
0
L
EI
0
12 3
EI
0
6 2
AE
0
L
EI
0 12 3
L
EI
6 2
0
0
6
EI
2
L
EI
4
L
EI
2
L
EI
2
L
EI
6 2 u
L 1
EI v1
2
L 1 =generalizes force vector
u
0 2
v2
EI
6 2 2
L
EI
4
12
AE
L
0
6
AE
L
EI
L3
EI
L2
12
EI
L3
EI
L2
(7.13)
or
(7.14)
{d } = u1'
2'
(7.15)
Note that slash (/) as a superscript here does not represent differentiation. It refers rotated
coordinate. In the global coordinate system, the displacement vector is
{d } = [u1 v1 1 u2 v2 2 ]
(7.16)
u1 cos
v
1 sin
1 0
=
u2 0
v2 0
2 0
sin 0
0 u1
cos 0 0
0
0 v1
0
1 0
0
0 1
0
0 cos sin 0 u2
0
0 sin cos 0 v2
0
0
0
0
1 2
0
(7.17)
92
where is the angle which the frame element makes from horizontal. This can be written as
{d'} = [T ]{d }
(7.18)
[k ] = [T ]T [k ][T ]
(7.19)
In the frame problems, if the load acts other than joints, they can be transferred to joint by
calculating the load vectors as is done in beams and rods.
7.5 SUMMARY
In this chapter FEM formulation for trusses and frames is carried out. We have solved one
example for the truss problem. For the frames, we have not solved any problem. As the size of the
assembled stiffness matrix in frame problems is usually large, these problems are suitable for
solving with the help of a computer.
EXERCISE 7
Q.1: A truss problem was solved in this chapter. Solve it again by yourself and find out the
axial forces in all the elements. Find out the support reactions also.
Q.2: Shown below is a five member truss. It is made of steel. The cross-sectional area each
member is 6cm2. It is loaded by a vertical force of 100N at the rightmost top point.
Find out the defection of that point.
Figure: Q2
Q.3: Frame shown below has all the members of equal length. You assume the length, A
93
and EI as unity. If a unit load is applied as shown, find out the deflection at the point of
application of the load and maximum stress in the frame.
Figure: Q3
Q.4: In the figure a cantilever beam is supported on a stepped rod. Take one beam element and
two rod elements to solve it. The stiffness matrix for beam element is
12
EI 6h
h 3 12
6h
6h 12 6h
4h 6h 2h
.
6h 12 6h
2h 2 6h 4h 2
2
For the rod element you already remember (else derive it). Solve this problem to find out the
deflections and stresses.
1 kN
1m
0.2 mm
10 mm dia, Steel
3 mm dia, Al.
6 mm dia Al
0.2 mm
Figure: Q4
94
Q.5: For the truss shown below, find out the displacements at 2, 3 and 4 when a vertical load P is
applied at 4. Find out the stresses in the all elements.
Figure: Q5
95
Chapter 8
97
1
x
2
x3 x2y
y
y2
xy
xy2
y3
y4
T = a + bx + cy
(8.1)
(8.2)
or
1 x1 y1 a T1
1 x y b = T
2 2
2
1 x3 y3 c T3
(8.3)
1 x1 y1
a
T = [1 x y ] b = [1 x y ] 1 x2 y2
c
1 x3 y3
T1
T1
T2 = [ N1 N 2 N3 ] T2
T3
T3
(8.4)
N1 =
( xy2 x2 y ) + ( x2 y3 x3 y2 ) + ( x3 y y3 x)
area( P 23)
=
( x1 y2 x2 y1 ) + ( x2 y3 x3 y2 ) + ( x3 y1 y3 x1 ) area(123)
N2 =
( x1 y xy1 ) + ( xy3 x3 y ) + ( x3 y1 y3 x1 )
area( P31)
=
( x1 y2 x2 y1 ) + ( x2 y3 x3 y2 ) + ( x3 y1 y3 x1 ) area(123)
N3 =
(8.5)
98
where P is the point having coordinates (x, y). It is clearly seen that the sum of shape functions is
1. We can define the natural coordinates of a point (x, y) as
1 =
( xy2 x2 y ) + ( x2 y3 x3 y2 ) + ( x3 y y3 x)
area( P 23)
=
( x1 y2 x2 y1 ) + ( x2 y3 x3 y2 ) + ( x3 y1 y3 x1 ) area(123)
2 =
( x1 y xy1 ) + ( xy3 x3 y ) + ( x3 y1 y3 x1 )
area( P31)
=
( x1 y2 x2 y1 ) + ( x2 y3 x3 y2 ) + ( x3 y1 y3 x1 ) area(123)
3 =
(8.6)
The natural coordinates of every point will be bounded between 0 and 1 and
1 + 2 + 3 = 1
(8.7)
Thus, there are only 2 independent natural coordinates. For a 3-noded triangular element
N1 = 1;
N2 = 2 ;
N 3 = 3
(8.8)
The 3-noded linear triangular element is also called constant strain triangle (CST) element,
because if we approximate the displacement components using this element, strains will be
constant.
3
5
T = a + bx + cy + dx 2 + exy + fy 2
(8.9)
We can find out the shape functions, the way we have done for 3-noded element. However, here
we derive the shape functions in a different way using natural coordinates. In natural coordinates,
the shape functions corresponding ith node are:
(8.10)
99
Note that in the above expression, the sum of the powers of natural coordinates is 2 in each term.
One may wonder why a constant term or term containing natural coordinates raised to degree one
are not present. The answer is that even if a constant term is present, it can be multiplied by
coordinate can be multiplied by (1 + 2 + 3 ) . Thus, ultimately, we can obtain the form given in
Eq. (8.10).
Let us first derive the expression for N4, which can be written as
(8.11)
It is zero at all other nodes and 1 at the node 4. At node 1, 1=1, 2=0 and 3=0. Thus,
a4 = 0
(8.12)
b4 = c4 = 0
At node 5, 2 = 3 =
(8.13)
1
, thus
2
1
e4 = 0 or e4 = 0
4
At node 6, 1 = 3 =
(8.14)
1
, thus
2
1
f 4 = 0 or f 4 = 0
4
Finally, at node 4, 1 = 2 =
1
, thus
2
1
d 4 = 1 or d 4 = 4 .
4
Therefore,
N 4 = 41 2
(8.15)
Similarly, it can be shown (rather it can be directly written by noting the similarity) that
N5 = 4 23
and N6 = 413
(8.16)
Let us now derive the expression for N1, which can be written as
(8.17)
This shape function is 0 at all nodes expect at node 1, where its value is 1.
100
b1 = 0
(8.18)
c1 = 0
(8.19)
e1 = 0
(8.20)
a1 = 1
(8.21)
a1 d1
+ = 0 or d1 = 1
4 4
(8.22)
f1 = 1
(8.23)
Therefore,
N1 = 12 1 2 13
(8.24)
N1 = 12 1 ( 2 + 3 ) = 12 1 (1 1 ) = 1 (21 1)
(8.25)
N 2 = 2 (2 2 1)
and
N3 = 3 (23 1)
(8.26)
101
We have derived the shape functions for a linear (degree 1) and a quadratic (degree 2)
element. Now, let us derive the expression for degree M polynomial. The similar procedure can
be followed. However, Argyris et al. [1] and some others [2, 3] have developed the simple
procedure. In this procedure, each node i is represented by triplet (I, J, K). For example, the
corner nodes in the baseline are (M, 0, 0) and (0, M, 0). On the baseline first coordinate keeps
decreasing by one from left to right as we move from one node to other and second coordinate
keeps increasing by 1. For any node,
I+J +K =M
(8.27)
A simple way to obtain triplet corresponding to a node is to assume that nodes are equi-spaced on
sides (they need not be actually), and multiplying the natural coordinates of the nodes by M. For a
node having designation (I, J, K), the shape function is given by,
Ni = lII (1 )l JJ ( 2 )lKK (3 )
(8.28)
( x x0 )( x x1 )........( x xn1 )
( xn x0 )( xn x1 )........( xn xn1 )
(8.29)
where
lnn ( x) =
where starting from x0=0, xi s are the 1-d natural coordinates. (You may divide a line with end
coordinates 0 and 1 into n equal parts to obtain the coordinates x0, x1, .,xn. The coordinate of xn
will be 1.) Take l00 = 1 . Using this method, for cubic triangle,
N1 =
1
9
(31 1)(31 2)1 , N 4 = 1 2 (31 1), N10 = 271 23
2
2
(8.30)
where N1 is the corner node, N4 is the mid-side node adjacent to node 1 on the line connecting
nodes 1 & 2 and N10 is the internal node.
1 =
Volume P234
Volume 1234
etc.
(8.31)
N i = i
(8.32)
For a quadratic tetrahedron, we have the following relation for the typical nodes:
102
N1 = (21 1)1
(8.33)
N5 = 41 2
(8.34)
You can easily write the shape functions for the other nodes.
T = a + bx + cy + dxy = ( A + Bx )(C + Dy )
(8.35)
Thus, the interpolation function is the product of two linear functions in x and y . We can obtain
the constants a, b, c and d (or A, B, C and D) in terms of the nodal values T1, T2 , T3 and T4 and
express the T in the following form:
(8.36)
103
However, the shape functions can be easily obtained if we consider the shape function at a node
to be the product of one-dimensional shape functions along x and y. Thus, if x1=x4=p, x2=x4=q and
y1=y4=r, y2=y4=s, then
( x q) ( y s)
;
( p q) (r s)
( x p) ( y r )
;
N3 =
(q p ) ( s r )
N1 =
( x p) ( y s)
(q p) (r s)
( x q) ( y r )
N4 =
( p q) (s r )
N2 =
(8.37)
These shape function satisfy the three properties mentioned in Chapter 4. These shape functions
are called Lagrangian shape functions and the corresponding elements shown in Fig. 8.6 are
called Lagrangian elements. You can easily derive the shape function for 9 noded elements,
which will be products of 1-dimensional quadratic shape functions.
The shape
functions for 8-noded elements can be obtained as the product of shape functions along x, y and z.
However, the shape functions for 20 noded-element cannot be obtained by simple multiplication
of 1-dimensional shape functions.
104
T T
+Q = 0
kx
+ ky
x x y y
(8.38)
where T is the temperature field, kx is the thermal Conductivity in x direction, ky is the thermal
conductivity in y direction and Q is the rate of heat generation per unit volume.
As the material is non-homogenous, both kx and ky are functions of x and y. The boundary
conditions are
i. Essential: T = T *(x, y), prescribed temperature field on the boundary 1 .
ii. Natural: Boundary heat flux conditions on boundary 2.
qn = q*( x, y) is the prescribed boundary heat flux, or
qn = ( T - T) is the convective heat flux.
where
qn = k x
T
T
n x k y
n y
x
x
(8.39)
is the normal heat flux on the boundary 2 , is the convective heat transfer coefficient and T is
the ambient temperature. We shall carry out FEM formulation using Galerkin procedure.
105
element temperature field within an element. As it is not the exact temperature field, on
substituting in the left hand side of equation (8.38), in general, a non-zero residue, R e will be
obtained, i.e.
Re =
T e T e
kx
+ ky
+Q
x x y
y
(8.40)
The weighted integral statement of the governing equation is then given by,
wR d = 0
e
(8.41)
T e T e
w x k x x y k y y Q dxdy = 0
e
(8.42)
x w x d = v wFn ds
(8.43)
F w
=
F ( wF )
x x
x
(8.44)
and
w T
w T
T
T
nx + k y
n y ds = 0
+ ky
wQ dxdy v w k x
x x
y y
x
x
(8.45)
or
w T e
w T e
k
k
+
e x x x x y y dxdy = e wQ dxdy ve wqnds = 0
(8.46)
kx
T
T
nx + k y
n y = (T T )
x
x
(8.47)
106
or,
w T
w T
T
T
nx + k y
n y ds = 0
+ ky
wQ dxdy v w k x
x x
y y
x
x
w T
w T
+ ky
wQ dxdy v wqn ds + v w (T T ) ds = 0
x x
y y
e1
e 2
(8.48)
(8.49)
or, B ( w, T ) l ( w ) = 0
where w is the weight function, and B(.,.) and l(.) are the bilinear forms
B ( w, T ) =
l ( w) =
w T
w T
+ ky
x x
y y
dxdy + v wTds
wQ dxdy + v wT ds + v wq ds
(8.50)
(8.51)
The finite element model is then obtained by substituting the finite element approximation of the
form
n
T = T je N ej ( x, y )
(8.52)
j =1
and
n
w = wej N ej ( x, y )
(8.53)
j =1
(K
j =1
e
ij
+ H ije ) T je = Fi e + Pi e
(8.54)
where,
K ije =
(k N
x
i,x
N j , x + k y N i , y N j , y )dxdy
H ije = e v N i N j ds
e
, Pi e = e v N iT ds
e
107
dxdy + q e N ds f e + Q e
Fi e = QN
i
i
i
v x i
Once the elemental matrices are obtained, they are assembled to form the set of linear
simultaneous equations, the solution of which yields the temperature field. The assembly is based
on the principle of maintaining the continuity of primary variables i.e. fluxes.
The variation form of the differential equation can be obtained easily by putting T in place of w
in the weak form. It is given by,
1
1
de + v (q T + 1 hT 2 hTT )ds
= e k x (T , x) 2 + k y (T , y ) 2 QT
2
2
2
e
(8.55)
5
1 2 6
2 3 7 6
3 4 8 7
5 6 10 9
6 7 11 10
7 8 12 11
9 10 14 13
10 11 15 14
11 12 16 15
108
1
3
3
3
2 3
2 4
4 7
7 6
6 5
3 5
The task of assembly is to identify the global location of each element in the local matrix and load
vector and put the element in that place.
