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Endangered
Animals
140

species in full color

by GEORGE S. FICHTER
illustrated by
KRISTIN KEST

GOLDEN PRESS

NEW YORK

Western Publishing Company, Inc.

Racine, Wisconsin 53404

FOREWORD

The c h a l lenge of th i s book was i ndeed g reat: to m a ke i t

c l e a r tha t on o u r present cou rse w e a re headed towa rd
ecolog i c a l cata strophe, towa rd a time when h u n d reds of
species, large and sma l l , wi l l l i tera l ly become exti nct every
day and when even human ity will be th reatened.
Although many exti nctions a re i n evita b l e , not all i s
g loom a n d doom. There have been some tru ly remarkable
turnarounds i n wh ich endangered species have, usually with
our help, made a comeback. Past errors a re extremely diffi
cult to correct, but some amends are being made, and fewer
travesties a re bei ng com m i tted today. With the g row ing
awa reness worldwide that t h e earth is fragile and that a l l of
its creatu res a re interdependent, there is certai n ly hope for
the future.
Thanks a re due the artist, Kri sti n Kest, for depicting these
animals. Than ks a re due also to Maury Solomon , Caroline
Green berg, a n d Hen ry Flesh for engi neeri n g a n d editing
this book, and to Nadine, my wife, for her conti nued u nder
standing and tolerance.
G.S.F.

1 995 George S . F i c h ter. I l l u strations 1 995 Kri sti n Kest. A l l r i g h ts

reserved , i nc l ud i ng rights of reprod u ction and u s e i n a n y for m or by
a n y m e a n s , i nc l u d i n g t h e m a k i n g of copies by a n y p h oto process, o r
b y a n y electro n i c or mec h a n i c a l devi ce, p r i n ted or w r i tten o r o ra l , o r
record i n g f o r sou nd or vi sual reproduction or f o r u s e i n any knowledge
retrieval system or device, u n less perm ission in writi n g is obta i n ed from
the copyri g h t propri etor. P r i n ted in the U . S . A . by Western P u b l i s h i n g
Company, I n c . Publ i s hed b y Golden Press, N e w York, N . Y . L i b ra ry o f
Congress Catalog Card Number: 937 1 1 93 ISBN: 0-307- 2450 1 -2/ISBN:
0-307-6450 1 -0 ( l i b . bdg . )

CON TENTS
INTRODUCTION

. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

E ndangerment
. . . .
5
Mass Extinctions
. .
.
.
6
Biodiversity . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7
Energy
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7
Food Webs
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8
Advancing Human Civi l i zation
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9
Habitat Loss . . .
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9
Pollution
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. 10
I n troductions of Species
. .
10
H unting
.
10
The Endangered Species Act
. . . 10
National Pa rks and Sanctuaries .
. 12
Modern Zoos .
12
Biomes
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14
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GRASSLANDS
DESE RTS

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FORESTS .
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STREAMS, LAKES, AND WETLANDS

. 50

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. 85

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OCEANS

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ISLAN DS

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MOUN TAIN PEAKS AND POLAR REGIONS

APPEN DIX .
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Helpful Organ izations

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Publications
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.
Endangered Animals List: Common and
Scientific Names . .
.
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INDEX
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42

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16

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. 98

112
1 36

. 1 54
. 1 54
1 55

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. 1 55
1 58

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INTRODUCTION
ENDANGE RMENT i s not a new phenomeno n . Along with
exti nctions, it has been going on for as long as there has been
l i fe on earth . Scientists esti mate that for every species al ive
today, at least a hundred others that once exi sted became
endangered and a re now extinct, gone forever. Looked at
another way, 99 percent of all species that have ever existed
on earth are no longer here.
The d i nosaurs are the classic example of an enti re group
of a n i m a l s that became exti nct. For more than 1 67 m i l l ion
years, they were the dom inant creatu res on earth . Some of
the hundreds of species were no larger than ch ickens. Others
were fearsome beasts of tremendous size. The largest of these
measured more than 1 00 feet long, from snout to tip of tai l ,
a n d weighed more than 5 0 tons. Some species stood 2 0 feet
tall and walked on their h i nd legs.
During the heyday of the di nosaurs, the ea rth was warm,
even in the polar reg ions. Then , about 65 m i l l ion yea rs ago,
the di nosau rs mysteriously died out. Some scienti sts attribute
th is to a genera l drop in tem peratu re, perhaps caused by a
catastrophic col l i sion of the ea rth with an asteroid. The once
wa rm, swa m py l owl a n d s beca me cool a n d d ry. For the
giant repti les (and more than two th i rd s of the exi st i n g
marine life) t h e ea rth became a hosti le envi ronment. Ta king
the d i nosau rs' place were wa rm-blooded creatu res more
suited to l iving i n the cooler envi ronment-mammals.
The ea rth has u ndergone many changes over the
m i l len n i a . There have been periods of exte n sive mounta i n
building a n d intense volcanic activity. There have been great
and sma l l ice ages, with g l aciers adva n c i n g a n d then
retreati n g . The ea rth has been struck by meteorites a n d
comets, and the sun's solar output h a s varied over time. Each
time a g reat cha nge has ta ken place on earth, plants and
animals not suited for survival in the altered envi ronment have
died out and been replaced by others.

MASS EXTINCTIONS have occu rred at least five ti mes over

the last half-bi l l ion yea rs, i ncluding the ep isode th at ended
the reign of the d i nosaurs. During these five epi sodes, h uge
n u mbers of species were suddenly a n n i h i lated . In add ition
to mass exti nctions, many species have died out slowly over
the m i l l e n n i a , d u e mostly to the w i n nowi n g p rocesses of
natural selection and surviva l of the fittest.
Each time a mass exti nction has occurred, the ea rth has
recovered completely from it. In fact, there are more species
al ive today tha n ever before in the earth' s history-perhap s
as many as 1 00 m i l l ion .
Many scientists believe that the earth is cu rrently experi
e n c i n g yet a nothe r e p i sode of mass exti nctio n s . B u t the
exti nctions today a re being caused by humans rather than
by "natural" events. I n addition, most exti nctions today are
occu rring at rap i d ly accelerated rates. Even the so-ca l led
sudden mass exti nctions of the p ast took place over many
thousands of yea rs. Exti nctions today can be measured in
terms of a human l i fetime. For examp le, si nce the d i scovery
of North A merica by the Europ eans in the late 1 400s, more
than 60 species of North Ameri ca n vertebrates have
become exti nct, nearly a l l with i n the last 1 00 yea rs. At least
1 0 percent of all the animals with backbones in the U n i ted
States a re now in danger of becom ing exti nct.
Some scientists bel ieve that exti nctions a re ta king place
worldwide at the rate of at least one species every day, and
that th i s rate may i ncrease. I f that i s true, then with i n the
next few decades, we may wel l lose more than a quarter of
the earth' s total number of species.
Why be concerned about this? A fter a l l , the ea rth has
recovered from ea rlier mass exti nctions. But these recoveries
took many m i l l ions of years . And with the kinds of losses we
a re cu rren tly experiencing, a fu l l recovery in any span of
ti me that i s mea n i ngfu l to h umanity i s highly u n l i kely.

The endangered Hawksbill Turtle. Many sea

turtles are facing extinction today, threatening
the biodiversity of the seas.

BIODI VE RSITY i s the term u sed by scienti sts to refer to the

vast variety of l iv i ng spec ies on earth whos e combined func
tio n i ng k eeps the ea rth' s natura l cycles, such a s the water
a nd n itrog e n cycle s, runn ing sm ooth ly. C reatu res not yet
even n amed by scienti sts help serve i m po rta n t ecolog ica l
functions, s uc h as waste decomposition or th e reg eneration
of oxygen i n to the atmosphere. T he loss of ju st a few species
i n a n ecosystem can cause that enti re ecosystem to collapse.
E N E RGY m u st a l so be conti n ua l ly tra n s ferred a m o ng
specific g roups of plants and animals i n a n ecosystem. The
various species form the food cha ins, food pyra m i d s , a n d
other intricate relation s h i ps that t i e a l l t h e d i fferent forms of
l i fe on earth together. A s i mple food c h a i n h a s only th ree
steps-from the p l a n ts (the prod ucers} , to p l a nt-ea t i n g
consumers ( t h e herbivores) , to meat-eating consumers (the
carnivores) . With death and decay, organ i c matter i s recy
cled i nto the system .

FOOD WEBS a re made up of food ch ains, wh ich a re inter

woven with oth er food ch a i n s , th u s form ing complex food
webs . A brea k in any p a rt of a food ch a i n affects m a n y
oth ers i n a food web . Food pyramids are often used to sh ow
the relative quanti ties of l iving matter, or biomass, in each
segment of the food ch a i n . Th e base of a pyra m i d repre
sents th e producers-th e many plants needed to support th e
few predators, or carn ivores, a t th e top. Many a n imals th at
occu py th e top of food pyra m i d s today a re enda ngered .
Th i s is a clear signal of trouble at th e bottom .
Every p l a n t a n d a n i m a l sh a res i n putti n g togeth er th e
wh ole pictu re of l i fe on ea rth . No species can be destroyed
with out it affecti n g oth er species, wh ich affects sti l l oth er
spec ies, a n d so o n . And wh atever i s th reaten i n g oth er
species may wel l also be a th reat to h uman life.
I n add ition, each species i s a u n ique product of evol u
tion . Each h a s certa in abil ities a n d ada ptations th at make i t
special . Wh en a n y species disappears, its pa rticular combi
nation of genes is lost, and someth i ng truly u n ique i s gone
forever. Gene "pools," developed over m i l l ions of yea rs, a re
i rretrievably lost, th us th reatening th e ea rth' s biod iversity.
One example ca n show how biodiversity helps to m a i n
ta i n th e balance i n nature. Th e Dodo {see p. 1 1 3 ), wh ich ate
th e fru it of th e Dodo Tree, became exti nct i n 1 680. Th e t rees
conti n ued to g row a n d prod uce fru it after th e b i rds were
gone, but no seeds sprouted . Th e spec ies a ppea red to be
h eaded for exti nction . Th en, i n th e 1 97 0s, with only 1 3 trees
sti l l rema i n i ng, a scientist guessed th e problem . Wh en th ey
h ad passed th rough th e Dodo's g i zzard, th e seed s' h a rd
outer coats h ad broken, releasing the embryo pla nts i ns ide.
The scientist fed the fru it to tu rkeys, wh ich a re about the size
th e Dodoes h ad been, and the tu rkeys processed th e seeds
a s the Dodoes h ad . Th us, th e Dodo Tree was saved . B u t
m a n y relationsh ips in an ecosystem are much more complex
and a re difficult to put back in order.

ADVANC I NG H UMAN C IVI LIZATION h a s been a c h i ef

factor i n modern exti nction s . As the h u m a n popu lation
conti n ues to grow, it uses an i ncreasingly large proportion
of the ea rth ' s resources. Also, throughout th e i r h i story,
people have striven to change the world to make it a more
l ivable place for themselves, often disrega rd i ng the needs of
the creatu res with whom they share th i s planet. There a re
many destructive effects of such trends, i n c l u d i n g ha b itat
loss, pol lution, and th reats to native species by introduced
animals. H u nti ng, in some cases, also adds to the problem .
HABITAT LOSS i s the g reatest th reat to wi l d l i fe tod ay. I t
h a p p e n s m a i n ly w h e n l a n d , espec i a l ly tro p i ca l l a n d , i s
clea red for fa rm ing, for the grazing o f l ivestock, o r for l ivi ng
space. I n South America, for exa mple, the tropical forests
a re d i sappea r i n g at a rate of 27,000 square m i les every
yea r. This is the habitat for an esti mated 50 percent of a l l
l a n d - dwel l i n g p l a n t a n d a n i ma l spec i e s . W e m a y never
know many of these spec ies, some of w h i c h m i g h t have
proven to be va luable sou rces of food or med icine.
The clearing of the biologically rich rainforest
in northwestern Brazil proceeds at a steady
pace even today.

POLLUTION of th e natura l world with b i l l io n s of ton s of

toxic chemicals and with plastics and oth e r wastes th at a re
not biodeg radable is a maj or threat today. Ferti l izers,
com b i n ed with th e u se of pesticides and h erbicides, h ave
certa i n ly hel ped to i n c rease cu rrent food s u p p l ies a n d
i m p rove h u m a n hea lth , but th e long-term effects can be
devastating.
I NTRODUCTIONS OF SPECIES to new envi ro n ments may
th reaten native spec ies by robbing th em of food or l iving
space or by sprea d i ng new di seases. Alternatively, native
species may be preyed upon by introduced species. Island
species are particularly vu lnerable to such invasions.
HUNTING for the sport of ki l l ing or to h a rvest meat or h ides
ca n also be harmfu l . Often th e strongest animals a re kil led,
leavi ng only th e wea k to reproduce. Some ki l l s a re made
on ly to supply fash ion or curio markets. Control led h unting
may someti mes be j ustified to keep a popu lation health y.
The bearlike Hairy-nosed
Wombat of Australia,
a marsupial, was
hunted to near
extinction for
its pelt.

THE E N DANG E RE D SPECI E S ACT ( ESA) , passed by th e

Un ited States i n 1 973, is th e most powerfu l law of its kind in
th e world . Endangered species are defi ned as ones th at are
cu rrently i n danger of beco m i n g exti nct. Th reate n ed (or
"ra re" ) species a re not i n i m m ed i a te danger but may
become endangered soon. All demand our attention .

10

Grevy's Zebra is ane af several zebras on the

endangered species list.

Ad m i n i stered by th e federa l F i sh and W i l d l ife Service,

th e ESA c o n s i ders i l l eg a l any activity th at red uces th e
s u rviva l ch a n ces of a n endangered species. I t recog n iz es
th at a l l l iv i n g th i n g s a re i m porta nt, not j u st th e big or th e
beautiful or th ose va lued for sport or commercial reason s .
Th e E S A c u rrently p rotects s o m e 7 0 0 p l a n t a n d a n i m a l
species; a bout 4,000 more a re candidates for formal l i sti n g .
Opponents o f th e ESA th i n k it is too wide-ra n g i ng a n d
p rotects even " i n s i g n i fica nt" spec i e s . Th ey wa n t th e l a w
repea led or wea kened . Proponents insist th at no o n e species
i s i n s i g n i ficant, th a t all serve some pu rpose in the g ra n d
sch eme o f l i fe on earth , even if we d o not yet recognize th at
pu rpose.
Th e ESA, wh ich h a s served as a model for s i m i la r laws
elsewh ere, may be mod ified in th e future. But it h a s a l ready
h ad g reat i m pact. It h a s foc u sed attention on th e wo rld
wildl ife cri s i s and demonstrated th at exti nction need not be
i nevitable.
11

NATIONAL PARKS AND SANCTUARIES have a l so hel ped

some groups of endangered a n i m a l s . I n m a ny of these
places, people ca n observe and appreciate wild l i fe wh i l e
reesta b l i s h ing the i r own t i e s w i t h natu re a n d other l iving
creatures. Exposure of people to the wonders of nature has
brought about some m u c h - n eeded u n dersta n d i n g and
concern for the plight of wi ldl ife. However, the most i m por
ta nt fu nction of these lands is to provide habitat sanctuaries
for the wi l d l i fe of the region . Some a reas a re off- l i m its to
tourists, for even those with good intentions can be a major
th reat to some k i n d s of wi l d l i fe, pa rti c u l a rly d u ri n g the
breed i ng seaso n .
MODERN ZOOS have come to represent a last cha nce o n
ea rth for some species. U n l i ke zoos o f t h e past, wh ich were
m i serable prisons for short- lived ca ptives, modern zoos seek
to provide a n i ma l s with a l l the essenti a l s of the i r orig i n a l
habitat. Zoo a n imals are wel l fed and kept i n good health
wh ile bei ng ca refu l ly stud ied by scientists. I n most zoos, i n
fact, an imals l ive much longer than they would in t h e wild.
Zoos have a l so become i m portant breed ing grounds for
endangered a n i ma l s . Once dependent on a constant supply
of new a n i ma l s from the wild to replace those lost due to
di sea se or poor l iving cond itions, many zoos o re now the
suppliers of a n i m a l s to the wi l d . However, releases ca n
occur only when suitable habitats are avai lable.
The savi ng of endangered species, th rough zoos or other
endangered-species programs, is not free from controversy.
Few would dispute the need to protect species, but the best
way to go a bout it is often s u b j ect to debate . With o u r
lim ited resources, how ore w e to decide which a n i m a l s are
the most i m porta nt to save? Who should make those deci
sions? Should we conti nue breed ing progra m s where the
pop u l a t i o n s a re so low that m a ny a n i m a l s a re seriously
in bred? Are we creating weak species l i nes as a result?

12

What kinds of animal-release program s a re most effec

tive? S h o u l d endangered a n i m a l s bred i n captivity be
released i n to the wild, where they might be killed? Should
the ESA p rotect subspec i es or hybrids ( a n i m a l s of m ixed
l i n eage)? Should a habitat be protected to save a species,
even i f i t m ea n s l a rge n u m bers of peo p l e , such as the
loggers who cut timber i n the enda ngered Spotted Owl ' s
doma i n (see p . 62) , a re put out o f work? These a n d many
other q uestion s wi l l need to be seriously add ressed i n the
futu re as zoos and va rious other organ izations expand their
role as the saviors of th reatened species.
PEREGRINE FALCONS, which once
fl ew over most of North A m er i ca,
became victi m s of DDT poison i n g .
T h e pesti cide, acq u i red from their
prey, ca u sed them to lay weak
shelled eggs that broke before the
ba by b i rd s cou ld hatc h . Less than
o q uarte r of a century after the
i n troduction of DDT in 1 946, the
Peregr i n e Fa lcon seemed doomed
to exti ncti o n . S i nce the ba n n i n g of
DDT in the U n i ted Stoles in 1 97 2 ,
however, the enda n g ered b i rd s

have made a steady comebac k .

Biologists have helped b y removing
eggs from n e sts and hatc h i n g the
birds i n i n c u bators . T h ey later
release the you ng birds when they
are fu l ly feathered and capable of
l iv i n g i ndependently. I n teresti ng ly,
these powerful and swi ftflyi n g
predators have prospered i n cities,
where they nest on ta l l buildi ngs
sometimes in boxes provided for
th em-and prey o n the a b u nda nt
pigeon populations.

Peregrine Falcon on skyscraper

ledge with pigeon prey and
brood of young

BIOMES a re a reas scattered a round the ea rth that conta i n

s i m i l a r cli mates a n d l a n d features a n d , as a result, harbor
s i m i l a r types of plant and an i mal l i fe. Grasslands, deserts,
mounta i n s , the poles, a n d temperate a n d tropical forests
are examples of biomes. Biomes provide a natural way of
grou p i n g enda ngered a n i ma l s . An i m a l s descri bed in th i s
book a re genera l ly g rou ped accord i ng t o thei r native
biomes. Islands, ocea ns, and wetlands, though someti mes
not considered biomes, can serve that purpose in thi s book.
Only a representative sampling of endangered a m p h i b
i a n s , repti les, b i rd s, a n d m a m m a l s a re i n c l uded . Not
mentioned at a l l a re the countless fish and i nverteb rates
(animals without backbones) as wel l as plants, all of which
a re certa i n ly a s i m porta nt in the i n tricate web of l i fe.
Exclusion of them is due on ly to the particular focu s of th i s

D
D

14

polar ice/tundra
mountain
desert
boreal forest (taiga)
temperate grassland
woodland (dry tropical forest)
temperate forest (deciduous, coniferous)
chaparral (shrubs, low trees)
semiarid scrub forest (evergreens)
savanna (tropical grassland)
tropical rainforest

book and its intent to show how endangerment th reatens to

d rastical ly a lter the world i n ways obvious even to us, from
our l i m i ted human perspective.
Up to 20 percent of all land plants may va nish with i n the
next fifty yea rs. Beca use pla nts a re the major food sou rce
for most living th i ngs, as many as ten a n i ma l species cou ld
d i sa ppear for each plant species that becomes exti nct. The
o n ly s u rvivors may be the many so-ca l led weed s a mo n g
plants and s u c h hardy and nonspecialized an i mals as cock
roaches, rats, g u l ls, and other scavengi ng omn ivores. Many
a n i m a l s h ave a l ready become exti nct in modern t i m e s .
Some o f thei r stories a re told here because they rem ind us o f
our pa rt in the process. Also included are some rema rkable
comeback stories, p rov i n g that success is poss i b l e when
serious attention is g iven to our companions on earth .
6
'$

Biomes of the World

15

GRASSLANDS
Vast seas of grasses once rippled i n the wind i n the middle
of eve ry conti nent. They were croppe d by g reat herds of
g razi ng a n imals that i n habited these lands sepa rati ng the
d ry deserts from the forests . Along w ith the grazi ng a n i mals
were the flesh eaters, or ca rn ivores, that preyed on them,
scavengers that fi n i shed off the rema i n s , a n d h o rdes of
smal ler, bu rrowing a n i m a l s that fi l led every n i c h e in th i s
world of grass.
In temperate reg ions today, the g rasslands a re mostly
gone, havi ng been converted i n to fields of g ra i n that a re
h a rvested as food for people and the i r l ivestock . Grasses
sti l l g row on the open lands of the tropics and su btropics,
but there the ci nch also draws tighter for wild l 1 fe a s people
cultivate these lands to sati s fy thei r own needs .

The hea rtland of North America was orig i n a l ly a huge

p ra i ri e-the G reat Pla i n s . From the ev e rg reen forests of
Canada to the deserts of Mexico and from the Rockies east
wa rd a lmost to the Mississippi, a wav i ng g reen sea of g rass
g rew on the flat or gently rol l i ng land . On the eastern side,
c lose to the Mississippi River and i ts tributaries, the g rass
g rew as high as l 0 feet. Toward the d rier eastern slopes of
the Rockies, the g rass was shorter and tougher. These lands
were host to herds of some 55 m i l l ion American Bi son and
a n e st i m ated 35 m i l l i on P rong horn s . Smaller a n i m a l s in
u ncountable numbers sha red the grasslands with them .
No land a rea on earth has supported a g reater variety of
big a n i ma l s tha n the African sav a n n a . About 600 m i les
wide, it borders on Africa' s wet and dry tropical forests . To
the north and south are deserts. Nea r the tropical forests the
g rasses are th ick and tal l , and scattered across the flo; land
-L

"'
...... -

are scrubby trees. Nea rer the desert regions, the g ra sses
are short, and the land i s treeless or has only a spri nkling of
thorny s h r u b s . The sava n n a orig i n a l ly occ u p i ed about 4
m i l l io n sq u a re m i les, or nearly 40 percent of the g reat
African conti nent.
Today the savanna is home to about 40 species of large
a n i m a l s . M i l l io n s of these a n i ma l s once i n ha b i ted the
savanna, but si nce the a rrival of the European s some 300
yea rs ago, the i r habitat has shru n k year by year and thei r
popu lations have decrea sed greatly.
Wildl i fe is th reatened th roughout southeastern Asia, too,
which is popu lated by roughly 600 m i l lion people. A few
l a rge a n i m a l s , i n c l u d i n g some leopards a n d tigers, have
managed to survive, but everywhere wi ldlife is endangered
due to hunting and the destruction of habitats.
Long u nder cu ltivation, the Eurasian steppes to the north
support only scattered popu lations of wild creatures today.
Th i s g rassland a rea, scorched by i n tense heat in sum mer
and then frozen in wi nter, is nevertheless heavi ly popu lated
by people.
Nearly 40 percent of Austral ia's land i s essentia l ly grass
l a n d . H ere ca n be fou n d most of Austra l i a ' s u n u su a l
an imals, many o f which are endangered today.
The hea rtland of South America consists of the pampas,
a treeless pla i n that i n most South America n cou ntries has
been converted into land for grazing l ivestock or g rowing
crops . In B raz i l the g rasslands a re cal led the campos; in
Colombia and Venezuela, the llanos. On ly the most hosti le
of these lands have been left to wi l d l ife-lands where the
temperature is too high, there is l i ttle ra i n , or the winds blow
too strongly to suit the needs of people and thei r l ivestock.
Here many wild creatures escape the ravages of natu re by
l iv i n g i n b u rrows most of the ti me or m i g ra t i n g to more
temperate c l i mates when conditions become u n bearable.
18

QUAGGAS were zebras that once

l i ved on the African sava n n a . Thei r
nome com e from the sounds they
mode, w h i c h some people thou g h t
resem bled the b a r k i n g of a dog .
U n l i ke the markings of other zebras,
a Quagga's stripes were confined to
the front of its body; the rea r half of
its body was a u n i form yellowi s h
brawn .
Although the Quagga was never
as a b u n d a n t as other g razers, i t
nevertheless roa med the sava n n a
i n l a rge herds of m a n y thousa n d s .

