Advaita Vedanta

Advaita redirects here. For other uses, see Advaita (dis- dating the central premises of this tradition.[8] The princiambiguation).
pal, though not the rst, exponent of the Advaita VedantaAdvaita Vedanta[note 1] is a school of Hindu philosophy interpretation was Adi Shankara in the 8th century, who
systematised the works of preceding philosophers.[11]
Advaita Vedanta, like all Indian philosophies, developed
in a multi-faceted religious and philosophical landscape,
in interaction with the other traditions of India such as
Jainism and Buddhism.[12] In its history, it inuenced and
was inuenced by various traditions and texts of Hindu
philosophies such as Samkhya, Yoga, Nyaya, other subschools of Vedanta, Vaishnavism, Shaivism, the Puranas,
the Agamas as well as social movements such as the
Bhakti movement.[13][14][15]
Advaita Vedanta is one of the most studied and most inuential schools of classical Indian thought.[16][17][18] In
modern times, due to developments already set in at medieval times with Hindu responses to Muslim rule,[19] and
further developed by neo-Vedantins and Hindu nationalists in colonial times, Advaita Vedanta has acquired a
broad acceptance in Indian culture and beyond as the
paradigmatic example of Hindu spirituality.[20] Many
scholars describe it as a form of monism,[21][22][23] some
as nondualism.[24][25] Advaita Vedanta texts espouse a
spectrum of views from idealism, including illusionism,
to realist or nearly realist positions expressed in the early
works of Sankara.[26]
Statue of Adi Shankara the rst historical proponent of Advaita
Vedanta

1 Moksha liberation through

knowledge of Brahman

and religious practice, and one of the classic Indian paths

to spiritual realization.[1] Advaita (Sanskrit; not-two, no
second) refers to the idea that the true Self, Atman, is
the same as the highest Reality, Brahman. It gives a unifying interpretation of the whole body of Upanishads,[2]
providing scriptural authority for the postulation of the
nonduality of Atman and Brahman. Followers seek
liberation/release by acquiring vidy (knowledge)[3] of
the identity of Atman and Brahman. It emphasizes
Jivanmukta, the idea that moksha (freedom, liberation)
is achievable in this life.[4][5]

Main article: Moksha

Traditional Advaita Vedanta centers around the study
and what it believes to be correct understanding of the
sruti, revealed texts, especially the Upanishads.[27][28]
Correct understanding is believed to provide knowledge
of the identity of atman and Brahman, which results
in liberation. The main texts to be studied are the
Upanishads, Bhagavad Gita and Brahma Sutras. Correct knowledge, which destroys avidya, psychological and
perceptual errors,[29] is obtained by following the four
stages of samanyasa (self-cultivation), sravana, listening to the teachings of the sages, manana, reection on
the teachings, and svdhyya, contemplation of the truth
that art Thou.

Advaita Vedanta is the oldest extant sub-school of

Vedanta[note 2] one of six schools of orthodox daranas
(philosophies, world views, teachings).[6][7] The school
uses concepts such as Brahman, Atman, Maya and others that are found in major Indian religious traditions,[8]
but interprets them in its own way for its theories of
moksha.[9][10] Advaita Vedanta traces its roots in the oldest Upanishads, with Bdaryaas Brahma Sutra consoli1

1.1

MOKSHA LIBERATION THROUGH KNOWLEDGE OF BRAHMAN

Vidya, Svdhyya and Anubhava

known in any way.

Main article: Svdhyya

2. And that same true Self, pure consciousness, is not dierent from the ultimate world
Principle, Brahman ...
3. ... Brahman (=the true Self, pure consciousness) is the only Reality (sat), since It
is untinged by dierence, the mark of ignorance, and since It is the one thing that is not
sublimatable.[43]

Sruti, revealed texts, and proper reasoning, are the

main sources of knowledge (vidya) for Shankara and
the subsequent Advaita Vedanta tradition.[30][31] Correct
knowledge of Brahman is thought to be acquirable by
svdhyya,[32] study of the self and of the Vedic texts,
and nididhysana, the study of and contemplation of the
truths and non-duality.[33]
Nididhyasana leads to anubhava, direct cognition or understanding, which establishes the truth of the sruti.[34]
Adi Shankara uses anubhava interchangeably with pratipatta, understanding.[web 1] and considers it as the nondual realisation gained from the scriptures.[35] Dalal and
others state that anubhava does not center around some
sort of mystical experience, but around the correct
knowledge of Brahman.[31][36] Stressing the meaning of
anubhava as knowledge, Saraswati states that liberation
comes from knowledge, not from mere experience.[web 1]
Nikhalananda notes that (knowledge of) Atman and
Brahman can only be reached by buddhi, reason,[37]
stating that mysticism is a kind of intuitive knowledge, while buddhi is the highest means of attaining
knowledge.[38]

Pure consciousness is the translation of jnanam.[44]

Although the common translation of jnanam[44] is
consciousness, the term has a broader meaning of
knowing"; becoming acquainted with,[web 2] knowledge about anything,[web 2] awareness,[web 2] higher
knowledge.[web 2]
According to David Loy,
The knowledge of Brahman ... is not intuition of Brahman but itself is Brahman.[45]

1.4 Mahavakya The Great Sentences

Main article: Mahvkyas

Several Mahavakyas, or the great sentences, have Advaitic theme, that is the inner immortal self and the great
[46]
Correct knowledge of Brahman is thought to lead to cosmic power are one and the same.
[note 3]
liberation,

1.2

Moksha - liberation

Liberation can be achieved while living, and is called 1.5

Jivanmukta.[41]

1.3

Identity of Atman and Brahman

Stages and practices

Advaita Vedanta gives an elaborate path to attain moksha.

It entails more than self-inquiry or bare insight into ones
real nature.[note 6]

See also: Jnana, Prajna, and Prajnam Brahma

Adi Shankara wrote a book, named Upadesasahasri to

guide the practice of an Advaitin, with three prose chapMoksha is attained by realizing the identity of Atman and ters and a poetry section. One chapter is dedicated to
Brahman, the complete understanding of ones real nature Sravana (listening or reading the texts, discussions beas Brahman in this life.[42] This is frequently stated by tween the teacher and student), one chapter to Manana (thinking), and the third chapter to Nididhyasana
Advaita scholars, such as Shankara, as:
(meditation).[52] The text also includes a guidebook on
characteristics that establish a good teacher, ethics and
I am other than name, form and action.
personal qualities necessary for the Advaita student, and
My nature is ever free!
steps to learn about errors and nescience and about selfI am Self, the supreme unconditioned Brahknowledge, epistemology and Yoga (particularly Jnana
man.
yoga and eight limbed yoga).[53] Shankara and Suresvara
I am pure Awareness, always non-dual.
explicitly recommended the practice of Yoga in an Ad Adi Shankara, Upadesasahasri 11.7, [42]
vaitins life.[54]
According to Potter,
1. The true Self is itself just that pure
consciousness, without which nothing can be

1.5.1 Jnana Yoga Four stages of practice

Main article: Jnana Yoga

1.5

Stages and practices

Classical Advaita Vedanta emphasises the path of Jnana 1.5.3 Guru

Yoga, a progression of study and training to attain
Main article: Guru
moksha.[55][56] It consists of four stages:[57][58][note 7]
Samanyasa or Sampattis,[59] the fourfold disciAdvaita Vedanta school has traditionally had a high reverpline (sdhana-catustaya), cultivating the followence for Guru (teacher), and recommends that a compeing four qualities:[57]
tent Guru be sought in ones pursuit of spirituality. How Nitynitya vastu viveka ( ever, the Guru is not mandatory in Advaita school, states
) The ability (viveka) to cor- Clooney, but reading of Vedic literature and followed by
rectly discriminate between the real and eter- reection is.[61] Adi Shankara, states Comans, regularly
nal (nitya) and the substance that is appar- employed compound words such as Sastracaryopadesa
ently real, aging, changing and transitory (an- (instruction by way of the scriptures and the teacher) and
itya).[57][58]
Vedantacaryopadesa (instruction by way of the Upan Ihmutrrtha
phala
bhoga
virga ishads and the teacher) to emphasize the importance of
[61]
( ) The Guru. This reects the Advaita tradition which holds
renunciation (virga) of petty desires that a competent teacher as important and essential to gaining
distract the mind (artha phala bhoga), willing correct knowledge, freeing oneself from false knowledge,
[62]
to give up everything that is an obstacle to the and to self-realization.
[58][60]
pursuit of truth and self-knowledge.
A guru is someone more than a teacher, traditionally a
amdi atka sampatti ( reverential gure to the student, with the guru serving
) the sixfold qualities,
as a counselor, who helps mold values, shares experi ama (mental tranquility, ability to focus ential knowledge as much as literal knowledge, an exemplar in life, an inspirational source and who helps in the
the mind).[58][60]
[63]
The guru, states Joel
Dama (self-restraint, the virtue of spiritual evolution of a student.
[58][60]
Mlecko,
is
more
than
someone
who
teaches specic type
temperance).
of
knowledge,
and
includes
in
its
scope
someone who is
Uparati
(dispassion,
ability
to
also
a
counselor,
a
sort
of
parent
of
mind
and soul, who
be quiet and disassociated from
[58]
helps
mold
values
and
experiential
knowledge
as much as
everything;
discontinuation
of
[60]
specic
knowledge,
an
exemplar
in
life,
an
inspirational
religious ceremonies )
[63]
Titika (endurance, perseverance, abil- source and who reveals the meaning of life.
ity to be patient during demanding The Advaita philosopher Adi Shankara, in Chapter 1 of
circumstances).[58][60]
Upadesasahasri, states that teacher is the pilot as the stu raddh (the faith in teacher and Sruti dent walks in the journey of knowledge, he is the raft as
texts).[58]
the student rows. The text describes the need, role and
Samdhna (attention, intentness of characteristics of a teacher,[64] as follows,
mind).[58][60]
Mumukutva () A positive
When the teacher nds from signs that
longing for freedom and wisdom, driven to the
knowledge has not been grasped or has been
quest of knowledge and understanding.[58]
wrongly grasped by the student, he should remove the causes of non-comprehension in the
Sravana, listening to the teachings of the sages on
student. This includes the students past and
the Upanishads and Advaita Vedanta, studying the
present knowledge, want of previous knowlVedantic texts, such as the Brahma Sutras, and disedge of what constitutes subjects of discrimcussions with the teacher;[57]
ination and rules of reasoning, behavior such
Manana, the stage of reection on the teachings;[58]
as unrestrained conduct and speech, courting popularity, vanity of his parentage, ethical
Nididhysana, the stage of meditation on the truths
aws that are means contrary to those causes.
and introspection.[58]
The teacher must enjoin means in the student
that are enjoined by the ruti and Smrti, such
as avoidance of anger, Yamas consisting of
1.5.2 Samadhi
Ahimsa and others, also the rules of conduct
that are not inconsistent with knowledge. He
While Shankara emphasized sravana (hearing), manana
[teacher] should also thoroughly impress upon
(reection) and nididhyasana (repeated meditation),
the student qualities like humility, which are
later texts like the Dg-Dya-Viveka (14th century)
the means to knowledge.
and Vedantasara (of Sadananda) (15th century) added
samadhi as a means to liberation, a theme that was also
Adi Shankara, Upadesha Sahasri
emphasized by Swami Vivekananda.
1.4-1.5[65][66]

3 DARANA (PHILOSOPHY)

Texts

See also: Works of Adi Shankara

The identity of Atman and Brahman, and their unchanging, eternal nature,[67] are basic truths in Advaita
Vedanta. The school considers the knowledge claims
in the Vedas to be the crucial part of the Vedas, not
its karma-kanda (ritual injunctions).[68] The knowledge
claims about self being identical to the nature of Atman
and Brahman are found in the Upanishads, which Advaita
Vedanta has regarded as errorless revealed truth.[68]
Nevertheless, states Koller, Advaita Vedantins did not
entirely rely on revelation, but critically examined their
teachings using reason and experience, and this led them
to investigate and critique competing theories.[68] Along
with the Upanishads, the Bhagavad Gita and Brahma Sutras are the central texts of the Advaita Vedanta tradition, providing the truths about the identity of Atman and
Brahman and their changeless nature.[68][69]

Upanishadic teachings to be understood not in piecemeal cherrypicked basis, rather in a unied way wherein
the ideas in the Vedic texts are harmonized with other
means of knowledge such as perception, inference and
remaining pramanas.[77][79] This theme has been central to the Advaita school, making the Brahmasutra as a
common reference and a consolidated textual authority
for Advaita.[77][80] However, Brahmasutra is an aphoristic text, and itself can be interpreted as non-theistic Advaita Vedanta text or as theistic Dvaita Vedanta text; this
has led, states Stephen Phillips, to its varying interpretations by various sub-schools of Vedanta.[81] The Brahmasutra is considered by the Advaita school as the Nyaya
Prasthana (canonical base for reasoning).[79]
The Bhagavad Gita, similarly in parts can be interpreted to be a monist Advaita text, and in other parts
as theistic Dvaita text. It too has been widely studied by Advaita scholars, including a commentary by Adi
Shankara.[82][78] The Bhagavad Gita is considered as the
Smriti Prasthana in Advaita school.[79]