T T T
+ kz
kx
+ ky
+Q = 0
x x y y z z
(8.56)
The FEM formulation for this problem will provide the stiffness equation as
Ke =
(k
N , x { N , x } + k y N , y { N , y } + k z N , z { N , z } dxdydz
(8.57)
u v
=0
y x
(8.58)
Where u and y are the fluid velocities in the x and y directions, respectively. The continuity
condition is given by
u v
+
=0
x y
(8.59)
u=
; and v =
x
y
(8.60)
Equation (8.58) is identically satisfied. Substitution of equation (8.60) into equation (8.59)
provides
109
2 2
+
=0
x 2 y 2
(8.61)
This is a Laplace equation and FEM formulation can be obtained similar to the case of steadystate heat conduction. At any boundary,
= vn
n
where
(8.62)
denotes the derivative of velocity potential in the direction of unit normal vector to the
n
boundary. This is a natural boundary condition. In addition, at one point, one need to provide an
arbitrary value of velocity potential, which forms an essential boundary condition.
2 2
+
+ 2G = 0
x 2 y 2
(8.63)
where is the angle of twist per unit length, G is the shear modulus of the shaft material and is
the stress function. The shear stress components at any point can be calculated as
zx =
; zy =
y
x
(8.64)
The boundary condition on is that it is zero on the boundary of the shaft. Thus, the problem is
similar to heat conduction problem with heat generation and prescribed temperature on the
boundary.
8.12 SUMMARY
In this chapter an introduction to 2-D and 3-D FEM is provided. We have limited our
discussion to Laplace and Poisson equations in this chapter. In this chapter, we have used simple
types of elements. More details of FEM formulation with isoparametric elements will be provided
in the next chapter.
REFERENCES
1. J.H. Argyris, I. Fried, and D.W. Scharpf, The TET 20 and the TEA 8 elements for the matrix
displacement method, Aero. J., 72, 618-25, 1968.
110
2. P. Silvester, Higher order polynomial triangular elements for potential problems, Int. J. Eng.
Sci., 7, 849-61, 1969.
3. R.L. Taylor, On completeness of shape functions for finite element analysis Int. J. Num.
Meth. Eng., 4, 17-22, 1972.
EXERCISE 8
Q.1: Derive all the shape functions for a cubic triangular element using simplified formula
described in this chapter.
Q.2: Sketch a 15 noded triangular element. Find out the expression for the shape functions of this
element.
Q.3. Figure shows the mesh consisting of linear triangular elements. Write down the connectivity
matrix of the mesh.
Figure: Q.3
Q.4: In the triangle shown in the figure a point has natural coordinates (1/3, 1/3, 1/3). Find out its
x and y coordinates.
Figure: Q.4
Q.5: A square element has a point heat source of 100 W at the center. Find out its contribution at
all the corner nodes.
Q.6: Develop the expression for the stiffness matrix for a triangular element for solving steadysate heat conduction problem. Treat the material as orthotropic.
Q.7: Develop the expression for the stiffness matrix for a rectangular element of sides a and b for
solving steady-sate heat conduction problem. Treat the material as orthotropic.
111
Chapter 9
NUMERICAL INTEGRATION
(Lectures 20-21)
9.1 INTRODUCTION
In finite element method, often the integrations arising in the computation of stiffness
matrix and load vector are carried out numerically. The word quadrature is also used to mean
numerical integration. In this chapter, we shall describe the commonly used quadrature formulae.
The accuracy of numerical integration affects the solution accuracy to a great extent. Therefore, a
complete chapter has been devoted on numerical integration.
9.2 ONE DIMENSIONAL INTEGRATION FORMULAE
Integration is basically summation. Figure 1 shows the function f(x) graphically in the
form of the curve 1-2-3-4 The end points of the curve are 1 and 4. Let us consider the sum
S = f ( x1 )x + f ( x2 )x + f ( x3 )x
(9.1)
This sum is basically the hatched area in the figure. It need not be equal to the area under the
curve f(x) on the first quadrant. However, if we divide the curve in many more parts, say n parts,
instead of just 3 parts as in Fig.1, then the summation
n
S = f i ( x ) x
(9.2)
i =1
will be very close to the area under the curve on the first quadrant. As n and x 0 , the
summation S in Eq. (9.2) tends to the area under the curve f(x) on positive quadrant. The
summation in Eq. (9.2) when n and x 0 is denoted as
f ( x) dx . The symbol is
113
Figure 9.1: The plot of function f(x) and illustration of the concept of integration
f ( x ) dx
can be
considered approximately as weighted sum of function values at discrete points. The weights (or
interval sizes x) need not be equal. Similarly, the discrete points need not be equally spaced.
However, in Newton-Cotes quadrature, the points are usually equally spaced and are always
decided before deciding the weights. It means that the points at which the function is to be
evaluated are determined a priori, usually at equal intervals. A polynomial is passed through
these points and exactly integrated to obtain a close form expression. The coefficients associated
with the function values at taken as weights in quadrature formula.
As n values of the function define a polynomial of degree (n-1), the errors will be of
the order O(n) in a n-point formula, where is the point spacing. For a general n point NewtonCotes quadrature formula, the integral can be written as
1
I = f ( )d =
1
H f ( )
i =1
(9.3)
where Hi are weights. We have taken the limits from -1 to +1. If the limits are different you can
always transform the limits from -1 to +1, by linear transformation of the variable. In the
following paragraph, we develop 2-point Newton-Cotes formula.
For n = 2, a straight line can be easily fitted. Thus, the given function is approximated as
f ( ) = a + b
(9.4)
At = 1,
f ( 1) = a b
(9.5)
f (1) = a + b
(9.6)
At = +1,
114
a=
1
f ( 1) + f (1)
2
(9.7)
b=
1
f ( +1) f ( 1)
2
(9.8)
Thus,
f ( ) =
1
1
f ( 1) + f (1) + f ( +1) f ( 1)
2
2
(9.9)
Therefore,
1
I = f ( ) d = f ( 1) + f (1)
1
(9.10)
f ( ) = a + b + c 2
(9.11)
+1
2
f ( ) d = 2 a + c
3
(9.12)
Now,
f ( 1) = a b + c
f ( 0) = a
f (1) = a + b + c
Thus,
c b = f ( 1) f ( 0 )
c + b = f (1) f ( 0 )
Solving these, we get
c=
f ( 1) + f (1) 2 f ( 0 )
2
115
+1
f ( )d = 2 f ( 0 ) +
1
1
2
f ( 1) + f (1) f ( 0 )
3
3
3
1
= f ( 1) + 4 f ( 0 ) + f (1)
3
(9.13)
+1
f ( )d =
1
f ( 1) + 3 f
4
1
1
+ 3 f + f (1)
3
3
(9.14)
+1
f ( )d =
w f ( )
i
i =1
(9.15)
where i is the sampling point and wi is the associated weight. Here, the sampling points and
associated weights are optimally chosen. Therefore, the accuracy gets improved. We develop one
and two Gauss-point formula.
One Gauss-point formula:
Let f ( ) = a + b can be evaluated exactly.
+1
( a + b ) d = w f ( ) = w ( a + b )
1
(9.16)
or
2a = w1a + w1b1
(9.17)
+1
f ( ) d = w1 f (1 ) + w2 f ( 2 )
(9.18)
or
( a + b + c
+1
+ d 3 ) d = w1 ( a + b1 + c12 + d13 ) + w2 ( a + b 2 + c 2 2 + d 23 )
116
or
2a +
2c
= ( w1 + w2 ) a + ( w11 + w2 2 ) b + ( w112 + w2 2 2 ) c + ( w113 + w2 23 ) d
3
w1 + w2 = 2
(9.19)
w11 + w2 2 = 0
2
3
(9.21)
w113 + w2 23 = 0
(9.22)
w112 + w2 2 2 =
Solution is 1 =
(9.20)
1
1
, 2 =
3
3
w1 = 1, w2 = 2
For three Gauss-point formula
1 = 0.77459667,
2 = 0,
w2 =
w1 =
5
9
w3 =
5
9
8
9
3 = + 0.77459667,
+1
Thus,
ad = 2a = wi a
(9.23)
i =1
w = 2
i
(2) With n- Gauss point formula, (2n-1) degree polynomial can be evaluated exactly.
117
I =
1 1
n1
f ( , )d d
+1
= wi f ( ,i )d
1
i =1
where n1 is the number of Gauss-points in direction. Application of 1-dimensional Gaussquadrature again provides:
I
n1
n2
i =1
j =1
= wi w j f ( j ,i )
n1
n2
= wi w j f ( j ,i )
i =1 j =1
I =
1 11
0 0
f (1 , 2 , 3 )d 2 d1
(9.24)
118
Note that the sum of three natural coordinates is 1. Therefore, 3 can be eliminated to express f as
another function F of first two natural coordinates.
I =
1 12
0 0
F (1 , 2 ) d1d 2
(9.25)
This can be integrated by applying the Gauss-point formula two times, first along 1 with limit 0
to 1-2 and then along 2 with limits 0 to 1. Note that the limits have to be transformed to from -1
to +1. The calculations are tedious. Simplified expressions have been developed. One formula is
given by
1 1 2
0 0
F (1 , 2 ) d1d 2 =
nG
w F (
i =1
i
1
, 2i )
(9.26)
of nG are provided in Table 9.1. For further details, reader can see the reference for numerical
integration [1-4].
9.4 CONCLUSIONS
In this Chapter, numerical integration formulae have been discussed. First, the numerical
integration in one-dimension using Newton-Cotes and Gauss quadrature has been described. The
advantage of Gauss-quadrature scheme has been highlighted. Then the Gauss-quadrature formula
119
has been applied extended to two dimensions. The reader can also extend them to three
dimensions.
REFERENCES
1. Carnahan, B., Luther, H.A. and Wilkes, J.O., 1969, Applied Numerical Methods, John
Wiley, New York.
2. Froberg, C.E., 1969, Introduction to Numerical Analysis, Addison-Wesley, Reading,
MA.
3. Hammer, P.C., Marlowe, O.J. and Stroud, A.H., 1956, Numerical Integration over
Simplexes and Cones, Mathematical Tables and other Aids to Computations, Vol. 10,
pp. 130-137, The National Research Council, Washington, DC, 1956.
4. Cowper, G.R., 1973, Gaussian Quadrature Formulas for Triangles, International Journal
for Numerical Methods in Engineering, Vol. 7, pp. 405-408.
120
Table 9.1: Gauss points and weights for integration on a triangular domain
nG
Coordinates
i
1
, 2i )
Weights wi
wA = .
Formula exact for complete 1st
A = (1/3,1/3)
degree polynomial.
A = (1/2,1/2)
wA = wB = wC = 1/6
B = (0,1/2)
C = (1/2,0)
degree polynomial.
A = (1,0),
wA = wB = wC = 3/120
B = (0,1),
wD = wE = wF = 8/120
C = (0,0),
wG = 27/120.
D = (1/2,1/2)
E = (0,1/2),
degree polynomial.
F = (1/2,0),
G = (1/3,1/3)
A = (1 , 1 ) , D = ( 2 , 2 ) ,
wA = wB = wC =
155 15
2400
C = ( 1 , 1 ) , F = ( 2 , 2 ) ,
wD = wE = wF =
155 + 15
2400
G = (1/3,1/3)
wG = 9/80.
B = ( 1 , 1 ) , E = ( 2 , 2 ) ,
7
where
th
9 + 2 15
6 + 15 Formula exact for complete 5
1 =
, 2 =
21
21 degree polynomial.
6 15
9 2 15
, 2 =
1 =
21
21
121
EXERCISE 9
Q.1: Integrate
3x 2 4 x3 5 x 4
6 x5
f ( x) = 10 + 20 x
+
+
10 100 1000 10000
between 8 and 12 using 3 point Gauss formulation. The three points and corresponding weights
are
Points
Weights
8/9
0.6
5/9
Q.2: Consider the following element used to solve heat conduction problem. Sides are of 4 mm
size.
Figure: Q2
The uniform heat generation in the element is
122
Location
Weight
0.0
2.0
0.5773502692
1.0
0.7745966692
0.55555555556
0.0
0.88888888889
Figure: Q3
+1 +1
Q.4: Consider the evaluation of f ( x, y ) dxdy . How many total Gauss points should be used
1 1
2 3
4
(b) 3 x y + y
(c)
x+ y
x y
123
Chapter 10
x2. You have to transform the coordinates from physical to natural coordinate
system, such that x1 transforms to 1 and x2 transforms to +1. A linear transformation of the
form x = a + b is appropriate for this purpose you can easily find out the constants a and b. We
already have carried out linear interpolation of the primary variable of the problem using C0
continuity shape functions. The physical variable can be interpolated in the same way. Thus,
x = N1 x1 + N 2 x2
(10.1)
(10.2)
and transform the physical coordinate by Eq. (10.1), it will be called sub-parametric element and
the corresponding formulation as sub-parametric formulation. In sub-parametric formulation, the
125
primary variable is approximated by a higher degree of polynomial than geometry. In superparametric formulation, reverse is the case.
Let us consider that the stiffness matrix is
x2 dN / dx
[K e ] = 1
[ dN1 / dx
x1 dN 2 / dx
dN 2 / dx ] dx
(10.3)
In the above expression, we have to transform everything to natural coordinates. From Eq.(10.1),
we have
dx =
x2 x1
d = J d
2
(10.4)
where J is called Jacobian and it is the ratio of the sizes of the element in physical and natural
coordinate system. (Basically, in one-dimension, the Jacobian is the ratio of infinitesimal length
in the physical coordinates to the corresponding mapped length in natural coordinates. If the
transformation is linear, the value of the Jacobian is same everywhere. In two dimension, the
determinant of the Jacobian matrix is the ratio of infinitesimal area in physical coordinate system
to that in natural coordinate system. In three dimension, the determinant of the Jacobian matrix is
the ratio of infinitesimal volume in physical coordinate system to that in natural coordinate
system.