E u ropean settlers h u n ted Q u a g g a s

both for the i r f l e s h and t h e i r h ides,
which were made into shoes, bogs,
and other items .
As i n m a n y other such cases, t h e
k i l l i ng s w e r e more l i ke m a ssacres
than h u nts. A s early a s 1800, the
Quagga hod beg u n to be scarce,
and the lost of the a n i m a l s in the wild
fel l before a gun i n 1879. A female
l ived i n the A m sterd a m Zoo u n t i l
1883; then she d i ed without l eavi n g
a n y offspri ng, a s h o d a l l t h e others
kept i n captivity.

19

OSTRICHES now l ive i n the wild only on the g rasslands of

Africa, a l though they once roa med ove r s i m i l a r l a n d s i n
Syria a n d Arabia. These largest o f a l l l iving bi rds may stand
8 feet ta l l and weigh 350 pou nds. They have two toes on
each foot and can run up to 40 m i les per hou r, fast enough
to outd ista nce most pu rsuers . If cornered, they slash with the
claws on the ends of the i r toes, making them form idable
foes even to l a rge a n i m a l s . But the i r d efen ses have not
protected them from the encroachment of civi l i zation and
h u nters who a re after thei r ski n , meat, eggs, and g racefu l
ta i l p l u mes, which a re used for decoration .
RHEAS a re 5'h-feet-tal l fl ightless birds that roa m the pampas
of South America in flocks of 20 to 30. There a re two
species. In both , a cock ma kes a nest in wh ich a harem of
three to seven hens lay thei r eggs-totaling 30 or more. The
cock i ncubates the eggs. Althoug h the newly hatched ch icks
can run immed iately, the cock conti nues to care for them for
severa l months. L i ke the Ostriches of Africa and the Emus of
Austra l i a , rheas cou ld often be seen peacefu l ly grazing with
cattle in times past. But larger herds of l ivestock and hu nting
have lately made rheas fa r more scarce.
EMUS are big fl ightless birds, the Australian counterparts of
the Ostrich of Africa and the rheas of South America. Once
there were th ree spec i e s . Now only one exi sts, a n d i t i s
rapidly becom i ng rare.
An Emu stands about 6 feet ta l l and weighs a bout 1 00
pou nds. It has a broad, flat, duckl ike bi l l . It ca n run faster
than 30 m i les per hour and usua l ly travels in sma l l flocks.
E m u s h ave been h u n ted as food , and the i r eggs were
once collected and eaten . Because they often compete with
l ivestock for food and also help themselves to wheat crops,
E m u s were once ta rgeted for k i l l i ng by the Au stra l ia n
government. However, the birds a re now protected by law.

20

21

Lesser Prairie Chicken

LESSE R P RAI RIE CHICKENS a re one of severa l c h icken l i ke,

or ga l l i naceous, b i rds that exi sted i n large numbers on the
Great Pla i n s of North America . When the p ra i ries were
fenced , these free- roa m i n g b i rd s were forced i n to sma l l
rem n a n ts o f th e i r once- spacious h a b i tat. They were a l so
heavi ly h u n ted , often strictly for spo rt-the dead b i rd s
left lyi ng where they fel l . Both t h e Greater Pra i rie Chicken
and the slightly smal ler L esser Pra i rie Chicken a re seriously
decl i n ing and can be saved from exti nction on ly by giving
them sanctua ry on large tracts of protected g rasslan d . There
the cocks can once aga i n boom and strut for their mates i n
early spri ng, a n d hens can shepherd their chicks i n safety.
WHOOPING C RANES a re among the ra rest b i rds in North
America . The rema i n i ng 250 or so-the tota l i n c rea s i n g
s l i g htly every yea r si nce the 1 960s-s u m m e r i n Canada
and winter a long the Gulf Coast in Texas. Though they are
making a comeback, the population is sti l l very vu l nerable
and could be tota l ly eli m i nated by a single natura l disaster,
such as a hu rricane or rampant d i sease.

22

T he Whooping Crane, at more than 4 feet tal l the tal lest

b i rd in Nor th Amer ica, was never a b u n d a n t . T here may
never have been more than 1 ,500 i n d ividuals even at the
bir d ' s popu l ation pea k. But Whooping Cranes were or igi
nally widely d istr i buted, with th eir greatest concentr ation i n
the Gr eat P l a i n s reg ion . E ncroachment b y civi l i zation was
one of the major reason s for their decline. Over h unting and
convers ion of the p ra i rie wetl a n d s to fa rms added to the
problem . Today, col l i sions of fledg l i ngs with power l i nes a re
the mai n cau se of death . But conservation ists and concerned
citizens in both Canada and the United States have ra l l ied
to the bird's protection. No one ever expects the Whooping
Crane, with its 6-foot wingspa n , to become a b u n d a n t or
even to reach its or iginal population. But it appear s to have
at least tem por ar i ly been spared tota l a n n i h i latio n .

/,

Whooping Crane

23

KANGAROOS, mar supial mammals strongly identified with

Austr a l i a , ar e mostly victi m s of h a b i ta t destr uction . T he
degradation of grasslands by domestic livestock and i n tr o
duced rabbits have r endered t h e habitats o f m a n y smaller ,
gr a s s -dwel l i ng species useless. Also, the i n tr od uction of
pr edator s such as the Europea n Red Fox, dogs, and cats has
cut down on the n u m ber s of some spec ies. F i n a l ly, some
kangar oos ar e shot as pests or for their pelts. Pr otective laws
ar e helping, but for some species, the laws may be too late.
T he rough ly 50 kangaroo species range fr om r at-size to
ka ngar oos that stand more th a n 6 feet ta l l . Nea rly two
dozen of these species a re now endanger ed .
Both the Red and Easter n Gr ay Ka nga roo ar e the giants
of the group, measur ing 6 to 8 feet long fr om nose to tip of
ta i l . In constant confl ict with ra nchers, they ar e now threat
ened . Swi ft r u n ner s, they often make the fata l m i sta ke of
stop p i n g to look back when pur sued . At that i n sta n t they
become easy mar ks for hunter s.
Also endanger ed is the Shor t- nosed Rat Ka ngar oo, the
last of four cl osely related spec ies that once l ived a l l over
the conti nent. T he Rat Ka ngaroo does best on the offshor e
islands, wher e i t doesn't have to compete with mor e aggr es
sive forager s such as i ntroduced rabbits. T he Rat Kangaroo
has also been a victim of habitat destruction and exter m ina
tion pr ogr a m s designed to get r id of ver m i n .
Hare Wa llabies wer e once quite common o n the g rass
lands of wester n Austr a l ia but ar e now extr emely r ar e . Also
member s of the ka ngar oo fa m i ly, they have the amazing
a b i l i ty to jump to a height of 8 feet or mor e . Along with
sever a l other species of wa l l a b i es , they wer e u nable to
com pete successfu l ly with domestic l i vestoc k . Some wer e
a l so exte rm i n ated by ver m i n - contr o l pr ogr a m s . Sever a l
species of r ock wa l labies that i n habit Australia's rocky, h il ly
cou n tr y have far ed better beca u se they do not have to
compete with l ivestock and r abbits.

24

Eastern Gray
Kangaroo

25

MORRO BAY KANGAROO RATS measure about 1 2 i nches

long, h al f of th i s length consi sti ng of the i r ta i l . With thei r
long h i nd legs, these rodents look very much l i ke m i n iature
kangaroos, and they a l so hop l i ke them . They feed at night
on seeds, n uts, and leaves, carrying a ny excess booty back
to their nest. About two dozen species l ive i n the America n
Southwest and northern Mexico . Of these, the Morro Bay
Ka n g a roo Rat of C a l i forn i a is in the g reatest d a n g e r of
bei ng d riven out of exi stence by encroach i n g civi l ization .
Both state and federal governments now protect it.
BLACK-TAILED PRAIRIE DOGS were once the most abundant
a n i m a l s on the Great Pla i n s , th e i r tota l pop u l ation in the
h u ndreds of m i l l ions. Pra irie dog "towns" dotted the g rass
lands. Each consi sted of a thou sand or more a n imals, but
one h uge "city" is esti mated to have covered more tha n
30,000 square mi les .
Despite these large n u m bers, pra i rie dog pop u l ations
were kept in check. Each fa m i ly ma rked off a n a rea to
accommodate its needs. If a trespasser from a nother g roup
entered a fam i ly's territory, it wa s prom ptly wh istled at unti l
it scurried back to its own fa mily. But ventu ring more than a
hundred feet from the entrance to a burrow was dangerous,
for in the grass " j u n g le" there were coyotes and other

26

predators . When the bison herds came and tra mpled down
the grass, the pra i rie dogs could spot predators more easily.
If there was any sign of danger, a pra i rie dog wou ld give a
s h r i l l a l a rm "wh i stle" that wou l d send a l l of the a n i m a l s
d iving i n to their bu rrows . Predators such a s badgers a n d
t h e Black-footed Ferret often fol l owed them i n to thei r
bu rrows, but th is was pa rt of the natural scheme.
Settlers became the greatest th reat. T he burrows were a
menace to horses, wh ich could easi ly break a leg by step
ping into one of the holes. Fa rmers plowing the pra i rie land
did not l i ke the m o u n d s a n d holes or the hordes of l i ttle
rodents eati ng thei r field a n d vegeta b l e cro p s . Shot,
poisoned , or s i m ply driven away, the Black-ta i led Pra i ri e
Dog just about d i sa ppeared , l i ke the bison . T he magn itude
of the event was less noticeable only becau se of the longer
time involved and the smal l er size (about 1 2 inches) of the
a n i m a l s . Once u n be l i eva bly plentifu l , th ey n ow exist i n
greatly d i m i n ished numbers, as d o some o f the a nim a l s that
either p reyed on them or, l i ke the Bu rrow i n g Owl , l ived
peacefully with them in thei r bu rrows .

BLACK-FOOTED FERRETS became victi m s of the campaign

to eradicate Black-ta i led Pra i rie Dogs, their principal p rey.
Never abu ndant and once reported to be exti nct, the B lack
footed Ferret has been sighted aga i n . It is now protected by
law and should increase in number.
PINK FAI RY ARMADI LLOS a re among the more tha n 20
spec ies of armad i l los that range over most of South a n d
Cen tra l America, parti c u l a rly i n t h e p a m p a s . The N i n e
banded Arm ad i l lo has even extended i ts range i n to the
southern U n i ted States i n recent yea rs. The P i n k Fa i ry
Armadillo, fou nd only i n the pampas, measu res less than 6
i nches long; it is the smal lest armad i l lo and also the ra rest.
This d i m i n utive creatu re has only a pa rtial shel l , which sits
on its head and back as though added as an afterthought. It
spends most of its l i fe in a burrow. As with other a rmad i l los,
its d i et is pri m a rily i n sects, bu t it wi l l eat a l most a ny sma ll
a n i m a l it can catc h . Farm i ng has robbed th i s a n i m a l of its
habitat, and unfortunately it is often treated a s a pest, even
thoug h-l i ke other armad i l los-it does no seriou s damage.

African Wild Dog

AFRICAN WILD DOGS,

w h i c h a re a l so known
as Cape Hu nti ng Dogs,
a re nearing exti nctio n .
Less t h a n 4 , 000 exi st
tod ay, p r i m a r i l y a s a
res u l t of confl icts with
humans. Bla med for the depletion of other wildl ife and also
for prey i n g on l ivestock, they have been k i l l ed both with
guns and with poison s. Lately they have become victi ms of
someth i ng even more devastati ng-diseases picked up from
domestic dog s . Conservation ists have begun a prog ram of
vaccinating the wild dogs (and also infected domestic dogs)
to protect a g a i n st such d i seases as rabies and d i stemper.
Large tracts of land a re also bei ng set aside where the dogs
can avoid contact with people and their a n i ma l s .
A n African W i l d Dog stands about 30 i nches ta l l at the
shoulders and may weigh as much as 60 pou nds. Its coat is
a nondescript splotc h i n g of yel low, black, and wh i te . T he
dogs hunt i n packs that may consist of ten or more individ
uals, and when in p u rsu i t of a q u a rry, they may run at
speeds of up to 35 mi les per hour for severa l m i les. As with
wolves, thei r k i l l s typ ically i m p rove the popu lation of the
species they prey upon beca use they ta ke m a i n ly the old,
weak, and sick.

29

PAMPAS FOXES l i ve on the gr a s s l a n d s of C h i l e a n d

Ar genti na a n d may a l so a ppear along the coasts o f these
countries. T hough at pr esent this fox i s not endanger ed, i t i s
a l so not abundant. I n addition to loss of habitat and pur suit
by h u n ter s, it has not coped wel l with the mor e aggr essive
Red Fox, i ntr od uced from Eur ope. Compar ed to other foxes,
the small Pam pas Fox ( its body i s only about 2 feet long) is
very slow- movi ng.
MAN E D WOLVES l ive on the pampas of South Amer ic a .
T h e s e u n usual foxes (they ar e not wolves) h ave a fox l i ke
head, a d isti nct black mane that r i ses when the a n i m a l i s
excited , a n d a r eddish br own coat. O n thei r long, sti l tl i ke
legs they sta n d a l most 3 feet ta l l at the shoulder a n d ar e
about 3V2 feet i n length, exc l u d i n g their bushy ta i l . T hey
wei g h about 50 pou n d s . T he Ma ned Wol f is a sol itary
hunter , pr eferr ing small ver tebrates such as r odents as wel l
as i nsects a n d seasona l ly ava i lable fr uit. It h a s never been
abundant and is now in danger of becomi ng extinct.
HYENAS ar e often kil led si mply because of the i r looks or
their u n a ttr active h a b i ts . Typical ly they spend their days
s l eep i n g in burr ows, then come out a t n ig h t to pr owl for
food . T hey ar e par t of natur e' s c l ea n u p cr ew a fter a
pr edator makes a kill and takes the choice par ts . With their
power ful jaws, hyenas can cr ush large bones. They ar e also
aggr essive, and wor king i n packs, they someti mes dr ive off
lar ge pr edator s befor e they have r ea l ly fin ished their mea l s .
Two species o f hyenas ar e endanger ed : t h e Bar bar y and the
Br own . T he Bar bar y Hyen a , a s u bspecies of the wide
r anging Str i ped Hyena (wh ich i s not endanger ed} , l ives in
or near Mor occo . T he secr etive Br own Hyen a l ives i n
souther n Afr ica , wher e i t spends par t of its time o n the coast
feed i n g on carr ion washed in fr om the sea . It may a l so
wander the dry inter ior .

30

Pampas

Fox
Maned

Wolf

31

CHEETAHS, l i ke a l l top-of-the-food-cha i n predator s, were

never a b u n d a nt, but today they a re ver y few. The long
l egged C h eeta h i s the fa stest of all l a n d a n i m a l s in
short-dista nce runs-atta i n i ng speeds as g reat as 60 m i les
per hour in less tha n a minute. It fi rst wa l ks towar d its pr ey,
then speeds up to a sprint. The Cheetah, which is 4 feet long
( not i ncluding its ta i l) and has a smal l head , has lost much of
its orig inal habitat as wel l as its food supply. Fu rther , it has
been hunted for its handsome spotted pelt.
O n ly sma l l n u m bers of Cheeta h s ar e left on the g rass
l a n d s of southern and easter n Africa, i n c l u d i n g those i n
Serengeti Nationa l Pa rk. Sti l l fewer a re fou n d i n Asia,
where the Cheeta h ea rned the name of H u nting Leopar d
(thoug h i t i s not a l eopa rd) . There you ng a n i m a l s were
caught and tamed, then taken onto the plains with a hood
over their head. When a herd of Blackbucks was sig hted,
the hood was sli pped off and the swift, eager h unters r u shed
to make their k i l l . If successfu l, the cats wer e usua l ly g iven a
drink of the slain a n i mal's blood as a rewar d . I n the 1 930s
the Cheeta h was l i sted as exti nct in Asi a , but a few have
been seen since then .

32

LIONS l ive i n g roups ca l led pr ides and hunt together , with

the l ioness u s u a l ly leading the attack and k i l l i ng the p rey.
The m a l e, h owever , eats fir st. A male l ion is up to 9 feet
long, i nclud i ng h i s tai l , and stands 3 feet at the shoulder s .
Lions once roamed over most o f southern Eurasia, b u t the
few h u n d red a l ive today ar e confi ned to the G i r For est of
I n d i a . T hey wer e k i l led for sport and bec a u se they were
consider ed to be extremely dangerous. They wi l l i ndeed kill
domestic l ivestock when h u n g ry. Lions also a l most d i sap
pea red from Afr i ca, but l ar g e parks have now been set
aside wher e they can exi st without th reat of a n n i h i lation .

PRZEWALSKI 'S HORSES survive today in zoos and may sti l l

exist i n t h e wild i n sma l l n um ber s on t h e steppes of Asi a .
Their r ar ity is bel ieved to b e d u e to their inability to compete
with domestic l ivestock for food and water in the d ry gr ass
lands wher e they l ive. These sma l l hor ses sta nd about 4 feet
tal l at the shoulder s and have er ect, br ushlike manes. They
ar e bel i eved to r esem ble the k i n d of pr i m i tive hor se that
cr ossed the br idge of land that joi ned Nor th Amer ica and
Asia thousands of year s ago.
PAMPAS DEER ar e now so r ar e that conservation ists fear for
their surviva l . With the d i sa ppear a nce of the ta l l pampas
gr ass i n which these South Amer ican natives took r efuge,
and with h u nting of the deer sti ll bei ng al lowed, their popu
lation has dr opped so low that r ecovery may no longer be
possible. Intr oduction of the strongly competitive Red Deer
and Axis Deer fr om Eur ope has also been a factor , as have
a n thr ax a n d foot- a n d - mouth d i sease, both of wh i c h ar e
tr ansmitted to the Pampas Deer by domestic l ivestock.

34

Pampas Deer

Giant Sable
Antelope

GIANT SABLE ANTELOPES

ar e among sever a l antelope
species that once r oa med
the gr assy Afr ican sava n n a
i n lar g e n u m ber s . They ar e
now extr emely r ar e. Noted
for their exceptionally long
hor n s, wh ich gr ow to mor e
than 5 f eet, they have been
soug h t a fter a n d pr i zed by
trophy hunter s for centur ies.
They h ave a l so been k i l led
for food. These stately cr ea
tur es ar e today i n cr ea s i n g
their number s on r eserves i n
Afr ica, a n d thus they might
be spar ed the f ate of the
simi lar Blue Antelope, wh ich
was h u n ted i nto exti nction
befor e 1 900.

35

White-tailed Gnu

WHITE-TAILED
GNUS, also known
as Black Wildebeests,
were once common 1 n
Africa from the Cape to
the Transvaal. Standing
less than 4 feet tal l at
the shoulders, the
animal's bristly mane
and tufts of hair on its
nose make it look fero
cious-which it can be.
However, it i s rare for
grazers of thi s type to be
combative. H u nted a lmost to
exti nction for their meat and h ides more than a century ago,
Wh i te-ta i led G n u s a re now protected a n d a ppear to be
i ncreasing aga i n , from a low of a few hundred a n i m a l s in
the late 1 800s to perhaps severa l thousand today.
P RONGHORNS roa med the Great Pla i n s with the b i son .
Before the a rrival of wh i te settlers, the population of th i s
swift g razi ng a ni ma l i s esti mated to have been nearly 40
m i l l i o n . The Pronghorn ra n fa st enoug h-more tha n 50
m i les per hou r-to escape the wol f a n d the coyote, but i t
could not escape bul lets. The settlers also brought with them
plows and began putting up fences . D i m i n ished i n n u m ber
by sport a n d meat h u n ters, and w i th wide- open spaces

36

beco mi ng increasi ngly scarce, the Pronghorns retreated to

more remote a reas .
Resea rch shows that Pronghorns do n o t compete d i rectly
with cattle for the same grasses; hence the two can graze on
the same land. The Pronghorn also does not spread d isease
to cattle, as was once believed . As a result of these fi ndings,
ra nchers h ave beg u n helping i n efforts to bring back the
Pronghorn .
For the p resent the Pronghorn seems safe, its popu lation
at about 250,000. It could be th reatened, however, by any
l a rge-scale cha nges in its habitat, such a s converting the
rem a i n i ng open ra ngeland i n to p l owed fi e l d s or stri p
m i n i ng the land for coa l .
One su bspecies, the Sonoran Pronghorn, which lives on
the border between Arizona a n d Mex i co, i s defi n i tely
endangered today. Only about 450 sti l l exist, and there has
been no formal ag reement between the U n i ted States and
Mexico o n h ow to ma nage these a n i m a l s to i n s u re thei r
conti n ued surviva l .

Pronghorns

AME RICAN BISON, or buffalo, have s u rvived after a l most

becoming exti nct. Once the sprawl i ng grasslands of central
N o rth America were home to a n esti m ated 60 m i l l i on of
these shaggy bea sts . Some even ranged eastwa rd across
the Mississippi River into the Ohio V a l ley. Great bulls stood
more than 6 feet ta l l at the shoulders and weighed over a
ton . In autumn the huge herds moved southwa rd to wa rmer
lands and an abundant supply of food . In spring they trav
eled northwa rd again as the g rass sprouted tender g reen
shoots under the wa rm ing sun.
I n thi s treeless and largely a rid land, the bison were the
mainstay of the Plains I ndians, who used thei r hides to make
garments and tepees and their bones, horns, and teeth to
make tools, weapons, and ornaments. The d ried, pancake
shaped pieces of dung, or "buffa lo chips," were bu rned a s
a fuel for b oth cooking a n d heati ng. Enough meat was dried
to provide food for the tribe until the next herd passed . No
part of a kil led bison was wasted .

38

American Bison

The I n d i a n s kil led o n ly for their needs, and so they d i d

n o t seri ously dec rea se t h e size o f t h e herd s . It w a s wh i te
hunters who wh ittled the herds into nea r obl ivion . With their
repeati ng rifles and then with tra in s to haul away the meat
and h i des to m a rkets in the East, they soon s i g n i fica ntly
red uced the b i son popu lation . The hu nters were extremely
wastefu l , often ta king only pa rts of a slaughtered a n i m a l ,
such as the h u m p or the tongue, a n d leaving t h e rest to rot.
Someti mes, too , the b i g a n i m a l s were s h ot from tra i n
windows s i mply for sport. The ki lling was endorsed by the
gove r n me n t a s a way of d riving the I n d i a n s away a n d
open ing the land for wh ite settlers .
B y t h e 1 8 8 0 s t h e g reat herds were gone. I n 1 8 8 9 t h e
600 rem a i n i n g bison were herded onto a federa l reserva
tion, where th ey were bred a n d have prospered . S m a l l
herds a re kept today o n severa l private a n d govern ment
m a n aged l a n d s . The b i son h a s th u s been spa red from
becoming only a name i n the h i story books .
39

E LEPHAN TS, the l a rgest of a l l l iving land a n i m a l s , a re so

much a part of our picture of the African and Asian conti
nents that we can not imagine the world without them . But
that i s a d isti nct possibil ity.
The Asian E lephant has sma l l , tria ngular ears, a h u m ped
back, a si ngle "finger" on the end of its tru n k, and relatively
small tusks. The bull, or male, stands about 1 0 feet ta l l at the
shoulder and weighs up to 6 tons. The more swaybacked
African Elephant has huge fan l i ke ea rs, two "fi ngers" on the
end of its trun k, and large tusks. The bull may stand 1 1 feet
ta l l at the shoulder a n d wei g h as m u ch a s 7 to n s . The
females of both species are smal ler than the bulls.
An e l e p h a n t' s sol i d ivory tusks a re g reatly e n l a rged
incisor teeth . Those of a bul l African Elephant may measure
more tha n 1 1 feet long and weigh 250 pou nds eac h . The
tusks are used not only for defense but also for d igging and
l i fti n g . Norm a l ly an elep h a n t has only 4 m o l a r teeth-2
above and 2 below. But beh ind each tooth a re replacements
ready to g row in when the old teeth wear away. I n its l i fe
time an elephant uses a tota l of 24 molars-4 replacements
for each orig i n a l . Each molar has a ridged or corrugated
top, mea s u res about 12 i nches long and 1 2 i nches wide,
and weighs a bout 9 pounds.
Strictly vegeta r i a n , an elephant i n the wild con s u mes
more tha n 500 pounds of fru its, leaves, and branches daily
a n d d ri n ks a bout 50 g a l l o n s of water fi rst d rawn i n to i ts
tru n k and then squ i rted from the tru n k into its th roat. In both
k i n d s of elepha nts the tru n k may wei g h as m u c h as 250
pou n d s . Essenti a l ly a g reatly elongated, double-tu bed
mob i le nose, the tru n k is control led by an i n tricate set of
m u scles a n d is powerfu l enough to l i ft log s , yet sen s itive
enough to pick u p tiny twigs or to pluck fru it. The tru n k i s
a l so u sed to m a ke loud, trum peti ng ca l l s o r as a sn orkel
when the a n i ma l wa l ks u n derwater. E leph a n ts have a n
acute sen se o f smell but poor vision .