2.2 Siddhi-granthas

Adi Shankara gave a nondualist interpretation of these Additionally there are ve Siddhi-granthas that are taught
texts in his commentaries. Adi Shankara's Bhashya in the Advaita-parampara, after study of the Prasthana(commentaries) have become central texts in the Advaita trayi:
Vedanta philosophy, but are one among many ancient
and medieval manuscripts available or accepted in this
1. Brahmasiddhi by Mandana Mishra (750850),
tradition.[11] The subsequent Advaita tradition has further
2. Naishkarmasiddhi by Sureswara (8th century, discielaborated on these sruti and commentaries.
ple of Sankara),

2.1

Textual authority

Advaita Vedanta, like all orthodox schools of Hindu

philosophy, accepts as an epistemic premise that
ruti (Vedic literature) is a reliable source of
knowledge.[70][71][72] The ruti includes the four
Vedas including its four layers of embedded texts - the
Samhitas, the Brahmanas, the Aranyakas and the early
Upanishads.[73] Of these, the Upanishads are the most
referred to texts in the Advaita school. Most scholars,
states Eliot Deutsch, are quite convinced that the ruti in
general, and the philosophical texts that are Upanishads
in particular, express a very rich diversity of ideas,
with the early Upanishads such as Brihadaranyaka Upanishad and Chandogya Upanishad being more readily
amenable to Advaita Vedanta schools interpretation
than the middle or later Upanishads.[74][75] In addition
to the oldest Upanishads, states Williams, the Sannyasa
Upanishads group composed in pre-Shankara times
express a decidedly Advaita outlook.[76]
The possibility of dierent interpretations of the Vedic
literature, states Arvind Sharma, was recognized by ancient Indian scholars.[77][78] The Brahmasutra (also called
Vedanta Sutra, composed in 1st millennium BCE) accepted this in verse 1.1.4 and asserts the need for the

3. Ishtasiddhi by Vimuktananda (1200),

4. Advaita Siddhi,[web 4] written by Madhusudana
Saraswati - 1565-1665.
5. Svarajyasiddhi by Gangadharendra Saraswati (c.
1800),

3 Darana (philosophy)
Main article: Hindu philosophy
Advaita Vedanta is one of the six classical Hindu
daranas, or view on spirituality.[83][84][note 8] The Advaita
Vedanta school has been historically referred by various
names, states Richard King:[86]
(Early names of the school have included) the doctrine of non-dualism (Advaitavada), the school of non-dierence (Abhedadarshana), the doctrine of the denial of
dualism (Dvaita-vada-pratisedha), and nondualism of the isolated (Kevala-dvaita). The
term Advaita rst occurs in a recognizably

3.2

Ontology - the nature of Being

Vedantic context in the prose of Mandukya

Upanishad 7, although it is to a certain extent
pregured in the Chandogya Upanishad's statement that Brahman is one without a second
(ekam advitiyam).
Richard King, Early Advaita Vedanta
and Buddhism[86]

3.1

Aims

The main aim of Advaita Vedanta is to explain how moksha can be attained,[67] that is liberation and freedom in
current life, which it concludes is attained by the correct
knowledge of the identity of Atman (soul, self) and Brahman (ultimate reality), and their oneness, primal nature as
the sole Reality.[87]
A main question is the relation between Atman and
Brahman, which is solved by regarding them to be
identical.[88][89] This truth is established from the oldest Principal Upanishads and Brahma Sutras, and is also
found in parts of the Bhagavad Gita and numerous other
Hindu texts,[8] and is regarded to be self-evident. The
main aim of the commentaries is to support this nondualistic (of Atman and Brahman) reading of the sruti.[90]
Reason is being used to support revelation, the sruti, the
ultimate source of truth.[91]
Another major problem is raised by the rejection the dualism of Samkhya between purusha, primal consciousness, and prakriti, inert primal matter. The Reality of
prakriti is rejected, instead stating that Atman/Brahman
is the sole Reality. This rejection raises the question how
to explain phenomenal reality. By declaring phenomenal reality to be 'unreal,' or an 'illusion,' the primacy of
Atman/Brahman can be maintained.[88][89]
The commentaries also provide a criticism of opposing
systems, including Samkhya and Buddhism.[90]

The swan is an important motif in Advaita. It symbolises two

things: rst, the swan is called hamsah in Sanskrit (which becomes hamso if the rst letter in the next word is /h/). Upon
repeating this hamso indenitely, it becomes so-aham, meaning,
I am That. Second, just as a swan lives in a lake but its feathers
are not soiled by water, similarly a liberated Advaitin lives in this
world but is not soiled by its maya.

Vyvahrika (vyavahara), or samvriti-saya,[94] consisting of the empirical or pragmatical reality. It is

ever changing over time, thus empirically true at a
given time and context but not metaphysically true.
It is our world of experience, the phenomenal world
that we handle every day when we are awake. It is
the level in which both jiva (living creatures or individual souls) and Iswara are true; here, the material
world is also true.[93]
Prthibhsika (pratibhasika, apparent reality, unreality), reality based on imagination alone. It is the
level of experience in which the mind constructs its
own reality. A well-known examples is the perception of a rope in the dark as being a snake.[93]

3.2.2 Absolute Reality

3.2

Ontology - the nature of Being

See also: Metaphysics and Ontology

Brahman Main articles: Brahman, Nirguna Brahman,

and Satcitananda

According to Advaita Vedanta Brahman is the

highest Reality,[43][95][96] That which is unborn and
3.2.1 Three Levels of Reality
unchanging,[95][97] and not sublatable,[43] and cannot
be superseded by a still higher reality.[98][note 9][note 10]
See also: Two truths doctrine
Other than Brahman, everything else, including the
Shankara uses sublation as the criterion to postulate an
universe, material objects and individuals, are everontological hierarchy of three levels:[92][93]
changing and therefore maya. Brahman is Paramarthika
Satyam, Absolute Truth,[112] and
Pramrthika (paramartha, absolute), the Reality
that is metaphysically true and ontologically accuthe true Self, pure consciousness ... the
rate. It is the state of experiencing that which is
only Reality (sat), since It is untinged by difabsolutely real and into which both other reality levference, the mark of ignorance, and since It is
els can be resolved. This experience can't be subthe one thing that is not sublatable.[43]
lated (exceeded) by any other experience.[92][93]

6
Advaitas Upanishadic roots state Brahmans
qualities[note 11]
to
be
Sat-cit-nanda
(beingconsciousness-bliss)[113][114] It means true beingconsciousness-bliss, [115][116] or Eternal Bliss
Consciousness.[117] Adi Shankara held that satcitananda is identical with Brahman and Atman.[115]
The Advaitin scholar Madhusudana Sarasvati explained
Brahman as the Reality that is simultaneously an absence
of falsity (sat), absence of ignorance (cit), and absence
of sorrow/self-limitation (ananda).[115] According to
Adi Shankara, the knowledge of Brahman that Shruti
provides cannot be obtained in any other means besides
self inquiry.[118]

3 DARANA (PHILOSOPHY)
school asserts that there is spirit, soul, self within each
living entity which is fully identical with Brahman the
Universal Soul.[131][132] This identity holds that there is
One Soul that connects and exists in all living beings,
regardless of their shapes or forms, there is no distinction, no superior, no inferior, no separate devotee soul
(Atman), no separate God soul (Brahman).[131] The Oneness unies all beings, there is the divine in every being,
and that all existence is a single Reality, state the Advaita Vedantins.[133] Each soul, in Advaita view, is nondierent from the innite.[134]

To Advaitins, human beings, in a state of unawareness

and ignorance of this Universal Self, see their I-ness as
According to Paul Deussen,[119] Brahman is:
dierent than the being in others, then act out of impulse,
fears, cravings, malice, division, confusion, anxiety, pas Satyam, the true Reality, which, however, is not the sions, and a sense of distinctiveness.[135][136] Atmanempirical one
knowledge, to Advaitins, is that state of full awareness, liberation and freedom which overcomes dualities
Jnam, Knowledge which, however, is not split
at all levels, realizing the divine within oneself, the diinto the subject and the object
vine in others and all living beings, the non-dual One anantam, boundless or innite
ness, that Brahman is in everything, and everything is
Brahman.[130][131]
According to Eliot Deutsch, the sat or being, in this experience of Brahman, is the ontological principle of unity,
and the oneness not constituted in parts. Cit or con- 3.2.3 Empirical reality
sciousness points to illuminating awareness of unchanging witness of ones being. Ananda or bliss is an axi- My Main article: Maya (illusion)
ological concept, as the principle of value, one of joyous existence.[116] Yet, Brahman is not limited to sat-citananda, and expansively includes all truth, knowledge, The empirical reality is explained in Advaita and
innite, best conceptualized as unlimited in every sense other sub-schools of Vedanta with the concept of
Maya.[137][138] Human mind constructs a subjective exthrough neti neti not this, not this.[120]
perience, states Vedanta school, which leads to the peril
The universe, according to Advaita philosophy, does not of misunderstanding Maya as well as interpreting Maya
simply come from Brahman, it is Brahman. Brahman as the only and nal reality. Vedantins assert the peris the single binding unity behind the diversity in all ceived world including people are not what they appear to
that exists in the universe.[95] Brahman is the cause of be.[139] There are invisible principles and laws at work,
all changes.[95][97] Brahman is considered to be the ma- true invisible nature in others and objects, and invisiterial cause[note 12] and the ecient cause[note 13] of all ble soul that one never perceives directly, but this invisithat exists.[96][121][122] Brahman is the primordial real- ble reality of Self and Soul exists, assert Advaitin scholity that creates, maintains and withdraws within it the ars. My is that which manifests, perpetuates a sense of
universe.[103] It is the creative principle which lies real- false duality (or divisional plurality).[140][141] The empiriized in the whole world.[123]
cal manifestation is real but changing, but it obfuscates
the true nature of metaphysical Reality which is never
changing. Advaita school holds that liberation is the unAtman Main article: tman (Hinduism)
fettered realization and understanding of the unchanging
Reality and truths the Self, that the Self (Soul) in onetman (IAST: tman, Sanskrit: ) is a Sanskrit self is same as the Self in another and the Self in everyword that means real self of the individual,[124][125] thing (Brahman).[142]
essence,[web 5] and soul.[124][126]
In Advaita Vedanta philosophy, there are two realities:
tman is the rst principle,[127] the true self of an Vyavaharika (empirical reality) and Paramarthika (abindividual beyond identication with phenomena, the solute, spiritual Reality).[143] My is the empirical reessence of an individual. Atman is the Universal Prin- ality that entangles consciousness. My has the power
ciple, one eternal undierentiated self-luminous con- to create a bondage to the empirical world, preventing
sciousness, the Truth asserts Advaita Vedanta school of the unveiling of the true, unitary Selfthe Cosmic Spirit
Hinduism.[128][129]
also known as Brahman. This theory of my was exAdvaita Vedanta philosophy considers Atman as self- pounded and explained by Adi Shankara. Competing theexistent awareness, limitless and non-dual.[130] Advaita istic Dvaita scholars contested Shankaras theory,[144] and

3.3

Epistemology

stated that Shankara did not oer a theory of the relationship between Brahman and My.[145] A later Advaita scholar Prakasatman addressed this, by explaining, Maya and Brahman together constitute the entire
universe, just like two kinds of interwoven threads create a fabric. Maya is the manifestation of the world,
whereas Brahman, which supports Maya, is the cause of
the world.[146]
Brahman is the sole metaphysical truth in Advaita
Vedanta, My is true in epistemological and empirical sense; however, My is not the metaphysical and
spiritual truth. The spiritual truth is the truth forever,
while what is empirical truth is only true for now. Complete knowledge of true Reality includes knowing both
Vyavaharika (empirical) and Paramarthika (spiritual),
the My and the Brahman. The goal of spiritual enlightenment, state Advaitins, is to realize Brahman, realize the
Oneness.[143][147]
3.2.4

Avidya

Ignorance Due to ignorance (avidy), Brahman is perceived as the material world and its objects (nama rupa
vikara). According to Shankara, Brahman is in reality
attributeless and formless. Brahman, the highest truth
and all (Reality), does not really change; it is only our
ignorance that gives the appearance of change. Also due
to avidy, the true identity is forgotten, and material reality, which manifests at various levels, is mistaken as the
only and true reality.
The notion of avidy and its relationship to Brahman creates a crucial philosophical issue within Advaita Vedanta
thought: how can avidy appear in Brahman, since Brahman is pure consciousness?[148] Sengaku Mayeda writes,
in his commentary and translation of Adi Shankara's
Upadesasahasri:
Certainly the most crucial problem which
Sankara left for his followers is that of avidy.
If the concept is logically analysed, it would
lead the Vedanta philosophy toward dualism or nihilism and uproot its fundamental
position.[149]

7
1. Annamaya kosha, food-apparent-sheath
2. Pranamaya kosha, air-apparent-sheath
3. Manomaya kosha, mind-stu-apparent-sheath
4. Vijnanamaya kosha, wisdom-apparent-sheath
5. Anandamaya
(Ananda)

kosha,

bliss-apparent-sheath

According to Vedanta the wise man should discriminate

between the self and the koshas, which are non-self.
Three states of consciousness See also: Three Bodies
Doctrine (Vedanta) and Kosha
Advaita posits three states of consciousness, namely
waking (jagrat), dreaming (svapna), deep sleep
(suupti), which are commonly experienced by human beings,[152][153] and correspond to the Three Bodies
Doctrine:[154]
1. The rst state is the waking state, in which we are
aware of our daily world.[155] This is the gross body.
2. The second state is the dreaming mind. This is the
subtle body.[155]
3. The third state is the state of deep sleep. This is the
causal body.[155]
Turiya, pure consciousness is the background that underlies and transcends the three common states of
consciousness.[web 6][web 7] In this consciousness both absolute and relative, saguna brahman and Nirguna Brahman, are transcended.[156] It is the state of liberation,
where states Advaita school, one experiences the innite
(ananta) and non-dierent (advaita/abheda), free from
the dualistic experience which results from the attempts
to conceptualise (vipalka) reality.[157] It is the state in
which ajativada, non-origination, is apprehended.[157]

Advaita traces the foundation of this ontological theory

in more ancient Sanskrit texts.[158] For example, chapters 8.7 through 8.12 of Chandogya Upanishad discuss
the four states of consciousness as awake, dream-lled
Subsequent Advaitins gave somewhat various explana- sleep, deep sleep, and beyond deep sleep.[158][159]
tions, from which various Advaita schools arose.