For finding out the derivative of shape function with respect to x, we employ chain rule.
Thus,
dN1 dN1 d
dN
=
= J 1 1
dx
d d x
d
(10.5)
Similarly,
dN 2 dN 2 d
dN
=
= J 1 2
dx
d dx
d
(10.6)
By substituting Eqs (10.4-10.6) in (10.3) and integrating, you can verify that
1 1
[K e ] =
1 1
(10.7)
For beam element field variable (deflection) is approximated as a cubic polynomial, but the
geometry is approximated by linear functions only. Therefore, it is a subparmetric formulation.
The stiffness matrix for a beam element is
126
x2
{ }
(10.8)
d 2 Ni
dx 2
= ( J 1 )2
d 2 Ni
(10.9)
d 2
i =1
i =1
x = N i xi , y = Ni yi
(10.10)
Cook et al. [1] has provided an interesting exercise problem. The problem is as follows:
The quadrilateral element shown might be used in finite element model. Imagine that its xdirection displacement field is u = a1 + a2 x + a3 y + a4 xy , where the ai are constants. How does
u vary with x or y along each side? Do you think the element will be compatible with its
neighbors?
y
4
450
2
127
other nodes will influence it. Therefore, this element is not compatible. If there is another element
whose one edge coincides with 1-4, then approximate displacement field need not be the same for
both the elements. The reason is that only the nodes 1 and 4 are common between the two
elements, not the other nodes.
Now, if the element is transformed into an square element using Eq. (10.10), then the
displacement field is approximated as,
(10.11)
where Ni are the Lagrangian shape functions. Now along line 1-4, N3 and N2 are zero. Also, the
natural coordinate =-1 along line 1-4. Therefore,
u=
(1 )
(1 + )
u4
u1 +
2
2
(10.12)
This is a linear equation. The displacement field along the line 1-4 depends the nodal values of
the nodes 1 and 4. Same thing will be true for the element that interfaces with this element along
1-4. Therefore, this element will be compatible.
Serendipity
something similar to that. The elements probably have been discovered as a result of numerical
experimentation and found to be better. You will see the derivation of the shape functions is
carried out in some what unusual way. In this section, the derivation of shape function for 8noded rectangular serendipity element will be carried out to make you understand the concepts.
Figure 10.2 shows an 8-noded rectangular serendipity element. It is similar to a 9-noded
element, but there is no internal node. Let us derive the shape functions for this element.
128
For C0 element, the shape functions should be such that the value of a shape function
should be 1 at the corresponding node and 0 at the other nodes. Also, the sum of the shape
functions should be 1. Moreover, each shape function should be a quadratic function. We shall
derive the expressions in natural coordinates, in which node is point (-1, 1) and node 2 (1, 1). Let
us see what happens if N1 is chosen corresponding to a 4-noded square element, i.e.
N1 =
1
(1 )(1 )
4
(10.13)
This shape function is 1 at node number 1 and 0 at the nodes 2, 3, 4, 6 and 7. Fine! But what
about its value at nodes 5 and 8. At node 5, =0 and =-1 and therefore, N1= . Similarly, at node
8, =-1 and =0. Here, also N1= . How can we modify the shape function in Eq. (10.13) so that
it is 0 at 5 and 8 without affecting its value at other nodes? A little thought will show that the
following shape function can achieve this purpose:
N1 =
1
1
1
(1 )(1 ) N 5 N8
4
2
2
(10.14)
1
N 5 is equal to -1/2, thus making the overall
2
expression 0. The last term does the same thing at node 8. At other nodes neither the last term nor
the second last term has any effect, as these terms are 0 by the very characteristics of the shape
functions.
In the similar manner, we can write
N2 =
1
1
1
(1 + )(1 ) N 5 N 6
4
2
2
(10.15)
N3 =
1
1
1
(1 + )(1 + ) N 7 N 6
4
2
2
(10.16)
N4 =
1
1
1
(1 )(1 + ) N 7 N8
4
2
2
(10.17)
Note that
8
N
N 1
N
N
1
= (1 )(1 ) 5 8 + (1 + )(1 ) 5 6
4
2
2 4
2
2
N
N 1
N
N
1
+ (1 + )(1 + ) 6 7 + (1 )(1 + ) 8 7
4
2
2 4
2
2
+ N 5 + N 6 + N 7 + N8
N
i =1
(10.18)
This simplifies to
129
N
i =1
1
1
1
1
= (1 )(1 ) + (1 + )(1 ) + (1 + )(1 + ) + (1 )(1 + )
4
4
4
4
(10.19)
The above expression is the sum of the Lagrangian functions of a 4-noded element, which is 1.
Thus, the shape functions in Eqs. (10.14-10.17) can solve our purpose. But wait, we have yet to
find out the expressions for N5, N6, N7 and N8. If we form N5 as the product of a quadratic shape
function in and a linear shape function in , our purpose will be solved, for then the shape
function will be 0 at =-1 and +1 and =1. It will be non-zero and equal to 1, only at =0 and
1
N 5 = (1 )( 2 1)
2
(10.20)
1
N 6 = (1 + )( 2 + 1)
2
(10.21)
Similarly,
1
N 7 = (1 + )( 2 + 1)
2
(10.22)
1
N8 = (1 )( 2 1)
2
(10.23)
Thus, we have derived all the shape functions of a 8-noded Serendipity element.
i =1
i =1
x = Ni xi , y = Ni yi
(10.24)
where the shape functions correspond to 8-noded square serendipity element and they are
functions of the natural coordinates. For this element,
Ni Ni x Ni y
=
+
x y
(10.25)
and
Ni Ni x Ni y
=
+
x y
(10.26)
130
N i x y N i
N i
x
x
=J
N i x y N i
N i
y
y
(10.27)
Here, J is the Jacobian and its determinant is equal to (dx dy)/ (d d).
From Eq. (10.27), it is seen that
Ni
Ni
x
1
N = J
i
Ni
y
(10.28)
x 8 N i
=
xi
i =1
and so on
(10.29)
10.6 CONCLUSIONS
In this chapter, the importance of natural coordinates has been highlighted. It has been
explained that how the derivatives in physical coordinates can be obtained from the known
derivatives in the natural coordinates. Four noded quadrilateral and 8 noded serendipity elements
have been introduced. As you have now understand the concept of numerical integration and
Jacobian, you are ready to write your own FEM codes for solving two-dimensional problems. In
exercise some problems have been included.
REFERENCES
1. R.D.
Cook, D.S. Malkus and M.E. Plesha, Concepts and applications of finite element
n y
2 ( 1)n +1 + 1 n x sinh L
T ( x, y ) = T1 + (T2 T1 )
sin
W
n
L sinh
n =1
131
Solve the problem to obtain the temperature field and plot the temperature contour. (Take
L=W=1000 m. and k =1 with T1 = 500 K and T2 = 0K.). Use two types of meshes as shown in
figures and compare the temperature values at the nodes with the exact solution.
Figure: Q1(a)
Figure: Q.1(b)
Q2: This problem involves Essential and Flux boundary conditions. Consider the rectangular
domain with two adjacent surfaces insulated and the temperature values specified on the other
two surfaces as shown in figure. ( b =100) .
132
Figure: Q2 (a)
Analytical solution to this problem is given by,
y
cosh
6b cos x .
T ( x, y ) = 100
6b
cosh
3b
Obtain the temperature field and plot temperature contours, using two types of meshes shown
below
Figure: Q 2(b)
Q3: Convective and flux boundary conditions only. Obtain the temperature field and plot the
temperature contours for the following problem. Use the mesh as shown in Fig. Q3(b)
133
Figure: Q3(a)
Figure: Q3(b)
Q4: Heat generation and essential boundary conditions only. Consider an infinite plate in the y-z
plane with thickness 2L. Heat is generated throughout the volume of the plate at a rate of Q
W/m3. Both the surfaces of the plate are maintained at a temperature of Ts. As the problem is
essentially one-dimensional it can be solved by insulating the top and bottom surfaces as shown
in Fig. Q4(b).
(b)
(a)
Figure: Q4
134
Take Q=100 W/m2, L = 1 m and k = 1W/mK. Use the grids as shown in Fig. Q1(b). Obtain the
temperature field and plot the temperature contours. Also, find out the temperature gradients.
Q.5: This problem involves essential and convective boundary conditions only. Consider a
square plate of side 1 m. The boundary conditions are as shown in Fig. Q5. Obtain the
temperature field and plot temperature contours. Use the grids as shown in Fig. Q1(b). Also plot
the temperature gradients contour.
Figure: Q5
Q.6: This problem involves non-homogenous material with heat flux and essential boundary
conditions only. Consider a square plate of non-homogeneous material as shown in Fig. Q6(a).
Use the grid shown in Fig.Q6 (b) to obtain the temperature field. Plot the temperature and
temperature gradients contours also.
135
Figure: Q6 (a)
Figure: Q6(b)
136
Chapter 11
xz=0
yz=0
z=0
(11.1)
137
problems similar. Only difference is in the constitutive matrices for both problems. In this article
FEM formulation for plane stress and plane strain problems will be discussed.
x xy
2u
+
+ fx = 2
x
y
t
xy
x
y
y
+ fy =
(11.2)
2v
t 2
(11.3)
where x and y denote the body forces per unit volume along the x and y directions, respectively
and is the density of the material. x , y are the normal stresses and u, v are the displacements
in x and y directions respectively, xy is the shear stress on the xz and yz planes. Straindisplacement relations are given by
x =
u
,
x
y =
v
,
y
2 xy =
u v
+
y x
(11.4)
For plane stress problems, stress and strain are related by the constitutive matrix D, in the
following manner:
x d11
y = d 21
0
xy
d12
d 22
0
0 x
0 y
d 33 2 xy
(11.5)
where dij (dij = dji) are the elasticity (material) constants for an orthotropic material with the
material principal directions coinciding with the co-ordinate axes (x,y) used to describe the
problem. For an isotropic material of plane stress dij are given by
d11 = d 22 =
Ev
E
, d12 = d 21 =
,
2
1 v
1 v2
d 33 =
E
2(1 + v)
(11.6)
where E is Young's modulus of the material and v is Poisson's ratio. For plane strain problems:
d11 = d 22 =
E (1 )
,
(1 + )(1 2 )
d12 = d 21 =
E
E
, d 33 =
(1 + )(1 2 )
2(1 + v)
(11.7)
138
u = u , v = v on u
(11.8)
t x = x n x + xy n y = t x
(11.9)
t y = xy n x + y n y = t y on t
(11.10)
where n x , n y are the components of the unit normal vector n on the boundary . u and t are
portions of the boundary ( = u U t). t x , t y are specified boundary stresses or tractions, and
u , v are specified displacements. Only one element of each pair, ( u, tx) and (v, ty) may be
specified at a boundary point.
u = N i ui
(11.11)
i =1
where ui are the nodal displacements in x-direction and Ni are the shape functions, which are
functions of coordinates.
For plane elastic body, the total potential energy of an element is given by,
1
ve 2
e = v ij ij dv v fi ui dv v t i ui ds
ve
(11.12)
139
where, ve denotes the volume of element e, t is the boundary of domain e, ij and ij are the
components of stress and strain tensors, respectively and i and t i are the components of body
force and boundary stress vectors, respectively.
11 = x , 12 = xy , 22 = y
(11.13)
f1 = f x , f 2 = f y , t1 = t x , t 2 = t y
(11.14)
The first term in equation (11.12) corresponds to strain energy stored in the element, the second
represents the work potential of the body force, and the third represent the work potential of
surface forces. For plane stress problems with thickness he, it is assumed that all quantities are
independent of the thickness co-ordinates z. Hence,
e = he
2 (
x x
+ y y + 2 xy xy ) dxdy
he
( f u + f v)dxdy h (t u + t v)ds
x
(11.15)
where x and y are the body forces per unit area, and tx and ty are boundary forces per unit
length. Equation (11.15) can be rewritten as
T
x
1
e = h e y
e 2
2 xy
x
T
T
u f x
u t x
e
e
dxdy
h
dxdy
h
ds
y
e v f y
e v t y
xy
(11.16)
The finite element model of the plane elasticity equations is developed using the matrix
form in (11.16). The displacements u and v are approximated by the Lagrange family of
interpolation functions (shape functions). Let u and v are approximated over e by the finite
element interpolations
n
i =1
i =1
u u ie N ie ( x, y ) , v vie N ie ( x, y )
(11.17)
where n is the number of nodes representing the element e, N ie are the displacement shape
functions, u ie and vie are the nodal displacements in x- and y- directions respectively. The
displacements and strains over element e are given by
140
u1
u
2
.
e
e
e
n
u i =1 u i N i N1 N 2 ... N n 0 0 .. 0 u n
e = n e e =
v i =1 vi N i 0 0 ..... 0 N1 N 2 ... N n v1
v 2
.
v
n
N1 0 N 2 0 ...
0 N 1 . 0 N 2 . .
u1
v
1
.u 2
N n 0 v 2
e
e
N
0 . N n ..
..
u n
v
n
[ ]{ }
(11.18)
(11.19)
and
(11.20)
where [ B e ] = [T e ][ N e ] is called Gradient matrix and [Te] is the matrix of differential operators.
