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Introduction ................................................................................................................................................... i
Symbols & Abbreviations ............................................................................................................................ii
FORCE & FIELDS ...................................................................................................................................... 1
Gravitation .................................................................................................................................................. 1
Electric Force & Field ................................................................................................................................ 2
ELECTROMAGNETISM ........................................................................................................................... 3
Basic of Electricity ..................................................................................................................................... 3
Current, Resistance & Circuits ................................................................................................................... 3
Magnetism .................................................................................................................................................. 4
Electromagnetic Induction ......................................................................................................................... 5
Alternating Current .................................................................................................................................... 5
NUCLEAR PHYSICS .................................................................................................................................. 7
Atomic Structure ........................................................................................................................................ 7
Radioactivity .............................................................................................................................................. 8
Nuclear Reactions....................................................................................................................................... 9
Photoelectric Effect .................................................................................................................................. 10
Quantum Theory ...................................................................................................................................... 11
Digital Technology ...................................................................................................................................... 14
Analogue versus Digital ........................................................................................................................... 14
Storing Devices ........................................................................................................................................ 15
Charge-Coupled Device (CCD) ............................................................................................................... 16
Introduction
This is part of my detailed series of IB physics HL notes that I took during my physics course at high school. Part 2
consists of
big topics: Force & Fields, Electromagnetism, Nuclear Physics, and Digital Technology. The study
guide covers the whole IB syllabus, and thus contains lots of derivations & explanations for different laws and
concepts that students need to master at the end of their IB physics HL course. In order to make the study guide
short, concise and understandable, the language of mathematics (i.e. symbols) is used intensively throughout the
study guide; thus students who are stronger at mathematics will clearly be more advantaged when using this study
guide.
Notice that there are things within this study guide that are totally not part of the syllabus, but are still put here for
the ones who are interested. These supplementary materials are put within the information boxes such as the one
presented below:
The texts that are emphasized throughout the guide can be divided into 4 types:
-
Mathematical formulas that are marked bold are the ones that appear within the IB physics formula booklet
It is necessary to understand that images/figures that are used here in the study guide are as equally important as the
texts themselves; and the text that is placed next to a figure always contains some contents that refer to the picture.
There are many common symbols and abbreviations used repeatedly throughout the study guide, and for that
reason, they are listed in the next section down below for easy referencing; however, note that all symbols that are
not commonly used are defined within the guide itself, so pay attention to these definitions when using the guide!
Finally, this guide is not for commercial use; hence, the information presented here (in which most are taken from
the internet, or from the Physics for the IB Diploma 5th Edition textbook, written by K. A. Tsokos) will not be
formally referenced.
Please feel free to contact me through email (my email address is dinhsyhai@yahoo.com.vn) if you have any
questions regarding this study guide. Thank you very much!
LHS/RHS
Energy
Photons
Electron
Perpendicular
Time
Temperature
Mass
Proportional
Electric Charge
Velocity of An Object/Particle
Electron Neutrino
An Electron Charge
Frequency
Positron
Proton
Temp
Neutron
Electron Anti-Neutrino
Min/Max
,&
Gravitational Constant
,&
Gravitational Field
Magnetic Field
Power
Resistance
Flux
Iron
AC
Alternate Current
DC
Direct Current
Area of a Loop