3.3 Epistemology
Koshas

See also: Kosha

See also: Pramana and Epistemology

Due to avidya, atman is covered by sheaths, or bodies,

which hide mans true nature. According to the Taittiriya
Upanishad, the Atman is covered by ve koshas, usually
rendered sheath.[150] They are often visualised like the
layers of an onion.[151] From gross to ne the ve sheaths
are:

The ancient and medieval texts of Advaita Vedanta and

other schools of Hindu philosophy discuss Pramana
(epistemology), that is how correct knowledge can be acquired, how one knows, how one doesn't, and to what
extent knowledge pertinent about someone or something

3 DARANA (PHILOSOPHY)

can be acquired.[160][161] In Advaita Vednta,[162] as in the

Bha school of Mims, the following pramas are
accepted:[163][164]
1. Pratyaka () which means perception. It
is of two types: external and internal. External perception is described as that arising from the interaction of ve senses and worldly objects, while internal perception is described by this school as that
of inner sense, the mind.[165] The four requirements
for correct perception are accepted by Advaita to be
Indriyarthasannikarsa (direct experience by ones
sensory organ(s) with the object, whatever is being
studied), Avyapadesya (non-verbal; correct perception is not through hearsay, according to ancient Indian scholars, where ones sensory organ relies on
accepting or rejecting someone elses perception),
Avyabhicara (does not wander; correct perception
does not change, nor is it the result of deception
because ones sensory organ or means of observation is drifting, defective, suspect) and Vyavasayatmaka (denite; correct perception excludes judgments of doubt, either because of ones failure to
observe all the details, or because one is mixing inference with observation and observing what one
wants to observe, or not observing what one does
not want to observe).[166] The internal perception
concepts included pratibha (intuition), samanyalaksanapratyaksa (a form of induction from perceived
specics to a universal), and jnanalaksanapratyaksa
(a form of perception of prior processes and previous states of a 'topic of study' by observing its current state).[167]
2. 'Anuma () means inference. It is described as reaching a new conclusion and truth from
one or more observations and previous truths by
applying reason.[168] Observing smoke and inferring re is an example of Anumana. This epistemic method for gaining knowledge consists of
three parts: pratijna (hypothesis), hetu (a reason),
and drshtanta (examples).[169] The hypothesis must
further be broken down into two parts, state the
ancient Indian scholars: sadhya (that idea which
needs to proven or disproven) and paksha (the object on which the sadhya is predicated). The inference is conditionally true if sapaksha (positive
examples as evidence) are present, and if vipaksha
(negative examples as counter-evidence) are absent.
For rigor, the Indian philosophies also state further
epistemic steps. For example, they demand Vyapti
- the requirement that the hetu (reason) must necessarily and separately account for the inference in
all cases, in both sapaksha and vipaksha.[169][170]
A conditionally proven hypothesis is called a nigamana (conclusion).[171]
3. Upama () means comparison and
analogy.[161][172] Some Hindu schools consider it as

a proper means of knowledge.[173] Upamana, states

Lochtefeld,[174] may be explained with the example
of a traveller who has never visited lands or islands
with endemic population of wildlife. He or she is
told, by someone who has been there, that in those
lands you see an animal that sort of looks like a cow,
grazes like cow but is dierent from a cow in such
and such way. Such use of analogy and comparison
is, state the Indian epistemologists, a valid means
of conditional knowledge, as it helps the traveller
identify the new animal later.[174] The subject
of comparison is formally called upameyam, the
object of comparison is called upamanam, while
the attribute(s) are identied as samanya.[175]
4. Arthpatti () means postulation, derivation from circumstances.[161][172] In contemporary
logic, this pramana is similar to circumstantial
implication.[176] As example, if a person left in a
boat on river earlier, and the time is now past the expected time of arrival, then the circumstances support the truth postulate that the person has arrived.
Many Indian scholars considered this pramana as invalid or at best weak, because the boat may have
gotten delayed or diverted.[177] However, in cases
such as deriving the time of a future sunrise or sunset, this method was asserted by the proponents to
be reliable. Another common example for arthapatti in ancient Hindu texts is, that if Devadatta is
fat and Devadatta never eats during the day, then
the following must be true: Devadatta eats in the
night. This form of postulation and deriving from
circumstances is, claim the Indian scholars, a means
to discovery, proper insight and knowledge.[164][178]
5. Anupalabdi () means non-perception,
negative/cognitive proof.[179] Anupalabdhi pramana
suggests that knowing a negative, such as there is
no jug in this room is a form of valid knowledge.
If something can be observed or inferred or proven
as non-existent or impossible, then one knows more
than what one did without such means.[180] In Advaita school of Hindu philosophy, a valid conclusion is either sadrupa (positive) or asadrupa (negative) relation - both correct and valuable. Like
other pramana, Indian scholars rened Anupalabdi
to four types: non-perception of the cause, nonperception of the eect, non-perception of object, and non-perception of contradiction. Only
two schools of Hinduism accepted and developed
the concept non-perception as a pramana. Advaita considers this method as valid and useful
when the other ve pramanas fail in ones pursuit of knowledge and truth.[164][181] A variation of
Anupaladbi, called Abhava () has also been
posited as an epistemic method. It means nonexistence. Some scholars consider Anupalabdi to
be same as Abhava,[161] while others consider Anupalabdi and Abhava as dierent.[181][182] Abhava-

3.4

Goals of human life and soteriology

pramana has been discussed in Advaita in the context of Padartha (, referent of a term). A
Padartha is dened as that which is simultaneously Astitva (existent), Jneyatva (knowable) and
Abhidheyatva (nameable).[183] Abhava was further
rened in four types, by the schools of Hinduism
that accepted it as a useful method of epistemology:
dhvamsa (termination of what existed), atyantaabhava (impossibility, absolute non-existence, contradiction), anyonya-abhava (mutual negation, reciprocal absence) and pragavasa (prior, antecedent
non-existence).[164][183][184]

6. abda () means relying on word, testimony of

past or present reliable experts.[161][179] Hiriyanna
explains Sabda-pramana as a concept which means
reliable expert testimony. The schools of Hinduism which consider it epistemically valid suggest
that a human being needs to know numerous facts,
and with the limited time and energy available, he
can learn only a fraction of those facts and truths
directly.[185] He must rely on others, his parent, family, friends, teachers, ancestors and kindred members of society to rapidly acquire and share knowledge and thereby enrich each others lives. This
means of gaining proper knowledge is either spoken or written, but through Sabda (words).[185] The
reliability of the source is important, and legitimate
knowledge can only come from the Sabda of reliable
sources.[179][185] The disagreement between Advaita
and other schools of Hinduism has been on how to
establish reliability.[186]

3.4

Goals of human life and soteriology

9
Advaitins, but usually in the context of knowing Brahman and Self-realization.[188] The soteriological goal, in
Advaita, is to gain knowledge and complete understanding of the identity of Atman and Brahman. In Advaita
Vedanta, the interest is not in liberation in after life, but
in ones current life.[189] This school holds that liberation
can be achieved while living, and a person who achieves
this is called a Jivanmukta.[41][190]

3.4.2 Jivanmukta
The concept of Jivanmukti of Advaita Vedanta contrasts
with Videhamukti (moksha from samsara after death) in
theistic sub-schools of Vedanta.[191] Jivanmukti is a state
that transforms the nature, attributes and behaviors of an
individual, after which the liberated individual shows attributes such as:[192]
he is not bothered by disrespect and endures cruel
words, treats others with respect regardless of how
others treat him;
when confronted by an angry person he does not return anger, instead replies with soft and kind words;
even if tortured, he speaks and trusts the truth;
he does not crave for blessings or expect praise from
others;
he never injures or harms any life or being (ahimsa),
he is intent in the welfare of all beings;

Main articles: Moksha and Jivanmukta

he is as comfortable being alone as in the presence

of others;

3.4.1

he is as comfortable with a bowl, at the foot of a

tree in tattered robe without help, as when he is in a
mithuna (union of mendicants), grama (village) and
nagara (city);

Moksha

Advaita, like other schools, accepts Pururtha - the four

goals of human life as natural and proper:[39]
Dharma: the right way to life, the duties and obligations of the individual toward himself and the
society as well as those of the society toward the
individual";[40]
Artha: the means to support and sustain ones life;
Kma: pleasure and enjoyment;
Moka: liberation, release.
Of these, much of the Advaita Vedanta philosophy focuses on the last, gaining liberation in ones current
life.[187] The rst three are discussed and encouraged by

he doesnt care about or wear sikha (tuft of hair on

the back of head for religious reasons), nor the holy
thread across his body. To him, knowledge is sikha,
knowledge is the holy thread, knowledge alone is
supreme. Outer appearances and rituals do not matter to him, only knowledge matters;
for him there is no invocation nor dismissal of
deities, no mantra nor non-mantra, no prostrations
nor worship of gods, goddess or ancestors, nothing
other than knowledge of Self;
he is humble, high spirited, of clear and steady mind,
straightforward, compassionate, patient, indierent,
courageous, speaks rmly and with sweet words.

10

3.5

HISTORY OF ADVAITA VEDANTA

Ethics

Some claim, states Deutsch, that there is no place for

ethics in Advaita, that it turns its back on all theoretical
and practical considerations of morality and, if not unethical, is at least 'a-ethical' in character.[193] However, adds
Deutsch, ethics does have a rm place in this philosophy.
Ethics, which implies doing good Karma, indirectly helps
in attaining true knowledge.[194]
Adi Shankara, a leading proponent of Advaita, in verse
1.25 to 1.26 of his Upadeashasr, asserts that the Selfknowledge is understood and realized when ones mind is
puried by the observation of Yamas (ethical precepts)
such as Ahimsa (non-violence, abstinence from injuring
others in body, mind and thoughts), Satya (truth, abstinence from falsehood), Asteya (abstinence from theft),
Aparigraha (abstinence from possessiveness and craving)
and a simple life of meditation and reection.[195] Rituals
and rites can help focus and prepare the mind for the journey to Self-knowledge,[64] however, Shankara discourages ritual worship and oblations to Deva (God), because
that assumes the Self within is dierent than Brahman.
The doctrine of dierence is wrong, asserts Shankara,
because, he who knows the Brahman is one and he is
another, does not know Brahman.[196]
Adi Shankara with Disciples, by Raja Ravi Varma (1904)
Elsewhere, in verses 1.26-1.28, the Advaita text Upadesasahasri states the ethical premise of equality of all beings. Any Bheda (discrimination), states Shankara, based 4.1 Pre-Shankara Advaita Vedanta
on class or caste or parentage is a mark of inner error and
the composition of the
lack of liberating knowledge.[197] This text states that the Of the Vedanta-school before[201]
Brahma
Sutras
(400450
CE
), wrote Nakamura in
fully liberated person understands and practices the ethics
[201]
1950,
almost
nothing
is
known.
The two Advaita
[197]
of non-dierence.
writings of pre-Shankara period, known to scholars such
as Nakamura in the rst half of 20th-century, were
One, who is eager to realize this highest
the Vkyapadya, written by Bharthari (second half
truth spoken of in the Sruti, should rise above
5th century[202] ), and the Mndkya-krik written by
the vefold form of desire: for a son, for
Gaudapada (7th century CE).[201]
wealth, for this world and the next, and are
Scholarship after 1950 suggests that almost all
the outcome of a false reference to the Self
Sannyasa Upanishads have a strong Advaita Vedanta
of Varna (castes, colors, classes) and orders of
outlook.[203][204][205] Six of these Sannyasa Upanishads
life. These references are contradictory to right
Aruni, Kundika, Kathashruti, Paramahamsa, Jabala
knowledge, and reasons are given by the Srutis
and Brahma were composed before the 3rd-century
regarding the prohibition of the acceptance of
CE, likely in the centuries before or after the start of the
dierence. For when the knowledge that the
common era, states Sprockho; the Asrama Upanishad
one non-dual Atman (Self) is beyond phenomis dated to the 3rd-century.[206][207]
enal existence is generated by the scriptures
and reasoning, there cannot exist a knowledge
The strong Advaita Vedanta views in these ancient texts
side by side that is contradictory or contrary to
may be, states Patrick Olivelle, because major Hindu
it.
monasteries of this period (1st millennium CE) belonged
Adi Shankara, Upadesha Sahasri 1.44,
to the Advaita Vedanta tradition.[203]
[198][199]