40

African
Elephant

Asian Elephant

Obviously, elephants need large tracts of land on wh ich

to forage. Their big size p rotects them from all natura l
predators except humans, but they are victi ms of poach ing
fo r the i r ivory a n d of h a b i tat destruction . The rema i n i n g
herds of elepha nts a re sma l l . H ow l o n g these g i a n t
mammals ca n su rvive i n their now much more l i mited world
is questionable. Their tota l population today is less than 1 0
percent of what it was a century ago.
41

DESERTS
Deserts a re l a n d s with a n a n n u a l ra i n fa l l of less tha n 1 0
i nches. I n hot deserts the dayti me temperatu re com monly
rises to more than 1 00 F and may soa r to over 1 50 F i n
spots . N i g hts a re usually coo l . I n m i d - latitude deserts, the
dayti me temperatu re i s genera l ly cool and becomes bitter
cold at n ight. If a desert were defined as just a place with
low ava i lability of water, then much of the tu ndra and also
the polar regions might be classified as deserts.
Despite seem i ngly u n l ivable cond itions, many kinds of
an ima l s th rive i n deserts. When the rai n s come-generally
i n downpours-a desert qu ickly explodes with an amazing
va riety of colorfu l flowers . Plants m u st p roduce thei r fru its
and seeds in the short ti m e water is ava i l a b l e . The
remai nder of the year they a re dormant, or nearly so.
The Sahara, largest of the world's hot deserts, extends
across northern Africa from the Atla ntic Ocea n to the Red
Sea . It is an a rea equal in size to the United States. On the
eastern side of the Red Sea , the desert continues through
Asia Mi nor as the Syria n and Saudi Arabian deserts and is
connected through northern India to the cool Gobi Desert of
Mongolia. On ly parts of th is massive desert a re sa nd, but in
these a reas the sa nd may be p i l ed to depths of severa l
hundred feet. Swept by the wi nd, the sa nd l i es i n crescent
shaped dunes, l i ke giant waves in the sea . In other places
the strong wi nds have scou red the ea rth clea n , leavi ng only
gravel and ba re rock.
Two other deserts in southwestern Africa a re the Namib
and the Kalahari . The Kalahari is noted for its fog l ike m i sts.
A large part of the southwestern United States and western
Mexico a re d esert reg ions, too . South America n deserts
include the Atacamba, along the Pacific coast of C h i le, and
the Gran Chaco i n western Argenti n a . I n add ition , most of
centra l and western Austra l ia is a desert, u n i n ha bitable by
humans except a long its fri nges.
42

American Southwest
desert scene. The right
side shows the desert
in bloom.

GILA MONSTERS a re poisonous l izard s . The o n l y other

poisonous liza rd i n the world is the sim i lar but slightly larger
Beaded Liza rd . Both a re desert dwel l e rs a n d both , l i ke
venomous snakes, produce a potent poison i n mod i fied sal i
va ry g l a n d s . W h e n t h e l izards bite-the i r fi rst defense i s
trying to escape-they clamp down tightly so that the venom
flows from the gla nds in their lower jaw along g rooves i n
their teeth a n d into the wou nd.
The Gila Monster is most abundant i n the southwestern
United States; the Beaded Lizard is confined to Mexico. Gila
Mon sters are sluggish and not usual ly very aggressive, but
beca use they a re poisonous, people have k i l l ed l a rge
numbers of them. The Gila Monster is th reatened and is now
protected by law i n Arizona.
Gila Monster

44

Desert Tortoise

TORTOISES a re land -dwell i ng tu rtles. Typically they have a

high-arched or domed shel l . Thei r front legs a re fl ipperl i ke
and a re u sed for digging; thei r h i n d legs a re stu m py a n d
broad, l i ke an elephant' s . G i a n t tortoi ses that l ived on the
Ga lapagos Islands m i l l ions of years ago weighed more than
a ton . Many torto i ses a re sti l l fou n d on the Ga l a pagos
Islands (see pp. 1 1 8- 1 9), where they sti l l g row quite large
and heavy, though not as large or heavy as thei r ancestors.
Li ke all tu rtles, tortoises a re reptiles. They a re a l so vege
taria n s . They can survive for long periods without drinking
water, getti ng a l l the moi stu re they need from the plants on
which they feed and possi bly a l so prod u c i n g some water
meta bol ical ly. Al l th ree species of tortoises i n habiting the
United States, common ly ca lled Gopher Tortoises, a re either
th reatened or endangered . They a re victim s of the pet trade
and of habitat destruction and may a l so have been hunted
for food . The Desert Tortoise of the America n Southwest was
tho u g h t to be sa fe a n d a b u n d a n t u n t i l the 1 980s, when
suddenly i ts popu lation d ropped by more tha n 50 percent
as a result of a respi ratory d i sease. This d i sease might have
been i ntroduced by tortoises kept as pets and then set free.
Keeping tortoises as pets is no longer perm itted, and lands
are being set aside as preserves for the Desert Tortoise.

45

ADDAXES a re African antelopes with a d i stinctive black tuft

of h a i r on t h e i r fo rehea d . Under th i s tuft i s a butterfly
shaped patch of wh ite that extends a rou n d each eye. The
m a l e' s s p i ra l ed a n d ridged horns may be 3 feet l o n g ;
fem a l es have s m a l ler horn s . Both u se the i r horns at least
pa rtly as weapons of defense. With its broad, flat hooves,
an Ad dax can travel with ease th roug h the sa n d . S ma l l
herds consta ntly roam the desert i n sea rch o f the succulent
plants that a re their sou rce of moisture as wel l as n utrition .
Although it occupies land of no value either to humans o r
t o the i r l ivestock, t h e Addax is sti l l th reatened with extinc
tion . It i s not a fast ru nner, and so hu nters i n motor veh icles
or even on camels can easily overta ke it. Large herds have
been red uced to a few hundred a n i mals, and the total popu
lation i s now believed to be fewer than 1 0,000 individua ls.

47

ARABIAN ORYXES a re a type of African oryx. Oryxes a re

antelopes. Arabian Oryxes and the slightly larger Sci m i tar
horned Oryxes i nhabit the desert fri nges. Their herds may
travel long d i sta nces to fi nd enough food for thei r needs,
and although they wi l l drink water when it i s ava i lable, they
ca n a l so s u rvive for long periods with their only sou rce of
moistu re being the succu lent plants on wh ich they feed . Both
oryxes have become rare as a result of hunti ng, done nowa
days for sport from motor veh icles and often with mac h i ne
guns. The oryxes have survived , but only because those kept
in captivity have not only th rived but a l so produced you ng.
Ca ptive-bred oryxes have been rei ntrod uced to the cou n
tries o f Oman and Jordan.
BONTEBOKS, or Mo roccan Dorcases, a re o n e of half a
dozen African gaze l l es that a re now enda ng ered . O nly
sma l l herd s exi st today. L ike other open -country spec ies,
these long-legged fleet a n i mals a re victi m s of encroach i ng
civi l ization a n d wea pon s . Bonteboks h ave a p rom i nent
wh ite Facial patch and a wh ite rump and belly. They a re a l l
wh ite below t h e knees. T h e remai nder o f the body is a rich
reddish brown . The horns a re cu rved and deeply ridged or
ringed, making these an imals prized by trophy hunters.
AFRICAN WILD ASSES have also been the victi ms of guns.
Herd s m e n claim they eat more g ra s s th a n goats do a n d
have tried t o exterm inate these progenitors o f t h e domestic
don key. But large herds of grazi ng domestic goats do more
damage to the envi ron ment than these animals do.
There a re two subspec i es of African W i l d Ass: the
N u b i a n and the Soma l i . Each has been red uced to a Few
hundred animals. I n some areas the wild asses have i n ter
b red with domestic don keys, res u l t i n g in a loss of the i r
orig i n a l pu rebred identity. It would b e a great pity to lose
either of these subspecies, for these l i ttle a n im a l s can th rive
i n remote area s and are part of the natura l balance there.

48

Arabian Oryx

Bantebok

FORESTS
The worl d' s largest forest circles the ea rth in the Northern
Hem i sphere in a broad belt commencing j ust south of the
tu ndra . It con sists almost wholly of needle- leaved trees, such
as pi nes, hem locks, fi rs, spruces, and other con i fers . Along
its northernmost fri nge, the trees straggle i n to the tu n d ra,
dwa rfed a n d wind -wa rped i n the i r efforts to g row i n the
cold land. Everywhere the forest has a sameness of a ppear
ance. Where the trees form a dense forest, a th ick ca rpet of
need les has built up on the floor over the centu ries, and a
gray soi l has slowly formed .
In E u rope th i s fo rest, ca l l ed the taiga, occupies a vast
lowland created du ring the Great Ice Age. The glacial ice
gouged deeply in many pl aces to form bog s , swa m ps ,
ponds, a n d l a kes. I n North America t h e con i ferous forest
50

Coniferous forest with glacial pond.

covers most of Canada, with its tendrils extend i ng into the

ha rdwood d ec i d uo u s forest reg ion of the centra l U n i ted
States and even farther south a long mounta i n ridges.
Winters are long in th i s reg ion, lasting from six month s
on its southern fringes to as long as n i ne months along the
tundra . Plants grow and produce their seeds rapidly i n the
short sum mers . I n th i s brief period, too, a n i ma l s m u st fi nd
food that wi l l h e l p them get thro u g h the w i n ter month s ,
when food becomes scarce. Some animals m ig rate from the
reg i o n in w i n ter; oth ers h i bernate . Many i n sects e n te r a
dormant stage i n their l i fe cycle. But some kinds of a n i m a l s
rem a i n active a l l wi nter. As i n s u m m er, they feed on t h e
seeds i n t h e p i n econes, or they e a t b a r k o r need les. And
every herbivore i s a potential meal for some carnivore.
51

Con i ferous northern fo rests a re the world ' s g reatest

sou rce of t i m ber. H a rvesting of the trees has not a lways
been managed wisely, however. Too often there has been
total destruction over a wide area , disrupti ng or destroyi ng
wildl ife popu lation s . Even so, these g reat northern forests
a re some of the least disturbed of the world's large habitats,
espec i a l ly in North America . Ma ny a n i m a l s that once
ra nged widely th roughout the north and i n the temperate
zones rema i n now only in the "North Woods . "
South of these con i ferous forests were once exte n s ive
wood l a n d s of dec i d uous trees such as oa ks, h i ckories,
maples, poplars, and others that shed their leaves i n winter.
Huge forests of these trees were once widespread i n
temperate regions o f North America, Europe, a n d Asia, but
long ago they fel l to the saw and the ax. With them went
many species of wi ldl ife, for th i s became the most heavi ly
settled reg ion of the worl d . Here a re most of the world's
Farm fields with deciduous forest o n right.

great cities and towns, and the open a reas between them
are either fa rmed or broken up into smal ler living tracts.
Along the equator and i mmed iately to its north and south
are the world's evergreen ra inforests . There the ra i n fa l l is no
less than 80 i nches annual ly-a nd much more i n a na rrow
belt near the equator. One ra i n forest, for exa mple, reg u
larly gets a bout 400 i n c hes of ra i n every yea r and
someti mes more. T h roug hout most of the tropics and
su btropics, the ra i n comes all i n o n e sea son . For the
rem a i n i ng months-the d ry season-there may be l i ttle or
no ra i n . At the edges of the tropics and with the c l i mate
controlled largely by the preva i l ing winds, the jungle g rades
i n to d ec i d uous trees or i n to thorny s h ru b s . Along the
seacoasts a re dense mang rove th ickets .
The abu ndance of ra i n and the yea r- round wa rmth-the
tem peratu re in a tropical ra inforest ra nges from a h i g h of
about 1 00 F to a low of a bout 70 F-result in a g reat
va riety of a n i mals and pla nts. Litera l ly hundreds of species
of trees may be found in a sma l l a rea , wh i l e a deciduous
forest of the same size i n temperate cli mates, for exam ple,
wi l l conta i n only a dozen or so species. A northern con if
erous forest conta i n s only one or two.
When a tropica l ra i n forest is mature, the ta l l trees form
an a l most sol i d canopy 1 00 feet or more off the g rou n d ,
blocking o u t the sunl ight. F o r th i s reason t h e floor o f a trop
ical ra i n forest is usually ba re of plants, or nearly so, except
at i ts edges, where the s u n can reach the g rou n d . Many
woody vines, or l ianas, lace thei r way th roug h the ta l l est
trees, wh ich may also be fi l led with clumps of pla nts cal led
epiphytes, which l ive on the tree branches and have no root
connection to the ground below.
Cold-blooded a n imals tend to reach their la rgest size i n
the tropics. Here, for exa mple, a re t h e g i a nts among the
snakes, crocod i les, toads, and moths . Most wa rm -blooded
animals, in contrast, a re smaller than the i r nea rest relatives
that l ive in temperate-cli mate regions.
53

Food i s plentifu l , but al most all of the fruits as wel l as the

foliage a re high above the forest floor. To get to them, an
a n i m a l m u st either fly or c l i m b . Modes of travel in a ra i n
fo rest i n c l ude eve ry i magi nable va riation, from that of
slow-creeping sloths (wh ich, wh ile hang i ng upside down ,
sluggishly make their way a long the u nderside of branches)
to that of the much swi fter, more agile g i bbons and other
pr i ma tes. Hoveri ng h u m m i ngbi rds s i p n ecta r from d eep
th roated flowers wh i l e sti l l on the wing, and b i g - b i l led
touca ns and horn b i l l s feed on fru it. Some tree-dwel l i n g
frogs g l i d e from tree to tree u s i n g p a rac h u te l i ke webs
between the i r toes , and s l i m s n a kes s l i p n o i selessly a n d
a rrowl i ke from branch to branch . Many j u ngle a n i m a l s are
born in the trees and never descend to the ground at a l l .
Though tee m i n g with l i fe, trop ical ra i n forests a re a l so
extremely frag i le. Thei r most abundant resou rces a re the
54

ra i n and the warm sunsh ine. I n an undi stu rbed forest either
canopied h ig h a bove the g ro u n d o r covered with dense
vegetation lower down-the fa l l of the ra i n is broken, and
the sunlight i s filtered before reaching the ea rth . But where
j u ng l e s have been cleared for fa rm i n g o r fo r h a rvesti n g
timber, th i s process is interrupted . Di stu rbed, too, i s t h e th ick
l i tter conta i n i n g i m porta n t kinds of fu n g i that h a sten the
decom pos i n g a n d recyc l i n g of n utrients. The so i l i tself is
poor, for a bout 80 percent of the nutrients i n the jungle a re
either i n the growing plants or i n the forest litter.
Jungles a re usually clea red for farm ing by the primitive
technique of cutti ng and burn i n g a l l the vegetation . Th is i s
fa st, b u t i t a l so destroys t h e reservoi rs of n utrients. C rops
usual ly g row wel l for only one or two sea sons; the pioneer
fa rmers then h ave to move on to new l a n d . There they
repeat thei r s l a s h - a n d - b u rn devastation ag a i n , leavi n g
55

beh i n d a g reatly depleted soi l-one that i s less rich tha n

that o f m a ny desert l a n d s . When a ttempts a re m a d e to
p rolong the u se of the land, such as by a d d i n g chemical
ferti lizers, the heavy ra ins leach the nutrients from the soi l
before the crop plants can derive any benefit. A forest wi l l
eventua l ly grow agai n , b u t many centu ries must pass before
a multistoried jungle reappears.
Althoug h the tropics are rich with a tremendous variety
of l i fe, the n u mber of i nd ividua l s in a species is genera l ly
less h ere tha n i n other reg ion s . I f h u n ters a n d collectors
concentrate their efforts on a particular species, such as an
especially colorfu l pa rrot that has become popu l a r as a pet
or a cat that p rovi des a m u c h - sought-after pelt, a whole
popu lation of a species can disappear i n a very short time.
The human popu lations in the ra inforests may not be sensitive
to wo rldwide envi ron menta l problems. They need food
often desperately. If a pa rrot brings them money that will
put food on the table or provide for other basic needs, there
i s no question about it: the parrot i s desti ned for a cage.
A l a rge portion of South America l i es in the tropics,
w h i c h con s i st mostly of the g reat ba s i n of the Amazon
River-an area a lmost os Iorge as the U n i ted States. Based
on the volume of water it carries, the Amazon is the largest
river in the world, flowi ng eastwa rd for 4,000 mi les from its
Pacific headwaters in the Peruvian Andes. The delta of the
Amazon i s 200 m i les wide, a huge depository for silt from
the river' s 500 or so tributa ries. Althoug h one of the least
developed wi lderness a reas in the wo rld, the Amazon
tropics a re a l so in g reat danger. Thousands of acres a re
being destroyed every hour of every day.
Africa' s tropical forests a re much sma l ler in tota l a rea
than South America's, but the problems in Africa a re a l so
g reat because of the long - ra n g e i m pact of people i n the
regi o n . The fo rested a rea s of Africa a re con fined a l most
wholly to the tropical west coast.
56

The destruction of the world's tropical rainforests continues

unabated, in spite of large-scale efforts to halt it.

Asia's tropics i nclude the most heavi ly populated a reas

of the wor l d , yet there a re sti l l dense and u n i n h a b i ted
j u ngles in the lowl a n d s of I nd i a , Burma, Cambod i a , a n d
South Vietn a m . I n these a reas, people and w i l d l ife a re i n
consta n t confl i ct, a n d the wi l d l i fe i s u s u a l ly the loser.
Sta rving people a re u ndersta ndably rarely sym pathetic to
the plight of wild a n i mals, and so those concerned with the
saving of wi ldlife must fi rst attend to the wel fare of humans.
57

CAROLINA PARAKEETS were once

a b u nd a n t in the wood l a nd s of the
southern U n i ted State s . They were
k i l l ed for sport and a l so beca u se
they made pests of them selves by
eati ng the seeds of fru its and other
c rops. The last of these parakeets a re
believed to have died in the Florida
Everg lades in the 1 9 20s. A caged
b i rd d i ed in 1 9 1 8 in the C i n c i n nati
Zoo, where it had lived a longside the
last of the Passenger P i g eo n s . But
u n l i ke the Passenger Pigeon, the
handsome Carol i n a Para keet, with
i ts metallic g reen body, yellow neck,
and orange to cri mson crown, got
a l most no attention. Have we rea l ly
lost the l ittle b i rd ? A small flock was
reported seen in South Carol i n a i n
the 1 930s.

Heath Hen

58

Carolina
Parakeet

HEATH HENS were relatives of pra i rie ch ickens

but l ived in the wood l a n d s and scru b oa k
p l a i n s . Heath Hens were once so common i n
No rth America that they a l most bec a m e a
staple of the coloni sts' d iet. Dogs and cats ate
many of these ground-nesti ng birds, too.
Eventu a l ly it beca me c l e a r t h at the Heath
Hen popu lation was dwi ndl i n g . Laws
passed to protect the b i rd s were not
enforced . By the early 1 900s the
s u rvivors, a h u n d red or so, were a l l
confi ned t o a preserve on Ma rtha ' s
Vi neya rd , off C a p e C o d i n
Massach u setts . T h e f l o c k g rew to
several thou s a n d . A series of
natural d i sasters then occu rredfirst a devastating lire, followed
soon alter by an uncommonly
cold wi nter. The hapless flock
was once aga i n red u ced to
about a hundred b i rds, which
were easily captu red by predators
in the fire-clea red l a n d . D i sease
fol lowed , and in 1 9 3 2 the last of
the Heath Hens died .

Red-cockaded
Woodpecker

IVORY- BILLED WOODPEC KERS

the deciduous forest reg i o n s in the
southeastern Un ited States and Cuba
were black and w h i te with a bright
red crest a n the i r head . They were
the largest (more than 1 'h feet long)
and most stri k i n g species of North
American wood pecker. Only the
very s i m i l a r P i l eated Wood pecker
approached them i n size.
U n fortunately, the b i rd ' s diet was
h i g h ly spec i a l i zed . It fed mainly on
the grubs ( l a rvae) of wood-boring
beetles living i n dead oak, ash, pine,
and cyp ress tree s . As forests were
leveled, there were fewer dead trees,
which a re produced only by mature
forests.
The Ivory-b i l l ed Woodpecker was
never a b u ndant, but it m i g h t have
been spared exti nction by providing
it with suitable sanctuaries. A retreat

of preci sely th i s sort was established

for them i n a northern Florida forest,
one of several s u c h places where
sightings of the b i rds had been made
i n recent yea rs. But it i s now widely
bel i eved that the b i rd ' s p l i g h t wa s
recog n ized too late a nd that it h a s
d i sappeared .
The I m perial Woodpecker, which
once lived i n the oak a nd pine forests
on mounta i n slopes in Mexico, wa s
a s i m i lar- look i n g but s l i g htly larger
close relative of the Ivory - b i l led
Woodpecker. That speci e s i s now
either exti nct or nearly so.
The Red- cockaded Woodpecker,
which i n h a b its forests of Lon g leaf
P i nes i n the southea stern U n i ted
States, is now enda ngered . Nearly
all of the rem a i n i n g b i rds are found
only i n national forests, where there
are large stands of mature trees.

59

Passenger Pigeon

PASSENGER PIGEONS once existed

i n North America in vast n u mbers.
The fe m a l e s laid only one egg a
yea r, but until people i nvaded thei r
world, thi s was enough to susta i n the
b i rds a nd b u i ld huge flocks, some of
which are said to have conta i ned as
many a s 50 m i l l i on b i rd s . In Fl ight
they da rkened the s k ies-l i tera l l y
blotti ng o u t t h e sun--as they passed
overhead . Noth i n g but b i rd s could
be seen from horizon to horizon.
Wherever these g i g a n t i c flocks
n ested or stopped to roost i n the
even i n g , they broke the branches
from the trees, a nd thei r droppings
whitened the ground below them l i ke
fresh snow. One nesting colony wos
esti m a ted to have been 50 m i les
wide a nd about 250 m i les long.
I n earlier days, of course, no one
gave a n y thought to the n eed to
protect the Passenger Pigeon . People
felt they were e l i m i nati ng what they
considered to be a pest while at the

60

same time obta i n i ng food for th e i r

tables. A n ambitious h u n ter could k i l l
as many as 1 0,000 b i rd s i n o n e day,
and there were many h u n te rs .
M i l l ions of Passenger P i ge on s were
slaughtered for sale in markets. They
were hauled to New York and other
b i g c i ties by the h u nd red s af ton s .
H o g s were a l so fatten ed on thei r
carcasses.
The massacre went o n yea r after
yea r u n t i l at lost the ma ssive flocks
were red uced to scattered g ro u p s .
E v e n i n the late 1 800s, however ,
p roposed legislation to p rotect t h e
Passenger P i g e o n wa s not passed
because lawmakers believed that the
birds were sti l l too abundant and too
prol ific to be in any rea l danger of
exterm ination.
Perhaps even mare d a m a g i n g ta
the Passenger P i geon was the
destruction of its woodland habitat.
These b i rds were h i g h ly adapted to
l i v i n g in deciduous fo rests, where
they nested and a l so got most of thei r
food . B y t h e 1 8 90s t h e Passenger
Pigeon had become so scarce that it
was no longer profitable to hunt the
b i rds commercially. I n add ition, the
rema i n i n g b i rd s s i m pl y could not
produce enough offspring to replace
themselves. A few b i rds were seen
a nd promptly s h ot-i n the early
1 900s, and then they were gone.
The very last Passenger Pigeon on
earth, a female named Martha , was
kept in a cage in the C i n c i n nati Zoo,
where she had hatched from an egg
some thi rty yea rs earlier. She d i ed
there in 1 9 1 4, n ever havi n g flown
with a flock of her own k i n d . She
was the last s u rv i vor of what once
might have been the world ' s most
a bundant b i rd .

Bald Eagle

BALD EAGLES once flew over most of North America . Today

thei r rem n a n t populations a re concen trated mostly i n
southern A l a s ka . P r i m a r i l y fi sh eaters, B a l d Eagles l ive
m a i n ly a l o n g seacoa sts or a round l a rge l a ke s . Powe rfu l
birds with keen eyesight, they swoop down from the sky to
snatch p rey i n thei r s h a rp, hooked ta lons. They may a l so
pilfer fish caught by other birds.
For a n u m ber of yea rs the Bald Eagle was dec l i n i ng at
such a n a l a r m i n g rate that its tota l d em i se seemed
i nevi ta b l e . Pesti c i des-most spec i fi ca l ly D DT-were to
blame. The Bald Eagles picked up sma ll doses of the poison
from virtua l ly every fish they ate. These small amounts accu
m u l a ted i n th e i r body a n d cau sed the fem a l e s to lay
weak-shelled eggs that broke before hatc h i n g . Much of the
la rge bird's orig inal habitat was destroyed, too, and many
b i rds were ki l led either to obta i n thei r feathers for u se as
ornaments or to e l i m i nate the b i rds a s potential th reats to
l ivestock . W i th D DT ba n n ed s i nce 1 972 a n d a l so with
g reater p rotecti o n , Bald Eagle pop u la t ions a re s l owly
building i n wilderness areas that can support them .