Substituting these expressions for the displacements and strains into (16)
fx
e = h e {e }T ([ B e ]T [ D e ][ B e ]{e }) dxdy h e {e }T [ N e ]T dxdy
e
e
fy
t x
h e {e }T [ N e ]T ds = {e }T ([k e ]T {e } { f e } {Q e })
e
t y
(11.21)
{ }
Minimizing this i.e. differentiating the above expression with respect to e , we get
[k e ] {e } = { f e } + {Q e }
(11.22)
e
e
e T
e
e
where [k ] = h [ B ] [ D ][ B ]dxdy ,
e
fx
t x
{ f e } = h e [ N e ]T dxdy , {Q e } = h e [ N e ]T ds
e
e
fy
t y
(11.23)
The element stiffness matrix [ke] is of order 2n x 2n and the elemental load vector
141
[ F e ] = { f e } + {Q e }
(11.24)
N1 =
(1 )(1 )
(1 + )(1 + )
, N 2 = (1 + )(1 ) , N 3 =
, N 4 = (1 )(1 + )
4
4
4
4
(11.25)
where and are the natural co-ordinates for the physical co-ordinates x and y, respectively. In
natural coordinate system, the coordinates of four nodes are (-1,-1), (1,-1), (1,1) and (-1,1).
One of the earliest finite elements is a three nodded triangular element shown in Fig. 11.3.
An arbitrarily located point P divides a triangle 1-2-3 into three sub-areas A1, A2, and A3. Then,
the natural coordinates of the point P are defined as ratios of areas:
1 =
A1
A
2 =
A2
A
3 =
A3
A
(11.26)
where A is the area of triangle 1-2-3. Since A=A1 + A2 + A3, the i are not independent. They
satisfy the constraint equation
1 + 2 + 3 = 1
(11.27)
For this triangle, shape functions in terms of natural coordinates are given as
N 1 = 1
N2 = 2
N3 = 3
(11.28)
It can be shown that displacement field obtained using these shape functions provides constant
strain inside the triangular element. This element is, therefore, called constant strain triangle
(CST).
142
Side 1
Side 2
A2
A1
2
A3
1
Side 3
f ( x, y )dxdy = f ( , ) J dd
(11.29)
11
where |J| is the determinant of the Jacobian matrix of the transformation and is given by
J =
J1
J2
J3
J4
e
in=1 N i , xi
= n
e
i =1 N i , xi
in=1
N ie, yi
e
in=1 N i , yi
(11.30)
(-1,1)
(1,1)
4
(0,0)
1
(-1,-1)
2
(1,-1)
143
N
N i,x
1 i ,
= [ J ]
N i, y
N i ,
J4
J
where, [ J 1 ] =
J3
J
(11.32)
J2
J
J1
J
n1 n 2
11
r =1 s =1
f ( , )dd = wr ws f ( r , s )
(11.28)
(11.29)
Where q ne is a known function (here boundary stress) of the distance s along the boundary e. It is
not necessary to compute such integrals when a portion of does not coincide with the boundary
of the total . This is because for any interior boundary the stresses from adjacent elements
cancel each other. The 2-D line integral in (x, y) plane is transformed to 1-D line integral in the
natural co-ordinate plane by using the fact that along any element side one of the natural coordinates is constant as shown in Fig. 11.3. Thus,
s
f ( x, y )ds = f ( ) J b d
(11.30)
144
x y
+ .
where the boundary Jacobian J b =
11.7 ASSEMBLY OF ELEMENT MATRICES
Once the element matrices are obtained, they are assembled to form the set of linear
simultaneous equations, the solution of which yields the displacement field. The assembly is
based on the principle of maintaining the continuity of the primary variable, in this case
displacement and the equilibrium of the secondary variables, here forces and tractions.
145
11.10 AN EXAMPLE
As an example of finding out the stress in whole domain, consider the problem of a plate
with the hole loaded by uniformly distributed tensile load (Fig. 11.5). This problem was solved
on ANSYS, commercial FEM software. Because of the symmetry of the problem, only a quarter
plate needs to be analyzed. On the line of symmetries, tractions and normal displacement
components will be zero. Fig.11.6 shows the finite element mesh and
boundary conditions.
Here, quadrilateral elements have been used. Figure 11.7 shows the contours of longitudinal
stresses. Applied tensile stress was 100 MPa. Note that in the domain far away from the hole
stresses are close to this value. There is a region of high stress concentration near the highest
vertical point of the circle, the stresses there being around 336 MPa. One can obtain the contours
of other stress components and equivalent stresses also.
11.11 SUMMARY
In this article finite element formulation of plane stress and plane strain problems is
discussed. Difference between plane strain and plane stress formulations is only that both have
different constitutive matrices. After obtaining the finite element solution in the form of nodal
displacements, stresses and strains can be found by post-processing the results. One example
problem was solved in ANSYS and has been presented here to demonstrate the effectiveness of
FEM for finding the stresses in the whole domain.
Figure 11.5: A plate with a hole loaded by uniformly distributed tensile load on both sides
146
Figure 11.6: Finite element mesh for solving quarter plate problem
147
Exercise 11
Q.1: Prove that in plane stress analysis using a rectangular element of size 2a 2b, the [B]
matrix is given by
(b y )
0
(b + y ) 0 (b + y )
0
(b y ) 0
1
0
0
(a + x) 0
(a x)
(a x)
(a + x) 0
4ab
(a x) (b y ) ( a + x) (b y ) (a + x) (b + y ) (a x) (b + y )
Prove that this element possess the rigid body motion and constant strain capability.
Q.2: Transform the following quadrilateral element into a square element in natural
(10,15)
(0,10)
(0,0)
Figure: Q2
(10,0)
Q.3: Write down the expression for all the nine shape functions of a 9-noded Lagrangian element.
The physical coordinates of the element are shown in figure. Find out the physical coordinate at
=0.5 and =0.5. Natural coordinates of the nodes are (-1,-1), (-1,1), (1,1), (-1,1), (0,-1), (1,0),
(0,1), (-1,0), (0,0).
y
4(0,10)
8(0,5)
1(0,0)
7(5,10)
9 (5,5)
5(5,0)
3(10,10)
)
6(10,5)
x
2(10,0)
Figure: Q3
148
Q.4: A plate of thickness 1 mm is loaded at one surface by a force of 10N/mm as shown in the
figure. The length of the plate is 100 cm and width 20 cm. If a mesh as shown in Figure Q4 is
used, then
(A) Find out the contribution of load to various nodes.
(B) Solve this problem first by fixing the nodes 1, 2 and 3 in both along the length and width
directions. After that solve it by fully fixing the node 2, but allowing nodes 1 and 3 to move along
the width direction. Calculate displacements and stresses. You may use professional FEM
package to solve it. Comment on the results obtained.
3
2
1
Figure: Q4
Q.5: In a plane stress square element of 1 m2 area, the u-v deflections (in mm) at 4 nodes are (0,0),
(0,0), (0,1), (0,1). Thickness of the element is 1 cm. Take E as 200GPa and Poissons ratio as zero.
Find out the strain energy contained in the element.
149
Chapter 12
u
2u
EA A 2 = 0
x
x
t
(12.1)
where u is the axial displacement function, E is Youngs modulus of elasticity of the rod, A is the
cross-sectional area of the rod and is the density of the rod. If the parameters E, A and are not
the function of x, Eq. (12.1) can be solved analytically. However, if E, A and vary along the rod,
the numerical methods become necessary. Let us carry out FEM formulation for equation (12.1).
Let the approximating function in an element be ue. In that case, the residual is given by
u e
2u e
R = EA
A 2
x
x
t
e
(12.2)
wR e dx = 0
(12.3)
where we assume that x is a local coordinate and the differential equation (12.1) has been
expressed in local coordinates. Thus,
u e
w EA
x
x
2u e
A
t 2
dx = 0
(12.4)
Integrating this equation by parts to reduce the order of the derivative with respect to x, we get
151
h w
h
u e
u e
2u e
wEA
EA
dx Aw 2 dx = 0
0
x 0 0 x
x
t
(12.5)
The approximating function ue is a function of x and t. It can be expressed in terms of the nodal
displacements as in the case of static problem, where the nodal displacements will be functions of
t. Considering the completeness and compatibility, 2-noded C0 continuity element is good
enough. Thus,
u
u e = N1 N 2 1 = N {une }
u2
(12.6)
where double dots indicate second derivative with respect to time. You already know the
expression for the shape functions, i.e.,
x
N1 = 1 ;
h
N2 =
x
h
(12.7)
In Galerkin FEM, the weight functions are approximated in the same way as the primary
variable. Thus,
N
w = w1 w2 1
N2
(12.8)
w2 EA
(12.9)
where a dash on superscript indicates the differentiation with respect to x. Noting that node 1
corresponds to
x=0 and node 2 corresponds to x=h, and taking w1 w2 common, Eq. (12.9)
can be written as
u
EA
'
x 2 h N1
u1 h N1
u1
'
'
0 ' EA N1 N2 dx 0 A N1 N2 dx = 0
w1 w2
u
u2
N2
u2
N2
EA
x 1
(12.10)
As the nodal weights are arbitrary, we get the following elemental equations:
152
u
EA
h
x 2
u1 h
N1
u1
N
'
'
0 N ' EA N1 N 2 dx u2 + 0 A N 2 N1 N2 dx u2 = u
EA
x 1
'
1
(12.11)
If , E and A are constant in an element, the above system of equations may be written as
u
EA
x 1
Ah 2 1 u1 EA 1 1 u1
+
=
6 1 2 u2 h 1 1 u2
u
EA
x 2
(12.12)
We observe that the elemental element equations are not algebraic equation, but are ordinary
differential equations in time. Writing equation (12.12) in notational form:
{ }
{ }
[m e ] une + [ k e ] u ne = {Fi e }
(12.13)
where [me] is the elemental mass matrix, [ke] is the stiffness matrix and right hand side is the
internal load vector.
Let us observe the elemental mass matrix. If we sum all the elements of the mass matrix,
we get Ah, which is the total mass of the element. Thus, as a result of FEM formulation, the total
mass of the elements has been distributed in the elements of the stiffness matrix. The mass matrix
obtained this way is called consistent mass matrix, because its derivation is consistent with the
derivation of stiffness matrix. A simpler way, would have been to distributed total mass at two
nodes. Then, the mass matrix would be
me =
Ah 1 0
2 0 1
(12.14)
This type of mass matrix is called lumped mass matrix and has the advantage of being strongly
diagonally dominant.
Assembly and application of boundary condition provides, the following equations:
[ M ]{U} + [ K ]{U } = 0
(12.15)
where [M] is the global mass matrix, [K] is the global stiffness matrix and U is the global
displacement vector. In the above equation, rows and columns corresponding to the fixed
boundary conditions have been eliminated. To solve it, assume
{U } = { A}sin t
(12.16)
2 [ M ]{ A} + [ K ]{ A} = 0
(12.17)
153
This is an eigen value problem, 2 corresponding to eigen value. In general, the frequencies
predicted by FEM are expected to be higher than the actual frequencies, because FEM makes the
structure stiffer by constraining the motion. The static deflections predicted by FEM are expected
to be lower than the actual deflection. Refining the mesh improves the accuracy.
2 2v
2v
EI
+
m
=0
x 2 x 2
t 2
(12.18)
where m is the mass per unit length of the beam and it may be a non-constant function of x. Here,
the vertical defection of the beam is a function both x and t. Assuming that, like in the static beam
problem, the vertical deflection in an element can be expressed as
v e = N1
N2
N3
v1 (t )
v (t )
N 4 1
v
(
t
)
2
v2 (t )
(12.19)
The above equation is same as equation (5.27) except that nodal deflections/slopes are now
function of time. For assume deflection ve , the residual is obtained as
Re =
2 2ve
2v e
+
EI
m
x 2
x 2
t 2
(12.20)
We make the weighted residual inside the element equal to zero, i.e.,
h 2
2ve
2ve
e
wR dx = w 2 EI 2 + m 2 dx = 0
x
t
0
0 x
h
(12.21)
The first part of the expression is integrated by twice, so that the order of differentiation of ve
becomes two. The second part is left as it is. Equation (12.21) then becomes
h
h 2w
h 2ve
2ve
w 2ve
2ve
+
+
w EI 2
EI
EI
x
d
m 2 dx = 0
x
x 0 x
x 2 0 0 x 2
x 2
t
0
(12.22)
In Galerkin FEM, the basis functions for approximating the deflections and weight
functions are same i.e.,
154
w1
w
2
w=
w3
w4
[ N1
N 2 N3 N 4
]T
(12.23)
N1''
v1
v1
N1
'
h
h N 2'' '' '' '' ''
N 2
v1'
v
[ w1 w2 w3 w4 ] EI '' N1 N 2 N3 N 4 dx v + m N [ N1 N 2 N3 N 4 ] dx v1
0 3
0 N3
2
2
''
v '
N 4
v'
2
2
N 4
2v
EI 2
x x 0
2v
+ EI 2
x 0
= [ w1 w2 w3 w4 ]
2
v
+ EI 2
x x h
2
EI v
(12.24)
N1''
v1
v1
N1
'
N
h
h
N 2'' '' '' '' ''
v1'
v1
2
EI '' N1 N 2 N3 N 4 dx + m [ N1 N 2 N3 N 4 ] dx
0
0 N3
N3
v2
v2
''
v '
N 4
v'
2
2
N 4
= Internal force vector
(12.25)
The first integral on the left hand side is same as obtained in the left hand side of equation (6.19)
and is called elemental stiffness matrix, whereas the second integral is called elemental mass
matrix. The elemental stiffness matrix for a beam is given by equation (1.46). The elemental mass
matrix for the beam element is
155
156
m 22h
420 54
13h
22h
2
4h
13h
3h 2
13h
13h 3h 2
156 22h
2
4h
22h
54
(12.26)
The elemental matrices can be assembled in the usual manner. The internal force vectors will
cancel each other, except at the nodes where essential boundary conditions are prescribed.