4.1.1 Earliest Vedanta

History of Advaita Vedanta

See also: Vedas, Upanishads, and Darsanas

Advaita Vedanta existed prior to Shankara, but found its The Upanishads form the basic texts, of which
Vedanta gives an interpretation.[208] The Upanishads
most inuential expounder in Adi Shankara.[200]

4.2

Gaudapada

don't contain a rigorous philosophical inquiry identifying the doctrines and formulating the supporting
arguments.[209][note 14] This philosophical inquiry was
performed by the darsanas, the various philosophical
schools.[211] Deutsch and Dalvi point out that in the Indian context texts are only part of a tradition which is
preserved in its purest form in the oral transmission as it
has been going on.[212]
4.1.2

Bdaryanas Brahma Sutras

11
Although Shankara is often considered to be the founder
of the Advaita Vedanta school, according to Nakamura, comparison of the known teachings of these early
Vedantins and Shankaras thought shows that most of the
characteristics of Shankaras thought were advocated by
someone before ankara.[218] Shankara was the person
who synthesized the Advaita-vda which had previously
existed before him.[218] In this synthesis, he was the rejuvenator and defender of ancient learning.[219] He was an
unequalled commentator,[219] due to whose eorts and
contributions the Advaita Vedanta assumed a dominant
position within Indian philosophy.[219]

Main article: Brahma Sutras

The Brahma Sutras of Bdaryana, also called the 4.2 Gaudapada
Vedanta Sutra,[213] were compiled in its present form
around 400450 CE,[214] but the great part of the Sutra
Main article: Gaudapada
must have been in existence much earlier than that.[214]
Estimates of the date of Bdaryanas lifetime dier beGaudapada (6th century)[220] was the teacher of Govinda
tween 200 BCE and 200 CE.[215]
Bhagavatpada and the grandteacher of Shankara.
The Brahma Sutra is a critical study of the teachings of
Gaudapada uses the concepts of Ajativada and Maya[221]
the Upanishads. It was and is a guide-book for the great
to establish that from the level of ultimate truth the
teachers of the Vedantic systems.[213] Bdaryana was
world is a cosmic illusion,[222] and and suggests that
not the rst person to systematise the teachings of the
the whole of our waking experience is exactly the same
Upanishads.[216] He refers to seven Vedantic teachers beas an illusory and insubstantial dream.[223] In contrast,
[216]
fore him:
Adi Shankara insists upon a distinction between waking
experience and dreams.[223]
From the way in which Bdaryana cites
the views of others it is obvious that the teachings of the Upanishads must have been ana4.2.1 Mukya Krik
lyzed and interpreted by quite a few before him
and that his systematization of them in 555 suGaudapada wrote or compiled[224] the Mukya Krik,
tras arranged in four chapters must have been
[216]
also known as the Gauapda Krik and as the gama
the last attempt, most probably the best.
stra.[note 16] The Mukya Krik is a commentary in
verse form on the Mandukya Upanishad, one of the shortest but most profound Upanishads, or mystical Vedas,
4.1.3 Between Brahma Sutras and Shankara
consisting of just 13 prose sentences. In Shankaras
According to Nakamura, there must have been an enor- time it was considered to be a ruti, but not particularly
[225]
In later periods it acquired a higher status,
mous number of other writings turned out in this period, important.
but unfortunately all of them have been scattered or lost and eventually it was regarded as expressing the essence
[225]
and have not come down to us today.[201] In his com- of the Upanisad philosophy.
mentaries, Shankara mentions 99 dierent predecessors The Mukya Krik is the earliest extent systematic
of his Sampradaya.[217] In the beginning of his commen- treatise on Advaita Vednta,[226] though it is not the oldtary on the Brhadaranyaka Upanishad Shankara salutes est work to present Advaita views,[227] nor the only prethe teachers of the Brahmavidya Sampradaya.[web 8] Pre- Sankara work with the same type of teachings.[227]
Shankara doctrines and sayings can be traced in the works
of the later schools, which does give insight into the development of early Vedanta philosophy.[201]
4.2.2 Shri Gaudapadacharya Math
The names of various important early Vedanta thinkers
have been listed in the Siddhitraya by Yamuncrya
(c.1050), the Vedrthasamgraha by Rmnuja (c.1050 Main article: Shri Gaudapadacharya Math
1157), and the Yatndramatadpik by rnivsadsa.[201] Combined together,[201] at least fourteen Around 740 AD Gaudapada founded Shri Gaudathinkers are known to have existed between the padacharya Math[note 17] , also known as Kava maha. It
composition of the Brahman Sutras and Shankaras is located in Kavale, Ponda, Goa,[web 9] and is the oldest
matha of the South Indian Saraswat Brahmins.[228][web 10]
lifetime.[201][note 15]

12

4.3

HISTORY OF ADVAITA VEDANTA

Adi Shankara

of Hinduism, Shankara consolidated and applied it with

his unique exegetical method called Anvaya-Vyatireka,
which states that for proper understanding one must acMain article: Adi Shankara
cept only meanings that are compatible with all characteristics and exclude meanings that are incompatible with
Adi Shankara (788820), also known as akara Bhaany.[235][236]
gavatpdcrya and di akarcrya, represents a turning point in the development of Vedanta.[229] After the Hacker and Phillips note that this insight into rules of
growing inuence of Buddhism on Vedanta, culminat- reasoning and hierarchical emphasis on epistemic steps
ing in the works of Gaudapada, Adi Shankara gave a is doubtlessly the suggestion of Shankara in BrahmaVedantic character to the Buddhistic elements in these sutra, an insight that owers in the works of his comworks,[229] synthesising and rejuvenating the doctrine of panion and disciple Padmapada.[237] Merrell-Wol states
Advaita.[219] Using ideas in ancient Indian texts, Shankara that Shankara accepts Vedas and Upanishads as a source
systematized the foundation for Advaita Vedanta in the of knowledge as he develops his philosophical theses, yet
8th century CE, though the school was founded many he never rests his case on the ancient texts, rather proves
centuries earlier by Badarayana.[230] His thematic focus each thesis, point by point using pranamas (epistemolextended beyond metaphysics and soteriology, and he laid ogy), reason and experience.[238][239]
a strong emphasis on Pramanas, that is epistemology or
means to gain knowledge, reasoning methods that empower one to gain reliable knowledge. Rambachan, for 4.3.1 Historical context
example, summarizes the widely held view on one asSee also Late-Classical Age and Hinduism Midpect of Shankaras epistemology before critiquing it as
dle Ages
follows,
According to these [widely represented
contemporary] studies, Shankara only accorded a provisional validity to the knowledge
gained by inquiry into the words of the ruti
(Vedas) and did not see the latter as the unique
source (pramana) of Brahmajnana. The afrmations of the ruti, it is argued, need to
be veried and conrmed by the knowledge
gained through direct experience (anubhava)
and the authority of the ruti, therefore, is only
secondary.
Anantanand Rambachan[82]

Sengaku Mayeda concurs, adding Shankara maintained

the need for objectivity in the process of gaining knowledge (vastutantra), and considered subjective opinions
(purushatantra) and injunctions in ruti (codanatantra)
as secondary.[231] Mayeda cites Shankaras explicit statements emphasizing epistemology (pramana-janya) in
section 1.18.133 of Upadesasahasri and section 1.1.4 of
Brahmasutra-bhasya.[231][232]

Shankara lived in the time of the so-called Late classical Hinduism,[240] which lasted from 650 till 1100
CE.[240] This era was one of political instability that followed Gupta dynasty and King Harsha of the 7th century CE.[241] It was a time of social and cultural change
as the ideas of Buddhism, Jainism and various traditions
within Hinduism were competing for members.[242][243]
Buddhism in particular inuenced in Indias spiritual
traditions in the rst 700 years of the 1st millennium
CE.[241][244] Shankara, and his contemporaries, made a
signicant contribution in understanding Buddhism and
the ancient Vedic traditions, then transforming the extant ideas, particularly reforming the Vedanta tradition
of Hinduism, making it Indias most important tradition
for more than a thousand years.[241]
4.3.2 Writings
Main article: Adi Shankara bibliography

Adi Shankara is most known for his systematic reviews

and commentaries (Bhasyas) on ancient Indian texts.
Adi Shankara cautioned against cherrypicking a phrase or Shankaras masterpiece of commentary is the Brahmaa
verse out of context from Vedic literature, and remarked sutrabhasya (literally, commentary on Brahma Sutra),
[245]
fundamental
text
of
the
Vedanta
school
of
Hinduism.
that the Anvaya (theme or purport) of any treatise can
only be correctly understood if one attends to the Saman- His commentaries on ten Mukhya (principal) Upanvayat Tatparya Linga, that is six characteristics of the ishads are also considered authentic by scholars.[245][246]
text under consideration: (1) the common in Upakrama Other authentic works of Shankara include commen(introductory statement) and Upasamhara (conclusions); taries on the Bhagavad Gita (part of his Prasthana
(2) Abhyasa (message repeated); (3) Apurvata (unique Trayi Bhasya).[82] His Vivarana (tertiary notes) on the
proposition or novelty); (4) Phala (fruit or result derived); commentary by Vedavyasa on Yogasutras as well as
(5) Arthavada (explained meaning, praised point) and (6) those on Apastamba Dharma-stras (Adhyatama-patalaYukti (veriable reasoning).[233][234] While this method- bhasya) are accepted by scholars as authentic works
ology has roots in the theoretical works of Nyaya school of Adi Shankara.[247][248] Among the Stotra (poetic

4.4

Surevara and Maana Mira

13

works), the Daksinamurti Stotra, the Bhajagovinda Stotra, the Sivanandalahari, the Carpata-panjarika, the
Visnu-satpadi, the Harimide, the Dasa-shloki, and the
Krishna-staka are likely to be authentic.[247][249]

be the major representative of Advaita.[262][263] Other

scholars state that the historical records for this period are
unclear, and little reliable information is known about the
various contemporaries and disciples of Shankara.[264]

Shankara also authored Upadesasahasri, his most important original philosophical work.[230][248] Of other original Prakaranas (, monographs, treatise), seventy six works are attributed to Adi Shankara. Modern
era Indian scholars such as Belvalkar as well as Upadhyaya accept ve and thirty nine works respectively as
authentic.[250]

Several scholars suggest that the historical fame and cultural inuence of Shankara grew centuries later, particularly during the era of Muslim invasions and consequent devastation of India.[261][265] Many of Shankaras
biographies were created and published in and after
the 14th century, such as the widely cited Vidyaranyas
ankara-vijaya. Vidyaranya, also known as Madhava,
who was the 12th Jagadguru of the ringeri arada
Ptham from 1380 to 1386,[266] inspired the re-creation
of the Hindu Vijayanagara Empire of South India in response to the devastation caused by the Islamic Delhi Sultanate.[265][267] He and his brothers, suggest Paul Hacker
and other scholars,[261][265] wrote about ankara as well as
extensive Advaitic commentaries on Vedas and Dharma.
Vidyaranya was a minister in Vijayanagara Empire and
enjoyed royal support,[267] and his sponsorship and methodical eorts helped establish Shankara as a rallying
symbol of values, and helped spread historical and cultural inuence of Shankaras Vedanta philosophies. Vidyaranya also helped establish monasteries (mathas) to
expand the cultural inuence of Shankara and Advaita
Vedanta.[261]

Commentaries on Nrisimha-Purvatatapaniya and Shveshvatara Upanishads are attributed to Adi Shankara, but
their authenticity is highly doubtful.[246][251] Similarly,
commentaries on several early and later Upanishads attributed to Shankara are rejected by scholars[252] to
be his works, and are likely works of later Advaita
Vedanta scholars; these include: Kaushitaki Upanishad,
Maitri Upanishad, Kaivalya Upanishad, Paramahamsa
Upanishad, Sakatayana Upanishad, Mandala Brahmana
Upanishad, Maha Narayana Upanishad, Gopalatapaniya
Upanishad.[251]