61

SPOITED OWLS h ave never been abundant, but no other

owl has stirred up more controversy. Sta n d i n g less tha n 2
feet tall and weig h ing only about 2 pounds, thi s fluffy little
bird became l i sted as a n endangered species in 1 98 9 . Its
last stro n g h o l d s a re the old-growth forests of the Pacific
Northwest, and its endangered status at least tem porarily
assures the holdup of timber cutti ng on m i llions of acres of
land owned by the U . S . Forest Service. E nvi ronm en ta l i sts
say thi s is the only way to spare the species from exti nction.
Many members of the timber industry disagree.
TINAMOUS a re sma l l , g rousel i ke b i rd s that i n ha b i t the
forests and grasslands of Central and South America . Some
of the 40 or so species have been heavily hunted , but loss of
habitat is the g reatest th reat. Two forest dwellers-Peru' s
Black-headed Tinamou and Venezuela's Barred Tinamou
a re a mong the world's rarest and least known bird s .

62

RED-BILLED C U RASSOWS a re among some 40 species of

forest-dwe l l i n g pheasantl i ke b i rds of the American tropics.
The Red-billed Curassow is found i n Braz i l and i s l i sted as
endangered . Another spec ies-the C h a c h a laca-ranges
into the state of Texas . Curassows a re becoming extremely
rare th roughout their range, due both to hunting and to the
destruction of their habitat.
Red-billed Curassow

Variegated
Tinamou

63

PARROTS AND PARAKE ETS ra nge i n s ize from no more

than 4 i nches to 3 'h feet tal l . Native to tropical and subtrop
i cal reg i o n s a ro u n d the worl d , they h ave been g reatly
red uced in n u m ber in fa i rly recent yea rs a s a res u l t of
habitat loss and the demand for them as pets. Few parrots
or pa rakeets have ever been abundant except loca l ly, and
so the population of a pa rticular species ca n be red uced
quickly to a critica l low. As an example, only a single Spix' s
Macaw h a s been seen i n the wild i n Brazil i n recent years,
but there a re about 27 in captivity. These handsome birds
sel l for a s much as $60,000 each.
One of the rarest and most unusual of the parrots is the
nearly fl ightless and noctu rnal Kakapo, or Owl Parrot. It l ives
in New Zealand in a small forested and h i l ly a rea where it
nests in bu rrows or holes among tree roots . Althoug h it
apparently once i n habited nearly a l l of New Zealand, it wa s
becoming rare even before the a rrival of the Europeans and
has conti n ued to decrease drastically i n n um ber. I ntroduced
p redators, such as rats, cats, dogs, a n d p i g s , as wel l a s
destruction o f its natural habitat, are the m a i n causes.

Kirtland's
Warbler

KIRTLAND'S WARBLER i s one of the rarest b i rds i n North

America . T h i s yel low-breasted , g ray- backed l i ttle wa rbler
spends i ts s u m mers in the p i n e forests of M i c h i g a n a n d
winters i n t h e Ba hamas. A s t h e forests where t h e wa rbler
nested were clea red , the Brown -headed Cowbi rd becam e
more abundant.
Fema le cowb i rd s often lay the i r egg s in the wa rblers'
nests, then l eave the chore of i n cu bati n g the eggs a n d
rearing the young up to the warblers. T h e wa rblers' you ng,
if a ny do hatch, a re either crowded out of the nest or a re
sta rved to death because the young cowbi rd i s larger a n d
more dema nding. T h e result i s healthy, wel l-fed cowbi rds
and no wa rblers.
I n the dense forests that Kirtland's Wa rbler once enjoyed ,
the Brown-headed Cowbi rd did not exist. Recog n izing th is,
the U . S . Forest Service set aside 4,000 acres of forestland in
Michigan as a place for the wa rblers to nest, but help may
have come too late. Some experts say the l i ttle wa rbler i s
doomed to become exti nct with i n a few years.

65

THREE-TOED SLOTHS have a wel l-deserved reputation for

slowness. A Three-toed Sloth travels only about 1 2 feet per
m i n ute-when in a h u rry. On the g rou nd, d rag g i n g itself
a long clumsi ly, it can manage only 6 feet or so per m i n ute.
Although it is a su rprisi ngly good swi mmer, most of its life i s
spent hanging from branches, a n d its brown ish fur becomes
g reen with growths of a lgae. Underneath these coarse hairs
i s a short, soft u ndercoat. When a sloth dies, it may conti nue
to h a n g from a bra n c h , hooked i n place with its long ,
curved claws.
The Th ree-toed Sloth has a special fondness for the fru it
and leaves of Cecropia trees, and it may spend its enti re life
i n one tree. The cutti ng down of the tropical forests has seri
ously endangered these slowest of a l l mammals. They have
no place else to go, and at the rate they travel they wou ld
never get there anyhow.
KOALAS feed only on leaves of euca lyptus, or g u m , trees.
The Koala does not drink water, and i n the language of the
aborigi nes, its name means "no drink." These tree-dwel l i ng
marsu p i a l s a re among the most fa mous of a l l Austra l ia n
animals a n d have been pu rsued for their pelts for yea rs. At
one t i m e m i l l io n s of s k i n s were sold every yea r . A few
Koa las a re kept in zoos that are able to provide euca lyptus
leaves i n quantity. Fortunately, Koa las do breed i n captivity,
and so the species may survive. The Australian govern ment
has a l so esta b l i shed preserves where Koa l a s a re s l owly
i ncreasing i n n u m bers.
N UMBATS, which are also known as Banded Anteaters, a re
squ i rrel -sized marsupials native to Austra l i a . Their reddish
back conta i n s half a dozen or so white or off-wh ite bars,
and their muzzle ends i n a sma ll mouth from wh ich a long,
slender tongue i s fl icked out to pick up crawl i n g term ites,
their pri ncipal food . Numbats live in hollow logs, often ones

66

that h ave been chan neled out i n i ti a l ly by ter m i tes . They

sleep d u ri n g the n ight and a re active during the day. The
cutti ng down of the forests and freq uent attacks by dog s ,
cats, and foxes have p u t them o n t h e enda ngered l ist. There
are two subspecies-the N u m bat and the even less a b u n
d a n t Rusty N u m bat.
Three-toed Sloth

BATS a re the only mammals with wings and thus the capa
b i l ity of true flight. About one i n four mammal species in the
world is a bat, ran king bats next to rodents i n abundance.
They can be fou n d everywhere i n the world except in the
pol a r reg i o n s , on remote ocea n i c i s l a n d s , a n d on ice
ca pped mounta i n s , but they a re most n u me rous in warm
cli mates.
Some k i n d s of bats a re strictly fru it and necta r eaters.
These bats, which have large eyes and good vision, are a l so
the l a rgest, some with wingspa n s of 5 feet. Two k i n d s of
bats eat fish exc l u s ively. They m a ke thei r catches by
swooping down from above and snatc h i n g the fi sh out of
the water. The greatest number of bats, however, a re i n sect
eaters. These a re the mouse-sized bats com monly seen on
thei r feed i n g fl i g hts on wa rm even i n g s i n temperate
c l i mates. Typically they roost i n hol low trees, u nder rock
ledges, in the attics of b u i l d i ngs, or in s i m i l a rly p rotected
a n d out-of-the-way places duri ng the day. Some of them
migrate to wa rmer climates in winter wh ile others h i bernate,
often congregati ng i n uncountable thousa nds i n caves.
Bats a re generally not popu lar with people. Most have
small eyes a n d wri n kled pug faces. The wri n kles serve a s
sound traps, for bats navigate and a l so sea rch for food by
echolocation . Th i s consi sts of emitting h ig h - p itched sou nds
beyond the range of human heari n g . These sou nd p u l ses
bounce off a nyth i n g in the i r path and a re p i c ked up as
echoes by the bats' sensitive ears.
A n u m ber of species of bats are cu rrently endangered ,
due pri m a r i ly to destruction of thei r habitat. I n the centra l
U n ited States, as a n example, the wood l a n d - lovi ng Gray
Bat i n habiting the middle of the conti nent is now l i sted as an
endangered species. Once it was one of the most abundant
mammals in its range, but its population has been red uced
to an esti mated m i l l ion. The bats are no longer safe even i n
caves. Human visitors cause the females to drop their young

68

Gray Bat

to the cave floor, where they a re attacked a n d eaten by

m i ce or a re d rowned i n pools of water. There i s a critical
low from wh i c h a pop u l ation of a n i m a l s i s no longer
capable of recovering, and scientists a re concerned that th is
point may soon be reac h ed by m a ny belea g u e red bat
species. Areas of cut-over forests are bei n g restored to help
the bats m a ke a comeba ck, and roost a reas a re bei n g
marked as "off l i mits" for visitors.
Aside from a simple des i re not to harm a ny l iving crea
tu re that does not do us any harm, why should we preserve
these u n u s u a l l i ttle a n i ma l s? For one th i n g , beca use m a ny
species a re i n sect eaters. A single Gray Bat, for exa mple,
wi l l eat as many as a thousand i nsects every n ight. A colony
of these bats wi l l con sume as many as a m i l l ion i nsects i n
one night. I n addition, many bat species a re i m portant pol l i
nators a n d seed d i spersers for com m e rc i a l ly i m po rta n t
crops i n tropical forest a n d savanna habitats . Thus, they a re
i ndeed a significa nt pa rt of natu re's natura l balance.
69

RED WOLVES were, until very recently, bel ieved doomed .

Once they roa med over most of the central a n d southern
U n ited States, but they were forced to retreat a s the la n d
was settled . T h e Timber, or Gray, Wolf, w h ich once ranged
widely over tem perate regions of the Northern Hemisphere,
moved northwa rd , where the rema i n i n g a n i m a l s su rvive
principally in the " North Wood s . " The s m a l ler Red Wolf
moved southwa rd, nearer to civi lization . Those that escaped
g u n s a n d poisoned ba i ts l ive in the s h r u n ken w i l derness
a reas of Lou i s i a n a , Arka n sas, Texa s, and Mexico. The
actua l number of survivors i s not known . Those few kept in
captivity have been bred , however, and thei r offspring are
being retu rned to those wi lderness a reas that can support
them .

70

The Red Wolf may not actually be a true species. Some

genetici sts say i t may i n stead be a natu ra l hybrid of the
T i m ber Wo l f a n d the Coyote. I f th i s i s eventu a l ly p roved
correct, the hybrid Red Wol f may not be protected under the
E n d a n gered Species Act, si nce o n ly p u reb reds-true
species-supposedly quali fy for these funds.
JAGUARS a re the la rgest cats native to the America n
trop i c s . Li ke l eopards, they a re spotted , b u t the i r s pots
consist of a black spot su rrounded by a yellowish or l i ghter
c i rcle and then an outer c i rcle of black, form i ng a rosette.
J a g u a rs ra n g e i n color from yel lowish to a l most wholly
black. They hunt at night and rest i n secluded spots d u ri n g
t h e day, mostly staying i n lowland areas n e a r strea m s and
lakes. The cutti ng down of forests has forced them to retreat
to ever-smal ler tracts, and they have been h u nted both for
their pelts a n d to elimi nate them i n areas where people fea r
thei r presence or the i r attacks on l ivestock . They a re now
one of the world's most endangered animals.

TIGERS at o n e t i m e ranged widely across Asia, a n d l i ke

other big cats, they have long been i n conflict with h u mans,
whom they do sometimes attack. But with guns, people have
had the longest and most lethal reach. Poach i ng to obta i n
tiger bones for use in prim itive medicines has added t o the
problem. In the last few decades, the tota l n um ber of tigers
has been red uced from some l 00, 000 to about 8 , 000.
Those few rem a i n i ng a n i m a l s must be g iven p rotection to
prevent exterm ination of the species.
Some tigers do kill cattle and have a l so ta ken a tol l of
people-perhaps severa l h u n d red per yea r in the recent
past, u p to a thousand per yea r before that. People have
reta l i ated . However, h u nts a re someti mes o rga n ized a s
much for sport as to get r i d o f a pa rticu lar m i screant. And
not a l l tigers a re man eaters . Often it is an older tiger that
ca n no longer capture wild prey that goes after people.
Tigers a re the largest of the l iving cats, with big males
com monly weigh i n g more than 500 pounds. The Siberian
Tiger, wh ich l ives i n the north, has a longer and paler coat
than does the Bengal Tiger of the tropics.

Bengal Tiger

72

PUMAS, a l so known as Cougars, Mounta i n Lions, Panthers,

and at least a dozen othe r na mes, were once the most
widely d i stributed large mammals i n North America . They
ra nged from southern Canada to the southern ti p of South
America and were eq ually at home in the tropics, deserts,
and mounta i ns, with a preference for forested a rea s .
A Puma m a y mea s u re nea rly 9 feet from the tip of i ts
nose to the tip of its ta i l and weigh wel l over 200 pou nds.
Fema l e s a re a bout a th i rd s m a l ler tha n males. P u m a s
usually prey on deer or other large an i m a ls, b u t a hungry
a n i m a l wi l l not turn down smal ler prey, even a mouse. As
the land became settled , some cats attacked l ivestock, and
soon the fu l l wrath of humans was tu rned aga i n st the cats.
Bou nties were offered, and some men became h i red kil lers
of these h a n d some a n i m a l s . Thou s a n d s of P u m a s were
exterm i nated , and it is rema rkable that any sti l l exi st today.
The few thou s a nd rema i n i n g creatu res a re con fi n ed
largely to wilderness areas i n Florida and the mounta i n s i n
the West. They avoid h u m a n bei ngs whenever possible but
ca n be tamed and wi l l breed in captivity.

73

Leopard
with prey

LEOPARDS a re big cats that l ive i n the jungles of Africa and

Asia . They a re a l so fou n d in grass l a n d s , brush country,
deserts, a rid savan nas, and even near u rban a rea s . Some
range into the high mountains. Those l iving in the lowlands
typically have dark yel low coats ma rked with black rosette
shaped spots. Wholly black forms, more common in dense,
moist forests, a re someti mes called panthers .
Considering t h e popularity of the i r pelts for coats a n d
other a pp a rel , leopards have fa red s u rp ri s i n g ly wel l .
However, they a re sti l l shot a t for attacking l ivestock, which
they sometimes do when their natural prey is scarce.
Snow Leopard s , which a re a sepa rate species from
Leopards, n u m ber only about 500 in the wild. They l ive at
the edge of the snow line in the mounta i n s of centra l Asia.
At these high elevations-from 5,000 to 1 5,000 feet-they
manage to avoid people.
The wa ry Snow Leopard i s prized for its soft g ray pelt
spotted with black. Like Leopards, it ca n make spectacular
leaps-to as much as 30 feet horizonta l ly and 1 2 feet verti
cally. Snow Leopards do breed readily i n captivity. But they
a re very s e n s i tive to heat, a n d spec i a l acco m modations
must be made for keeping them .

74

The Clouded Leopard, which is also not a true Leopa rd ,

lives at lower elevations and is more abundant. B u t it i s sti l l
endangered , d u e to habita t loss and h u n t i n g for i ts pelt.
Clouded Leopard s a re about 6 feet l o n g , i nc l u d i n g th e i r
long ta i l . Like Snow Leopards, Clouded Leopards do wel l i n
captivity. Thei r status in the wild, however, i s uncerta i n .
MARGAYS A N D OCELOTS a re sma l l , handsome cats o f the
American tropics that have been hu nted for thei r pelts and
meat. Also, much of their forest habitat has d i sappeared as
a result of encroach i ng civil ization . Althoug h thei r popu la
tions a re not eas i ly determ ined with accu racy, these cats a re
known to be endangered .

TAPI RS a re shy and reti ring creatu res that look l i ke a type of
pig because of thei r long snout but a re really more closely
related to rh inoceroses and horses. Tap i rs live m a i n ly a long
waterways. Th ree species a re found in Central and South
America and one in Malaysia . Both the Mou nta i n Tap i r and
Ba i rd's Tapir l ive in South America's mounta i n forests up to
elevations of more tha n 1 2 ,000 feet. The B razi l i a n Ta p i r
a n d the Ma laya n Tapir i n habit tropical lowlands. A mature
Brazi l i an Ta p i r may weigh as much as 800 pou nds; other
species weigh less.
Tap i rs have never been abundant and a re now endan
gered . They have long been a favorite food of most l a rge
predators and have a l so been hunted heavi ly by h u m a n s .
Most damag ing, however, has been the destruction o f thei r
habitat. Long ago thei r range included North America, but
now they a re found only i n the tropics. However, that world
is fa st d i sa p pea r i n g , too . Ta p i rs may be spa red by the '
establishment of pa rks and reservations and by the fact that
they do reasonably wel l in captivity.
DUI KERS a re s h o rt- legged forest-dwel l i ng a n te lopes of
centra l a n d southern Afri ca . A l l of the rou g h ly dozen
species a re rather sm a l l , some on ly a bout 2 feet l o n g .
Usua l ly they travel alone or i n pai rs. Most a re secretive a n d
a l so rare, d u e pa rtly t o t h e destruction of t h e forests a n d
sava n n a s where they l ive; some, however, exi s t i n l a rge
n u m bers even in settled a rea s . The i r name i s D u tc h for
"d iver" a n d refers to the speedy way these shy l i ttle
antelopes can litera l ly d ive out of sight into the u n derbrush.
OKAPIS, which l ive i n the j u ngles of Za i re, a re close rela
tives of gi raffes but have short necks and stand only about 5
feet tal l at the shoulder. Li ke g i raffes, they have skin-covered
knobl i ke horn s, and they use their tongues to pluck leaves
from trees . Their legs have wh ite stripes, l i ke a zebra's, but

76

Malayan
Tapir

the i r bod ies a re velvety d a rk chestnut to a l most p u rp l i s h

b l a c k . Most s u rpri s i n g , these rath er l a rg e a n i m a l s were
not d i scovered unti l 1 90 1 . Ea rly attempts to captu re them
fa i led , but in 1 9 1 8 the fi rst ones were trapped, and i n the
1 930s severa l were rea red in captivity. These a n i ma l s have
given bi rth to you ng, but the Okapi is sti l l considered rare
and has been protected in Zai re since 1 93 3 .
77

P E R E DAVID'S D E E R i s na m ed for the French m i ss i o n a ry

who d i scovered the deer i n about 1 860 on a royal game
preserve near Bei j i ng { Peki n g ) . When he wa s refused offi
cial entry to the preserve, he bri bed guards to allow h i m to
climb over the high stone wa l l surrounding it. Inside he saw
more than a h u n d red stra nge deer that he wa s tol d no
longer existed in the wild. Determ ined to get spec i mens for
scienti sts i n Europe, he once aga i n bribed guards and soon
had two skins to send to Europe. The C h i nese government
then relented and sent th ree l ive a n i m a l s , which u n fortu
nately d ied d u r i n g th e i r jou rney. But the s ki n s a n d the
spec i mens were enough to esta b l i s h the deer a s a new
species.
Zoos i n E u rope soon clamored for Pere David's Deer to
exh ibit, and the C h i nese government responded to this by
send i ng them more th a n a dozen . The deer b red wel l i n
captivity, a n d th e i r offspring were sent to other zoos .
Meanwh ile d isaster struck the herd i n C h i n a . A flood swept
away the wal l a round the preserve. Only a few dozen deer
cou ld be rou nded up after the flood waters subsided, and
these were kil led and eaten by soldiers during a rebell ion .
Many of those not kept in pa i rs died i n European zoos.
A wea lthy sportsm a n had been p u rc h a s i n g "extra"
animals from the zoos over the yea rs to keep on h i s estate,
and he began retu rn ing animals to the zoos. There are now
h u n d reds of Pere David's Deer i n zoos and on preserves.
Thus, these stra nge deer with their long, shaggy ta i l , goat
l i ke hoofs, and large rei ndeer- l i ke antlers wou ld not be a l ive
today if the m i ssiona ry had not been persi stent. No one
knows how many of these deer l ived in the wild orig inal ly,
but it was u n dou bted ly encroach m ent of civi l i zation that
elimi nated them from their natural habitat.
PYGMY HIPPOPOTAMUSES l ive in the Africa n jung les, and
they have never been abundant. They stand about 2 A feet

78

Pere David's Deer

ta ll at the shoulders ( roughly the size of a domestic pig) and

we i g h o n l y a bout 500 pou n d s . I n con tra st, the Common
H i ppopota m u s may wei g h more tha n 4 ton s ! The Pyg my
H i ppopota m u s, which has a na rrower snout than its much
l a rger cou s i n , feed s on vegetation i n swa m p s and on the
forest floor. Active only at n i g ht, the shy Pyg my H i ppo i s
ra rely seen, but h u nting a n d destruction of habitat d u e to
logg i ng may h ave cau sed it to become sca rce . There a re
some Pyg my H i ppopotamuses in zoos, however, where they
readily mate and produce young.
79

LANGURS { not i l l ustrated ) a re slender, leaf-eati n g Asiatic

mon keys. Ten yea rs ago, these a n i m a l s d i d not do wel l i n
captivity, but better knowledge o f their n utritiona l needs has
changed that situation . Langurs rarely come to the ground,
and they a re totally dependent on trees and thei r leaves for
food . It i s the cutti ng of forests tha t h a s i m peri l ed them .
Among the endangered are the Douc Langur, Pag i Langur,
and th ree species of snub-nosed langurs.
TAMARINS a re handsome mon keys that l ive ma i n ly i n the
ra i n fo rests of Brazi l . All a re sq u i rre l - s i zed , a n d in most
species the ta i l i s a th i rd longer tha n the body. Ta m a r i n s
com m u n i cate with shri l l ca lls, twitters, a n d squea ks. Most
species a re iden tified by the i r d i st i n ctive coloration,
com b i ned with ma nes, ruffs, tufts, bea rds, a nd other hair
adorn ments . Unfortu nately, their natural forest habitats a re
being destroyed .

Black and White

Calabus Mankey

COLOBUS MONKEYS, or guerezas, a re leaf eaters that l ive

in Africa . Colobus comes from the Greek word kolobos,
wh ich mea n s "mutilated," and it refers to the monkeys' small
but nonfu ncti o n a l th u m b . A l l fou r species a re h u n ted for
their handsome, thick, and s i l ky pelts and for food . They a re
a l so th reatened by the destruction of the forests i n which
they l ive. Those with black-and -wh i te p el ts have been
hunted most intensively.

81

GORILLAS, the l a rgest and most powerfu l of the primates,

a re rapidly becom ing sca rce. Only a few hundred Mounta i n
Gori l las sti l l su rvive in tropical Africa . Other subspecies a re
more nu merous but sti l l endangered . Thei r d i sappearance
is due mostly to h u nting and destruction of their habitat.
Gori llas a re tru ly giants . Males may stand a bout 6 feet
ta l l , weigh up to 400 pounds, and have an a rm spread of
about 8 feet. Females a re about half th is size. Gori llas have
a huge head and prom i nent ridges over the i r eyes. Th e i r
body i s covered with a dense coat o f black h a i r, but the i r
u pper chest, hands, face, a n d feet a re bare.
Gori llas usually wal k on all fours, with thei r fi sts clenched
and the i r knuckles tou c h i n g the g rou n d . They a re s ki l led
c l i m bers but forage mostly on the g rou n d . Gori l las l ive i n
troop s o f about a dozen a n i ma l s , led b y a dom i n a t i n g
older, grayi ng m a l e ca l led a si lverback. Females and young
sleep i n low tree branches . Si nce gori llas are strictly vege
ta ri a n , their ra i d s on crops often bring them i n to confl ict
with humans. Thei r main hope for survival l ies i n parks and
reservations set aside for them as ha bitats.
Woolly Spider Monkey

SPIDER MON KEYS a n d

the Red -backed Squi rrel
Mon key, both fou n d i n
Cen tra l American trop
ical ra i n forests, p l u s the
Woo l ly S p i d e r Mon key
of southea stern B raz i l ,
a re a l so on the bri n k of
exti nction . Mostly, they
h ave been victi m s of
habitat destruction . The
n atives a l so h u n t them
for food .

82

UAKARIS a re the on ly short-ta i led mon keys l ivin g i n th e

Americas . They a re found i n the tropics, primarily i n tree
tops a l o n g s i d e rivers or l a kes, a n d rarely come to the
grou nd. Both of the two existing species have no hair at all
on thei r face o r the top of the i r head . The fa ce of one
species i s bright red . The face of the other i s black. Coat
colors ra nge fro m wh i te to red d i s h brown with black to
brown and black. Both species are endangered . Uakaris eat
mostly fru its but probably a l so eat leaves, i nsects, and other
sma l l a n i ma l s . Rather qu iet mon keys, they a re most active
during the day and ca n move fast on a l l fou rs .