However, the rows and column corresponding to essential boundary conditions may be
eliminated from the global matrices. In view of this, the global finite element equations are
obtained as,
[ K ]{ D} + [ M ]{ D} = {0}
(12.27)
where [ K ] is the global stiffness matrix and [ M ] is the global mass matrix. In free vibrations,
the structure undergoes the harmonic motion. Thus,
{ }
= 2 { A} sin t
{D} = { A}sin t and D
(12.28)
where {A} is the vector containing the amplitudes and is the circular frequency. Putting the
equation (12.28) in equation (12.27), the following eigen value problem for free vibration is
obtained:
[ K ] 2 [ M ] { A} = {0}
(12.29)
From the above equation, the natural frequencies and mode shapes may be found out. The
solution accuracy increases with finer discretization.
12.4 CONCLUSIONS
In this chapter, finite element formulations of the free vibration of rod and beam have been
carried out. The formulations provide the eigen value problems. Usually, in these problems, the
accuracy of the fundamental frequency is more than the accuracy of other natural frequency. The
accuracy keeps on decreasing for higher modes. The discretization should be carried out
depending on how many modes are important for the problem.
156
EXERCISE 12
Q.1:
Figure: Q1
Fig. Q1(a) is a schematic diagram of single-link flexible manipulator with length L,
Youngs modulus E, transverse area moment of inertia I, mass per unit length m, hub inertia
Jh subjected to a torque T. In this figure, XOY and POQ represent the fixed and rotating coordinate frames respectively. The manipulator is assumed to vibrate dominantly in the XOY
plane only. Considering the manipulator long and slender, transverse shear and rotary inertia
effects are neglected and hence the manipulator is modeled by Euler-Bernoulli beam theory.
For small values of angular displacement , angular velocity and deflection w, the
governing linear partial differential equations for undamped motion are obtained as:
d 2
2 2 w
2 w
+
+
=q
EI
m
m
x
x 2
x 2
t 2
dt 2
Jh
2 w
d 2
+
mx
+
x
t 2
dt 2 0
dt 2
d 2
dx = T
(1)
(2)
157
Note that m and I are functions of x, the distance of the point on the manipulator from the
fixed point O and transverse load q is a function of both x and time t. Tip mass Mp can be
tackled by using Dirac-delta function i.e. by adding a term Mp(x-L) in m. The boundary
conditions at the torque end are:
w(0, t ) = 0
(3)
w
x
(4)
=0
x =0
2 w
EI 2
x
x
=0
(5)
x=L
=0
(6)
x=L
m51
m12
156
m13
22h
22h
54
4h 2
13h
13h 3h 2
m15
13h
54
13h 3h 2
156 22h
22h 4h 2
m14
(7)
where mi is the mass per unit length of the element obtained by multiplying the average
area of the element with mass density, h is the element length and
m15 = m51 = 7 h 2 ( 5i 2 ) .
(B) Prove that to take into account, the hub inertia and tip mass, following terms are added in
the assembled mass matrix of size (2n+3) (2n+3):
(i) Jh + MpL2 in the first element of the principal diagonal
158
EI
K ie = 3i 0 6h 4h 2 6h 2h 2
h
0 12 6h 12 6h
2
2
0 6h 2h 6h 4h
(8)
where Ii is the average moment of inertia of the ith element. The size of an element
being small, taking the average value of cross-sectional area and area moment of inertia
yields sufficiently accurate results.
Q.2: Carry out the FEM formulation of a rod vibrating freely with damping. For a uniform rod,
taking 2 elements, find out the fundamental frequencies with and without damping.
Q.3: Find out the fundamentally frequency and corresponding mode shape for a uniform rod
subjected to the following boundary conditions:
(A) free-free
(B) fixed-free
(C) fixed-fixed
In each case, first find out the exact solution, then study the convergence of FEM solution starting
from the 1 element model to 10 element model.
Q.4: A rod is pushed by a force F on a smooth surface. The rigid body displacement of the rod is
denoted by a, which is the displacement of the node 1. The displacement of the particles relative
to node 1 is denoted by u, which is a function of x. The governing equations of motion are:
u
(a + u )
EA
m
= 0
x
t
(a + u )
F = m
dx
t
2
where E is the Young modulus of elasticity, A is the cross-sectional area and m is the mass per
unit length.
Figure: Q4
159
a
a
[ M ] u + [ K ] u
u
u
F
du
= EA
dx
0
Find out the expression for mass matrix [M] and stiffness matrix [K].
160
Chapter 13
2 z
2 z
2 z
z
z
+
2
h
+
b
+2f
+ 2 g + cz = f ( x, y )
2
2
x
xy
y
x
y
(13.1)
2 z 2 z
+
= 0
x 2 y 2
(13.2)
2T 1 T
=0
x 2 t
(13.3)
where t is the time and is the thermal diffusivity. Here, a = 1, b = 0, h = 0 . Therefore, abh2=0. Hence, this equation is of parabolic type. For two-dimensional transient heat conduction
161
2T 2T 1 T
+
=0
x 2 y 2 t
(13.4)
Here, a=1, b=1 and h=0. Therefore, ab-h2>0. Hence, this equation is of elliptic type. Consider the
forced vibration of a rod problem with damping. The governing equation is given by
EA
2u
2u
+
A
+ q(t ) = 0
x 2
t 2
(13.5)
where E is the Youngs modulus, A is the cross-sectional area, is the density and q is the
forcing load intensity. Here, a= EA, b= A and h=0. Therefore, ab-h2>0. Thus, this equation is of
elliptic type.
13.3 TIME RESPONSE OF A PARABOLIC EQUATION
You have carried out the finite element formulation of free vibration problems. You can
easily do the finite element formulation for the transient problems. In that, the stiffness and mass
matrices are obtained in a similar manner. The load vector is similar to load vector in static
problem, the applied load is distributed to the nodes in the same manner. However, the nodal
forces will now be a function of time.
As a result of the finite element formulation, one gets the equation of the following form:
[ M ]{u} + [ k ]{u} = {F (t )}
(13.6)
{u}0 = {u0 }
(13.7)
We have to carry out the finite difference approximation of the time derivative. Therefore, let
(1 ){u}s + {u}s +1 =
{u}s +1 {u}s
ts +1
for 0 1
(13.8)
where the subscript s indicates the time step number and ts+1=ts+1-ts. Usually, time interval
between 2 successive increments kept same, although not necessary. For the time being, we will
assume that time interval between two successive intervals is t. Thus,
for 0 1
(13.9)
162
Case 2: = 1, is called the backward difference scheme. It is stable and the order of accuracy
is O ( t ) .
Case 3: =
is O ( t )
).
2
3
Case 4:
1
, is called Crank-Nicholson scheme. It is also stable and the order of accuracy
2
O ( t ) .
2
Case 2, 3 and 4 are called the implicit methods. In these methods, in order to find u at time
increment s+1, one needs the information at time increment s as well as s+1.
The finite element equations at two time intervals are given by
M {u}s + [ k ]s {us } = { F }s
(13.10)
(13.11)
(13.12)
ts +1
({ F }
s +1
Rearranging,
[ M ] + t s +1 [ k ]s +1 {u}s +1 = M (1 ) t s +1 [ k ]s +1 {u}s + t s +1 { F }s +1 + (1 ){ F }s
(13.14)
Note that for = 0 we obtain left hand side as [ M ]{u}s +1 . when the mass matrix is diagonal, the
equation becomes explicit and we can solve for {u}s +1 directly without inverting.
For all numerical schemes, in which < 1/ 2 , the - family of approximation is stable
only if the time step satisfied the following (stability) condition.
t < tcr
2
(1 2 )
(13.15)
163
t +t
U + C
t +t
U + k
t +t
U =
t +t
(13.16)
The Newmark method is an extension of the linear acceleration method. The following
assumptions are used:
U = t U + (1 ) tU +
t +t
U t
t +t
(13.17)
t +t
(13.18)
where and are parameters that can be determined to obtain integration accuracy and
stability. When = 1/ 2, = 1/ 6, it corresponds to linear acceleration method. For constant
average acceleration, = 1/ 2, = 1/ 4 . The average acceleration is
1 t t +t
U+ U .
2
Now we present Step-by-step solution using Newmark integration method. The algorithm
has been taken from the book of Bathe [1].
A. Initial conditions:
1. Form stiffness matrix K, mass matrix M, and damping matrix C.
and 0 U.
2. Initialize 0 U, 0 U,
3. Select time step t and parameters and and calculate integration constants.
0.50;
a0 =
; a1 =
2
t
t
a4 =
1;
a5 =
0.25 ( 0.5 + )
a2 =
1
1
; a3 =
1;
2
t
2 ; a6 = t (1 ) ; a7 = t
2
: K
= K + a M+a C.
4. Form effective stiffness matrix K
0
1
: K
= LDLT .
5. Triangularize K
B. For each time step:
164
R =
t +t
+ a t U)
+ C (a t U + a t U
+ a t U)
R + M(a0 t U + a2 t U
3
1
4
5
LDLT
U= t+t R.
= a ( t +t U t U ) a t U
-a t U
U
0
2
3
t +t
a t U+
a t +t U
U = t U+
6
7
13.5 CONCLUSIONS
In this chapter, we have discussed the time dependent problems. The procedure uses
finite difference method along with finite element. Only some representative methods have been
discussed.
REFERENCE
1. Bathe, K.J., 1982, Finite Element Procedures, Prentice-Hall of India, New Delhi.
EXERCISE 13
Q.1: A rod is pushed by a force F on a smooth surface. The rigid body displacement of the rod is
denoted by a, which is the displacement of the node 1. The displacement of the particles relative
to node 1 is denoted by u, which is a function of x. The governing equations of motion are:
u
(a + u )
m
= 0
x
t
(a + u )
F = m
dx
t
2
EA
where E is the Young modulus of elasticity, A is the cross-sectional area and m is the mass per
unit length.
F
l
Figure: Q1
165
u
u
1
F
du
= EA
dx
0
Solve this problem on computer by giving the suitable values to various parameters.
Q.2: Show that an explicit problem is only conditionally stable.
Q.3: A copper cylinder of diameter 10 cm and length 5 m is heated at one end by a flame of
7000C temperature. The ambient temperature is 200C. Find out the temperature-time history using
FEM. Take the data from standard books on heat transfer.
Q.4: For all numerical schemes, in which < 1/ 2 , the - family of approximation is stable
t < tcr
2
(1 2 )
Prove it.
166
Chapter 14
14.1 INTRODUCTION
A flat plate supports transverse load by bending action. In the classical theory of plates
certain assumptions are made initially to simplify the problems to two dimensions. Such
assumptions concern the linear variation of strains and stresses on lines normal to plane of
plate. The state of deformation of plate can described entirely by one quantity. This is the
lateral displacement w of the middle plane of the plate.
In classical Kirchhoff thin plate theory it is assumed that the normal to the mid plane
remains normal to it even after deformation. This means that cross sections do not deform.
However, in thick plate theory the deformation of cross section is taken into account.
FEM formulation of thin plate problems involves solving a fourth order differential
equation. The potential energy functional will contain second derivatives of the unknown
functions. Because of this, continuity conditions, between elements have to be imposed not
only on the lateral displacement but also on its derivatives. This is to ensure that plate
remains continuous and does not kink. If kinking occurs, the second derivative or
curvature becomes infinite and certain infinite terms occur in the energy expression.
Determination of suitable shape functions is much more complex.
The potential energy functional of thick plate problem contains only first derivatives.
Here, rotations of the cross-section about two axes cannot be determined from the slopes. At
each node one has to find the lateral displacement w and rotations x and y. Only these three
quantities need to be continuous; their slopes can be discontinuous. Thus, in thick plate
problems, same shape functions as used in the plane stress and plane strain problems can be
used. However, solving a thin plate problem using thick plate formulation poses numerical
difficulties. In this article, both the formulations are discussed.
167
line OP in Fig. 14.1). Thus transverse shear deformation is assumed to be zero. A point
not on the mid-surface has displacement components u and v in the x and y directions,
respectively. Since w,x and w,y are small, from Fig.14.1 one can see,
u = zw, x
v = zw, y
(14.1)
x = u, x = zw, xx
y = v, y = zw, yy
(14.2)
xy = u , y +v, x = 2 zw, xy
It can be easily shown [Cook et al.,1989] that for a plate with zero initial strain,
{M } = [ Dk ]{ }
(14.3)
where
{M } = [M x
M xy ]T
My
t/2
M x = x z dz
and
t/2
t/2
t / 2
t / 2
M y = y z dz
t / 2
{ } = [w, xx
w, yy
2w, xy ]T
xy z dz
(14.4)
(14.5)
D
[ Dk ] = D
0
D
D
0
Et 3
where D =
12(1 2 )
(1 ) D / 2
0
0
(14.6)
1 T
{ } [ Dk ]{ } dA
A2
Now,
U=
(14.7)
w = [ N ]{d }
(14.8)
{ } = [ B]{d}
(14.9)
168
[k ] = [ B]T [ Dk ][ B]
dA
(14.10)
w,x
z, w
w
dx
z
t/2
p
o
P
z
x, w
w,x
x,u
t/2
w,x
(a)
(b)
Figure 14.1: (a) Differential element of thin plate before loading (b) after loading
w = 1 x y x 2 xy y 2 x 3 x 2 y xy 2 y 3 x 3 y xy 3
] {a}
(14.11)
169
where vector {a} contains 12 coefficients, which must be exchanged for the twelve nodal
degrees of freedom {d} by the usual process. If the d. o. f. at each nodes are w, w / x and
1
(0 +1)(0 +1)(2 + 0 +0 2 2 ), bi (0 +1)(0 +1)2 (10 ) , ai (0 +1)2 (0 +1)(0 1) (14.12)
2
with
= ( x x c ) / a, = ( y y c ) / b
0 = . i
0 = . i
It can be shown that this element is non-conforming. In fact it is impossible to specify simple
polynomial expressions for shape functions ensuring full compatibility when only w and its
slopes are prescribed at nodes [Irons and Draper, 1965].