The authenticity of Shankara being the author of

Vivekacmai[253] has been questioned, but scholars
generally credit it to him.[254] The authorship of Shankara
of his Mandukya Upanishad Bhasya and his supplementary commentary on Gaudapadas Mukya Krik has
been disputed by Nakamura.[255] However, other scholars 4.4 Surevara and Maana Mira
state that the commentary on Mandukya, which is actually a commentary on Madukya-Karikas by Gaudapada, Main articles: Surevara and Maana Mira
may be authentic.[247][251]

Surevara (. 800-900 CE)[268] and Maana Mira

were contemporaries of Shankara, Surevara often (in4.3.3 Inuence of Shankara
correctly) being identied with Maana Mira.[269]
Both explained Sankara on the basis of their per[269]
Surevara has also been credShankara has an unparallelled status in the tradition of sonal convictions.
ited
as
the
founder
of
a
pre-Shankara
branch of Advaita
Advaita Vedanta. He travelled all over India to help
[268]
[256]
Vedanta.
restore the study of the Vedas.
His teachings and
tradition form the basis of Smartism and have inuenced Maana Mira was a Mimamsa scholar and a follower
Sant Mat lineages.[257] He introduced the Pacyatana of Kumarila, but who also wrote a work on Advaita,
form of worship, the simultaneous worship of ve deities the Brahma-siddhi.[270] According to tradition, Maana
Ganesha, Surya, Vishnu, Shiva and Devi. Shankara ex- Mira and his wife were defeated by Shankara in a debate,
plained that all deities were but dierent forms of the one where-after he became a follower of Shankara.[270] Yet,
Brahman, the invisible Supreme Being.[258]
his attitude toward Shankara is that of a self-condent
Benedict Ashley credits Adi Shankara for unifying two
seemingly disparate philosophical doctrines in Hinduism,
namely Atman and Brahman.[259] Isaeva states Shankaras
inuence included reforming Hinduism, founding monasteries, edifying disciples, disputing opponents and engaging in philosophic activity that, in the eyes of Indian tradition, help revive the orthodox idea of the unity of all
beings and Vedanta thought.[260]

rival teacher of Advaita,[271] and his inuence was such,

that some regard this work to have set forth a nonSankaran brand of Advaita.[270] The theory of error
set forth in the Brahma-siddhi became the normative
Advaita Vedanta theory of error.[272] It was Vachaspati
Misras commentary on this work which linked it up with
Shankaras teaching.[273]

Hiriyanna and Kuppuswami Sastra have pointed out that

Some scholars doubt Shankaras early inuence in Surevara and Maana Mira had dierent views on var[274]
India.[261] According to King and Roodurmun, until the ious doctrinal points:
10th century Shankara was overshadowed by his older
The locus of avidya:[274] according to Maana
contemporary Mandana-Misra, the latter considered to

14

HISTORY OF ADVAITA VEDANTA

Mira, the individual jiva is the locus of avidya, while the study of the Vedas and reection are additional
whereas Suresvara contents that avidya regarding factors.[281]
Brahman is located in Brahman.[274] These two different stances are also reected in the opposing
positions of the Bhamati school and the Vivarana 4.5.3 Prakasatman - Vivarana school
school.[274]
Main article: Vivarana
Liberation: according to Maana Mira, the
knowledge which arises from the Mahavakya is in- Prakasatman (c.1200-1300)[277] wrote the Pancapadikasucient for liberation. Only the direct realiza- Vivarana, a commentary on the Pancapadika by
tion of Brahma is liberating, which can only be at- Padmapadacharya.[277] The Vivarana lends its name to
tained by meditation.[275] According to Suresvara, the subsequent school. According to Roodurmum, his
this knowledge is directly liberating, while medita- line of thought [...] became the leitmotif of all subtion is at best a useful aid.[271][note 18]
sequent developments in the evolution of the Advaita
tradition.[277]

4.5

Advaita Vedanta sub-schools

After Shankaras death several subschools developed.

Two of them still exist today, the Bhmat and the
Vivarana.[web 11][217] Perished schools are the Pancapadika and Istasiddhi, which were replaced by Prakasatmans Vivarana-school.[277]

The Vivarana-school takes an epistemological approach.

Prakasatman was the rst to propound the theory of
mulavidya or maya as being of positive beginningless
nature,[282] and sees Brahman as the source of avidya.
Critics object that Brahman is pure consciousness, so it
can't be the source of avidya. Another problem is that
contradictory qualities, namely knowledge and ignorance,
are attributed to Brahman.[web 11]

These schools worked out the logical implications of various Advaita doctrines. Two of the problems they encountered were the further interpretations to the concepts of 4.5.4 Vimuktatman - Ista-Siddhi
my and avidya.[web 11]
Vimuktatman (c.1200 CE)[283] wrote the Ista-siddhi.[283]
It is one of the four traditional siddhi, together
4.5.1 Padmapada - Pancapadika school
with Mandanas Brahma-siddhi, Suresvaras Naiskarmyasiddhi, and Madusudanas Advaita-siddhi.[284] AccordPadmapada (c. 800 CE)[278] was a direct disciple of ing to Vimuktatman, absolute Reality is pure intuitive
Shankara, who wrote the Pancapadika, a commentary consciousness.[285] His school of thought was eventually
on the Sankara-bhaya.[278] Padmapada diverted from replaced by Prakasatmans Vivarana school.[277]
Shankara in his description of avidya, designating prakrti
as avidya or ajnana.[279]

4.6 Later Advaita Vedanta tradition

4.5.2

Vachaspati Misra - Bhamati school

Main articles: Bhamati and Vcaspati Mira

See also: Dashanami Sampradaya and List of teachers

of Advaita Vedanta

According to Sangeetha Menon, prominent names in the

Vachaspati Misra (c.800-900 CE)[280] wrote the
later Advaita tradition are:[web 12]
Brahmatattva-samiksa, a commentary on Maana
Miras Brahma-siddhi, which provides the link be Prakstman, Vimukttman, Sarvajtman (tenth
tween Mandana Misra and Shankara,[273] attempting
century),
to harmonise Sankaras thought with that of Mandana
[web 11]
According to Advaita tradition, Shankara
Misra.
r Hara, Citsukha (twelfth century),
reincarnated as Vachaspati Misra to popularise the
[280]
Advaita System through his Bhamati.
Only two
nandagiri, Amalnand (thirteenth century),
works are known of Vachaspati Misra, the Brahmatattvasamiksa on Maana Miras Brahma-siddhi, and his
Vidyraya, akarnand (fourteenth century),
Bhamati on the Sankara-bhasya, Shankaras com Sadnand (fteenth century),
mentary on the Brahma-sutras.[273] The name of the
[web 11]
Bhamati-subschool is derived from this Bhamati.
Praknanda, Nsihrama (sixteenth century),
The Bhamati-school takes an ontological approach. It
Madhusdhana Sarasvati, Dharmarja Advarindra,
sees the Jiva as the source of avidya.[web 11] It sees meditation as the main factor in the acquirement of liberation,
Appaya Dkita (seventeenth century),

5.2

Smarta Tradition

Sadaiva Brahmendra (eighteenth century),

15
headed by one of his four main disciples, who each continues the Vedanta Sampradaya.[note 19]

Candraekhara Bhrati,
Chandrasekharendra
Saraswati Swamigal, Sacchidnandendra Saraswati Monks of these ten orders dier in part in their beliefs
and practices, and a section of them is not considered
(twentieth century).
to be restricted to specic changes made by Shankara.
While the dasanmis associated with the Sankara maths
Contemporary teachers are the orthodox Jagadguru of
follow the procedures enumerated by Adi ankara, some
Sringeri Sharada Peetham; the more traditional teachers
of these orders remained partly or fully independent in
Sivananda Saraswati (18871963), Chinmayananda
their belief and practices; and outside the ocial control
Saraswati,[web 13] and Dayananda Saraswati (Arsha
of the Sankara maths.
Vidya);[web 13] and less traditional teachers like Narayana
The advaita sampradaya is not a Saiva sect,[web 14][291]
Guru.[web 13]
despite the historical links with Shaivism.[note 20] Nevertheless, contemporary Sankaracaryas have more inuence among Saiva communities than among Vaisnava
5 Sampradaya
communities.[web 14] The greatest inuence of the gurus
of the advaita tradition has been among followers of the
5.1 Advaita Mathas
Smartha Tradition, who integrate the domestic Vedic ritual with devotional aspects of Hinduism.[web 14]
See also: Dashanami Sampradaya
According to Nakamura, these mathas contributed to the
Advaita Vedanta is, at least in the west, primarily known
inuence of Shankara, which was due to institutional
factors.[292] The mathas which he built exist until today,
and preserve the teachings and inuence of Shankara,
while the writings of other scholars before him came to
be forgotten with the passage of time.[293]
The table below gives an overview of the four Amnaya
Mathas founded by Adi Shankara, and their details.[web 15]
According to the tradition in Kerala, after Sankaras
samadhi at Vadakkunnathan Temple, his disciples
founded four mathas in Thrissur, namely Naduvil Madhom, Thekke Madhom, Idayil Madhom and Vadakke
Madhom.

(Vidyashankara temple) at Sringeri Sharada Peetham, Shringeri

5.2 Smarta Tradition

Main article: Smarta Tradition

as a philosophical system. But it is also a tradition of
renunciation. Philosophy and renunciation are closely
Traditionally, Shankara is regarded as the greatest
related:[web 14]
teacher[294] and reformer of the Smartha.[295] According
to Alf Hiltebeitel, Shankara established the nondualist inMost of the notable authors in the advaita
terpretation of the Upanishads as the touchstone of a retradition were members of the sannyasa tradivived smarta tradition:
tion, and both sides of the tradition share the
same values, attitudes and metaphysics.[web 14]
Practically, Shankara fostered a rapprochement between Advaita and smarta orthodoxy,
Shankara, himself considered to be an incarnation of
which by his time had not only continued to
Shiva,[web 14] established the Dashanami Sampradaya, ordefend the varnasramadharma theory as denganizing a section of the Ekadandi monks under an uming the path of karman, but had developed the
brella grouping of ten names.[web 14] Several other Hindu
practice of pancayatanapuja (ve-shrine wormonastic and Ekadandi traditions remained outside the
ship) as a solution to varied and conicting
organisation of the Dasanmis.[286][287][288]
devotional practices. Thus one could worship
any one of ve deities (Vishnu, Siva, Durga,
Adi Sankara is said to have organised the Hindu monks of
Surya, Ganesa) as ones istadevata (deity of
these ten sects or names under four Mahas (Sanskrit: )
choice).[296]
(monasteries), with the headquarters at Dvrak in the
West, Jagannatha Puri in the East, Sringeri in the South
and Badrikashrama in the North.[web 14] Each math was The Sringeri monastery is still the centre of the Smarta

16

6 INFLUENCE ON MODERN HINDUISM

sect.[294] In recent times bhakti cults have increasingly become popular with the smartas,[297] and Shiva is particularly favored.[294] In modern times Smarta-views have
been inuential in both the Indian and western understanding of Hinduism.

philosophers in India, and it is, we believe, one of the

greatest philosophical achievements to be found in the
East or the West.[303]
In contrast, King states that its present position as the key
Indian philosophy is a modern phenomenon, which developed under western Orientalism and Perennialism.[304]

Inuence on modern Hinduism

6.2.2 Indian nationalism and Hindu Universalism

6.1

Unifying Hinduism

Main article: Unifying Hinduism

Main articles: Hindu nationalism and Hindu reform

movements

... certain thinkers began to treat as a

single whole the diverse philosophical teachings of the Upanishads, epics, Puranas, and
the schools known retrospectively as the six
systems (saddarsana) of mainstream Hindu
philosophy.[298]

With the onset of the British Raj, the colonialisation of

India by the British, there also started a Hindu renaissance in the 19th century, which profoundly changed
the understanding of Hinduism in both India and the
west.[305] Western orientalist searched for the essence
of the Indian religions, discerning this in the Vedas, and
meanwhile creating the notion of Hinduism as a unied body of religious praxis and the popular picture of
'mystical India'.[306] This idea of a Vedic essence was
taken over by the Hindu reformers, together with the ideas
of Universalism and Perennialism, the idea that all religions share a common mystic ground.[307] The Brahmo
Samaj, who was supported for a while by the Unitarian
Church,[308] played an essential role in the introduction
and spread of this new understanding of Hinduism.[309]

The tendency of a blurring of philosophical distinctions has also been noted by Burley.[299] Lorenzen locates the origins of a distinct Hindu identity in the interaction between Muslims and Hindus,[300] and a process of mutual self-denition with a contrasting Muslim
other,[301] which started well before 1800.[302] Both the
Indian and the European thinkers who developed the term
Hinduism in the 19th century were inuenced by these
philosophers.[298]

Vedanta came to be regarded as the essence of Hinduism, and Advaita Vedanta came to be regarded as then
paradigmatic example of the mystical nature of the Hindu
religion.[262] These notions served well for the Hindu nationalists, who further popularised this notion of Advaita
Vedanta as the pinnacle of Indian religions.[310] It provided an opportunity for the construction of a nationalist
ideology that could unite HIndus in their struggle against
colonial oppression.[311]