83

RHESUS MONKEYS have the m i sfortu ne of bei ng suscep

tible to many d iseases that a l so plague humans, and so they
have been used extensively i n med ical resea rch . They also
do wel l and breed i n captivity. Several species associate
closely with humans. Rhesus mon keys have been known to
l ive i n u rban a reas in India. In their natural habitat, they are
now rare.
Rhesus mon keys are members of the macaque fa m i ly, a
widely d i stributed group of Asiatic mon keys. I n troops made
up of a few dozen to as many as severa l hundred ind ivid
uals, they sleep i n trees at n ight but frequently come down to
the forest floor to forage for food or travel to a new territory.
A number of macaques in addition to the rhesus have been
studied intensively and used in resea rch . Capturing them for
th i s pu rpose h a s contributed g reatly to the i r popul ation
decli ne, a s has the destruction of thei r natural habitat.
Rhesus Monkeys

84

STREAMS, LAKES, AND WETLANDS

Of a l l the water on ea rth , only about 2 percent is fresh , and
more than half of th is is permanently locked i n snow or ice
i n the pola r reg i o n s or on high mounta i n s . Less t h a n 1
percent is found i n strea ms, lakes, and wetlands. Yet these
waterways a re very significant environments for l i fe.
Compa red to the ocea ns, fresh water i s m uc h less
u n i form i n its physical and chemical cha racteri stics. Great
d i fferences in oxygen content, a m o u n t of food , l i g ht,
temperature, a n d other fa ctors occ u r not o n l y from one
body of water to a nother but also i n the same body of water
at d i fferent times of the day a n d from season to sea son .
Some stream s flow swiftly; others a re slugg i s h . Some l a kes
a re deep and col d ; others a re wa rm and s h a l low. As a
result of these va riations, the kinds of l iving th ings i nhabiting
fresh waters a re extremely varied .
Si nce the beg i n n i ng , people have favored l iving a long or
nea r strea m s and l a kes, which have p rovided them with
food a n d water, served as transportation routes, a n d-of
i ncrea s i n g i m porta nce in recent yea rs-offered places for
recreation . Al most a l l of the food and nutrient cycles of fresh
waters a re l i n ked to the land, and so whatever i s done to the
land affects the l i fe i n these waters.
Abuses of the land are q u ickly made evident by streams,
l a kes, a n d wetlands. Strea m s become open sewers; l a kes
become cesspools or catch basi ns. I n the U n i ted States many
major river systems a re now pol luted-so much so that a
few can no longer support a lmost any sort of l i fe. Cities and
i n d u stries a re not the o n ly po l l uters . Some of the most
damag i ng poll ution comes from agricu lture. Ferti l izers a n d
i n secticides, applied t o crops a n d a l so to forest a reas, even
tua l ly fi n d thei r way i n to strea m s , l a kes, and wetl a n d s .
Di rectly or i n d i rectly, they k i l l fish and thei r prey and a l so
birds and other predators that feed on fi s h .
85

The spraying of pesticides has seriously

threatened the ecology of the wetlands.

Si lt, consisting mostly of valuable topsoi l eroded from the

l a n d , wa shes i n to strea m s and l a kes or is ca rried to the
open sea . Many thousands of acres of i rreplaceable topsoi l
i n the U n i ted States alone a re lost every day, with the land
becom ing i ncreasi ngly nutrient- poor. The silt a l so robs the
water of oxygen, creating unfavorable conditions for many
pla nts and other forms of marine l i fe and settl ing over the
bottom i n a th ick, choki ng ooze.
86

Wetlands soa k up water l i ke sponges, releasing it very

slowly into the su rrounding land . Frogs, toads, tu rtles, and
sna kes, as wel l a s fish a n d other aquatic a n i ma l s , l ive in
wetlands. Muskrats, m i nk, and other small mammals i n habit
wetlands, too, as do many kinds of birds. Ducks and geese
use wetlands as nesti ng sites.
F i s h a re not i n c l u ded in th i s book, b u t l i ke frog s a n d
other amphi bians, they a re highly vulnerable to cha nges i n
the i r world of water. More tha n a th i rd of t h e worl d ' s
endangered a n imals a re fi s h . Obviously, the aquatic world
i s rapidly becom ing a perilous place-faster, in fact, tha n
a ny other major habitat.

Leopard Frog

LEOPARD F ROGS were once a b u n d a n t a l o n g strea ms,

lakes, and ponds th roughout most of North America . Now
they a re rare. Cou ntless thousands were used every year for
d i ssecti on to study a n a tomy i n biology c l a sses . Others
were h u n ted for food , thei r legs con s i dered a d e l i cacy.
Contri buti ng most to the i r dem ise has been the destruction
of thei r habitat, however. Many of the waters a long which
they l ived and i n wh ich thei r young developed have been
d ra i ned and no longer exi st, and others a re now da nger
ously pol l uted .
The watery world of a l l amphibians ( frogs, toads, sala
manders, and newts) is fragi le. A census of these animals is
d i ffic u l t beca u se of th e i r sma l l s ize and thei r sec retive
habits. It i s known , however, that the popu lations of nearly
a l l amphibians a re d i m i n ishing at an alarming rate and that
many a re doomed to exti nction. Th is is indeed a bad omen,
for amphibians a re key i ndicators of what is happen i n g to
the total environment.

88

GHARIALS, often called Gavials due to an old clerical error,

a re slim-snouted crocodi l i a n repti les that i n habit the rivers
a n d bra c k i s h waters of I n d i a . The m a l e s use a knobby
protuberance on top of thei r snout to amplify thei r snorti ng
bel lows. Evidence i n d i cates that Ghari a l s may once h ave
reached a length of 30 feet, but about 20 feet is maxi m u m
today. S o many were kil led by hunters that a few yea rs ago
the Gharial population was bel ieved to be u nder a hundred .
Given protection i n special sanctua ries, and a l so with eggs
hatched and young rea red in captivity, the population of
Gharials has grown to several thousand.

ALLIGATORS a re among the ea rth's most fea red creatu res.

There a re on ly two l iving species of th i s repti le. The Chi nese
Al l i gator, w h i c h l ives in the Yangtze River, a p p a re n tly
inspired the widely used dragon motif i n C h i n a . I n the early
1 900s th i s a l l igator was thoug ht to be exti nct. Then in the
1 930s a few were d iscovered l iving in a remote a rea, and
wh ile its situation i n the wild is again un known , the Chi nese
Alligator has th rived and bred successful ly in captivity.
American Al l igators are much larger, known to reach a
length of 20 feet i n the past though ra rely exceeding 1 5 feet
today. They were so abundant i n Florida in the early days
that explorers s a i d they cou ld wa l k across rivers on the
backs of the big bea sts . M i l l io n s of a l l i gators were k i l led
th roughout the lower southeastern U n i ted States, some
American Alligator

simply beca use people d i d not wa nt to share l iving space

with them . Others were used as food, with their th ick tai l cut
up into stea ks. Countless baby a l l igators were captu red and
sold as pets .
However, most American A l l igators were s l a u g h tered
for the smooth but tou g h skin on the i r bel l ies, which wa s
turned into wa l l ets, belts, shoes, pu rses, luggage, and other
d u ra b l e leather i tem s . The skin on the a l l i gator' s back,
covered with th ick horny plates, was considered worth less.
The American Al l igator was a n n i h i lated i n many a reas,
and for a ti me its su rviva l was i n doubt. Then protective laws
were passed and strictly enforced , resulting in the America n
All igator making a d ramatic comeback. Controlled hunting
i s now used to keep its popu lation i n check.

EGRETS had the m i sfortu ne of sporti ng h a n d some plu mes

that became fashionable to use on hats and other garments .
I n the United States both the Snowy Egret and t h e Common
Eg ret were h u n ted to near exti ncti o n . H u n d reds of thou
sands of the b i g b i rd s were slaughtered . The ki l l i n g of a
Nation a l Au d u bon Soc iety wa rden by a p l u m e h u n ter
focused attention on the birds' pl ight, and laws were soon
passed to ban the commercial use of the plu mes. With the
ma rket el i m i nated, h unters lost interest. Now both birds are
becoming abundant again and serve as encou rag ing exam
ples of recovery when th reats are el i m i nated .
SNAIL KITES orig inally ranged over all of Florida and may
sti l l be fou n d sou thwa rd th rough C u ba a n d Mexico i n to
northern South America . Today, however, the Snail Kite i s
everywhere either extremely rare or endangered, a victim of
humans havi ng destroyed its specialized food source.
The Sna il Kite eats mainly the plump a pple sna i l , using its
slim, sickle-shaped bill to extract the morsels from the shel l .
I n Florida , a s wetl a n d s have been d ra i ned , m o s t of t h e
s n a i l s have d i sa p pea red or been forced i n to d ra i nage
ca n a l s or d i tches, where they have become i n fested with
fl u ke s . When a S n a i l Kite eats a n i n fested s na i l , i t a l so
becomes i n fested with flukes; th is can kill the b i rd .
I n the United States the Snail Kite appears to b e doomed,
even thoug h a ttem pts have been made to p rovide it with
su itable sa nctua ries . The chances of its survivi ng i n Centra l
a n d South America a re somewhat better, at least for the
time bei n g ; but there, too, it w i l l p roba bly d i sa ppea r as
additional wetlands are dra i ned . To prosper, both the bird
a n d i ts s n a i l food need l a rge tracts of m a rshy l a n d . The
decision must be made whether the land i s needed more for
people or for th i s h ig h ly specia l i zed b i rd . Of cou rse, th i s
s a m e l a n d i s a l so of g reat i m porta nce t o th e s u rvival o f
many other kinds o f wi ldl ife.

92

Snowy Egret

93

Eskimo Curlew

Piping Plover

ESKIMO CURlEWS once

migrated in huge flocks
every autu m n from Alaska and
Canada to South America, then retu rned i n the spri ng. Their
rou nd tri p covered some 8 ,000 m i l es-a nd a l l a long the
way they encountered h u n ters. By 1 900 the g reat flocks
were gone. I n fact, the bird was thought to be extinct unti l a
few were seen aga i n recently. It is possi ble that the Eskimo
Curlew i s making a comeback, particu la rly now that i t is
protected by law in the United States and Ca nada .
PIPING PlOVERS were never abu ndant, but they were seen
with reg u l a rity a long the beaches of the eastern U n ited
States. Those who know them a ppreciate the i r melod ious
calls. Now the Piping Plover is rare. It is esti mated that fewer
than 5,000 exist today. Their demise is due to the destruc
tion of their nesti ng sites along beaches where people have
built houses and other structu res. Also contri buti ng are the
hordes of beachgoers who disrupt the birds' critical nesting
and rea ring period i n the summer. Many eggs and hatch
l i ngs a re trampled by people or run over by veh icles roving

94

the beach . Some sections of beach a re now bei ng fenced

and even patrolled to g ive the birds the privacy and protec
tion they wi l l need for s u rviva l . These efforts seem to be
resulting i n a slow i ncrease i n the Piping Plover' s popu la
tion .
BAC HMAN 'S WARBLERS a re very rare N o rth America n
songbi rd s . Some experts th i n k they were a l ready headed
towa rd exti nction when they were fi rst d iscovered i n South
Carolina by natura l ist John Bachman in 1 8 3 3 . Thei r choice
of habitat i s moist woodlands. The few rema i n ing birds a re
making a last sta nd i n swa mpy a reas along rivers .
CAPE SABLE SPARROWS a re found i n extreme southeastern
Florida, where only a few h u ndred are bel i eved to sti l l exist.
Most of thei r habitat was destroyed by rea l estate develop
ments . H urricanes have also taken a tol l . The Dusky Seaside
Spa rrow, which once l ived i n the coasta l ma rshes of central
Florida, suffered s i m i la rly from its habitat bei ng destroyed
by d ra i nage, fi l l i ng, and development of the land. Sadly, it
beca me exti nct i n the late 1 980s.
Bachman's
Warbler

95

PLATYPUSES a re egg- l aying m a m m a l s ( monotremes) that

l ive i n lakes and stream s i n Austra l i a . Th is unusual species is
not now in any rea l d a nger. However, beca u se i t is so
h i g h ly special ized , even m i nor changes i n its habitat ca n
put it at risk. Care must be taken if th is species is to survive.
The Platypus digs out an underwater burrow that is partly
on land. During the day it rests in the above-water section of
the bu rrow. In the early morning and even ing, it comes out
to feed on crayfish and other sma l l aquatic an imals on the
stream bottom.
The female lays one or two eggs i nside the burrow, i n a
nest she b u i l d s . She sits on th is nest for about two weeks.
The newly hatched young lap up a m i l ky secretion that flows
i n to pockets on the mother' s u nders i d e . U n u s u a l ly, the
mother does not have n i ppled mammary glands.
Until recently the web-footed Platypu s was h u nted a n d
trapped for its short, dense fur. When it was seen that th i s
u n ique a n i m a l was becom i ng extremely rare, the govern
ment passed l aws pro h i b i ting its ca ptu re-even fo r zoo
exh i bition . With the p rotection it now has, the Platypus i s
making a slow but steady comeback.

GIANT OTTERS, wh ich i n habit the rivers of northern South

America, may measure more than 6 feet long, thei r flat and
a l most beaverl i ke ta i l accounting for a bout a th i rd of th i s
length . A G i a n t Otter i s c hocolate brown on t h e back,
lighter on the belly, and strea ked with light and dark hairs
on the throat a n d chest. Its head is flat a n d its neck th ick,
sometimes broader tha n the head i n older a n i ma l s . Both
front and h i n d feet a re webbed . U n d e rwater, the G i a n t
Otter uses its tai l a n d h i nd legs to propel itself. Often it floats
on its back, l i ke the Sea Otter.
Hunters h ave cut so deeply into the Giant Otter' s popu la
tion that it i s now a n endangered species. The trade i n otter
pelts has been ba n ned, but u n fortu nately, i l l ega l h u nting
conti nues.

97

OCEANS
The ea rth is bathed i n a solution of salt water that covers
a bout 90 percent of the Southern H e m i sphere a n d 60
percent of the Northern Hem isphere. H idden beneath the
su rface a re deep canyons, h i g h mounta i n s , broad p l a i n s ,
a n d powerfu l cu rren ts-a l l i n a sca l e that m a kes a n y
com p a ra b l e features on l a n d seem d i m i n utive. Mou n t
Everest, t h e h ig hest mounta i n on ea rth , towers to 2 9, 1 4 1
feet a bove sea leve l , but i f i t were d ro pped i n to the
Ma riannas Trench, the deepest rift in the sea , its top would
sti l l be 1 Y.! mi les below the surface.
Des p i te thei r i m me n s i ty, the seas offe r rema rkably
uniform cond itions for life. The salt content i s the same over
g reat expa n ses, a n d the tem peratu re typ i c a l l y c h a nges
slowly i n any given reg ion, d i fferi ng l i ttle from day to day
and sea son to sea so n . Such u n i form con d i ti o n s d o not
usually result in a great variety of l i fe forms, but individuals
of a n exi sting species often occur i n prod igious numbers.
Yet th is va st ocea n world-so much larger than all of the
land envi ron ments combined-is bei ng despoiled . True, the
seas are safe from the plow and the ax, but h u m a n s a re
ki l l i ng the seas with poisons.
At the base of the food chain i n the ocean s a re plankton ,
extremely tiny plants a n d a n i mals that are s o abundant i n
the great "pastu res" o f open water that they give the sea its
c h a racteri stic color. As the m i n us c u l e one-cel l ed p l a n ts
manufacture food, they a l so release oxygen into the atmo
sphere-one fourth to one th i rd of a l l free oxygen in the air.
Cou ntless kinds of fish and other creatures feed only on
plankton . The Blue Whale, the largest of all sea a n i mals-i n
fact, the largest animal o n earth-is a plankton eater, as a re
the Whale Shark and several other giants of the open sea .
The great schools of herri ng on which enti re nations depend
are also based on plankton . Many plan kton feeders, in turn,
98

serve as food for other animals in the food chains of the sea .
Al ready there a re strong indications that the p l a n kton
pastu res of the open ocean a re bei ng affected by pollutants
washed in from the land. These sma l l l i fe forms a re not on
th reatened or endangered spec ies l i sts, and most people
wou ld consider it strange even to th ink in those terms. But i f
the abundance o f plan kton was sharply reduced , a l l life o n
ea rth would be i m peri led . T h e web o f l i fe i s complex, a n d
t h e oceans a re vital t o susta i n ing life. A t present t h e harmful
effects of pol lution in the seas are most noticeable i n coasta l
a rea s , but there a re m a ny i nd i cations that po l l utants a re
affecti ng ocean l i fe on a broad scale.
99

Great Auk

GREAT AUKS were peng u i n l i k e

flig htless b i rd s t h a t stood a bout 2
feet ta l l . They once exi sted by the
m i l lions in the North Atlantic. On the
land a Great Auk wadd led on i ts
big webbed feet and u sed i ts short,
fl i p pe rli ke w i n g s to h e l p it keep its
balance. I n the water it cou ld swi m
swiftly, dive deep, a n d stay u nder
for long periods of ti me.
Bones fo und a long the shores of
northern seas are evidence that early
E u ropea n s ate the Great Auk a nd
burned its fat as fuel. The Great Auk
had become exti nct and hod been
l o ng forgotten i n northern E u rope
for many centuries when i t was
red i scovered by explorers i n the
New World . There the k i l l i n g began
aga i n , the Great Auk beco m i n g a
staple in the diets of ang lers working
the northern sea s .
Adult b i rds were clubbed t o death .
B i rd s not eaten r i g h t away were
salted and put in barrels for storage
aboard s h i p s that took them to

1 00

Europe. The Great Au ks' eggs were

considered by many to be a special
d e l icacy, and the feathers were
saved for stuffi n g m a ttresses and
pil lows. Harvesti ng ti me was usua l ly
in s u m mer, when l a rge groups of
birds came to shore to nest. The birds
were driven into pens for slaughter.
By a round 1 75 0 , the Great A u k
h a d become too scarce t o m a k e
commercial harvesting practica l . The
k i l l i n g was conti n ued on a s m a l l e r
sca le. When it w a s obvious that the
Great Auk was beco m i ng exti nct,
museums com m i ss i o n ed h u n ters to
get skins for m o u n t i n g and to be
used for d i splays i n spec imen cases.
On E ldey Island off I c e l a n d , a few
dozen b i rd s c a m e a shore every
season to nest. The h u n ters fou nd
them , and in a short t i m e the very
last Great Auk was dead and on
its way to a B r i t i s h m u seu m . I f the
museum c u rators had been less
concerned about getting spec i mens,
the Great Auk might have survived .

LABRADOR DUCKS l ived along the

Atlantic coast of North America and
apparently nested a long the Gulf of
St. Lawrence. T h ey traveled a s fa r
south as Chesapea ke Bay in wi nter.
Handsome l i tt l e d u c k s , the m a l e s
were b l u i s h b l a c k with w h i te w i n g
patches and white on t h e head a n d
neck. Females were brown i s h .
Never a b u n d a nt, the Labrador
Duck was fou n d i n shal low coastal
waters, where i t fed on s h e l l fi s h .
Some scienti sts th i n k i t s decline was
due to hunting plus a rapid i ncrease
in human populations, which caused
shellfish popu lations to decrease.
The most ra p i d dec l i n e occu rred
between 1 8 50 and 1 870, and the
last of the Labrador Ducks was shot
about 1 8 75. Without h u n t i n g , t h i s
l ittle d u c k m i g h t have survived, b u t
SEA M I N K were t h e Atlantic Ocean ' s
e q u i v a l e n t of the S e a Otters i n t h e
Pac i f i c . T h e y l ived on roc ks i n t h e
coasta l waters f r o m Newfound land
to Massachu setts, with the g reatest
concentration apparently along the
coast of Ma i n e .
Twi c e a s l a rg e a s m i n k l i v i n g
a long i n l a n d waters, the S e a M i n k

Labrador Duck

the evidence does i n d i c ate that i t

w a s beco m i n g exti n c t even before
humans arrived on the scene .

h a d t h i c k reddish fu r. Its p e l t brought

a high price. By 1 880 the Sea Mink
was extinct. Odd ly, its identification
a s a spec ies came posth u m ou sl y,
m or e than a q u a rter of a c e n t u ry
alter the a n i m a l itself was no longer
i n existence.

Sea Mink

1 01

GREEN TURTLES got their name from the bluish green color
of their fat, prized for making a clear-broth soup . Grazing
on tu rtle grass i n the warm shal lows of the Caribbea n gave
their flesh an appea l i ng vea l - l i ke Flavor.
Green Tu rtles were once so abundant i n the Cari bbea n
and el sewhere that they were compared to the America n
Bison on the Great Pla i n s . Mi l l ions were h a rvested . Thei r
nests were destroyed and robbed of thei r eggs by people,
dogs, pigs, and wild a n imals. New hatc h l i n g s ru n n i ng For
water from thei r sandy nests were easy prey.
Li ke the American Bison's, the Green Turtle' s population
began to d i m i n i sh-so rapidly, i n Fact, that it was feared the
tu rtles would soon d i sa ppea r altogether. An i n ternational
org a n ization was formed to aid the Green Tu rtl e, a n d a
hatchery was established that released baby turtles into the
sea . It now appea rs that the Green Turtle wi l l be spared .
Other endangered sea tu rtles i ncl ude the Atlantic Ridley,
the Hawksbi l l , and the giant Leatherback. The Loggerhead i s
n o longer abundant b u t s o fa r is not on the endangered l i st.

Green Turtle

Brown Pelicans

BROWN PELICANS, u n t i l
recently, were i n a serio u s
dec l i ne. Yet these big b i rd s
were not h u nted , either for
food or for thei r feathers .
Occa s i o n a l l y a fisherman
m i g h t become a n noyed by
a Brown Pel ican com peti ng
for a fis h . But typica l ly the bird eats on ly so-called trash fish,
wh ich have l i ttle or no value to sport or commercial anglers.
What k i l l ed l a rge n u m bers of Brown Pel i c a n s ? It wa s
DDT picked u p from the fish they ate. The small dose a b i rd
got from each fi sh b u i l t u p i n the b i rd ' s body-a process
cal led biological magnification. DDT brea ks down i n to a
chemical com pou nd cal led DDE, w h i c h a dversely a ffects
ca lcium metabolism. Eggs laid by females that ingested DDE
were th i n -shel led and broke before hatch i n g . Th is conti n ued
yea r after yea r until the Brown Pel ican's popu lation slumped
to a low from which recovery seemed u n l i kely. But happi ly,
the ban on the use of DDT si nce 1 972 has made recovery
possible. The Brown Pel ican is becoming abundant aga i n .
The major hazard to the bird s today i s enta nglement i n the
hooks, l i nes, and nets of fishermen .

1 03

Short-tailed (Steller's) Albatross

SHORT-TAILED ( OR STELLER'S ) ALBATROSSES were once

a b u n d a n t across the Pac i fic Ocea n . The w i n g s of these
g i a nts a mong b i rd s span ned some 7 feet. Large n u m bers
nesti ng on islands a long the coast of Asia became victi ms of
hunters who kil led the birds to get their feathers. The la rgest
nesti ng colony wa s on Tori shima, a volcanic island a bout
400 m i les south of Tokyo. Eruptions of the volcano, i n 1 939
a n d then aga i n i n 1 94 1 , destroyed a l most all of the
rema i n i ng b i rd s . I n 1 957 the Japanese government made
the island into a reserve, hoping to bring the b i rds back. No
one real ly knows exactly how many a re a l ive today, but one
esti mate i s less than 200.
SEA OTTERS, the smal lest of all marine mammals, a re carn i
vores that i n h a b i t t h e Pac i fic Ocea n , where they were
d i scovered in 1 74 1 by that same Russian exped ition that
a lso found Stel ler's Sea Cow (see p. 1 38 ) . Reach ing 5 feet
i n length a n d wei g h i ng as much a s 80 pou nd s, they a re
stockier i n build than the more weasel - l i ke otters that l ive i n
fresh waters. The Sea Otter eats, mates, a n d even sleeps i n
water, usua l ly n o more than h a l f a m i le offshore i n a bed o f
kel p . A t n ight it wraps some strands o f kelp a round its body
to keep from d rifting into the open ocea n .