4
a
w3
3
b
x
y
a
w,x3
w,y3
[
w = [1 x
w = 1 x y x2
y 2 x 3 x 2 y xy 2 y 3
y x 2 xy y 2 x 3 x 2 y + xy 2
] {a}
y ] {a}
3
(14.13)
(14.14)
Equation (14.13) does not contain term xy. The resulting element is therefore incapable of
passing a constant-twist patch test, and is considered unacceptable. Equation (14) leads to an
element that lacks geometric isotropy and has poor convergence properties. For certain
orientations of triangle sides, the shape functions cannot be obtained as the corresponding
170
transformation matrix becomes singular. An alternative is to add a central node to the formulation
and eliminate it by static condensation. This would allow a complete cubic to be used but it was
found that an element derived on this basis does not converge.
3
w3
w,y3
w,x3
w,x1
1
w1
w2
2
w,x2
w,y2
w,y1
x
171
3. The normal to the mid-plane remains straight but not necessarily normal to it after
deformation.
In view of the Mindlin plate assumptions, for small deformation, we have the following
displacement and strain components:
u = z y
x = z
v = z x
y
x
y = z
x
y
y
x
+
y
x
w
=
+ x
y
w
=
+y
x
xy = z
yz
xz
(1 4 .1 5 )
where x and y are the counterclockwise rotations about the y and negative x axis respectively.
Since z=0, the stress-strain relations for the isotropic linearly elastic material become,
x =
E
( x + y )
1 2
y =
E
( y + x )
1 2
xy =
E
xy
2(1 + )
yz = s
E
yz
2(1 + )
zx = s
E
zx
2(1 + )
(14.16)
where E is the Young modulus, is the Poisson ratio and s is the shear correction
factor.
The strain energy V is given by,
V =
1
2
t/2
A t / 2
( x x + y y + z z + xy xy + yz yz + xz xz )dzdA
(14.17)
where t is the thickness of the plate and A is the area of the plate. Substituting the
expressions of stresses and strains in the above equations, the expression for V becomes:
172
Et
1
V = A
2 1 2
t 2 2 t 2 y
t 2 y
x
x
+
+
x
y
x
12
6
12
y
t 2
x
12 y
Et
1
+ A
2 2(1 + )
dA
2
2
t 2 y
t 2 x y
+
+
dA
6 y x
12 y
2
2 w 2
w
w
1
Et
w
2
+ A
+ x + + 2 x
s y + + 2 y
dA
y
x
2 2(1 + )
x
y
(14.18)
When the total potential energy term is minimized, the strain energy functional provides
the stiffness matrix.
The Mindlin plate element requires C0 continuity. The types of shape functions used
for plane stress and plane strain problems can be used for plates also. For n nodded
element, the primary variables are approximated as,
i =n
w = N i wi
(14.19)
i =1
i =n
x = N i xi
(14.20)
i =1
i =n
y = N i yi
(14.21)
i =1
ij
Ae
bi
bj
Ae
si
sj
(14.22)
where
0 N i , x 0 0 0
[Bbi ]= 0 0 N i , y 0 0
0 N N 0 0
i, y
i,x
N i,x N i
N i , y 0
Ni
[Bsi ]=
0 0
(14.23)
(14.24)
173
[Db ]=
Eh 3
12 1 2
[Ds ]=
0 0
0
0
(1 )
2
Eh 1
2(1 + ) 0
0
1
(14.25)
(14.26)
In the right hand side of expression (14.22), first term indicates stiffness due to bending,
while the second term indicates stiffness due to shear.
14.6 AN EXAMPLE
To illustrate the application of plate elements in stress analysis, an example of a plate
clamped at four edges and loaded by uniform pressure is taken (Fig. 14.4). Thin plate
rectangular elements are used. Mesh is shown in Fig. 14.5. Fig.14.6 and Fig. 14.7 show the
contours of x and y respectively. It is seen that stresses at edges are more compared to
the stresses at center. This example is a simple one for which even the closed form solution is
available. FEM can be applied to cases involving complicated geometries
and non-
174
Figure 14.4: A plate clamped at four edges and loaded with uniform pressure
175
REFERENCES:
1.Cook,R.D.,Malkus.D.S.,Plesha.M.E., Concepts and Applications of Finite Element
Analysis, Jhon Wiley & Sons Inc., 1989
2.Dawe.D.J., Parallelogram element in the solution of rhombic cantilever plate problems,
J.of Stain analysis,Vol.3,1966
3.Gallagher,R.H.,Finite element analysis: Fundamentals, Prentice-Hall, Englewood cliffs,
NJ,1975.
4.Henshell.R.D.,Walters.D., and Warburton.G.B., A new family of curvilinear plate bending
elements for vibration and stability, J.Sound and Vibration,Vol.20,1972,pp.327-343.
5.Irons.B.M and Draper.J.K., Inadequacy of nodal connections in a stiffness solution for
plate bending,J.A.I.A.A.,Vol.3,1965
6.Zienkiewicz.O.C., The Finite Element Method, Tata McGraw-Hill Publishing Company
Limited, New Delhi.,1993.
176
EXERCISE 14
Q.1: The governing equation for thin plate bending is given by
w
w
w q
+2
+
=
x
x y y
D
4
+2
+
=0
x
x y
y
4
t x
t y
and
t y = t *y
xx
xy nx
xy
yy n y
where =
ij = p ij + 2ij
u = , y v = , x
where is the stream function. This is similar to thin plate equation. Find out the variational
form of the equation and obtain FEM formulation.
Q.3: For thin plate FEM analysis, if we choose a 4 noded rectangular element with degrees of
freedom at the nodes as w, w / x and w / y , then this element will be incompatible.
2 w
, then
Mathematically, prove this statement. Also, prove that if we add a degree of freedom
xy
this element will be compatible.
Q.4: Formulate the problem of vibration of thick plate.
Q.5: Consider a simply supported thick square plate loaded with a central concentrated load.
Using a FEM package obtain the maximum deflection of the plate. Next, solve the same problem
by fixing the plate on one edge and simply supporting on the other three edges. Next, solve the
problem by fixing two edges and simply supporting the other 2 edges. Similarly solve the
177
problem by fixing 3 and simply supporting 1 edge. Lastly, solve the problem by fixing all 4
edges. Compare the maximum deflection and maximum stresses in all cases.
178
Chapter 15
2u 2u
1 p
u
u
+v
=
+ 2 +
x
y
y 2
x
x
1 p
v
v
+v
=
+
x
y
y
2v 2v
2 +
y 2
x
u v
+
=0
x y
(15.1)
(15.2)
(15.3)
Here, u and v are the velocities along x and y-axis, p is the pressure, is the density and is the
kinematic viscosity. The boundary condition can be in the form of prescribed velocity (essential
boundary condition) and prescribed traction (natural boundary condition). There are two popular
ways of solving this problem in a constant volume. One is to carry out FEM formulation with u, v
and p as the primary variable which is called as mixed (p-v) formulation. The second way is to
eliminate p using penalty method. In this, the Eq.(15.3) is written as
u v
p
+
+
=0
x y
(15.4)
where is a very large number. Ideally for incompressible flow, this number should be infinite.
However, in practice, this number should be chosen depending upon the precision of computer.
From this equation,
u v
p =
+
x y
(15.5)
179
This value can be substituted in the Eq. (15.1). In this chapter we will be solving Navier-Stokes
equation, considering following features:
1) A mixed pressure-velocity formulation will be adopted.
2) We shall consider that inertia force is not large, therefore convective acceleration terms
(the terms on the left hand side of inequality constraints) will not be considered.
3) The viscosity will not be considered constant. It will depend on deformation. Thus
despite the elimination of inertial forces, the problem remains non-linear.
Now we will model plane-strain steady-state process of strip drawing. Index notation has been
used in the formulation of the model.
Figure 15.1: A typical 56 element mesh and nodal structure for pressure and velocity
180
11 + 2 2 = 0
11 12
+
=0
x1
x2
21 22
+
=0
x1
x2
where
(15.6)
(15.7)
(15.8)
v1 = U2, v2 = 0 on DE
(15.9)
(15.10)
(15.11)
(15.12)
v2+ v1tan = 0 on BC
(15.13)
181
(15.14)
This has been shown in Fig.15.2, where ts and tn are the tangential and normal components of the
stress vector t which is defined by i j n j = t i and is the coefficient of friction in the case of
Coulombs friction model.
11 12
21 2 2
+
+
+
+
+
w
w
w
(
)
d x1 d x 2 = 0 (15.15)
p
11
22
1
2
A
x2
x2
x1
x1
A
ii
w p + i j , j w i d x1 d x 2 = 0
(15.16)
The first part of the integral contains the first order derivatives, which cannot be weakened
further, but the second part contains second order derivatives, so it has to be reduced in weak
form. The second part can be written as
182
d A =
i j , j wi
i j wi
) , j ( i j wi , j )d A
(15.17)
i i w p dA
i j wi
) , j ( i j w i , j )d A = 0
(15.18)
) , j can be written as ( i j wi n j )
i i w p dA
t w d (
i
i j wi , j
) dA = 0
(15.19)
1
i j w i , j ) d A = i j ( w i , j + w j , i ) + ( w i , j w j , i ) d A
(
2
A
(15.20)
which reduces to
1
i j w i , j ) d A = i j w i , j + w j , i d A
(
2
A
(15.21)
) d A = i j i j ( w ) d A
i j wi , j
(15.22)
A
iiwp
dA +
i j i j
( w ) d A ti wi d
=0
(15.23)
183
Equation (15.23) has first two terms in first order derivatives of velocity component, thus the
weak form has been obtained for further FE modeling. Further the equation is simplified by
substituting the following terms,
i j = p i j + S i j and S ij = 2 ij
(15.24)
i j i j ( w ) = ( p i j + S i j ) i j ( w )
= p i i ( w ) + 2 i j i
j (w )
(15.25)
I
A
dA +
I
A
dA
I d I d = 0
3
(15.27)
where
I1 =
I2 =
[11 + 22 ] w p
p 11 ( w ) + 22 ( w ) + 2 1111 ( w ) + 2 12 12 ( w ) + 22 22 ( w )
I 3 = t1 w1
I 4 = t2 w2
(15.28)
1 and 2 are respectively those parts of the boundary where tractions t1 and t2 are specified.
184
v1 N 1
=
v 2 0
N2
N3
0 ........ N 9
N1
N2
N 3 .......0
( v )e
1 1
( v )e
2 1
|
= N v v
|
v e
( 1 )9
e
( v 2 )9
N 9
{ }
(15.29)
In Galerkin formulation, weight functions for velocity and pressure are approximated using same
shape functions as that of velocity and pressure respectively.
w1
=
w
2
{w v } =
[ N v ]{ w v e }
(15.30)
p = N 1p
N 2p
N 3p
p1e
e
p2
N 4p = N p
e
p3
e
p4
{ } {pe}
T
(15.31)
{w p } =
N p w p e
(15.32)
In order to model curved boundary, geometry is approximated by 9-noded shape functions. Thus
for geometry approximation, same shape functions can be considered as that of the velocity
variable. Therefore,
{ x1 } =
{ x } and
1
{x2 } =
{x }
2
(15.33)
As the boundary of the element consists of three nodes, evaluation of the integrals over the
boundaries i will be,
185
w1 = N 1b N 2b
w 1v
1
b 2
N 3 w v1 = N b w1b
3
w v1
w 2 = N 1b N 2b
w 1v
2
b 2
N 3 w v2
3
w v 2
{ }
(15.34)
b
= N b w 2
(15.35)
and
t1 = N 1b N 2b
t b1
1
b 2
N 3 t b1 = N b t1b
3
t b1
{ }
(15.36)
t 2 = N 1b N 2b
t b1
2
b 2
N 3 t b2
3
t b2
b
= N b t 2
(15.37)
{ }
where t1 and t2 are the vectors of the nodal value of the traction.
N 1b =
, N 2b =
),
N 3b =
1
1
2
(15.38)
186
(15.39)
w1
11 ( w )
w2
22 ( w ) =
x2
2 12 ( w )
1 w1 w 2
x1
2 x 2
(15.40)
{} =
{ ( w )} =
v1
x1
11
v2
22 =
x2
2 12
1 v1 v 2
2 x 2 x1
{} = [ B ]{v e }
and
{ ( w )} = [ B ]{w ve }
(15.41)
where
N1
x1
0
[B ] =
1 N1
2 x2
N 2
x1
N1
x1
N 2
x1
1 N1
2 x1
1 N 2
2 x2
1 N 2
2 x1
N 9
x1
0
1 N 9
2 x2
N 9
x1
1 N 9
2 x1
0
(15.42)
Further,
1 1 + 22 = {1 1 0}{ } = {m }
[ B ]{v e }
(15.43)
where
187
1
{m } = 1
0
(15.44)
Similarly
1 1 ( w ) + 2 2 ( w ) = {m }
[ B ]{w ve }
(15.45)
{ } { N } {m }
w ep
[ B ]{v e } d x1d x 2
{ }
w ve
{ } { p }dx dx
[ B ]T {m } N
2 w
e
v
{ }
[ B ]T [ B ] v e d x1 d x 2 =
(15.46)
t w d + t w d
1
{ N } {m }
K epv =
[ B ] d x1d x 2
e
K vp
{ }
[ B ]T {m } N
d x1 d x 2 = K epv
(15.47)
e
K vv
2[B]
[ B ] d x1d x 2
Thus the finite element equation in local variable form will be,
ne
{w }
e
e =1
nb1
nb2
{ } = { } { } + {w } { f }
w1b
f1b
b =1
b
2
b
2
(15.48)
b =1
where
{ f } = {N
b
1
}{ N b }T {t1b } d
}{ N b }
1b
{ } = {N
f 2b
{ }d
t 2b
(15.49)
b2
188
Here ne is the no. of area elements, nb1, nb2 are the number of boundary elements on 1 and 2.