Within these doxologies, Advaita Vedanta was given the

highest position, since it was regarded to be most inclusive system.[19] Vijnanabhiksu, a 16th-century philosopher and writer, is still an inuential representant of these
doxologies. Hes been a prime inuence on 19th century
Hindu modernists like Vivekananda, who also tried to integrate various strands of Hindu thought, taking Advaita
Vedanta as its most representative specimen.[19]

In modern times, states King, Advaita Vedanta has acquired a broad acceptance in Indian culture and beyond
as the paradigmatic example of Hindu spirituality.[304]

6.2

A major proponent in the popularisation of this Universalist and Perennialist interpretation of Advaita Vedanta
was Vivekananda,[312] who played a major role in the
revival of Hinduism,[313] and the spread of Advaita
Vedanta to the west via the Ramakrishna Mission. His
interpretation of Advaita Vedanta has been called NeoVedanta.[314] Vivekananda discerned a universal religion, regarding all the apparent dierences between various traditions as various manifestations of one truth.[315]
He presented karma, bhakti, jnana and raja yoga as equal

Advaita Vedanta came to occupy a central position in the

classication of various Hindu traditions. With the onset
of Islamic rule, hierarchical classications of the various
orthodox schools were developed to shield Hindu Philosophy from Islamic inuences.[19] According to Nicholson, already between the twelfth and the sixteenth century,

6.2.1

Contemporary views
Historical inuence

Scholars are divided on the historical inuence of Advaita Vedanta. Some Indologists state that it is one of
the most studied Hindu philosophy and the most inuential schools of classical Indian thought.[16][17][18] Advaita
Vedanta, states Eliot Deutsch, has been and continues
to be the most widely accepted system of thought among

6.2.3 Swami Vivekananda

Main articles: Neo-Vedanta, Swami Vivekananda, and
Ramakrishna Mission

17
means to attain moksha,[316] to present Vedanta as a lib- 6.2.5 Neo-Advaita
eral and universal religion, in contrast to the exclusivism
Main article: Neo-Advaita
of other religions.[316]
Vivekananda emphasised samadhi as a means to attain
liberation.[317] Yet this emphasis is not to be found in the
Upanishads nor with Shankara.[318] For Shankara, meditation and Nirvikalpa Samadhi are means to gain knowledge of the already existing unity of Brahman and Atman.
Vivekananda also claimed that Advaita is the only religion that is in agreement with modern science. In a talk
on The absolute and manifestation given in at London
in 1896 Swami Vivekananda said,
I may make bold to say that the only religion which agrees with, and even goes a little
further than modern researchers, both on physical and moral lines is the Advaita, and that is
why it appeals to modern scientists so much.
They nd that the old dualistic theories are not
enough for them, do not satisfy their necessities. A man must have not only faith, but intellectual faith too.[web 16]
Mukerji criticizes this view of Vivekananda:
Without calling into question the right of
any philosopher to interpret Advaita according
to his own understanding of it, ... the process
of Westernization has obscured the core of this
school of thought. The basic correlation of renunciation and Bliss has been lost sight of in
the attempts to underscore the cognitive structure and the realistic structure which according
to Samkaracarya should both belong to, and indeed constitute the realm of my.[314]
6.2.4

Sarvepalli Radhakrishnan

Main article: Sarvepalli Radhakrishnan

Sarvepalli Radhakrishnan further popularized Advaita Vedanta, presenting it as the essence of
Hinduism.[web 17] Radhakrishnan saw other religions,
including what Radhakrishnan understands as lower
forms of Hinduism,[web 17] as interpretations of Advaita
Vedanta, thereby Hindusizing all religions.[web 17] His
metaphysics was grounded in Advaita Vedanta, but
he reinterpreted Advaita Vedanta for a contemporary
understanding.[web 17] He acknowledged the reality
and diversity of the world of experience, which he
saw as grounded in and supported by the absolute or
Brahman.[web 17][note 21] Radhakrishnan also reinterpreted
Shankaras notion of maya. According to Radhakrishnan, maya is not a strict absolute idealism, but a
subjective misperception of the world as ultimately
real.[web 17]

Neo-Advaita is a New Religious Movement based on a

popularised, western interpretation of Advaita Vedanta
and the teachings of Ramana Maharshi.[320] Neo-Advaita
is being criticised[321][note 22][323][note 23][note 24] for discarding the traditional prerequisites of knowledge of the
scriptures[325] and renunciation as necessary preparation for the path of jnana-yoga".[325][326] Notable neoadvaita teachers are H. W. L. Poonja,[327][320] his students Gangaji[328] Andrew Cohen[note 25] , and Eckhart
Tolle.[320]
6.2.6 Non-dualism
Main article: Nondualism
Advaita Vedanta has gained attention in western
spirituality and New Age, where various traditions are
seen as driven by the same non-dual experience.[330]
Nonduality points to a primordial, natural awareness
without subject or object.[web 22] It is also used to refer
to interconnectedness, the sense that all things are
interconnected and not separate, while at the same time
all things retain their individuality.[web 23]

7 Relationship with other forms of

Vedanta
The Advaita Vedanta ideas, particularly of 8th century Adi Shankara, were challenged by theistic Vedanta
philosophies that emerged centuries later, such as the
11th-century Vishishtadvaita (qualied nondualism) of
Ramanuja, and the 14th-century Dvaita (theistic dualism)
of Madhvacharya.[331]

7.1 Vishishtadvaita
Main article: Vishishtadvaita
Ramanujas Vishishtadvaita school and Shankara's
Advaita school are both nondualism Vedanta
schools,[332][333] both are premised on the assumption that all souls can hope for and achieve the state of
blissful liberation; in contrast, Madhvacharya and his
Dvaita subschool of Vedanta believed that some souls
are eternally doomed and damned.[334][335] Shankaras
theory posits that only Brahman and causes are metaphysical unchanging reality, while the empirical world
(Maya) and observed eects are changing, illusive and
of relative existence.[336][337] Spiritual liberation to
Shankara is the full comprehension and realization of

18

oneness of ones unchanging Atman (soul) as the same as

Atman in everyone else as well as being identical to the
nirguna Brahman.[333][338][339] In contrast, Ramanujas
theory posits both Brahman and the world of matter are
two dierent absolutes, both metaphysically real, neither
should be called false or illusive, and saguna Brahman
with attributes is also real.[337] God, like man, states
Ramanuja, has both soul and body, and all of the world
of matter is the glory of Gods body.[332] The path to
Brahman (Vishnu), asserted Ramanuja, is devotion to
godliness and constant remembrance of the beauty and
love of personal god (saguna Brahman, Vishnu), one
which ultimately leads one to the oneness with nirguna
Brahman.[332][336][337]

RELATIONSHIP WITH BUDDHISM

8.1 Ontology
Advaita Vedanta is a substance ontology, an ontology
which holds that underlying the seeming change, variety, and multiplicity of existence there are unchanging
and permanent entities (the so-called substances)".[345] In
contrast, Buddhism is a process ontology, according to
which there exists nothing permanent and unchanging,
within or without man.[346][note 26]
Advaita three levels of reality theory, states Renard,
is built on the two levels of reality found in the
Madhyamika.[348]

8.2 Gaudapada
7.2

Shuddhadvaita

Main article: Shuddhadvaita

Vallabhacharya (14791531 CE), the proponent of the
philosophy of Shuddhadvaita Brahmvad enunciates that
Ishvara has created the world without connection with any
external agency such as Maya (which itself is his power)
and manifests Himself through the world.[340] That is why
shuddhadvaita is known as Unmodied transformation
or Avikta Parimavda. Brahman or Ishvara desired
to become many, and he became the multitude of individual souls and the world. Vallabha recognises Brahmn
as the whole and the individual as a part (but devoid of
bliss).[341]

7.3

Dvaita

Main article: Dvaita

According to B.N.K. Sharma, the early commentators

on the Brahma Sutras were all realists,[349] or pantheist
realists.[350] They, states Sharma were inuenced by Buddhism, particularly during the 5th and 6th centuries Buddhist thought developing in the Yogacara school.[351] The
6th-century Gaudapada bridged Buddhism and Vedanta,
suggests Sharma, by taking over the Buddhist doctrines that ultimate reality is pure consciousness (vijaptimtra)[220][note 27] and that the nature of the world is the
four-cornered negation.[220][note 28]
Gaudapada took over the Buddhist concept of ajta
from Nagarjuna's Madhyamaka philosophy,[355][356]
which uses the term anutpda.[357] [note 29] An
equivalent theory of Ajtivda, the Doctrine of
no-origination[361][note 30] or non-creation, is the fundamental philosophical doctrine of Gaudapada.[361]
According to Gaudapada, the Absolute Reality, that
is Brahman, is not subject to birth, change and death.
The Absolute is aja, the unborn eternal.[361] Thus both
Buddhism and Gaudapadas theory posit the doctrine of
unreality of the world.[362]
Gaudapada, states Raju, wove Buddhist doctrines into
a philosophy of the Mandukaya Upanisad, which was
further developed by Shankara.[363][note 31] At the same
time, Gaudapada emphatically rejected some theories
of the Buddhists, such as the multiplicity and momentariness of consciousnesses, which were core doctrines
of the Vijnanavada school, and their techniques for
achieving liberation.[365] Other scholars such as Murti
state, that while there is shared terminology, the doctrines of Gaudapada and Buddhism are fundamentally
dierent.[366][367][note 32]

Madhvacharya was also a critic of Advaita Vedanta. Advaitas nondualism asserted that Atman (soul) and Brahman are identical, there is interconnected oneness of all
souls and Brahman, and there are no pluralities[342][343]
Madhva in contrast asserted that Atman (soul) and Brahman are dierent, only Vishnu is the Lord (Brahman), individual souls are also dierent and depend on
Vishnu, and there are pluralities.[342][343] Madhvacharya
stated that both Advaita Vedanta and Mahayana Buddhism were a nihilistic school of thought.[344] Madhvacharya wrote four major texts, including Upadhikhandana and Tattvadyota, primarily dedicated to criticizing
8.3
Advaita.[344]

Relationship with Buddhism

Similarities with Buddhism

Advaita Vedanta and various other schools of Hindu philosophy share numerous terminology and doctrines with
Buddhism. Probably because of these similarities,
writes Natalia Isaeva, even such an astute Buddhologist
as Rozenberg was of the opinion that a precise dieren-

8.5

Inuence of Mahayana Buddhism

19

tiation between Brahmanism and Buddhism is impossible to draw.[369] Of the various schools, the similarities between Advaita and Buddhism have attracted Indian
and Western scholars attention.[370] Ramanujacharya, the
founder of Vishishtadvaita Vedanta, for example, accused Adi Shankara of being a Prachanna Bauddha, that
is, a crypto-Buddhist,[370] and someone who was undermining theistic Bhakti devotionalism.[371] The nonAdvaita scholar Bhaskara of the Bhedabheda tradition,
similarly around 800 CE, accused Shankaras Advaita as
this despicable broken down Mayavada that has been
chanted by the Mahayana Buddhists, and a school that is
undermining the ritual duties set in Vedic orthodoxy.[371]

texts. In contrast to Advaita which describes knowing

ones own soul as identical with Brahman as the path to
nirvana, in its soteriological themes, Buddhism has dened nirvana as that blissful state when a person realizes
that he or she has no self, no soul.[381][383]

with atman, call atman as illusion (maya), asserting instead the theory of no-self and no-soul.[380][382] Buddhism, from its earliest days, has denied the existence of
the self, soul in its core philosophical and ontological

Gaudapada, in his Karikas text, uses the leading concepts and wording of Mahayana Buddhist school but,
states John Plott, he reformulated them to the Upanishadic themes.[362] Mahadevan states, At the outset it