1 04

The Sea Otter's diet consi sts of sea urch i n s and some fi sh
and s h e l l fi s h . After a food -col l ecti ng d ive, the Sea Otter
su rfaces and floats on its back to eat. Some shellfish can be
opened eas i ly by the Sea Otter' s teeth . For those shellfish
with th icker shells, the Sea Otter fi nds a flat stone, puts it on
its chest, then pou nds the shell aga inst the stone to crack it.
Sea Otters a l so u se stones as ham mers to knock abalones
loose from rocks.
Soon after they were d i scovered by the R u s s i a n s , Sea
Otters began to be pursued for thei r thick, glossy pelts . The
trade lasted for about a century and a half, but most of the
Sea Otters were gone with i n the fi rst hund red yea rs . By the
late 1 800s they were rare, and by 1 9 1 8 they were thought
to be extinct. But just i n case some might be left, the U n i ted
States, Russia, Great Brita i n , and Japan sig ned an agree
ment at that time making it i l lega l to hunt Sea Otters .
Twenty yea rs passed before any Sea Otters were seen
aga i n . Then two breed ing colonies were d iscovered . Given
fu l l protection, Sea Otters now nu mber more than 1 00,000.
But they a re sti l l threatened , this time by com mercial oil from
spills, which destroys the i n sulati ng properties of their hair.

Sea OHer

Southern Fur Seal

SEALS once l ived in colonies of up to a m i l l ion animals. The

Southern Fur Seal l ived and th rived along the southern coast
of Cal i forn ia south to Mexico. Prized for its fur, however, it
was slaughtered i n countless numbers and wa s bel ieved to
have become extinct. I n 1 954 a few animals were d i scov
ered on the rocky island of Guadal upe off Baja Californ i a .
This protected population is now bu ilding slowly.
Ea rless sea l s have bri stly h a i r rather t h a n short, soft
underfur, but th is d id not spa re them from being hunted for
oil, meat, and h ides. Most abundant (and not endangered )
today i s the C rabeater Sea l of the remote Anta rcti c , i ts
popu lation esti mated to be approximately 1 5 to 40 m i l l ion .
Its n u m bers h ave actu a l ly i ncreased si nce its m a i n food
sou rce, kri l l , h a s become more a b u n d a n t d u e to the
slaughter of Anta rctic baleen wha les .
Almost a l l of the a n i ma l s in th i s g roup, which incl udes
wa l ruses and sea l ions, have been pu rsued by hide hunters,
spared only when i t became no longer profitable to ha rvest
them. I n ternational laws can prevent their exti nction, but not
a l l nations have agreed to abide by such regu lations.

1 06

DOLPHI N S a n d porpo ises, s m a l l e r cou s i n s of the b i g

wha les, a re com monly trapped a n d d i e i n t h e nets o f
commercial fishermen . S o many a re kil led each year i n thi s
m a n ner tha t t h e dolphin a n d porpoise popu lations a re
decl i n i n g . Pressu re has been exerted recently to force
commercial fishermen to u se nets that do not entangle the
a n i ma l s, and so the future for at least some species seems
somewhat brighter than it did thi rty years ago.
Bottlenose Dolphins

BLUE WHALES, the largest animals to have ever l ived, can

mea s u re more tha n 1 00 feet long and wei g h as m uch as
1 75 ton s . Yet they subsist on a d iet of p l a n kton and tiny
shrimplike kri l l .
Blue Whales gorge o n food i n Anta rctic or Arctic waters
during the sum mer month s . In a day' s time a giant whale
may draw in as much as 4 tons of kri l l , and it may add 20
ton s or more to i ts wei g h t d u r i n g the months of feed i n g .
When winter comes to the Antarctic, the b i g whales travel
northwa rd to wa rmer wa ters. D u r i n g these months the
whales mate but do not feed, surviving on the blubber built
up during the feed ing season .

1 08

O n ly a few thou sand B l u e Whales exist today, thei r

numbers reduced by commercial wha l i ng from an esti mated
250,000 . Like other whales-nea rly a l l of which a re th reat
ened-they a re protected by i nternational agreements. But
not all countries abide by the regu lations. F u rther, some of
these regu lations seem to benefit whalers more tha n whales.
W h al es , d o l p h i n s , and porpoi ses h ave captu red the
public's attention more tha n most other g roups of a n imals,
and support prog rams are helping. A few species of whales
are increasing i n n u m bers, among them Ca l i fornia's Gray
Whale, which i n 1 994 became the fi rst marine mammal to
be ta ken off the Enda ngered Species l i st.
1 09

MAN ATEES i n habit warm seas, estua ries, a n d rivers. They

have thick, spi ndle-shaped bod ies with solid, heavy bones.
Although they have no hind legs or fl ippers, their paddlelike
front legs and broad, flat ta i l s supply the power for swim
ming. The manatee's rou nd head, smal l , pigl i ke eyes, and
l a rge, flex i b l e l i ps with bri stles above g ive the a n i m a l a
strange appearance. Nevertheless, these big mammals a re
thought to have contributed strongly to the merma id myth .
Strictly plant eaters, manatees are a lso ca lled sea cows,

and many people found them tasty fa re. The giant Steller's
Sea Cow (see p. 1 38 ) was eaten into exti nction with i n 50
years of its d iscovery.
The closely related Dugong of the I n d i a n Ocean i s a l so
endangered , a s a re a l l th ree rem a i n i n g species of mana
tees-the West Africa n , Amazon, and West Ind ia n . Those
that have escaped s l a u g hter fin d s u rviva l d i fficult today
beca u se of the loss of the i r habitats and a l so beca use of
i n j u ries i nfl icted on them by the propel lers of boats.

West Indian Manatees

ISLANDS
There a re two basic island types: conti nenta l and ocea n i c .
Conti nenta l islands are close to m a j o r landmasses, and they
share with them the same kinds of soi l, rocks, a n i mals, and
plants. Ocea n i c i s l a n d s , i n contrast, a re fa r from m a j o r
landmasses . Some are volcanic i n orig in; others are formed
of cora l . Beca u se they a re remote, thei r plant and a n i ma l
life is usua l ly d i stinctive.
An i m a l s reached the i r ocea nic island homes orig i n a l ly
by flyi ng, swi m m i ng, or floati n g . Winds and stormy seas
have been responsible for the introduction of some species.
I n recent times many a n i mals and plants have been taken to
islands by human settlers.
The orig inal i n h abitants of ocea nic islands may rema i n
i solated for s o many generations that they lose a l l b u t the
most su perfic i a l resem b l a n ce to the i r m a i n la n d rel atives .
Da rwi n ' s F i nches of the Ga lapagos Islands, for exa m ple,
differ g reatly from the fi nches on the mainland. Some have
extremely long, s l i m b i l l s for s i p p i n g necta r from deep
th roated flowers; others have heavy b i l l s for probi n g i n to
bark a n d holes i n wood for i n sects a n d the i r l a rvae; sti l l
others have sharp hawkl i ke bills and are predators. These
and other such specializations eq u i pped Da rwi n's Finches
for occupyi ng island niches that on the mainland a re i n hab
ited by birds belonging to entirely different fam i l ies .
Remoteness from competitors once provided p rotection
for most island dwel lers. But the appeara nce of humans on
the islands destroyed th is isolation . Even if people do not try
to el i m inate the native species di rectly, introduced domestic
or wild a n i ma l s may ta ke over their food and living space or
prey on the island dwellers. Some of the most trag ic exam
ples of human-caused exti nction have occurred on oceanic
islands.
1 12

DELALANDE'S COUCALS l ived in the

wet forests a l o n g the n o rtheastern
coast of Madagascar. Couca l s ore
grou nd- nesti n g mem bers of the
cuckoo fa m i ly. Delalande's Coucals
su rvived until about the year 1 930,
then become exti nct as thei r habitat
was destroyed.
Other Madagascan b i rds teeteri ng
on the b r i n k of exti nction ore the
Th i c k - b i l led C u c koo, Soumog n e ' s
Owl, t h e Madagascar Tea l , a n d the
Lon g - to i l ed Ground Roller. All ore
victi m s of habitat destruction .
DODOES were pigeons the size of
turkeys . They l ived on the i s land of
Mauriti u s , w h i c h is a p p rox i mately
600 m i les east of the i s l a n d of
Madagascar i n the Indian Ocea n ,
a n d hod no natural e n e m i e s . Then
Dutch explorers arrived i n 1 598. The
big flightless b i rds were easily kil led
with clubs and eate n .
Ma u r i t i u s become a reg u l a r stop
for soi l i ng vessels, thei r pu rpose: to
stock thei r l a rders with Dodoes.
Mon keys and p i g s b ro u g h t to the
i s l a nd by E u ropea n settlers ate the

Dadoes' eggs and destroyed

thei r nests. Dodo B i rds become
exti nct in less than a h u nd red
yea rs, leavi n g beh i nd o n ly the
fam i l i a r expression "as dead as
a Dodo."
Had the Dodo l i ved , i t m ight
hove been d om esticated and
become on i m porta nt stapl e in
our d i et, l i ke c h i c kens, tu rkeys,
and ducks. Or, the Dodo might
hove contributed to producing a
superior hybrid fowl . We w i l l
never know.

ELE PHANT BI RDS once l ived on

Madagascar . They were giants-up
to 1 0 feet tal l and a bout half a ton i n
weight. T h e females l a i d 50-pound
eggs. Natural changes in i ts habitat
and the ta k i n g of eggs by n atives
proba bly caused the d e m i se of th i s
behemoth , believed I a have i n spired
the legendary Roc, told of by S i n bad
the Sai lor i n the Arabian classic tale
The Thousand and One Nights.

HAWAIIAN HONEYCREEPERS were

members of a fa m i ly of a l most 30
species of b i rds. A th i rd of these a re
now extinct and the rest a re critically
e n d a n g e red . S i m i la r to D a rwi n ' s
F i nches of t h e G a l a pagos I s l a n d s ,
honeycreepers became adapted to
every ava i l a b l e n i c h e . Most had
lang, n arrow bills u sed for s i p p i n g
nectar f r o m flowers, b u t s o m e had
short, thick b i l l s lor cra c k i n g open
seeds, sharp b i l l s lor catching i n sect
p rey, o r stout b i l l s lor d r i l l i n g i nto
tree trunks, l i ke woodpeckers.
What c a u sed them to become
exti nct? Some were victi ms of habitat

Hawaiian

Haneycreeper

1 14

destruction. Others could not com pete

with introduced birds or were preyed
upon by i ntroduced m a m m a l s . Sti l l
others were k i l led b y d i seases
brought to the Hawa i i a n islands.
Among the exti nct i s the Mama, a
necta r feeder that was prized lor its
h a ndsome, g l o ssy b l a c k leathers,
which were u sed to make cloaks lor
the Hawa i i a n royal ty . Contin ued
h u n t i n g far feathers by some wh ite
settlers also contributed to the b i rd ' s
a n n i h i lation, as d i d t h e cutting dawn
af the forests where it l ived . Evidence
s hows that the last of the Mamas
apparently d i ed before 1 900.

MOAS were wingless b i rds of

New Zeolond, s i m i l a r to the
E l e p h a n t B i rd of Madagasca r .
Some of t h e 1 3 or s o species were
no bigger than domestic c h i ckens,
but others stood up to 1 2 feet tal l . A
few a re bel ieved to have survived to
nearly 1 800, but no E u ropean ever
saw one a l ive. They were hunted for
food and driven to exti nction by1

native Maoris .

:::;ii;5;;-

Moo
MAURITIUS KESTRELS are nearly
exti nct. These b i rd s n ested i n trees
on Mauriti u s . When the island was
settled, nearly all the trees were cut
dow n , and m o n keys i n trod uced to
the i sland robbed the nests of the few
remai n i n g bird s . Also, the birds had
fed m a i n ly on l i z a rd s , but when
s h r u b s were added to the i s l a n d ' s
vegetation , t h e l izard s were a b l e to
hide from the b i rds.

The Mauriti u s Kestrel became the

last s u rvivor of more than a dozen
native island b i rds that were victi m s
m a i n l y of habitat destructio n .

Mauritius Kestrel

TUATARAS, or Sphenodons, are litera l ly " l iving fossils," for

they a re the only descenda nts left of a group of animals that
lived on earth some 200 m i l l ion yea rs ago. The most pri m i
tive o f all repti les, a T uatara looks m u c h l i ke a thick-bodied
lizard . Also l i ke a liza rd , it has a unique th ird "eye" h idden
i n the m i d d l e of its head. Th i s "eye" has a tra n spare n t
cove r i n g a n d pres u m a bly fu nctions wel l enough i n t h e
youthful T uata ra for it t o distinguish l i g h t from dark.
At one time these u n usual repti les were fou n d all over
New Zea l a n d . Now the few thousa nd rema i n i ng T uata ras
a re confi n ed to the dozen or so sma l l i s l a n d s i n the stra i t
between New Zealand's two main islands. Some th i n k they
were destroyed on the mai nland by introd uced rats . They
are cu rrently protected by law.

1 16

KOMODO DRAGONS a re the worl d ' s la rgest l i za rd s ,

measuring 8 feet long or even longer a n d weighing as much
a s 300 pou n d s . These h uge l izards eat m a i n ly wild p i g s
a n d deer b u t wi ll a l so feed on smaller a n i m a l s a n d carrion .
Preserves were set up on the island of Komodo i n 1 926
to prevent the exti nction of Komodo Dragons due to loss of
habitat. But the law has not always been able to guarantee
the safety of the several thousand animals that are left, si nce
they sti l l have to compete with people for food . Beca use of
the i r l i m i ted d i stri bution, they cou l d become extinct were
there to be a natura l or other d i sa ster a ffecti ng the fou r
islands o n wh ich they are found.
A few Komodo Drago n s have been exh i b i ted in zoos,
where some have been bred successfu l ly. But there i s sti l l
much to b e done to save these amazing I ndonesian l izard s .

Komodo Dragon

1 17

GALA PAGOS TORTOISES, some of wh i c h may wei g h a s

much a s 500 pounds, once basked b y the hundreds o f thou
sands on the rocky Galapagos Islands off the northwestern
coast of South America. In fact, galapagos is the Spa n i s h
word for "tortoise. "
Explorers and whalers soon d iscovered that the tortoises
were good to eat. I m portant in the days before refrigera
tion, too, the big tortoi ses could be kept a l ive in a s h i p ' s
h o l d for weeks without need ing either food or water. They
provided a steady supply of fresh meat.
In addition to huge numbers of Galapagos Tortoi ses that

were off the islands for food, the dogs, rots, and pigs

introduced to the islands ate the young tortoises as wel l a s

destroyed nests a n d eggs . Ecuador fi nally passed protective
laws to spare the species from exti nction, and today severa l
thousand tortoises aga i n bask on the islands.

Also endangered on the islands, due pri mari ly to habitat

destructio n , a re native pen g u i n s , hawks, and cormorants.
Ecuador i s worki n g with conservati on i sts to restore the
popu lations of these u n ique birds and other island a n i ma l s .
However, u ndoing centuries o f harm i s d i fficult, pa rticularly
where there is conti n ued competition with people for space.
1 19

Kiwi

KIWIS m u st certa i n ly ra n k
among t h e most u n usual of
a l l birds. Plump, c h icken l i ke,
a n d u n a b l e to fly, they have
come to symbol ize their native home of New Zealand. Kiwis
l ive in bu r rows a n d do most of the i r feed i ng a t n i g h t,
h u nting for worms and other sma l l crawl ing creatures. Their
eyesight i s poor, but nostri ls that open at the ti p of their long
bill give them a keen sense of smel l . Bri stles at the base of
the bill serve as anten nae, or feelers. Kiwi hens lay eggs that
weigh a bout a fourth of their own body weight. At one time
heavily h u nted and preyed upon by introd uced mammals,
Kiwis a re no longer common . Now protected by law, they
may escape a n n i h i lation .
CAHOWS a re petrels that once l ived on the C a r i bbea n
island of Bermuda . Their exi stence was peacefu l until the
1 500s, when the early British settlers brought pigs over to
the i s l a n d . The p i g s destroyed the nests a n d eggs of the
Ca how. D u r i n g a fa m i n e in the early 1 600s, the settlers
themselves ate the birds. Later, rats that had arrived with the
settlers attacked the you ng birds and destroyed their nests.
The Cahow appea red to be extinct. Three centu ries passed .

1 20

Then , in the early 1 950s, a few Cahows were spotted on

rocky offshore islands. Here they were free of people, pigs,
and rats, but they now had a new problem . They could not
d i g nesti n g bu rrows in the rocks, so they beg a n to m a ke
their nests i n rocky crevices . But when Wh ite-ta i led Tropic
B i rds arrived on the islands, they i nvaded the crevices and
kil led the Cahow ch icks.
This time people came to thei r rescue. They carved a rtifi
cial entra nces i n the crevices big enough for the Cahows but
too sma l l for the Wh ite-ta i l ed Tro p i c B i rd s . The Cahow
accepted them a n d beg a n i n c rea s i n g i n n u m bers. Then
sudden ly the i r eggs stopped hatc h i n g . T h e rea son ? D DT
poi son i n g , the same problem that h a s affected the Brown
Pelican, Bald Eagle, and other birds. With the use of these
pesti cides now b a n n e d , it is hoped that the C a h ow wi l l
make a second comeback.

Cahows

NENE, or Hawa i ia n Geese, are medium-sized fawn , brown ,

and black geese that were once a popular food for people.
For a bout a month every yea r wh ile it molts, the bird can not
fly; during th is time it is easi ly kil led with clubs. Nest d i stu r
bances by h u m a n s a n d ce rta i n ra nch i n g d evelopments,
such as a l lowi ng cows and goats to destroy ed ib le native
vegetation , a l so added to the Nene' s dec l i ne . I n troduced
p redators such as cats, mongooses, dogs, rats, a n d pigs
also took their tol l , eating young birds and destroying nests
and eggs. By about 1 900 the great flocks were gone, and
only a few birds were left i n the wi ld.
One man recogn ized the bird' s steadily worsen i ng p l ight
and built u p a flock of 42 birds. Th is flock was destroyed by
a tsu n a m i i n 1 946, but a few b i rds that had esca ped the
pens earl ier managed to survive th i s d i sa ster. The govern
ment then began working to save the birds. Preserves were
set aside on the islands of Hawa i i and Mau i , and an inten
sive breed i n g p rogram wa s beg u n . Some bird s have even
been relea sed i n to the wild. The Nene is making a come
back and in fact has become Hawa i i ' s official state bird .

Monkey-eating
Eagle

MONKEY-EATING EAGLES now l ive o n ly on the i s l a n d of

Mi ndanao in the Ph i l ippi nes. Fewer tha n 50 of these very
la rge eagles a re a l ive today. They a re 3 feet l o n g , from
bea k to ta i l , a n d the i r plu mage consi sts of big patches of
wh i te, red d i s h b row n , and black feathers. Th e i r most
d i stinctive featu re i s the i r u n kempt, frazzled c rest. These
h uge predators do indeed eat mon keys, but they a l so prey
on other s i z a b le m a m m a l s a n d b i rd s . I n tu rn , they h ave
been h u nted by the natives. Although they have been exh ib
ited i n zoos, they have so fa r not bred in captivity.
Loss of their forest habitat is the major reason for the i r
decl i n e . The ta k i n g of Mon key-eating E a g l e s for troph i es
and zoos may have further reduced their population to its
critical low. The b i rds' bo ld ness i n atta c k i n g dogs nea r
dwel l i ngs or going after domestic fowl or l ivestock has not
endea red them to natives, either. Th i s is not u n u su a l , of
cou rse. Nowhere i n the world are large predators safe from
the humans who compete with them for food .

1 23

TAKAHES are fl ightless birds the size of tu rkeys. They l ive i n

New Zealand and have bright g reen ish-blue plumage a n d
a red b i l l . Com peti tion w i t h i ntroduced d e e r led t o the i r
d ec l i n e . Ta ka hes were tho u g h t t o have become exti nct
before 1 900, but in 1 948 a bout a h u n d red b i rd s were
d iscovered i n a remote val l ey. Protected by the government
in a national park, they h ave cont i n u ed to i n c rease i n
number unti l now there a re several thousa n d .
KAGUS a re b i rd s th a t l ive on t he fo rest fl oor i n N ew
Caledon i a . They were formerly widesprea d , but after the
arriva l of wh ite settlers who hu nted them pri mari ly for their
plumes, the birds fled to the deep forests and the mounta i n s .
B u t even there they could not escape attacks b y dogs, cats,
and other introduced predators. As a result of these factors,
the u n usual and distinctively plumed Kagu s a re now threat
ened with extinction, even though a p reserve h a s been
established for them on the island.

1 24

TASMAN IAN WOLVES, or Thylaci nes, a re col l i e - s i zed

carn ivorous marsupial mammals confi ned to Tasman i a , C l
island off the southeastern coast of Austra l i a . Ranchers on
the i s l a n d com p l a i ned that Tasma n i a n Wolves preyed on
the i r s h eep a n d oth er l ivestoc k, a n d so the gover nm ent
offered bounties for a n y that were killed . Wh en t he a n i m a l s
d i sa ppea red from sight enti rely, a l a rge p reserve wa s set
aside for them, but so fa r there have been no occupants.
TASMANIAN DEVI LS a re badger- s i zed pouch - bea r i n g
m a rsu p i a l s orig i n a l ly fou n d i n Au stra l i a . Li ke Ta sm a n i a n
Wo lves, th ey were forced i nto m a k i n g a fi n a l sta n d i n
Tasman i a . Here they appea r to be survivi n g . A Tasma n i a n
Devil looks l i ke a sma l l bea r, its coat j e t b l a c k w i t h a few
patches of wh ite. Stocki ly bui lt, the Tasmanian Devi l ca n be
qu ite fierce-looki ng and give off loud, d evi l i s h g rowl s . I ts
ferocity, however, has been exaggerated , a s it fights m a i n ly
with its own kind over food .
Tasmanian Wolf

Tasmanian Devil

SOLENODO N S a re s h rewl i ke noctu r n a l m a m m a l s tha t

mea s u re about 1 2 i nches l o n g , with a na ked ta i l a l most
equa l ly long. Two species i nhabit Cuba and other i slands
i n the Caribbea n . Both a re rare, and if thei r forest reserves
are not managed properly, they may fol low the West I ndian
sh rews that d ec l i ned to exti nction upon the a rriva l of the
Europea n s . Factors contri buti ng to thei r dem i se a re habitat
destructio n , a low rate of reprod uction (they u s u a l ly have
no more than th ree, and more often only one, you n g per
l i tter), a n d i n trod uced predators such as cats, dog s , a n d
mongooses.
HUTIAS a re sq u i rrel - s i zed rodents tha t a re fou n d i n the
Caribbea n . Excluding bats, the Jamaican Hutia i s the only
native mammal sti l l l iving in Jamaica . A related species lives
on a cora l island in the Bahamas, and two others a re found
i n the Dom i n ican Republic and Haiti . All a re enda ngered ,
d u e to h a b itat d estructio n , predation by the i ntrod uced
mongoose, and their bei n g h u n ted for food . Also, hutias
have a very low reproductive rate. Fema les rarely produce
l i tters of more than one o r two you n g , and the gestation
period i s very long .

Javan Rhinoceros

RHI NOC EROSES on the islands of S u matra a n d Java a re

endangered , as a re the Black and the Wh ite R h i nos that l ive
on the African savannas. Both the Sumatra n and the Java n
R h i nos once l i ved on the cont i n ents, too, b u t they were
h u n ted i nto extinction there. R h i nos a re u s u a l ly k i l led for
the i r horns, w h i c h a re pu lverized a n d then sold for th e i r
supposed magical a n d med icinal powers . Even some o f the
a n i ma l s now l iving in sa nctua ries have become victi m s of
poachers who ki l l the a n i ma ls, cut off their horns, and leave
the carcasses to rot.
A Sumatran Rhino stands about 4'h feet tal l at the shou l
ders and weighs about 1 ton . It is t h e smal lest o f t h e l iving
rhi nos. Both sexes have two horns, the female's smal ler than
th e m a l e' s . Com pa red to that of other r h i nos, the skin is
smoother a n d has fewer fol d s . Only a bout 800 to 1 ,000
Su matra n R h i nos a re bel ieved to exist today.
The Java n Rh i no sta nds about 5 'h feet ta l l at the shou l
ders . Males have o n e horn, females usua lly none. The skin i s
thick, with the n e c k a n d shoulder folds p rom i nent. Fewer
than two dozen a re a l ive today.