Similarly,
p
}
{
,
w
{ }
{ }
{ }
v
e
w ep
=
e
wv
[0 ]
e
and K =
K e
vp
K epv
e
K vv
(15.50)
For the purpose of numerical evaluation, the variables of the area integrals in Eq. (15.47) are
transformed to the natural coordinates (, ) using the following transformation;
(........ ) d x1d x 2
Ae
+1
x1
J =
x2
+1
1
(....... ) | J
x1
x2
| d d
(15.51)
(15.51)
where |J| is the elemental Jacobian matrix. Similarly the boundary integrals are transformed by
the relation
+1
(........) d = (..........) | J b | d
1
(15.52)
| J b |=
x1
x2
(15.53)
Along the boundary, the coordinates (x1, x2) are approximated using 1-D quadratic shape
functions. All elemental matrices are evaluated using 33 Gauss quadrature. Similarly the
elemental vectors are evaluated using 3 point gauss quadrature.
The assembled finite element can be written as
{W }T [ K ]{ } = {W }T {F }
(15.54)
189
where
{W } , [ K ] , { } are
coefficient matrix and global vector of nodal values of pressure and velocity.
{F }
is the global
right hand side vector. Since weight functions are arbitrary, final FEM expression will be
[ K ] { } = { F }
(15.55)
Figure 15.3: Shear and normal components of traction at work-tool interface if the strip
Using the Eq. (15.14), we can express ts and tn in the form of t1 and t2 as follows;
t s = t1 cos + t 2 sin
t n | = t1 sin t 2 cos
(15.56)
Thus putting the decomposed form ts and tn into Eq. (15.14) we get,
(15.57)
(15.58)
t1 (1 + tan ) t 2 (tan + ) = 0
(15.59)
190
( t b1 )
1
2
( t b )1 (1 + tan )
3
( t b )1
( t b1 )
2
2
( t b )2 (tan + ) = 0
3
( t b )2
(15.60)
{N
}{ N b }T
| Jb | d
(15.61)
it becomes
b
2
(15.62)
This above equation holds good at all nodes of the element. At the middle node say k (global
node number), there is no contribution from the neighboring elements and therefore, in terms of
the global right hand side of the vector, Eq. (15.62) can be expressed as
{ F }( d
+ 2 k 1)
(1 + tan ) { F }( d
+2k )
(tan + ) = {0}
(15.63)
where dp is the total number of pressure variables. This Eq. (15.63) holds good at the end node
also.
Procedure for applying the condition (15.14) at the node k is as follows:
th
Replace ( d p + 2 k 1) row of global coefficient matrix [K] by the following linear
th
combination: (1 + tan ) tim es ( d p + 2 k 1) row of
th
[K] (tan + ) times ( d p + 2 k ) row of [K].
th
Make the ( d p + 2 k 1) row of global right hand vector {F} zero.
th
The velocity boundary condition at the node is applied by replacing ( d p + 2 k ) row of
th
Make ( d p + 2 k ) row of [K] zero.
th
Set ( d p + 2 k , d p + 2 k 1) element
191
th
of [K] to tan ( d p + 2 k , d p + 2 k ) element of [K] to 1.
th
Make ( d p + 2 k ) row of {F} to zero.
The essential boundary conditions at the other boundaries are applied as follows:
In the stiffness matrix, all the elements of row and columns corresponding to the
specified degree of freedom excepting the diagonal term are made equal to zero.
The right hand side vector element corresponding to the specified degree of freedom is
replaced by the specified value and other elements are modified by subtracting from them
the products of corresponding coefficient element and specified value.
After imposing the boundary condition as discussed above section, the resulting non-linear
algebraic equations (15.55) are solved iteratively by the Householder method, because the
resulting matrix of the mixed formulation is ill-conditioned. The solution is obtained in the form
of primary variables for nodal pressure and velocity.
15.8 POST-PROCESSING
The evaluation of the secondary variables like drawing force, die-pressure, separation force
and strain, strain-rate contours are termed as post-processing of the finite element method. There
are certain precautions to be followed in post-processing step. Drawing force can be calculated by
integrating the stresses across the thickness or dividing the total power by the velocity. The latter
method provides more accurate solution, because errors get subdued due to integration. Stresses
should preferably be calculated at Gauss-points corresponding to 2 Gauss-point formula.
Interfacial tangential stress should be calculated by multiplying the coefficient of friction to
interfacial normal stress.
15.9. CONCLUSION
The Flow formulation has been extensively used for the analysis of metal forming
process considering the material as rigid-plastic. The steady-state drawing process has been
solved using mixed pressure-velocity FE formulation. In the mixed pressure-velocity finite
element formulation, no pressure boundary conditions are employed and therefore the pressure
field is computed in this method needs further refinement. FEM is preferred to other methods in
the analysis of drawing process, as it can easily incorporate non-homogeneity of deformation,
process dependent material properties and different friction models.
192
EXERCISE 15
Q1: In the rolling process, the governing equations are given as
11 + 2 2 = 0
11 12
+
=0
x1
x2
21 22
+
=0
x1
x2
Figure: Q1
The essential boundary conditions are shown in the figure. The two natural boundary conditions
at the roll-strip interface are given as
v2+ v1tan = 0 and | ts | = | tn |
where is the angular position of the point on the surface, is the Coloumbs coefficient of
friction and where ts and tn are the tangential and normal components of the stress vector t. Due
to the existence of neutral point, friction conditions will change. Modify these boundary
conditions accordingly in the FEM modeling of rolling process.
Q2: The governing equations for the steady, constant volume flow in axisymmetric problem is
given as
193
rr + + zz = 0
v r 1 ( r rr )
vr
+ vz
+
p vr
r
z r
r
v z 1 ( r rz )
v z
+ vz
+
p vr
r
z r
r
rz
=0
z
r
zz
=0
z
The boundary conditions for the domain of the present problem are shown in the figure.
Figure: Q2
Carry out the FEM modeling of this problem using these governing equations and boundary
conditions.[Ref. Dixit and Dixit, 1995, An analysis of the steadystate wire drawing of the strain
hardening materials, J. Mater. Process. Technol. 47, pp.201-229].
Q3: The governing equation of a spring is given as
F = (k0 + k x ) x
Figure: Q3
where k 0 = 1000 N /m , k = 100 N /m 2 , F = 2000 N
194
1 1 u1 F
k
=
1 1 u 2 0
Solve the problem by finite element method.
Q.4: The governing equation of a large deflection bending of elastic beam is
u 1 w 2
+
E A
f = 0
x 2 x
u 1 w 2
d2
2 w d
+
EI
E A
q = 0
dx 2
x 2 d x
x 2 x
dx
195
Chapter 16
197
Lu - q = S T DSu - q = 0
(16.1)
u = u on the boundary u
(16.2)
Su = t on the boundary t
(16.3a)
with
= u t
(16.3b)
Ku - f = 0
where
K=
(SN )
D(SN) d
is
the
elemental
(16.4)
stiffness
matrix
and
u =N une
(16.5)
= (SN)une
(16.6)
e = u- u
e =
(16.7a)
(16.7b)
The specification of local error in the above equations is generally not convenient and
occasionally misleading. For this reason various norms representing some integral quantity are
198
often introduced to measure the error. The most common measures are the energy norm and
L2 norm. The energy norm for general problems is
1
e = ( e T Le d) 2
(16.8)
e = u u .
where
A more direct measure is the L2 norm, which can be associated with the errors in any
quantity. Thus for the displacement u, the L2 norm of the error e is
L2
( e ed)
1
2
(16.9)
= ( ( e ) ( e ) d )
T
L2
1
2
(16.10)
The root mean square (RMS) error for whole domain is given by
e2
L2
u =
(16.11)
es 2
L2
=
(16.12)
The error for the whole domain is given by summing the element contributions. Thus,
e
= e
i =1
2
i
(16.13)
where i represent an element contribution and m is the total number of elements. For an optimal
mesh, it is considered that the contributions to the square of the norm is equal for all elements.
The relative percentage error can be given by
e
u
100%
(16.14)
199
16.3.1.1 h convergence
For h version refinement, the polynomial degree of the interpolation function, p, is kept
constant. If the mesh is refined uniformly and the size of the element, h ,approaches zero, the
error estimate is given in the form
eu Ch min( p , )
(16.15)
For 2-D problems, h is approximately proportional to the inverse of the square root of the total
degree of freedom of the mesh. Hence,
eu CN
min( p , )
2
(16.16)
where N is the total degree of freedom of the mesh, is the strength of singularities and C is a
constant dependent on the problem but independent of p and . The mesh is called optimal if the
sequence of mesh is designed in such a way that the error is equally distributed in each element
and the influence of the singularities is eliminated and
eu Ch CN
p
p
2
(16.17)
200
16.3.1.2 p-CONVERGENCE
For p-version refinement the mesh size is fixed and p is increased uniformly. The error
estimate is given by
eu CN
(16.18)
where is a positive constant dependent on smoothness of the exact solution and quality of the
mesh. Hence the rate of convergence will depend very much on the design of the mesh. If a
properly designed mesh is used, an exponential rate of convergence can be obtained. If the mesh
is not well designed, the performance will be affected especially when singularities are present. In
the case of p-refinement on a uniform mesh in the presence of singularities we have = and
the rate is double than that of the uniform h-refinement. The convergence rate of the p-refinement
is always better than that of the uniform h-refinement but care should be taken for the element
size near singularities as oscillation of derivatives of solution may occur.
eu Ce ( N
(16.19)
where and are positive constants dependent on the smoothness of the solution. In practice,
there are substantial difficulties in the implementation of the hp-version algorithm as the optimal
mesh for h-refinement depends on p.
201
due to the fact that in practical finite element computations some smoothing procedure, which
may or may not be superconvergent, will always be employed at the post-processing stage of the
computing process to recover the derivatives of the finite element solutions in order to achieve
more acceptable approximations. Using such recovered derivatives, the ZZ error estimator can be
calculated at a fraction of the total cost of the computation. However, the quality and the
reliability of the error estimator is obviously dependent on the accuracy of the recovered solutions
and therefore on the smoothing procedures.
To obtain acceptable results for stress, resort is generally made to a nodal averaging or projection
process in which it is assumed that the recovered derivative * is interpolated by the same
function as the displacement, i.e.
* = N *
(16.20)
NT (* )d = 0
(16.21)
e *
(16.22)
(16.23)
202
Consider that, at the refinement step m, the element displacement fields of an element of order p,
is given by,
(16.24)
where [Nn] contains all existing nodal and hierarchical shape functions {dn} is the vector of
known element displacements. The corresponding finite element equation is written as,
[K nn ]{dn } = {fn }
(16.25)
If all new hierarchical shape functions of order p+1, [Nh], are temporarily added into the element,
the above equations are upgraded to,
(16.26)
and
K nn K nh dn fn
K
=
nh K hh dh fh
(16.27)
respectively, where {dh} are the temporarily added element displacements, which correspond to
the shape function [Nh],[Khh] are the sub-stiffness matrices that correspond to the interaction
between {dh} and {dn}, and where {fh} is the vector of element loads on the added degree of
freedom. The approximate values of {dh} can be obtained from the second equation of equation
(16.27):
(`16.28)
To obtain the approximate value of each component of {dh}, equation (16.28) is simply written
as,
203
( dh ) j
(f
{K nh }
{dn }) j
(16.29)
( K hh ) j
where j is the index number of {dh} and (Khh) is the diagonal term of [Khh} at the particular j.
The difference between the two fields (before and after adding the higher order shape functions)
is defined as the estimated displacement error. The error in displacement fields can be expressed
as,
{e u } = {u'} {u}
(16.30)
complete order p as that present in the basis function N and which is valid over an element
patch surrounding the particular assembly node considered. Such a patch represents a union of
elements containing this vertex node. This polynomial expansion will be used for each
*
component of q p and one can get
q *p = Pa
(16.31)
where P contains the appropriate polynomial terms and a is a set of unknown parameters. For one
dimensional elements Pone can write,
P = 1, x, x 2 ,........, x p
(16.32)
204
Figure 16.1: Superconvergent points for some 1-D and 2-D patches
and
a = a1 , a 2 a3, .........., a p +1
(16.33)
P = [1, x, y ]
and for quadratic
(16.34)
P = 1, x, y, x 2 , xy, y 2
(16.35)
P = [1, x, y, xy ]
(16.36)
i =1
*
p
205
= (qh ( xi y i ) P(xi , y i )a )
(16.37)
i =1
where ( xi y i ) are the global co ordinates of sampling points, n = mk is the total number of
sampling points and k is the number of the sampling points on each element
mj ( m j = 1,2,3.......m) of the element patch. The minimization condition of F (a) implies that a
satisfies
n
P (x y )P(x , y )a = P (x , y )q (x , y )
T
i =1
i,
i =1
(16.38)
a = A 1b
(16.39)
where
n
i =1
i =1
(16.40)
Once the parameters a are determined, the recovered nodal values are calculated by insertion of
appropriate co-ordinates into the expression for q*h .