The epistemological foundations of Buddhism and Advaita Vedanta are dierent. Buddhism accepts two valid
means to reliable and correct knowledge perception and
inference, while Advaita Vedanta accepts six (described
elsewhere in this article).[163][181][384] However, some
Buddhists in history, have argued that Buddhist scriptures
are a reliable source of spiritual knowledge, corresponding to Advaitas abda pramana, however Buddhists have
Given the principal role attributed to Shankara in Advaita treated their scriptures as a form of inference method.[385]
tradition, his works have been examined by scholars for
similarities with Buddhism.[371][372] Buddhism supporters have targeted Shankara, states Biderman, while his 8.5 Inuence of Mahayana Buddhism
Hindu supporters state that accusations concerning explicit or implicit Buddhist inuence are not relevant.[370] Scholars state that Advaita Vedanta was inuenced by
Daniel Ingalls writes, If we are to adopt a metaphysical Mahayana Buddhism, given the common terminology,
and static view of philosophy there is little dierence be- methodology and some doctrines.[386][387] Eliot Deutsch
tween Shankara and Vijnanavada Buddhism, so little, in and Rohit Dalvi state:
fact that the whole discussion is fairly pointless. But if
we try to think our way back into minds of philosophers
In any event a close relationship between
whose works we read, there is a very real dierence bethe
Mahayana schools and Vedanta did exist
tween the antagonists.[370] Other scholars such as Belwith the latter borrowing some of the dialecvalkar, Hiriyanna, Radhakrishnan and Thibaut state that
tical techniques, if not the specic doctrines,
Advaitas and Buddhisms theories on True Reality and
of the former.[388]
Maya are similar,[373] and the inuence of Buddhism on
Advaita Vedanta has been signicant.[371] Both traditions
hold that the empirical world is transitory, a show of The inuence of Mahayana on Advaita Vedanta, states
appearances,[373][374] and both admit degrees of truth Deutsch, goes back at least to Gaudapada, where he
or existence.[375] Both traditions emphasize the human clearly draws from Buddhist philosophical sources for
need for spiritual liberation (moksha, nirvana, kaivalya), many of his arguments and distinctions and even for
the forms and imagery in which these arguments are
however with dierent assumptions.[376][note 33]
cast.[388] Michael Comans states Gaudapada, an early
Frank Whaling states that the similarities between Ad- Vedantin, utilised some arguments and reasoning from
vaita Vedanta and Buddhism are not limited to the ter- Madhyamaka Buddhist texts by quoting them almost verminology and some doctrines, it includes practice. The batim. However, Comans adds there is a fundamental
monastic practices and monk tradition in Advaita are sim- dierence between Buddhist thought and that of Gaudailar to those found in Buddhism.[371]
pada, in that Buddhism has as its philosophical basis the
doctrine of Dependent Origination according to which
everything is without an essential nature (nissvabhava),
8.4 Dierences from Buddhism
and everything is empty of essential nature (svabhavasunya)", while Gaudapada does not rely on this prinAdvaita Vedanta holds the premise, Soul exists, and ciple at all. Gaudapadas Ajativada is an outcome of
Soul (or self, Atman) is a self evident truth. Bud- reasoning applied to an unchanging nondual reality acdhism, in contrast, holds the premise, Atman does not cording to which there exists a Reality (sat) that is unexist, and An-atman (or Anatta, non-self)[378] is self born (aja)" that has essential nature (svabhava) and this
evident.[379][380]
is the eternal, fearless, undecaying Self (Atman) and
[389]
Thus, Gaudapada diers from Buddhist
Buddhists do not believe that at the core of all human be- Brahman.
scholars
such
as
Nagarjuna, states Comans, by accepting
ings and living creatures, there is any eternal, essential
the
premises
and
relying on the fundamental teaching of
[381]
and absolute something called a soul, self or atman.
[389]
the
Upanishads.
Buddhists reject the concept and all doctrines associated

20

11 NOTES

must be pointed out that, when the critics hurl the charge
of pseudo-Buddhism against Advaita, they use the word
Buddhism rather in a vague and general sense. The doctrine of unreality of the world, and the theory of nonrecognition are found to be common as between the idealistic schools of Buddhism and Advaita. Most critics
believe that these are not Upanishadic doctrines, and so,
their conclusion is that Advaita must have borrowed them
from the Mahayana schools. And the earliest teacher who
eected this borrowing, in their view, is Gaudapada.[362]
The inuence of Buddhism on Gaudapada, states John
Plott, is undeniable and to be expected.[362] He writes,
We must emphasize again that generally
throughout the Gupta Dynasty, and even more
so after its decline, there developed such a high
degree of syncretism and such toleration of all
points of view that Mahayana Buddhism had
been Hinduized almost as much as Hinduism
had been Buddhaized.
John Plott, Global History of Philosophy, [362]

Mahadevan suggests that Gaudapada adopted Buddhist

terminology and borrowed its doctrines to his Vedantic
goals, much like early Buddhism adopted Upanishadic
terminology and borrowed its doctrines to Buddhist goals;
both used pre-existing concepts and ideas to convey new
meanings.[362]
Dasgupta and Mohanta suggest that Buddhism and
Shankaras Advaita Vedanta represent dierent phases
of development of the same non-dualistic metaphysics from the Upanishadic period to the time of
Sankara.[390][note 34]

8.6

Common core thesis

See also: Perennial philosophy

Isaeva states in her analysis of scholarly views, that these
have historically and in modern times ranged from Advaita and Buddhism are very dierent, to Advaita and
Buddhism absolutely coincide in their main tenets, to
after purifying Buddhism and Advaita of accidental or
historically conditioned accretions, both systems can be
safely regarded as an expression of one and the same eternal absolute truth.[393]
Ninian Smart, a historian of religion, quotes Mudgal view
that the dierences between Shankara and Mahayana
doctrines are largely a matter of emphasis and background, rather than essence.[394][note 35] Mudgal additionally states that the Upanishadic and Buddhist currents
of thought developed separately and independently, opposed to one another, as the orthodox and heterodox, the

thesis and antithesis, and a synthesis was attempted by the

Advaitin Shankara.[395]

9 Scholarly perceptions of Advaita

Vedanta
Advaita Vedanta is one of the most studied and most inuential schools of classical Indian thought.[16][17][18] Already in medieval times, it came to be regarded as the
highest of the Indian religious philosophies,[19] a development which was reinforced in modern times due to western interest in Advaita Vedanta, and the subsequent inuence on western perceptions on Indian perceptions of
Hinduism.[20]
Advaita Vedanta is most often regarded as an idealist
monism. It was strongly inuenced by Buddhist Madhyamaka and Yogacara,[396] and it further developed to
its ultimate extreme monistic ideas already present in
the Upanishads.[21][22][23] According to Dandekar, Gaudapadas Gaudapadakarika aligns Buddhist ideas with
Upanishadic ideas, creating an irresistible impression
that those ideas are consistent with each other.[396]
According to Milne, advaita is a negative term, which
denotes the negation of a dierence, between subject and object, or between perceiver and perceived.
It is, states Milne, misleading to call Advaita Vedanta
monistic, since this confuses the negation of difference with conation into one.[397] Deutsch, in
contrast, states Advaita Vedanta teaches monistic oneness, however without the multiplicity premise of various monism theories.[398] According to Jacqueline Hirst,
Adi Shankara positively emphasizes oneness premise
in his Brahma-sutra Bhasya 2.1.20, attributing it to
all the Upanishads.[399] Nicholson points out that Advaita Vedanta also contains realistic strands of thought,
both in its oldest origins and in Shankaras writings.[26]
The Brahma Sutras take a bedhabheda stance,[396] and
Shankaras writings also contain realistic elements.[26]

10 See also
Cause and eect in Advaita Vedanta
Kashmir Shaivism
Pandeism
Pantheism

11 Notes
[1] IAST Advaita Vednta; Sanskrit: [d ait
ed nt], literally, not-two

21

[2] Literally: end or the goal of the Vedas.

[3] Indian philosophy emphasises that every acceptable philosophy should aid man in realising the Purusarthas, the
chief aims of human life:[39]
Dharma: the right way to life, the duties and obligations of the individual toward himself and the
society as well as those of the society toward the
individual";[40]
Artha: the means to support and sustain ones life;
Kma: pleasure and enjoyment;
Moka: liberation, release.
[4] Consciousness,[47][web 3] intelligence,[48][49] wisdom
[5] the Absolute,[47][web 3] innite,[web 3] the Highest
truth[web 3]
[6] Puligandla: Any philosophy worthy of its title should not
be a mere intellectual exercise but should have practical
application in enabling man to live an enlightened life. A
philosophy which makes no dierence to the quality and
style of our life is no philosophy, but an empty intellectual
construction.[51]
[7] These characteristics and steps are described in various
Advaita texts, such as by Shankara in Chapter 1.1 of Brahmasutrabhasya,[58] and in the Bhagavad Gita Chapter 10
[8] It is not a philosophy in the western meaning of the word,
according to Milne.[85]
[9] Bill Clinton: The buck stops here.
[10] Brahman is also dened as:
The unchanging, innite, immanent, and
transcendent reality which is all matter, energy,
time, space, being, and everything beyond in this
Universe; that is the one supreme, universal spirit
without a second.[99][100]
The one supreme, all pervading Spirit that is the origin and support of the phenomenal universe.[101]
The supreme self. Puligandla states it as the unchanging reality amidst and beyond the world,[102]
The Self-existent, the Absolute and the Imperishable. Brahman is indescribable.
The principle of the world,[103] the absolute,[104]
the general, universal,[105] the cosmic
principle,[106] the ultimate that is the cause
of everything including all gods,[107] the
knowledge,[108] the soul, sense of self of each
human being that is fearless, luminuous, exalted
and blissful,[109] the essence of liberation, of
spiritual freedom,[110] the universe within each
living being and the universe outside,[109] the
essence and everything innate in all that exists
inside, outside and everywhere.[111]
[11] Svarupalakshana, qualities, denition based on essence
[12] It provides the stu from which everything is made
[13] It sets everything into working, into existence

[14] Nevertheless, Balasubramanian argues that since the basic

ideas of the Vedanta systems are derived from the Vedas,
the Vedantic philosophy is as old as the Vedas.[210]
[15] Bharthari (c.450500), Upavarsa (c.450500), Bodhyana (c.500), Tanka (Brahmnandin) (c.500550),
Dravida (c.550), Bhartprapaca (c.550), abarasvmin
(c.550), Bhartmitra (c.550600), rivatsnka (c.600),
Sundarapndya (c.600), Brahmadatta (c.600700),
Gaudapada (c.640690), Govinda (c.670720), Mandanamira (c.670750).[201]
[16] Nakamura notes that there are contradictions in doctrine
between the four chapters.[224]
[17] Sanskrit: , r Sansthna Gauapadcrya Maha
[18] According to both Roodurum and Isaeva, Surevara stated
that mere knowledge of the identity of Jiva and Brahman
is nor enough for liberation, which requires also prolonged
meditation on this identity.[268][276]
[19] According to Pandey, these Mathas were not established
by Shankara himself, but were originally ashrams
established by Vibhdaka and his son yanga.[289]
Shankara inherited the ashrams at Dvrak and
Sringeri, and shifted the ashram at ngaverapura
to Badarikrama, and the ashram at Angadea to
Jaganntha Pur.[290]
[20] Sanskrit.org: Advaitins are non-sectarian, and they advocate worship of Siva and Visnu equally with that of
the other deities of Hinduism, like Sakti, Ganapati and
others.[web 14]
[21] Neo-Vedanta seems to be closer to Bhedabheda-Vedanta
than to Shankaras Advaita Vedanta, with the acknowledgement of the reality of the world. Nicholas F.
Gier: Ramakrsna, Svami Vivekananda, and Aurobindo
(I also include M.K. Gandhi) have been labeled neoVedantists, a philosophy that rejects the Advaitins claim
that the world is illusory. Aurobindo, in his The Life Divine, declares that he has moved from Sankaras universal
illusionism to his own universal realism (2005: 432),
dened as metaphysical realism in the European philosophical sense of the term.[319]
[22] Marek: Wobei der Begri Neo-Advaita darauf hinweist,
dass sich die traditionelle Advaita von dieser Strmung
zunehmend distanziert, da sie die Bedeutung der benden Vorbereitung nach wie vor als unumgnglich ansieht.
(The term Neo-Advaita indicating that the traditional Advaita increasingly distances itself from this movement, as
they regard preparational practicing still as inevitable)[322]
[23] Alan Jacobs: Many rm devotees of Sri Ramana Maharshi now rightly term this western phenomenon as 'NeoAdvaita'. The term is carefully selected because 'neo'
means 'a new or revived form'. And this new form is
not the Classical Advaita which we understand to have
been taught by both of the Great Self Realised Sages, Adi
Shankara and Ramana Maharshi. It can even be termed
'pseudo' because, by presenting the teaching in a highly
attenuated form, it might be described as purporting to be
Advaita, but not in eect actually being so, in the fullest