1 27

ANOAS a re small wild cattle that l ive i n I ndonesia. They a re

extremely rare, due to hunting, destruction of thei r habitat,
and d i seases picked up from domestic livestock. Survivors
have retreated i n to very remote a rea s . One s u bspecies
sta n ds only s l i g htly more than 2 feet ta l l at the shou l ders.
The l a rgest i s about 3 feet ta l l . Anoas h ave th ick, nearly
hai rless h ides, and their horns a re more than a foot long.
KEY D E E R sta nd about 2 'A
feet ta l l at the s h o u l ders .
This smal lest American deer
is a subspecies of the larger
Wh ite-ta i led Deer, wh ich i s
fou nd o n the mainland. Key
Deer a re fou n d o n ly i n the
Florida Keys . As a result of
h u n ti n g , natu ra l d i sa sters,
a n d the destruction of the i r
habitat b y developers, there
were o n l y a bout 30 Key
Deer left in 1 950. At that
time, a 7,000-acre refuge
was set u p fo r the a n i m a l s

1 28

on Big Pi n e Key. Here they have increased i n n u m ber but

a re sti l l endangered , the i r b iggest th reat now being cars
speeding a long the Overseas Highway. But basica l ly thi s i s
a nother turnaround story o f wh ich we need more.
TAMARAW a re wild cattle that l ive in bam boo th ickets h i g h
on t h e mounta i n slopes o f Mi ndoro I s l a n d i n t h e Ph i l i ppines.
On ly a few hundred of these a n i mals a re left. H u nting them
i s i llega l , but the law i s not enforced . Some of the k i l l s a re
made from a i rplanes and helicopters.
Only 3'h feet tal l at the shoulders, Tamaraw a re g rayi sh
b l a c k with short, th ick horns that slant backwa rd . These
rather gentle animals once g razed i n the dayti me, out i n the
open, but now they graze at n ight.
Tamaraw

AYE -AYES a re fou n d o n ly on the i s l a n d of Madagasca r,

a bout 250 m i les east of Moza m b i q u e in southea stern
Africa. Only a few thousand are bel i eved to be a l ive today.
Although at fi rst classified as a rodent, the cat-sized Aye
aye is a pri m itive primate. Nocturnal and sol i tary, it has a
long, bushy ta i l and th ick grayish fu r. Its eyes are owl ish, its
ears a re l a rge a n d rou nded, a n d i ts h i nd legs a re m u c h
longer than i ts front leg s . Most u n u sual a re i t s s l i m , bony
fi ngers. The especially long th i rd finger is used to p robe for
i nsect larvae i n holes in wood and to scoop out the edi ble,
pithy cores of coconuts, sugarcane, and other plant stems.
The an imal's steady decl i ne i n the wild is due m a i n ly to
the destruction of i ts forest habitat. Some natives consider it
sacred a n d do not bother i t, but others con sider i t a bad
omen and shoot it on sight.

lndri

INDRIS a re mon keyl i ke pri mitive

pri mates that l ive in the forests of
Madagascar. Standing more than 3 feet
ta l l , they a re the la rgest of the present-day
lemurs. Com pared to the size of their body, their
head i s sma l l and their ta i l is reduced to a stump. Their big
toe i s sufficiently sepa rated from the other fou r toes so that
they have a firm grip.
l ndris a re mostly black, with broad patches of wh ite on
the arms, rump, and head and neck. They l ive high i n the
trees of the ra i n forest. When they do come to the g rou n d ,
they wal k erect on their h i nd legs. They l o o k s o h u ma n l i ke
that the natives once bel i eved they were dwa rfs that had
gone i nto the forests to l ive. They have powerfu l voices,
emitting loud, dog l i ke howls .
l n d r i s a re ra re i n captivity. Their n u m bers i n t h e wi l d
have dec l i n ed to a da ngerous low, m a i n ly beca use of the
deforestation of Madagasca r. Their surviva l is not l i kely.

1 31

SI FAKAS a re p ri m i tive prim ates that l ive on the i s l a n d of

Madagascar. Their body is covered with white fur, but thei r
naked, or hai rless, face is black and looks l i ke a mask. Li ke
the l ndris, they were very common up to the 1 930s, but a l l
o f t h e severa l k i n d s remai n i ng are now i n danger beca use
of the destruction of their forest habitat.
LEMURS a re a l so p r i m i tive primates. Al l a re endangered
beca use of the cutting of the forests and the taking over of
l a n d by peo p l e . Mongoose Lem u rs, s l i g h tly s m a l ler t h a n
cats, were never com mon . T h e few rema i n i ng i n habit th e
Comoro I slands and northwestern Madagasca r.
The Fork- ma rked Mouse Lem u r is less t h a n 1 2 i nches
long. The "fork- ma rked" part of i ts name comes from the
black stripe that extends from i ts rump to the crown of its
head, where it d ivides, or "forks ." The ta i l i s longer than the
body and is bushy. The Fork- marked Mouse Lem u r spends
its days sleeping i n the hollows of trees, someti mes sharing
its home with bees and eati ng some of the honey.
One subspecies of the Gray Gentle Lem ur is found only
i n the reed beds a round Lake Alaotra . About 1 'h feet long
with an equ a l ly long ta i l , th is swi m m i ng lemur has serrated
teeth used for chewing bam boo and other fi brous stems.
The Fat-ta i led Dwa rf Lem ur' s th ick ta i l acts as a reserve
of food energy when the a n i m a l becomes dormant d u ri n g
t h e hot, d ry season . Th is lemur has a broad , catl i ke face,
and its eyes have dark rings.

Sulawesi Macaque

SULAWESI MACAQUES are found on Su lawesi, a group of

i s l a n d s between Borneo and New G u i nea . They a re a l so
known as Black Apes . Although they are macaques, the i r
faces a re longer t h a n those o f other species. They h ave a
tufted crown and only a stub of a tai l . They are now endan
gered as a resu lt of a loss of habitat and also because they
a re h u nted for meat or as agricu ltural pests .
ORANGUTANS, which l ive i n the j u ng l e s of Borneo a n d
S u matra , a re t h e only g reat a pes fou n d o u ts i d e Afri ca .
Males may stand 4'h feet ta l l and weigh a bout 200 pounds.
Fem a les a re a t least a th i rd s m a l ler. O ra ng u ta n s have
excepti o n a l ly long a rm s , wh i c h they u se to swi n g from
branch to branch . On the g round they clench their fists and
use thei r a rms l i ke crutches to push themselves along . There
a re two su bspecies of Ora ngutans, the Bornea n s a n d the
Sumatrans.

1 34

MOUNTAIN PEAKS AND POLAR REGIONS

The peaks of the earth ' s highest mounta i n s a re perpetu a l ly
ca pped with s now. Conditions there a re a l most identical
with those i n the polar regions. Below these caps a re tree
less regions s i m i lar to the tundra, and sti l l fa rther down are
wide ba nds of con iferous trees, then deciduous trees, and
fi n a l ly, i n some cases, trop ica l forests . The h i g hest moun
ta i n s i n the equatorial regions conta i n a l l of these zones.
On the world's highest mou ntains, life is l i m ited not only
by the cold but a lso by the much lower atmospheric pressu re
and greatly reduced amount of oxygen . Yet some b i rds and
mammals a re never found at elevations of much less than
1 0,000 feet. Oth er a n i m a l s go i n to the mounta i n s in the
sum mer, then move back to the wa rmer lowla n d s in the
winter. For a few th reatened species, the mounta i n s have
become thei r last refuge on ea rth .
No s i n g le, d i sti nctive l a n d m a s s defi nes the Arcti c .
Rather, the north polar region consists o f a sea o f ice that i s
no more than a few feet th ick in some places and more than
a h u n d red feet th i c k in other places . The Arctic sea s a re
constantly cold . They lack the benefit of the wa rm currents
that sti r i n nutrients and enrich Antarctic waters. Thus, l i fe i s
not abundant i n Arctic waters.
The l a n d su rrou nd i ng the North Pole is a vast treeless
tu ndra ca rpeted with snow from six to n i ne months of the
year. Tu ndra lands are permanently frozen-to a l most half
a mile deep i n some places . I n summer the top few i n ches
thaw, and the tu n d ra then briefly b u rgeons with l i fe. The
p reviously ba rren land ra p i d ly turns fi rst g reen and then
multicolored, with flowers in bloom . The sun shi nes a round
the clock at the pea k of summer. Si nce the growing season
is brief, no time is lost in producing seed s or other fru iting
bod i e s . D u r i n g th i s period, too, the tu n d ra becomes
crowded with animal life.
1 36

Penguins can still be

spatted'on Antarctic
shores, but there are fewer
today than ever before.

Anta rcti ca, the last conti nent to be d i scovered a n d

explored , i s an im mense expanse of ice and snow that l ies
on the South Po l e . Sepa rated from a l l other l a n d s a n d
beyond the frigid southern extensions o f the I ndian, Pacific,
and Atl a ntic ocea n s , it is essenti a l ly u n i n h a b i ta b l e . I ts
waters were fi rst explored by h u n ters pu rsu i ng m i g rati n g
sea l s a n d w h a l es . The i n terior of Antarctica i s a v i rtua l
desert-cold, stormy, and windswept. Humans are the only
l iv i n g th i n g s to have probed the icy i n terior of th i s g reat
conti nent.
U n l i ke the desolate interior, however, the coastal waters,
surrounding seas, and nearby islands are a ston ishingly rich
with l i fe as a result of the convergence of several wa rm and
cold cu rrents . P l a n kton i s abundant i n s u m mer. Peng u i n s
a n d other sea b i rds, p l u s whales, dolph i n s , a n d sea ls, a re
fou nd i n the coa sta l waters a n d a long the shore s . T h e
remoteness a n d hosti l i ty of t h e Anta rctic have th u s fa r
spa red these animals from tota l a n n i h i lation, but many a re
l i sted among th reatened species.
1 37

S PECTACLED CORMORANTS ore

known today mostly from m u se u m
spec i mens. Poor flyers, they l ived o n
isl ands i n t h e B e r i n g Sea . T h e bare
areas su rrounding their eyes, which
looked a l i ttle l i ke spectacles, gave
them t h e i r nome . V i s i tors to the
islands c l ubbed the big sea b i rds to
death a nd ate the m . The lost of the
Spectacled Cormorants were k i l led
in the m id- 1 800s.

STELLER'S SEA COW was up to 20

feet long and weighed al most 4 tons.
Related to the smaller manatees and
the Dugong, which l ive i n tropical
waters, Steller's Sea Cows inhabited
i slands i n the Beri ng Sea . They were
fi rst seen in 1 74 1 d u r i n g a Russian
expedition and were named for the
German natural ist and chief scientist
of the exped i tion, Georg Ste l l e r .
Forced t o winter on t h e i s l a n d s after
their ship was wrecked, members of

the exped ition tried eati n g various

fish, b i rds, a nd mammals and l i ked
the huge, wri n kly Steller's Sea Cows
best of a l l .
The explorers, w h a l e r s , and seal
hunters who visited the reg ion i n the
fol lowing yea rs a l so ate the big sea
cows . The total o r i g i n a l population
was proba b l y less than 2 , 000
a n i ma l s , a nd by 1 770 no Ste l ler's
Sea Cows were sti l l ol ive.

California Condor

CONDORS a re the largest of the world's vultures, and both

the Californ ia Condor and Andean Condor are in danger of
exti nction . Fewer than 1 ,000 Andea n s a re left in the wi l d ,
and t h e o n ly known l iving Ca l i forn ia Condors, fewer tha n
70 o f them, a re i n zoos i n San Diego a n d Los Angeles. It i s
hoped t h a t t h e offspring of these b i rd s can eventu a l ly b e
released i n to the wi ld. Without h u m a n help, neither condor
is expected to survive much past the yea r 2000.
Both condors have wingspans of a bout 9'h feet, with the
Andean Condor's very slightly the larger of the two. Neither
i s prol ific. A female condor lays only one egg every other
yea r. The young b i rd i s completely helpless for more than
six month s , then conti n ues to stay with i ts mother fo r a n
additional six months.
Condors have been i n exi stence s i nce the d ays of the
ma stod o n s a n d saber-toothed tigers. At that t i m e , the
Cal i forn i a Condor ranged over most of the West and, in
smaller n u m bers, east of the Rockies. Si nce about 1 900,
however, it has been confi ned to southwestern Californ ia.
L i ke all vu ltures, condors a re scavengers . As the land
beca me settl ed , the carca sses of l a rge w i l d a n i ma l s and
nesti n g s i tes beca me scarce. The b i g b i rd s a l so beca m e
targets o f "sport" shooters.

1 39

Trumpeter Swan

TRUMPETER SWANS once l ived over much of the northern

U n i ted Sta tes and Canada, but by a bout 1 900 they were
bel ieved to be exti nct. Then a dozen or so s u rvivors were
found in Yellowstone Nationa l Park, where they were g iven
strict protection . Today several thousand of these birds l ive
in Yellowstone and in other parks in the U n i ted States and
Canada .

1 40

Chinchilla
CHINCHILLAS a re
squ i rrel-sized rodents
that l ive in the Andes.
Long prized for their
luxu rious, s i l ky fur made
into coats and capes, they
are now ra ised on farms. But wi ld
chinch i l las a re sti l l hunted because their fu r i s richer. Also,
gestation for these animals is long, and a female produces
only one to two l i tters per year. Some experts fear that wild
chinch i l las w i l l soon become exti nct. Some fa rm- ra ised ch i n
c h i l la s m i g h t eventua l l y be rel eased i n to t h e w il d t o help
replen ish the stock of wild animals.
VOLCANO RABBITS l ive on the high slopes i n south -centra l
Mexico. They have short ea rs and no ta i l . They com m u n i
cate with each other b y g iving high-pitched squeals. These
interesti ng and u nusual rabbits are d i sappea ring because of
the destruction of the pine forests and the g rasslands where
th ey l ive. T h ey a re a l so h eavi ly h u n ted by people fro m
nea rby Mexico City.
Volcano Rabbits

1 41

POLAR BEARS, their numbers now stable at a bout 20,000,

have been h u nted a l most wholly for sport-to see who could
bag the biggest or get some portion of the animal to exh ibit
as a trophy. I n days gone by, Polar Bea r hunting d i d indeed
req u i re both endurance and ski l l . Fi rst came a long voyage
by s h i p through Arctic waters and then a tri p by dogsled .
The hunter, when fi nally com i ng face-to-face with the half
ton animal, knew that the big bear could easily tear h i m to
pieces un less he fel led it with h i s fi rst shot.
In the 1 940s hunters began using much more powerfu l
a n d ra p i d - f i r i n g wea pons a n d d i d most of t h e i r h u n ti n g
from either an a i rplane or a hel icopter. When a bear was
s i g hted , the p i lot l a nded a n d the h u nter got i n pos ition,
usua l ly under a wh ite cover so that the bea r d i d not even
suspect h i s presence. Then the pilot took off agai n and flew
low over the bea r to herd it i n the hunter's d i rection, using a
radio a l l the wh ile to com municate with the hu nter.
Today only natives a re allowed to kill the Polar Bea r, and
only for food or h ides. About 1 ,000 a re ta ken each year.
However, the Polar Bea r' s existence i n the wild may be seri
ously th reatened by the exploitation of Arctic o i l a n d gas
reserves i n the l i m i ted a reas suitable for den n i n g by p reg
n a n t fema l es . Many zoos h ave Pol a r Bea rs on exh i b i t .
Fortu nately, they d o wel l i n captivity and produce young .
SPECTAC LED BEARS l ive hig h i n the m o u n ta i n s of South
America, at elevations of from 1 ,000 to 1 4,000 feet. They
get their name from the yel lowish-white marks circl ing their
eyes. Si nce they are now very rare, their surviva l may wel l
rest with those severa l dozen i n zoos, where, l i ke other
bears, they adapt wel l and produce young. These med i u m
sized bea rs a re a lmost exclusively vegetarian, b u t they have
been hunted for sport, for meat, for thei r skins, and because
some ra nc hers con sider them a th reat to l ivestock, which
they a re not.

1 42

GRIZZLY BEARS a re huge, h u m p-shou ldered Brown Bears,

with long guard hairs in their coat that a re lighter in color at
the tips, th us g iving the bears a grizzled or silvery a ppear
ance. Ma les may sta nd 8 feet ta l l and weigh nearly half a
ton . Females are a th i rd smal ler than the males. Both reach
their peak weight in late summer or fall, when they become
wel l fattened for their winter sleep. H i bernation periods for
Grizzl ies can va ry, sta rting between the months of October
and Decem ber and end i ng somewhere between Ma rch and
May . Exact dates depend on factors such as location,
weather, and health of the bear.
Despite its form idable size and long, cu rved front claws,
a Grizzly Bea r's norma l diet in the wild is 90 percent fruit,
n uts, roots, and green vegetation . The remai nder consists of
some l ive prey, p l u s carrio n . Grizzl ies a re oppo rtu n i sts.
When sa lmon a re ru n n i ng and relatively easy to catch, the
bears gorge on fresh-caught fish. They wi l l a l so eat insects,
m i ce, ma r mots, deer, or whatever else i s ava i l a b l e a n d
eas i ly caught. They wi l l even ra id ga rbage ca n s i n pa rks
and in towns, and th is puts them in confl ict with people.
I n the ea rly n i neteenth century, there may have been up
to 1 00 ,000 Grizzly Bea rs roa m i n g over most of North
America west of the Rocky Mou n ta i n s from Mexico to
Alaska . Their popu lation has now dwi n d led to p robably
under 1 ,000. Those remaining are found only i n wilderness
areas. A few l ive i n Yellowstone National Pa rk.
The Grizzly Bear has always been a prime quarry itself,
ki l led for its meat and h ide and also because people felt it
was too large and potenti a l ly too da ngerous to have nea r
settlements . Ranchers h ave a l so considered i t a th reat to
their livestock. In thei r natura l setting these big bea rs have
no match for size, but the combi ned effects of g uns, dogs,
traps, and poisons, as well as the conti nued shrinking of the
wi lderness areas i n wh ich they l ive, have brought them to
their present state of nea r a n n i h i lation .

1 44

GFizzly

ears

GIANT PANDAS, once thought to belong to the same fam i ly

as raccoons, a re now believed to be more closely related to
bears. Often weighing more than 300 pounds and atta i n ing
a height of 5 feet, Giant Pandas eat a l most exclusively the
shoots and tender you ng branches of ba m boo . Long ago
they roa med a c ross eastern Asi a , but then thei r h a b i ta t
shrank to only mounta i n loca les. European s did n o t know of
them u n t i l 1 8 69, when they were seen a n d descri bed by
Pere David, a French m issionary.
The first Giant Pa nda to reach the West was exh ibited in
a Ch icago zoo in 1 937. By 1 94 1 eight additional an imals
were i n U.S. zoos and more were soon on exh ibit i n Europe.
Pandas do not breed eas i ly in captivity, however. And loss
of habitat plus being hunted for their thick, woolly pelts have
caused thei r further decline i n the wild .
Eventual ly, the government of China placed the pandas
u nder strict p rotection . The rema i n i ng a n i ma l s-perhaps
fewer tha n 1 ,000 of them-l ive in Cen tra l C h i n a , 1n
bamboo forests at elevations of 5,000 to 1 0,000 feet.
ANDEAN CATS, wh ich l ive h i g h in the Andes of South
America, p rey on viscachas a n d other rodents. No one
rea l ly knows how many sti l l exi st, but they a re apparently
extremely rare. Geoffroy' s Cat, which at a bout 3 feet long is
slig htly smaller than the Andean Cat, l ives at lower eleva
tions . Its numbers have dwindled, too, as has the n umber of
existing Kodkods, or Chi lean Mou nta i n Cats . All th ree must
be watched to assure their surviva l .

1 46

Spanish Lynx

SPANISH LYNXES l ive i n the mounta in s of southern Spa i n .

Only a few thousand are left, a remnant popu lation o f the
European Lynx that once roamed over most of Europe.
The Spa n ish Lynx is slig htly smaller and has shorter fu r
than the lynxes that sti l l l ive i n limited numbers i n the "North
Woods" of North America and also in northern Europe and
Asi a . It a l so h a s a short ta i l and promi nent ear tufts. Li ke
other predators at the top of the food pyra m i d , it needs a
large territory i n which to hunt and often roams over 6 m i les
in a single n ight. A large reservation has been set aside for
the Spa n ish Lynx's protection .
VICU NAS l ive at elevations of 1 0,000 feet or higher i n the
Andes of Peru , C h i le, a n d Argenti n a . As members of the
camel fam i ly, they are closely related to Gua nacos and to
the domesticated l lamas and a l pacas, which l ive a t lower
elevation s . The Vicuna has been pri zed for i ts woo l a n d
meat si nce t h e days o f t h e I ncas, b u t the I n d i a n s took on ly a
few animals at a time from a herd and then did not return to

1 48

the same a rea to hunt for several yea rs . Often they set the
a n i mals free after shearing them . There were an esti mated
1 to 1 . 5 m i l lion Vicunas then. But the Spaniards and those
who followed them took the Vicuna in massive numbers.
Even so, the popu lation of Vicunas rema i n ed at about
400,000 u nti l 1 950, when devastati ng k i l l s red uced the i r
number t o a few thousa nd. Now they a re protected b y law,
but in the remote a reas where they l ive, enforcing the law is
not easy. Vicunas occupy a habitat that puts them in confl ict
with people and the i r l ivestoc k . Sett in g a s i d e p rotected
lands may be the on ly way to save th is species.

ALPINE I B EXES, or wild goats, once i n ha b i ted the Alps i n

large n u m bers. Since early times, th i s goat was h u n ted for
its much prized 3'h - foot sickle-shaped horns, its meat, and
various other parts of the animal, wh ich were used i n fol k
medicine. A s early as 1 800 the Al pine I bex was bel ieved
doomed to exti nction .
Only a few dozen a n i mals were known to sti l l be a l ive,
and these were a l l owned by one Ita l ian fam i ly. Under this
fam i ly's ca reful custod ianship, the animals slowly i ncreased
their numbers. La rge preserves were then established in the
mounta i n s to assure the a n i mals of a place to l ive. Now the
n u mber of w i l d Al p i n e I bexes exceed s 1 0 ,000, a n d the
danger of thei r extinction seems to have passed .
The s i m i la r Cretan Wild Goat, or Agrimi, was once
widespread in Asia Minor, but
over time herds were reduced
to fewer than one hundred
animals, which l ived in the
wild mounta i n regions of
Crete. Efforts were made
to protect the goats
that remai ned and
to establish herds
on other islands,
but on the whole
the efforts were
not successfu l ,
due to the wild
goats' tendency
to mate with
domestic goats.

MARKHORS, the largest of the wi ld goats, l ive i n the mou n

ta i n s o f southern Asia a n d Asia Mi nor. They a re th reatened
because of land settlement and the goats' com petition for
grazi ng land with domestic l ivestock. Markhor ma les, wh ich
can weigh u p to 200 pounds, are noted for thei r large and
twisted horns that can measure as much a s 3 feet i n length .
These goats also sport a heavy bea rd that hangs from the i r
c h i n down t o the i r chest. Spen d i ng the i r sum mers h i g h on
the rocky slopes, Markhors move to lower, wa rmer eleva
tions i n the winter, usually travel i ng i n small g rou ps. O n ly
about a thousand of these animals a re sti l l bel ieved to exi st
today. Few of the countries where they a re found g ive them
the protection they need .

1 51

Musk-Oxen

MUSK-OXEN a re most abundant today i n Canada an

Gree n l a n d and nea rby i s l a n d s . Their tota l popu lation is
close to 20,000. Once large herds roamed North America
a n d A s i a , but the i r n u m bers a re now down to a few
h u n d red in North America and zero in Asi a . These g iant
shaggy beasts, often weigh i ng more tha n 900 pounds, do
not fa re wel l in captivity. But efforts a re bei ng m a d e to
retu rn some to the wilds of their native lands-even to Asia.
It i s hoped that they will make a successfu l comeback.
Musk-Oxen feed on the mosses, l i chens, and l ow
growi ng plants of the tundra . I n wi nter they push aside the
snow to uncover these plants . Typically they travel in herds
of ten or more animals, their numbers giving them protec
tion from wolves and also from the snow and cold winds. I f
a herd is th reatened by an attacker, the cows and ca lves get
in the center of a ring formed by the bulls. The bulls lower
their heads to guard the center.

1 52

YAKS a re h u g e w i l d cattle that l i ve at a l ti tudes of u p to

20,000 feet on the Ti beta n platea u . Thei r th ick shaggy coats
m a ke it poss i b l e for them to e n d u re the extremely co l d
weather. The males, o r bulls, c a n weigh a s much as a ton ;
the i r l a rge, cu rved horns may measure a s long a s 3 feet.
Although wild Yaks a re now endangered , many Yaks have
been domesticated .