It will be observed that, element patches will overlap for internal misdside nodes and nodes in the
element interior. This means that such recovered nodal values are frequently evaluated from two
or more patches. In this case aggregate values of this patches is used for such nodes. A more
difficult situation arises at the domain boundary where a local patch, such as shown in Fig.16.2,
may involve only one or two elements. For one such element situation (corner node) the size of
the patch is insufficient for determination of the parameters a and the corner node values are
determined from an interior patch shown.
206
T j = a j + b j x + c j x2
(16.41)
j +1
= a j +1 + b j +1 x + c j +1 x 2
(16.42)
Now, the temperature function in between the nodes j and (j+1) can be written as
T = N 1T j + N 2T
j +1
(16.43)
207
Figure 16.3: 1-D & 2-D elements illustrating the higher order blending function
The above scheme is based on curve-fitting using parabolic bending scheme. It can be
easily shown that the above approximation yields highly accurate results compared to standard
post-processing procedure. To derive the expression for error, take the coordinates of the nodes
j-1, j, j+1and j+2 as 1, 0, 1 and 2 respectively. Assume that the exact polynomial Texact is given
by the following equation
Texact = a + bx + cx2 + dx3
(16.44)
Since the fitted polynomial given by equation (16.44) is exact at the nodes j-1, j, j+1, it is equal to
the exact value of primary variables at these three points. Hence, the following set of equations is
obtained:
aj bj +cj = ab+cd
aj =a
(16.45)
a +b +c = a+b+c+d
j
a j = a, b j = b + d , c j = c
(16.46)
T j = a + (b + d ) x + cx 2 = a + bx + cx 2 + dx
(16.47)
208
In the same way, Tj+1 given by Eqn.(16.42) is exact at the nodes j (x=0), j+1 (x=1), j+2 (x=2),
and so equal to the exact value of primary variables at these three points. Therefore, the
coefficients in Eqn.(16.42) are given by
a j +1 = a, b j +1 = b 2d
c j +1 = c + 3d
and
(16.48)
j +1
= a + bx + cx 2 + (3 x 2 2 x)d
(16.49)
T = a + bx + cx 2 + ( x 3 x 2 + 3 x 3 )d
(16.50)
Subtracting the equation for exact solution from the above equation, error in the primary variable
becomes
eT = (2 x 3 3 x 2 + x)d
(16.51)
The roots of the polynomial inside the brackets from the above equation are 0, 1 and 0.5,
indicating that blended function gives exact value not only at the nodes, but also at the middle
point. One can also find the L2 norm
2
= 2 x 3 3x 2 + x d dx
0
eT
L2
[(
)]
1
2
(16.52)
1
1
the element. There can be various ways to find out error and the mesh refinement strategy. The
simplest way to find out the error is to calculate residue r by putting back the expression for T in
the differential equation. Zienkiewicz and Morgan [4] have proposed an error norm as
2
E
= erd
(16.53)
where the error e = T Texact. The exact value of T is not known. One way is to treat T of next
refinement level as exact. The refinement criterion may also be based on the absolute maximum
value of residue in various elements.
A procedure has been developed for two-dimensional problems using Laplace or
Poisson equation. A 2-D finite element mesh using four nodded elements is shown in Fig.
16.3(b). A typical node I inside the mesh is usually a member of four elements. There are a total
of nine nodes in these four elements, hence a quadratic at the ith node may be constructed using
nine points. The quadratic is of the form given below:
f i = + 2 x + 3 y + 4 xy + 5 x 2 + 6 y 2 + 7 xy 2 + 8 x 2 y + x 2 y 2 (16.54)
209
Approximation of the primary variable inside an element is carried out in the following manner:
f e = N1 f1 + N 2 f 2 + N 3 f 3 + N 4 f 4
(16.55)
In which N1, N2are the linear shape functions and fi is quadratic function given by Eqn
(16.54) defined for the ith node. Note that the ith node is at the center surrounded by other eight
nodes, when a polynomial fi is constructed using nine nodes. In the case of heat transfer problems,
the primary variables (temperature) T can be written as
(16.56)
These primary variables themselves are the improved ones and hence gradients found using these
values are also improved ones.
There may be situations where all the four nodes of the element may not be at the
center of the patch of the elements, This situation is tackled in the following manner. If only one
node is available over which the polynomial can be defined, then at all the other nodes, the same
function is taken. If the functions can be defined in two adjacent nodes, then the same functions
are used on the corresponding opposite nodes. If the polynomial is defined on the diagonal nodes,
then in the other two diagonal nodes, average value of the function is taken. If the polynomial can
be defined on three nodes, then in the fourth node, average of two adjacent nodes is taken for the
coefficients of the polynomial.
e e = u * - u
e
L2
L2
(16.57)
= u * - u
e e = u * - u
L2
(16.58)
(16.59)
Error estimators formulated by replacing the exact solution with the recovered solution are
sometimes called recovery based error estimators.
210
The accuracy or the quality of the error estimator is measured by the effectivity index
, which is defined as
(16.60)
u u h = Ch h p
(16.61)
u u* = C* h p +
(16.62)
for some super convergent solution with 1 . It is shown that for all estimators based on
recovery can establish the following bounds for the effectivity index:
e*
e
1+
e*
e
(16.63)
Where e is the actual error and e* is the error of the recovered solution, e.g.
e * = u - u*
(16.64)
1 indicates whether the recovered solution has a higher rate of convergence than FE solution.
Two important conclusions follow:
1. any recovery process which results in reduced error will give a reasonable error estimator
and more importantly,
2. if the recovered solution converges at a higher rate, then the finite element solution shall
always have asymptotically exact estimation.
16.5CONCLUSIONS
In this chapter, a brief introduction of error analysis has been provided. The error analysis is
very important for adaptive refinement. It also provides an idea about the quality of the solution.
FURTHER READINGS
1.
Zienkiewicz, O.C. and Zhu, J.G., 1987, A simple error estimator and adaptive procedure
for practical engineering analysis, Int. J. Num. Meth. Eng., 24, 337-357.
211
2.
Zienkiewicz, O.C. and Zhu, J.Z., 1992, The super convergent patch recovery and a
posteriori error estimation in the finite element method, Part I & Part II, Int. J. Num.
Meth. Eng., 33,1331-1364.
3.
Sk.Karimulla, S.K Dwivedy and U.S. Dixit, An efficient post-processing strategy for
finite element analysis of heat transfer problems, CD Proceedings Recent Advances in
Heat and Mass Transfer, Jan. 6-8 (2002), IIT Guwahati (India)
4.
Zienkiewicz, O.C. and Taylor, R.L., 1989, The Finite Element Method (Vol.1) 4th
Edition, McGraw-Hill, New York.
EXERCISE 16
Q.1: Prove that in solving the problem of rod subjected to axial load using 3 noded Lagrangian
element, longitudinal stress is expected to be accurate corresponding to the points of 2 point
Gauss-quadrature formula.
Q.2: A square plate is subjected to the temperature of 500K at three sides and 0K at the fourth
side. Solve this problem by FEM by discretizing the domain into 16 equal elements. Find out the
recovered solution using Superconvergent Patch Recovery technique. Using the recovered
solution, find out the error of each element and overall error of the solution. You are already
familiar with the exact solution. Find out the error using the exact solution. Compare it with the
estimated error.
Q.3: Solve the problem of a plate with hole subjected to tensile load in one direction and find out
the error with coarse and fine mesh.
Q.4: The governing equation for certain heat conduction problem is
d 2T
+q =0
dx 2
T = N1T1 + N 2T2 + (1 2 ) a
where T1 and T2 are temperatures at the 2 nodes and a is some constant. Find out the elemental
stiffness matrix and elemental load vector for this problem. Also, carry out the error analysis.
212
Chapter 17
MISCELLANEOUS
(Lecture 39-40)
17.1 INTRODUCTION
In the last sixteen chapters, we have covered various topics of finite element method. This
material is sufficient for one semester introductory course on FEM. One can refer other textbooks
and papers for further knowledge. One can also extend the knowledge gained in the previous
chapter to many unexplored areas. Finite element method is still an important research area and
newer developments are taking place. In this chapter, we shall touch upon miscellaneous topics in
the FEM and conclude the first course on Finite Element Methods in Engineering. In this chapter,
there are some topics which have not been described at all in the previous chapters, whilst some
other topics are revisited.
Different formulation methods differ in terms of the form of functions, definition of error and
procedure for minimizing the error.
In the Finite Difference Method (FDM), derivatives are replaced by discrete analog of
derivatives. For example,
du u ( x + h) u ( x)
dx
h
(17.1)
where h is a small finite step length. Thus, the system of differential equations gets approximated
to system of linear simultaneous algebraic equations, like in FEM. However, the basic concept
here is different from FEM. Here, we do not approximate the variable by any piecewise
continuous function.
In certain cases, the finite element and finite difference may provide the same solution.
For example, in axial rod problem, if the axial displacement in a element is approximated as,
x
x
u = a + bx = 1 u1 + u 2
h
h
(17.2)
213
du u 2 u1
=
dx
h
(17.3)
which is the same as finite difference approximation. On the hand, if axial displacement is
approximated by some function like
u = a + b sin x
(17.4)
Then derivative approximation will be different from the derivative approximation in FDM.
It is not convenient to apply FDM method to a problem involving a boundary of very
complex geometry and involving non-homogeneous material. If the proper choice of piecewise
continuous polynomials is chosen, the finite element procedure may take much less time than
FDM. In certain problems, FDM gives better results.
(17.5)
1
{u}T[K]{u} {u}T{P}
2
(17.6)
Substituting equation (17.5) in equation (17.6), the total potential energy expression becomes,
=
1
{u}T {P} {u}T{P}
2
=-
1
{u}T {P}
2
(17.7)
The potential energy given by this expression will be more or equal to the actual potential energy,
because in the actual system potential energy will be minimized. Hence,
{u}T{P}<{uactual}T{P}
(17.8)
214
215
(4) r-method: In this method, nodes are relocated and a new mesh is constructed. Size of
the elements and degrees of approximation remain the same. This is not a very
common method.
Refinement should be carried out where the primary variables is expected to be a high
degree polynomial function. For example, if a plate is having a hole, then near the hole, the mesh
should be refined. If a cantilever beam problem is solved using constant strain triangular (CST)
elements, then there should be enough elements in the vertical directions also, because the strain
is linear in vertical direction and CST gives only constant strain. So many elements are needed in
the vertical direction in order to properly represent the strain.
216
=-1
=0
=+1
3
x,u
L/4
3L/4
r
C2
C1
B2
B1
x,u
l/4
Figure 17.2: Mesh of quarter plate elements around the crack tip
217
1.00 x 4.00
=
for which
1.02 y 2.00
1.00
1.00
x 104
=
y 100
(17.9)
1.00
1.00
1.00 x 4.00
=
1.01 y 2.00
for which
x 204
=
y 200
(17.10)
A 1% change in one coefficient has changed the results by a factor of two. These equation sets
are both ill- conditioned, which means that their solutions are sensitive to small changes in the
coefficient matrix or the vector of constants.
Ill-conditioned system is produced because of the physics of the problem. For example,
consider the two d.o.f. structure with linear springs of stiffness k1 and k2 (Fig. 17.3). FEM
formulation provides,
k1
k
1
k1 P
=
k1 + k 2 0
(17.11)
The rows of stiffness matrix are almost linearly dependent if k1>>k2 and hence the stiffness
matrix becomes ill-conditioned. This is not case if k2>>k1.
u2
u1
k1
k2
,x,u
218
supporting structure. The limiting case is a structure without any supports: it has only rigid-body
motion in static analysis, and its stiffness matrix is singular.
Following measures should be adopted for avoiding the ill-conditioning:
(1) It is recommended that double-precision arithmetic be used for all phases of a finite
element analysis.
(2) Attempt should be to develop a model without large discrepancies in stiffness. A
comparatively stiff region may be modeled as perfectly rigid by use of a constraint
transformation. On the other hand, perhaps a stiff region can be made more flexible.
(3) One possibility in modeling is to use relative motions, rather than absolute motions, for
troublesome d. o. f. For example, in Fig. 3, one could introduce the d. o. f. ur = u1-u2.
Instead of equation (11) we now have
k1
0
0 u r P
=
k 2 u 2 P
(17.12)
219
17.12 CONCLUSIONS
FEM has been applied to a number of areas. If one can find the governing differential
equations of the problem, FEM can be applied. It has been applied to stress-analysis of elastic as
well as plastic deformation problems. Specific applications include metal forming, metal cutting
and non-traditional machining.
EXERCISE 17
Q.1: Mathematically show that a Quarter-point element can be used for solving the problems
when the derivative of the primary variable becomes infinite at a singular point.
Q.2: In solving an axial rod problem using FEM with 3 noded element, the middle node need not
be exactly at the middle. Find out the zone in which the middle node can be placed.
Q.3: Take a 3-noded one dimensional element 1-2-3, in which the third node is at infinity. Show
that the geometry can be approximated as
x = N1 x1 + N 2 x2
where
N1 =
2
;
1
N2 =
1+
1
Approximate the primary variable u by 3-noded Lagrangian shape function and obtain the
expression for du/dx.
Q.4: Show that in a CST element, if one angle is very small, the resulting matrix will be illconditioned.
220
BIBLIOGRAPHY
1. J.N. Reddy, An introduction to the finite element method, McGraw-Hill, New York,
1993.
2. R.D.
Cook, D.S. Malkus and M.E. Plesha, Concepts and applications of finite
221