22

12

sense of the word. In this watering down of the essential truths in a palatable style made acceptable and attractive to the contemporary western mind, their teaching is
misleading.[323]
[24] See for other examples Conway [web 18] and Swartz[324]
[25] Presently Cohen has distanced himself from Poonja,
and calls his teachings Evolutionary Enlightenment.[329]
What Is Enlightenment, the magazine published by
Choens organisation, has been critical of neo-Advaita
several times, as early as 2001. See.[web 19][web 20][web 21]
[26] Kalupahana describes how in Buddhism there is also a current which favours substance ontology. Kalupahanan sees
Madhyamaka and Yogacara as reactions against developments toward substance ontology in Buddhism.[347]
[27] It is often used interchangeably with the term citta-mtra,
but they have dierent meanings. The standard translation of both terms is consciousness-only or mind-only.
Several modern researchers object this translation, and
the accompanying label of absolute idealism or idealistic monism.[352] A better translation for vijapti-mtra
is representation-only.[353]
[28] 1. Something is. 2. It is not. 3. It both is and is not. 4. It
neither is nor is not.[web 24][354]
[29] An means not, or non"; utpda means genesis,
coming forth, birth[web 25] Taken together anutpda
means having no origin, not coming into existence,
not taking eect, non-production.[web 26] The Buddhist
tradition usually uses the term anutpda for the absence of an origin[355][357] or sunyata.[358] According to
D.T Suzuki, anutpada is not the opposite of utpada,
but transcends opposites. It is the seeing into the true nature of existence,[359] the seeing that all objects are without self-substance.[360]

but the reverse of all that we know, something altogether

dierent which must be characterized as a nothing in relation to the world, but which is experienced as highest
bliss by those who have attained to it (Anguttara Nikaya,
Navaka-nipata 34). Vedantists and Buddhists have been
fully aware of the gulf between their doctrines, a gulf that
cannot be bridged over. According to Majjhima Nikaya,
Sutta 22, a doctrine that proclaims The same is the world
and the self. This I shall be after death; imperishable,
permanent, eternal!" (see Brihadaranyaka Upanishad 4, 4,
13), was styled by the Buddha a perfectly foolish doctrine.
On the other side, the Katha Upanishad (2, 1, 14) does not
see a way to deliverance in the Buddhist theory of dharmas (impersonal processes): He who supposes a profusion
of particulars gets lost like rain water on a mountain slope;
the truly wise man, however, must realize that his Atman
is at one with the Universal Atman, and that the former, if
puried from dross, is being absorbed by the latter, just
as clear water poured into clear water becomes one with
it, indistinguishably.[377]
[34] This development did not end with Advaita Vedanta, but
continued in Tantrism and various schools of Shaivism.
Non-dual Kashmir Shaivism, for example, was inuenced by, and took over doctrines from, several orthodox and heterodox Indian religious and philosophical
traditions.[391] These include Vedanta, Samkhya, Patanjali
Yoga and Nyayas, and various Buddhist schools, including Yogacara and Madhyamika,[391] but also Tantra and
the Nath-tradition.[392]
[35] Ninian Smart is a proponent of the so-called common
core thesis, which states that all forms of mysticism share
a common core. See also [web 27] and [web 28]

12 References

[30] A means not, or non as in Ahimsa, non-harm;

jti means creation or origination;[361] vda means
doctrine[361]

[1] Deutsch 1988, p. 4.

[31] The inuence of Mahayana Buddhism on other religions

and philosophies was not limited to Vedanta. Kalupahana
notes that the Visuddhimagga of Theravada Buddhism
tradition contains some metaphysical speculations, such
as those of the Sarvastivadins, the Sautrantikas, and even
the Yogacarins".[364]

[3] kanamura 2004.

[32] Gaudapadas doctrines are unlike Buddhism, states Murti.

Gaudapadas inuential Advaita Vedanta text consists of
four chapters; Chapter One, Two and Three of which are
entirely Vedantin and founded on the Upanishads, with
little Buddhist avor.[366] Chapter Four uses Buddhist terminology and incorporates Buddhist doctrines, state both
Murti and Richard King, but Vedanta scholars who followed Gaudapada through the 17th century never referenced nor used Chapter Four, they only quote from the
rst three.[366][368]

REFERENCES

[2] Nakamura 1950a, p. 112.

[4] Arvind Sharma (2007), Advaita Vednta: An Introduction, Motilal Banarsidass, ISBN 978-8120820272, page
4
[5] Andrew Fort (1998), Jivanmukti in Transformation: Embodied Liberation in Advaita and Neo-Vedanta, State
University of New York Press, ISBN 978-0791439043,
pages 114-120
[6] Arvind Sharma (2007), Advaita Vednta: An Introduction, Motilal Banarsidass, ISBN 978-8120820272, page
6
[7] Deutsch 1988.
[8] Sangeetha Menon (2012), Advaita Vedanta, IEP

[33] Helmuth von Glasenapp writes: The Buddhist Nirvana is,

therefore, not the primordial ground, the eternal essence,
which is at the basis of everything and form which the
whole world has arisen (the Brahman of the Upanishads)

[9] Arvind Sharma (1995), The Philosophy of Religion and

Advaita Vedanta, Penn State University Press, ISBN 9780271028323, pages 8-14, 31-34, 44-45, 176-178

23

[10] Frederic F. Fost (1998), Playful Illusion: The Making of

Worlds in Advaita Vednta, Philosophy East and West,
Vol. 48, No. 3 (Jul., 1998), pages 387-405

[30] Rambachan 1984.

[11] Nakamura 1950, pp. 221, 680.

[32] Sivananda 1977, p. viii.

[12] Nakamura 1950, p. 691.

[33] Dalal 2009, p. 16.

[13] Christian Novetzke (2007), Bhakti and Its Public, International Journal of Hindu Studies, Vol. 11, No. 3, page
255-272

[34] Rambachan 1991, p. 5.

[14] Dominic Goodall (1996), Hindu Scriptures, University of

California Press, ISBN 978-0520207783, page xli

[31] Dalal 2009, p. 22.

[35] Hirst 2005, p. 68.

[36] Rambachan 1991, p. 1-14.
[37] Nikhalananda 1931, p. viii.

[15] Richard Davis (2014), Ritual in an Oscillating Universe:

Worshipping Siva in Medieval India, Princeton University
Press, ISBN 978-0691603087, pages 13, 167 note 21

[38] Nikhalananda 1931, p. viii-ix.

[16] William Indich (2000), Consciousness in Advaita

Vedanta, Motilal Banarsidass, ISBN 978-8120812512,
page vii

[40] Puligandla 1997, p. 8.

[17] Jeaneane D Fowler (2002), Perspectives of Reality: An

Introduction to the Philosophy of Hinduism, Sussex Academic Press, ISBN 978-1898723936, pages 240-243

[42] Comans 2000, p. 183.

[18] Michael Brannigan (2009), Striking a Balance: A Primer

in Traditional Asian Values, Rowman & Littleeld, ISBN
978-0739138465, page 19, Quote: Advaita Vedanta
is the most inuential philosophical system in Hindu
thought.
[19] Nicholson 2010.
[20] King 2002, p. 119-133.
[21] Sangeetha Menon (2012), Advaita Vedanta, IEP; Quote:
The essential philosophy of Advaita is an idealist
monism, and is considered to be presented rst in the Upaniads and consolidated in the Brahma Stra by this tradition.
[22] King 1995, p. 65; Quote: The prevailing monism of the
Upanishads was developed by the Advaita Vedanta to its
ultimate extreme.
[23] JN Mohanty (1980), Understanding some Ontological
Dierences in Indian Philosophy, Journal of Indian Philosophy, Volume 8, Issue 3, page 205, Quote: NyayaVaiseshika is realistic; Advaita Vedanta is idealistic. The
former is pluralistic, the latter monistic.

[39] Puligandla 1997, p. 8-9.

[41] Lochtefeld 2002, p. 320.

[43] Potter 2008, p. 6-7.

[44] Raganthnanda 1991, p. 109.
[45] Loy 1997, p. 62.
[46] Braue 1984, p. 81.
[47] Grimes 1996, p. 234.
[48] Sivaraman 1973, p. 146.
[49] Braue 1984, p. 80.
[50] Baue 1984, p. 80.
[51] Puligandla 1997, p. 11.
[52] akarcrya; Sengaku Mayeda (2006). A Thousand
Teachings: The Upadeashasr of akara. SUNY
Press. pp. xvixvii. ISBN 978-8120827714.
[53] akarcrya; Sengaku Mayeda (2006). A Thousand
Teachings: The Upadeashasr of akara. SUNY
Press. pp. xixvii, 229. ISBN 978-8120827714.
[54] David Carpenter and Ian Whicher (2010), Yoga: The Indian Tradition, Routledge, ISBN 978-0415600200, pages
6-7

[24] Deutsch 1988, p. 3.

[55] Deutsch 1988, pp. 104-105.

[25] Joseph Milne (1997), Advaita Vedanta and typologies

of multiplicity and unity: An interpretation of nondual
knowledge, International Journal of Hindu Studies, Volume 1, Issue 1, pages 165-188

[56] Comans 2000, pp. 125-142.

[26] Nicholson 2010, p. 68.

[27] Isaeva 1993, p. 237.
[28] Dalal 2009, p. 16, 26-27.
[29] akarcrya; Sengaku Mayeda (2006). A Thousand
Teachings: The Upadeashasr of akara. SUNY
Press. pp. 7879. ISBN 978-8120827714.

[57] Puligandla 1997, p. 251-254.

[58] Eliot Deutsch (1980), Advaita Vedanta : A Philosophical
Reconstruction, University of Hawaii Press, ISBN 9780824802714, pages 105-108
[59] Adi Shankara, Tattva bodha (1.2)
[60] George Thibaut, The Sacred Books of the East: The
Vedanta-Sutras, Part 1, p. 12, at Google Books, Oxford
University Press, Editor: Max Muller, page 12 with footnote 1

24

[61] Comans 2000, p. 182.

[62] Comans 2000, pp. 182-183.
[63] Joel Mlecko (1982), The Guru in Hindu Tradition Numen,
Volume 29, Fasc. 1, pages 33-61
[64] akarcrya; Sengaku Mayeda (2006). A Thousand
Teachings: The Upadeashasr of akara. SUNY
Press. p. 92. ISBN 978-8120827714.
[65] Sanskrit:
() ---
Source;
English Translation 1: S Jagadananda (Translator,
1949), Upadeshasahasri, Vedanta Press, ISBN 9788171200597, pages 3-4; OCLC 218363449
English Translation 2: akarcrya; Sengaku Mayeda
(2006). A Thousand Teachings: The Upadeashasr of
akara. SUNY Press. ISBN 978-8120827714.
[66] Karl Potter (2008), Encyclopedia of Indian Philosophies
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pages 218-219
[67] Koller 2013, p. 100.
[68] Koller 2013, p. 100-101.
[69] Isaeva 1993, p. 35.
[70] Coburn, Thomas B. 1984. pp. 439

12

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[88] Koller 2006.
[89] Koller 2013.
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[91] Koller 2006, p. xi-xii.
[92] Puligandla 1997, p. 232.
[93] Arvind Sharma (1995), The Philosophy of Religion and
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[71] Klaus Klostermaier (2007), Hinduism: A Beginners

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[95] James Lochtefeld, Brahman, The Illustrated Encyclopedia

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[96] PT Raju (2006), Idealistic Thought of India, Routledge,

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[97] Jerey Brodd (2009), World Religions: A Voyage of

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[74] Deutsch 1988, pp. 4-6 with footnote 4.

[98] Puligandla 1997, p. 231.

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25

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movements, on the other hand, stress an interior mysticism in which the devotee seeks to discover the identity
[110] Paul Deussen, Sixty Upanishads of the Veda, Motilal Baof individual soul (atman) with the universal ground of
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Topical studies

14

Further reading

Primary texts
Shankara.
A thousand teachings:
the
Upadeashasr of akara.
Translated by
Sengaku Mayeda.
Robert Hume, Thirteen Principal Upanishads, Oxford University Press

Arvind Sharma (1995), The Philosophy of Religion

and Advaita Vedanta: A Comparative Study in Religion and Reason, Pennsylvania State University
Press
Satyapal Verma (1992), Role of Reason in Sankara
Vedanta, Parimal Publication, Delhi
Sangam Lal Pandey (1989), The Advaita view of
God, Darshana Peeth, Allahabad

36

15

Kapil N. Tiwari (1977), Dimensions of renunciation

in Advaita Vedanta, Motilal Banarsidass, Delhi
Leesa Davis (2010), Advaita Vedanta and Zen Buddhism: Deconstructive Modes of Spiritual Inquiry,
Bloomsbury Academic
Shankara
Natalia V. Isayeva (1993), Shankara and Indian philosophy, SUNY, New York
Elayath. K. N. Neelakantan (1990), The Ethics of
Sankara, University of Calicut
Raghunath D. Karmarkar (1966), Sankaras Advaita, Karnatak University, Dharwar
Paul Deussen (Translated by Charles Johnston), The
System of the Vedanta with Shankara commentaries
at Google Books, Open Court
Charles Johnston, The Vedanta Philosophy of
Sankaracharya at Google Books, Theosophical Society
Sringeri Sharada Peetham
Madhava Vidyaranya, Sankara-Digvijaya, translated
by Swami Tapasyananda, Sri Ramakrishna Math,
2002, ISBN 81-7120-434-1.
Neo-Advaita
Madhukar, The Simplest Way, Editions India, USA
& India 2006, ISBN 81-89658-04-2
Madhukar, Erwachen in Freiheit, Lchow Verlag,
German, 2.Edition, Stuttgart 2004, ISBN 3-36303054-1
Indian languages
Mishra, M., Bhratya Darshan ( ),
Kal Prakshan.
Sinha, H. P., Bharatiya Darshan ki ruparekha (Features of Indian Philosophy), 1993, Motilal Benarasidas, DelhiVaranasi.
Swmi Paramnanda Bhrati, Vednta Prabodha
(in Kannada), Jnnasamvardhini Granthakusuma,
2004

15

External links

Bibliography of Advaita Vedanta Ancient to 9thcentury literature

Bibliography of Advaita Vedanta 9th-century to
20th-century literature
Advaita Vedanta at DMOZ

EXTERNAL LINKS

37

16
16.1

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