APPENDIX
HELPFUL ORGANIZATIONS

All state governments and the federa l govern ment, in add i

t i o n t o n u merous private o rga n i zations, a re concerned
about van i shing species. Government agencies can provide
l i sts of the plants and a n i mals that are under greatest th reat.
Below are a few of the most prom inent and active organ iza
tions that offer information as wel l as opportunities for those
who want to get i nvolved .
Fund for Animals, Inc.
200 West 57th Street
New York, NY 1 00 1 9
International Council for
Bird Preservation
2 1 9c Huntingdon Road
Cambridge CB3 ODL
England, U. K .
or 871 Dolly Mad i son Boulevard
Mclean, VA 22 1 0 1
International Fund for
Animal Welfare
P.O. Box 1 93
Yarmouth Port, MA 02675

Notional Wildlife Federation

1 4 1 2 1 6th Street NW
Wash ington, DC 20036
The Nature Conservancy
1 8 1 5 North Lynn Street
Arlington, VA 22209
Sierra Club
530 Bush Street
San Franci sco, CA 941 08
Sm ithson ian Institution
1 000 Jefferson Drive SW
Wash ington, DC 20560

International Union for Conservation of

Nature and Natural Resources (IUCN)
Avenue du Mont-Blanc
CH 1 1 96
Gland, Switzerland

Wildlife Preservation Trust

lnternationat Inc.
34th Street and Girard Avenue
Phi ladelphia, PA 1 9 1 04

Notional Audubon Society

950 Th i rd Avenue
New York, NY 1 0022

The Wildlife Society

54 1 0 Grosvenor Lane
Bethesda, MD 208 1 4

Notional Resources Defense Council

1 2 2 East 42nd Street
New York, NY 1 0 1 68

World Wildlife Fund-U . S .

1 2 5 0 24th Street N W
Washington, DC 20077-7787

1 54

PUBLICATIONS

Enda ngered species make the news with frequency nowa

days . Often they a re not "good news" stories, but the tide
may be turn i n g . Watch for these stories. Also, check out the
books l i sted below and magazines and journals that focu s
o n these i ssues for t h e most up-to-date informatio n .
Amos, Enos S . , e n d Roger L. D i S i lvestro. Audubon Wildlife Report. New
York: Notional Audubon Society, 1 985 to present ( issued a n n ually).
B u rton , J o h n A . ( ed i to r ) . The A tlas of Endangered Species. New York:
Mac m i l l a n Publishing Company, 1 99 1 .
Caras, Roger A. Last Chance on Earth. New York: Scribner Books, 1 972.
Cox, James A. The Endangered Ones. New York: Crown Publications, I n c . ,
1 975.
DiSi lvestro, Roger L. The Endangered Kingdom. New York: John Wiley and
Sons, I n c . , 1 989.
------- . Audubon Perspectives: Fight For Survival. New York :
John Wiley a nd Sons, I n c . , 1 990.
Matthews, John R., and Charles J . Mosely (eds). The Official World Wildlife
Fund Guide to Endangered Species of North America. Was h ington, D . C . :
Beacham Publishing, I n c . , 1 990.
Red List of Threatened Animals. IUCN or World W i l d l i fe F u n d . Li sts some
5,000 species. Updated and added to regularly.
Regenste i n , Lewis. The Politics of Extinction. New York: Mac m i l la n Publishing
Company, 1 975.
Steger, Will, and Jon Bowermaster . Saving the Earth. New York: Alfred A.
Knopf, 1 990.
Stonehouse, Bernard . Saving the Animals. New York: Macmi l l a n Publishing
Company, 1 98 1 .

ENDANGERED ANIMALS LIST:

COMMON AND SCIENTIFIC NAMES

The scientific names of most animal species d i scussed in th i s

book a re shown here i n italics. I n heavy type preceding the
"com mon" name i s the text page reference.
47 Addax (Addax nasomaculatus)
40 African Elephant ( Loxodonta

africana)

48 African Wild Ass ( Equus osinus)

29 African Wild Dog ( tycoon pictus)

(Alligator
mississippiensis)
1 50 Alpine Ibex ( Copra ibex)
38 American B ison !Bison bison)
1 46 Andean Cat (Felis jacobite)
90 American All igator

1 55

48 Arabian Oryx

maximus)

ko

(O
leucoryx)
(E ephos

40 Asian Elephant

33 Asiatic Lion ( Ponthero leo}

1 30 Aye-aye ( Doubenlonio

madagascariensis)

95 Bachman's Warbler

( Vermivora

( Testudovicino)

89 Gavial ( Gavialis gongeticus)

1 46 Geoffroy's Cat ( Felis geolfroyi)
97 Giant Offer ( Pieronuro

brasiliensis)

1 46 Giant Panda

Bald Eagle ( Holioeelus

35 Giant Sable Antelope

( Hippolrogus equinus)

leucocepholus)
30 Barbary Hyena

(Hyaena

barbara)

1 34 Block Ape (Mococo nigra)

28 Black-looted Ferrel (Mustelo

nigripes)

26 Black-tailed Prairie Dog

( Cynomys ludovicianus)
( Boloenoptero
musculus)
Bantebok (Domoliscus dorcas)
Brazi lian Tap i r ( Tapirus
terrestris)
Brown Hyena ( Hyaena brunneo}
Brown Pelican ( Pelecanus
occidentolis)
Cahow ( Pterodromo cohow)
California Condor (Gymnogyps
californianus)

1 08 Blue Whale
48
76
30
1 03
1 20
1 39

95 Cape Sable Sparrow

(Ammospizo mirobilis}
{Conuropsis
carolinensis)
Cheetah (Acinonyx ubatus)
Chinchilla (Chinchi/ ufo
sohamoe)
Clouded Leopard (Neofelis
nebulosa)
Colobus Monkey ( Colobus
guerezo)
Common Dolph i n (Delphinus
delphis)
Common Egret (Cosmerodius olbus)
Coucal ( Couo delolondei)
Dodo (Raphus cucullotus)
Duiker ( Cepholophus)

58 Carol ina Parakeet

32
141
75
81
1 07

92
1 13
1 13
76
24 Eastern Gray Kangaroo

(Mocropus giganteus)
(Aepyornis
maximus}
20 Emu (Dromoius novoehollondioe)
94 Eskimo Curlew ( Numenius
borealis)

1 1 4 Elephant Bird

1 33 Fat-foiled Dwarf Lemu r

( Cheirogoleus medius)

1 33 Fork-ma rked Mouse Lemur

furciler)

1 56

(Ailuropodo

melonoleuco}

bochmonii)
61

1 1 8 Galapagos Tortoise

( Phaner

82 Gori lla ( Gorilla gorilla)

68 Gray Bat (Myotis grisescens)
1 33 Gray Gentle Lemur (Hopalemur

griseus)

1 00 Great Auk (Pinguinus impennis)

22 Greater Prairie Chicken

( Tymponuchus cupido)
Green tu rtle (Chelonia mydos)
Grevy's Zebra ( Equus gre i)
Grizzly Bear ( Ursus arctos orribilis)
Hawksbill Turtle ( Erelmochelys
imbricata)
58 Heath Hen ( Tymponuchus cupido
cupido)
1 3 1 lndri (Jndri indri)
1 02
11
1 44
1 02

"l:.

59 Ivory-billed Woodpecker

( Campephilus principalis)

7 1 Jaguar ( Panlhero onca}

1 26 Jamaican Hutio ( Geocapromys

brownti)

1 24 Kagu ( Rhynochetos jubotus)

1 27 Javan Rhi noceros ( Rhinoceros

sondaicus)

64 Kakapo ( Strigops hobropti/us)

1 28 Key Deer ( Odocoileus

virginionus clavium)

46 Kit Fox ( Vulpes macrotis)

65 Ki rtland's Warbler ( Dendroica
1 20
1 46
66
1 17
101

kirtlondii)
Kiwi (
leryx australis)
Kodko ( Felis guigno)
Koala (Phosocolarcfos cinereus)
Komodo Dragon ( Voronus
komodensis)
Labrador Duck ( Camplorhynchus
lobrodorius)
Langur ( Pygothrix nemaeus)
leopard ( Ponthero pordus)
Leopard Frog ( Rona pipiens)

80
74
88
22 Lesser Pra i rie Chicken

( Tymponuchus pollidicinctus)
Leo)
(Anoo
depressicornis)

33 Lion ( Ponthero
1 28 Lowland Anoa

1 1 4 Mama !Hawaiian Honeycreeper)

IDreponis pacifica)

( Chrysocyon
brachyurus)
Morgay (Felis wiediij
Markhor ( Copra lolconerij
Mauritius Kestrel ( Fa/co
punctotusj
Moo (Mega/apteryx didinus)
Mongoose lem u r ( Lemur
mon oz)

30 Maned Wolf
75
151
115
1 15
1 33

1 23 Man ey-eati ng Eagle

( Pithecophaga iefferyi)

26 Morro Bay Kangaroo Rat

1 52
1 22
66
75
76
1 34
20
34
30
60
78
13
28

( Dipodomys heermanni
morroensis)
Musk-Oxen ( Ovibos moschotus)
Nene (Branta sandvicensis)
Nu mbat (Myrmecobius losciotusj
Ocelot (Felis pordalisj
Okapi ( Okapia iohnstonij
Oran utan ( Pongo py moeusj
Ostric ( Struthio come us)
Pampas Deer ( Ozotoceros
bezoarticus)
Pampas Fox ( Dusicyon culpoeusj
Passenger Pigeon ( Ectopistes
migratorius)
Pere David's Deer ( Eiaphurus
davidianus)
Peregrine F alcon ( Falco
peregrinus)

Pink Fairy Armad illo

( Chlomy horus truncotusj

( Charadrius
melodusj
Platypus ( Ornithorhynchus
onotinus)
Polar Bear ( Thalarctos
moritimus)
Porpoise ( Phocoena phocoenoj
Pronghorn (Antilocopro
americana)
Przewalski's Horse ( fquus
prezwolskiij
Puma { Felis concofor)

94 Piping P over
96
1 42
1 07
36
34

73
78 Py my H ippopotamus

{ C oeropsis /iberiensis)

Ti

1 9 Ouag a ( fquus quagga)

63 Red-bi led Cu rassow ( Crax

( Oryx

dammahj

101

Sea Mink (Muste/a vison

mocrodonj

1 04 Sea OHer ( Enhydro lutrisj

24 Short-nosed Rat Kangaroo

(Beffongio Iesueur)

1 04 Short-ta iled (or Stel ler's)

1 33
92
74
92
1 26

Albatross ( Diomedeo olbotrus)

Sifaka ( Propithecus)
Snail Kite ( Rostrhomus sociabi/isj
Snow Leopard ( Panthera uncia)
Snowy Egret ( Leucophoyx thuloj
Salenodon ( So/enodon

parodoxusj

1 06 Southern F u r Seal

(Arctocepholus

townsendij

1 48 Spa nish Lynx (Felis lynx pardinoj

1 42 Spectacled Bear ( Tremarctos

ornatus)

1 3 8 Spectacled Cormorant

( Pholacrocorax perspicillotusj
62 SpaHed Owl ( Strix occidentolisj
1 3 8 Steller's Sea Cow ( Hydrodomolis

gigas)

1 27 Sumatran R hinoceros

(Dicerorhinus sumotrensis)

1 24 Takahe (Notornis mantelli)

1 29 Tamaraw (Bubo/us mindorensis)
80 Em peror Tamarin (Saguinus

imperotor)

1 25 Tasmanian Devil

( Sarcophilus

1 25 Tasmanian Wolf

( Thylacinus

harrisii)

cynocephalus)

66 Three-toed Sloth (Brodypusj

72 Tiger (Panthera tigris)
62 Variegated Tinamou

( Crypturellus voriegotusj

1 1 6 T uatara (Sphenodon punctatusj

83 Uakari ( Caco;aa rubicundusj
1 4 1 Volcano Rabbit ( Romerolagus

diozij

1 48 Vicuiia { Vicugna vicugna)

1 1 1 West Indian Manatee ( Trichechus

manatus)

24 Western Hare Wallaby

( Logorchestes hirsutusj
( Connochaetes

blumenbachiij

36 White-tai led Gnu

( Dendrocopos borealis)
Red Kan aroo (Megaleia rulo)
Red Wol ( Canis rufus)
Rhea ( Pterocnemia)
Rhesus Mon key {Mocaco
mulaffa)

22 Whooping Crane I Grus

82 Woolly Spider Monkey

59 Red-cockaded Woodpecker
24
70
20
84

48 Scimitar-horned Oryx

gnou)

americana)

(Brachyteles orachnoidesj
1 53 Yak ( 8os grunniens)

1 57

INDEX

Italicized page numbers refer to illustrations.

Addaxes, 47, 47
Agri m i . See Goat, Cretan
Wild
Albatrosses, Short-toi led
{Steller' s), 1 04, 1 04
All igators, 90- 9 1
American, 90-9 1 , 9091

Chi nese, 90
Alpacas, 1 48
Amazon River, 56
Amph ibians, 88
Animals, cold-blooded and
worm-blooded, 5 3
Anoos, 1 28
lowland, 1 28
Antarctic, 1 36 , 1 37, 1 37
Anteaters, ban ded . See
N u m bots
Antelopes
Blue, 35
Giant Sable, 35, 35
Apes, Black. See
Macaques, Sulawesi
Arctic, 1 36, 1 42
Armadi l los, P i n k Fairy, 28,
28

Asses, African Wild, 48,

49

Nubian, 48
Somal i , 48
Atocombo Desert, 42
Auks, Great, 1 00, 1 00
Aye-ayes, 1 30, 1 30
Bachman, John, 95
Bats, 68-69
Gray, 68-69, 69
Bears
Grizzly, 1 44, 1 45
Polar, 1 42 , 1 43
Spectacled, 1 42, 1 4 3
Biodiversity, 7
Biomes, 1 4- 1 5, 1 4 - 1 5
Bison, American, 1 7, 3839 38-39, 1 02
'
Blackbucks, 32

1 58

Bonteboks, 48, 4 9
Buffalo. See Bison,
American
Cohows, 1 20- 1 2 1 , 1 2 1
Campos, 1 8
Cape Hunting Dogs. See
Dogs, African Wild
Cots
Andean , 1 46, 1 46
Chilean Mou ntain, 1 46
Geoffroy' s, 1 46
Cecropia trees, 66
Chocholoco, 63
Cheetahs, 32, 32
Chickens
Greater Prairie, 22
Lesser Prairie, 22, 22
Chinchil las, 1 4 1 , 1 4 1
Condors, 1 39
Andean, 1 39
California, 1 39, 1 3 9
Coniferous forests, 50-52,
50-5 1 , 53

Continental islands, 1 1 2
Cormorants
Galapagos, 1 1 9
Spectacled, 1 38, 1 38
Coucols, 1 1 3, 1 1 3
Cougars, 73
Cowbirds, Brown-headed,
65
Coyotes, 46, 71
Crones, Whooping, 2223, 23
Cuckoos, Thick-billed, 1 1 3
Curossows, Red-billed, 63,
63

Cu rlews, Eskimo, 94, 94

David, Pere, 1 46
DDE, 1 03
DDT, 1 3, 6 1 , 1 03, 1 2 1
Deciduous forests, 52, 52,
53
Deer
Axis, 34

Key, 1 28 - 1 29, 1 28
Pampas, 34, 35
Pere David's, 78, 79,
1 46
Red, 34
White-toi led, 1 28
Delolondi's Coucols, 1 1 3,
1 13

Deserts, 42-49, 43
Devi ls, Tasmanian, 1 25,
1 25

Dinosaurs, 4, 5
Dodoes, 8, 1 1 3, 1 1 3
Dogs, African Wild, 29,
29. See a l so Pra i rie
Dogs
Dolphins, 1 07
Bonlenose, I 07
Dorcases, Moroccan . See
Bonteboks
Dragons, Komodo, 1 1 7,
1 17

Ducks, labrador, 1 0 1 , 1 0 1
Dugongs, 1 1 1 , 1 38
Dui kers, 76, 77
Eagles
Bald, 6 1 , 6 1 , 1 2 1
Monkey-eating, 1 23,
1 23

Ecosystem, 7
Egrets, 92
Common, 92, 93
Snowy, 92, 93
Elephant Birds, 1 1 4, 1 1 4,
1 15
Elephants, 40- 4 1
African, 4 0 , 4 1
Asian, 40, 4 1
Emus, 20-2 1 , 2 1
Endangered Species Act
{ ESA), 1 0- 1 1 , 1 3 , 7 1
Energy, 7
Extinction
causes of, 5-6
rote of, 6, 1 5
Falcons, Peregrine, 1 3, 1 3

Ferrets, Block-footed, 27,

28, 28
Fertil izers, 85
Fi nches, Darwin' s, 1 1 2,
1 14
Fish, 87
Food chain, 8
in oceans, 9899
Food webs, 8
Forests, 50-84
con i ferous, 5052, 50
5 1 , 53

deciduous, 52, 52, 53

rai n forests, tropical, 9,
5357, 5455, 57
Foxes
Kit, 46, 46
Pompos, 30, 3 1
Red, 30
Frogs, 54
leopard, 88, 88

Hutios, 1 26, 1 26
Jamaican, 1 26
Hyenas, 30, 3 1
Barbary, 30, 3 1
Brown, 30, 3 1
Striped, 30
Ibexes, Alpine, 1 50, 1 50
lndris, 1 3 1 , 1 3 1 , 1 33
Islands, 1 1 2 1 35
Jaguars, 7 1 , 71
Kogus, 1 24, 1 24
Kokopo, 64, 64
Kalahari Desert, 42
Kangaroos, 24
Brush-toiled Rot, 25
Eastern Gray, 24, 25
Red, 24, 25
Short-nosed Rat, 24,
25

Gavials. See Gharials

Geese, Hawa i i a n . See
Nene
Ghoriols, 89, 89
Gila Monsters, 44, 44
Gnus, White-toi led, 36, 36
Goats, Cretan Wild, 1 50
Gobi Desert, 42
Gori llas, 82, 83
Mounta i n , 8 2
Gran Chaco Desert, 42
Grasslands, 1 6 4 1 , 1 6 1 7
Great Plains, 1 7
Ground Rollers, long
toiled, 1 1 3
Guonoco, 1 48
Guerezas. See Monkeys,
Colobus
Habitat loss, 9
Hawks, Galapagos, 1 1 9
Hens, Heath, 58, 58
Hippopotamuses
Common, 79
Pygmy, 78-79, 79
Honeycreepers, Hawaiian,
1 1 4, 1 1 4
Horses, Przewalski's, 34,
34

Hummingbirds, 54
Hunting, 1 0

Kestrels, Mauritius, 1 1 5,

Sulawesi, 1 34, 1 34
Macaw, Spix' s, 64.
Mammals, 5
Mama, 1 1 4
Manatees, 1 1 0 1 1 1 , 1 1 0
I l l , 1 38
Morgoys, 75, 75
Marian nos Trench,
98
Morkhors, 1 5 1 , 1 5 1
Mink, Sea, 1 0 1 , 1 0 1
Moos, 1 1 5, 1 1 5
Monkeys
Colobus, 8 1 , 8 1
Red-backed Squi rrel,
82
Rhesus, 84, 84
Woolly Spider, 82, 82
Mounta i n Lions, 73
Mountains, 1 36 1 53
Mount Everest, 98
Musk-Oxen, 1 52, 1 52
1 53

1 15

Kites, Snail, 92, 93

Kiwis, 1 20, 1 20
Koalas, 66, 67
Kodkods, 1 46
lakes, 85-97
longurs, 80
Douc, 8 0
Pagi , 80
lemurs, 1 33
Brood-nosed, I 32
Fat-to i l ed Dwarf, 1 33,
1 33

Fork-marked Mouse,
1 32, 1 33
Mongoose, 1 32 , 1 32,
1 33
leopards, 7475, 74
Clouded, 75
Snow, 74, 75
lions, 33, 33
lizards, Beaded, 44
Llamas, 1 48
Llanos, 1 8
lynxes
European, 1 48
Spanish, 1 48, 1 48
Macaques, 84

Namib Desert, 42
Notional parks, 1 2
Nene, 1 2 2, 1 22
Numbots, 66-67, 67
Rusty, 67
Oceanic islands, 1 1 2
Oceans, 98- 1 1 1
Ocelots, 75, 75
Oil spills, 1 05
Okopis, 76-77, 77
Orangutans, 1 34, 1 35
Borneon, 1 34
Sumatra n , 1 34
Oryxes
Arabian, 48, 4 9
Scim ita r- horned, 48
Ostriches, 20, 2 1
Otters
Giant, 97, 97
Sea, 97, 1 0 1 , 1 04
1 05, 1 05
Owls
Burrowing, 27
Soumogne' s, 1 1 3
Spoffed, 1 3, 62, 62
Pampos, 1 8
Pandas, Giant, 1 46, 1 47

1 59

Panthers, 73, 74
Parakeets, 64
Carol ina, 58, 58
Parrots, 56, 64
Owl, 64, 64
Pel icans, Brown, l 03, I 03,
1 21
Penguins, Galapagos, 1 1 9
Pesticides, 86
Pigeons, Passenger, 58,
60, 60
Plankton, 98-99, 99, 1 37
Platypus, 96, 96
Plovers, Piping, 94-95,
94

Polar regions, 1 36- 1 53

Pollution, l 0, 85, 99
Porpoises, l 07
Prairie Dogs, Block-toiled,
26-27, 27, 28
Pronghorns, 1 7, 36-37, 37
Sonoran, 37
Pumas, 73, 73
Quaggas, 1 9, 1 9
Rabbits, Volcano, 1 4 1 ,
141

Rainforests, tropical, 9 , 5357, 54-55, 57

Rots, Morro Boy
Kangaroo, 26, 26
Rheas, 20, 2 7
Rhi noceroses, 1 27
Black, 1 27
Jovon, 1 27, 1 27
Sumatran, l 27
Wh ite, 1 27
Sahara Desert, 42
Sanctuaries, 1 2
Savannas, 1 7- 1 8
Seo Cows, Stel ler' s, 1 04,
I l l , 1 38, 1 38
Seals, 1 06
Crobeoter, l 06

1 60

Southern Fur, 1 06, 1 06

Seren g eti Notional Park
(Af rica), 32
Serengeti P la ins (Africa),
1 6- 1 7

Shark, Whole, 98
Sifokos, 1 33, 1 33
Sloths, 54
Three-toed, 66, 67
Snakes, 54
Solenodons, 1 26, 1 26
Sparrows
Cope Sable, 95, 95
Dusky Seaside, 95
Spheno dons . See Tuotaras
Stel ler, Georg, 1 38
Streams, 85-97
Swans, Trumpeter, 1 40,
1 40

Taiga, 50
Tokohes, 1 24, 1 24
Tomaraw, 1 29, 1 2 9
Tomorins, 80, 80
Tapirs, 76, 77
Baird's, 76
Brazilian, 76
Malayan, 76, 77
Mountain, 76
Teal , Madagascar, 1 1 3
Thylocines. See Wolves,
Tasmanian
Tigers, 72, 72
Benga l , 72
Siberian, 72
Tinamous, 62
Barred , 62
Block-headed, 62
Variegated, 63
Topsoil, erosion of, 85-86
Tortoises, 45, 45
Desert, 45
Galapagos, 1 1 8- 1 1 9,

Tuoto ros, 1 1 6, 1 1 6
Tu rtles
Atlantic Ridley, 1 02
Green, l 02, 1 02
Hawksbill, 7, l 02
Leatherback, 1 02
Loggerhead, l 02
Uakoris, 83, 83
Vertebrates, 6
Vicuiios, 1 48 - 1 49, 1 4 9
Wallabies
Hare, 24, 25
Rock, 24
Warblers
Bachman's, 95, 95
Ki rtland's, 65, 65
Wetlands, 85-97, 86, 87
Whales
Antarctic baleen, l 06
Blue, 98, 1 08 - 1 09,
1 08- 1 09

Gray, 1 09
Wildebeests, Black. See
Gnus, Wh ite-to i led
Wolf, Gray. See Wolves,
Timber
Wolves
Maned, 30, 3 1
Red, 70-7 1 , 70
Tasmanian, 1 25, 1 25
Timber, 70, 7 1
Wombat, Hairy-nosed, I 0
Woodpeckers
I m perial, 59
Ivory-bil led, 59, 59
Pileated, 59
Red-cockaded, 59, 59
Yaks, 1 53, 1 53

1 1 8- J 1 9

Tropic Birds, White-ta iled,

121

Zebra, Grevy's, I I
Zoos, modern, 1 2

A B C D E F

ENDANGERED ANIMALS
A GOLDEN GUIDE
GEORGE S . FICHTER authored, co-authored, or edited a
number of Golden Guides and Golden Junior Guides, as well as
many other adult and j uvenile nature and science books.

professional biologist, he taught zoology and conservation at

Miami University in Ohio for many years. In his later years, he
was a Writer in Residence a t Stetson University in Deland,
Florida. Throughout his life a true nature enthusiast, with an
extraordinary gift for writing and teaching, George Fichter had
an abiding interest in endangered animals, and he had been
gathering material for this proj ect for some time. He put the
finishing touches on it only a few months before he passed
away.

KRISTIN KEST has been painting for over ten years and has
illustrated a number of nature guides for children. Her work on

Bees, Wasps, and Ants

exhibit

by

the

(A Golden Junior Guide)

Society

of

Children's

was chosen for

Book

Illustrators .

Experienced also in medical illustration, Kest prefers painting

nature and wildlife. She works out of her studio in Marietta,
Pennsylvania, and has a pet scorpion plus an extensive collec
tion of shells, bugs, and bones .

A GOLDEN GUIDE

24501

Ti