Resistivity
(i.e. Electromotive Force)
Work Function
No. of Neutrons
Activity of Decay
Planck Constant
Alpha Particles
De Broglies Wavelength
Beta Particles
Half-Life of Decay
Momentum
Gamma Particles
Wave-Function
Mass-Defects
ii
QM
Quantum Mechanics
Force (vector quantity) & potential energy (scalar quantity) are related by
(gravitation) &
(electricity)
(gravitation) &
(electricity)
Gravitation
Law of Gravitation:
-
is concentrated at centres
for a uniform spherical object radii do matter but can be ignored if theyre too small compared to )
-
force (a force that points in the direction of decreasing ) gravitational field strength is
to distance
As
As
; as
, & that
, but since
, thus
is in still in the
is at infinity):
will escapes and travel with
at infinity
escape velocity
, thus
this can be
&
Equipotential surface consists of points that have same potential (similar to the concept of contour lines):
-
As
, thus
equipotential lines would be closer to each other when theyre nearer to a point mass, as
-
, the less
, thus
is bigger here
If field lines arent perpendicular to equipotential surface, then there would be a fields component parallel to the
surface; but since
where
Field strength is
is positive, thus when
is negative, the field lines would be directed inward, & vice versa
(where
Potential
is permittivity of vacuum)
is potential difference)
), because if its
, giving rise to a current, which is not electrostatic but starting from the
LHS is
By energy conservation,
(where
at point
near-the-edges effects appear at the end of the plates where field lines are curved (no longer uniform) these
effects are minimized when the length is long compared to the separation
ELECTROMAGNETISM
Basic of Electricity
-
Electric charges ( ) are quantized (i.e. all charges are multiples of an electron charge
across
(in ampere,
Resistance
is constant in a superconductor,
thus can flow without !!!; remember that Ohms law only works when
-
As
, leading to rise in
(where
is drift speed of
is constant because :
is no. of
is
(where
is wires length)
( is resistivity)
Circuit in General:
-
is electro-motive force which is total work done in moving a unit charge completely around the
circuit
Power
For
( is resistance inside the battery) is voltage provided by battery to other parts of the circuit
(by Ohms law)
it doesnt drop
connected in series
connected in parallel
, then for a circuit connecting in series,
is the same or both, but not (total current must be shared between them)
Both potential divider & electrical sensor rely on the ability of a circuit to vary resistance
Potential divider, described in diagram (a), can vary resistance by sliding the Connector on the resistor
, thus
into
is in series
the closer the Connector (i.e. point ) is to , the higher the voltage is across the Equipment!
(a)
-
(b)
An electrical sensor (which measures light, temp, or even strain) can vary resistance by using a resistor that is
dependent on the feature that were measuring (e.g. light-dependent resistor, or temp-dependent resistor, etc.)
o
Resistance of a light-dependent resistor (LDR) decreases with increasing light intensity; while resistance of a
temp-dependent resistor (i.e. a thermistor) decreases with increasing temp both have inverse relationship!
Magnetism
Magnetism is caused by moving charges (iron shows magnetic properties due to motions of
magnetic field strength is
(measured in Tesla,
in atoms); thus
is distance from )
is permeability of vacuum;
) is clockwise if looking from direction of current
is no. of loops,
inside the solenoid with direction given by st Right-Hand Rule (see diagram)
Magnetic Force (which deflects the paths taken by a moving current/charge):
-
Moving current:
Moving charge: as
done by ) let
, which can be
nd Right-Hand Rule: for positive charges, thumb in direction of or , fingers in direction of , then the palm
; for negative charges, it is the back of the palm instead particles follow circular motion
is direction of
&
are of wire ;
&
is repulsive if are in opposite direction & vice versa Ampere, in SI units, is defined this way!
Electromagnetic Induction
1. Induction by Changing Flux (applied to loops of conductors):
Magnetic flux
is the amount of
is area of loops;
is Weber,
(where
of , we use Lenzs law which states that induced current will be in such a direction that the induced currents own
will oppose
; as
as
&
, inducing a
Due to
are pushed towards either the rim or the centre (depending on direction of & rotations),
is radius)
Alternating Current
Instantaneous
-
As
current is
induced
is
instantaneous power is
Average
signs by squaring all instantaneous values, while still giving equivalent answer:
-
As
cycle
Max
( )
); but
averages to
in a
( )
As
, thus
,&
in the
formula
at typically
graphite brushes
induction, a current opposite direction of external DC is induced lowering total current back-
effects
Primary coil (subscript ) is fed with an alternating current (i.e. changes, thus created by the coil changes as
to change in both primary & secondary (subscript ) coils due to induction, a current is
well), causing
Laminated
&
but as
, thus
, thus
-core is to reduce energy lost to heat inside the core due to eddy currents (circular motions of
, & assuming
generator to high
stays constant,
to minimize
for consuming!
in an AC
NUCLEAR PHYSICS
Atomic Structure
Rutherfords Model of Atoms (which is set up by shooting
-
at gold atoms):
into the nucleus very quickly (i.e. atoms would be unstable), which is not true this model is WRONG!!!
Bohrs Model of Atoms:
-
spirals into the nucleus, then they must radiate continuous energy!!!)
This model was later developed to the modern quantum mechanical model (i.e. cloud model)
Scattering Experiments:
-
is stopped all
nucleus (
is charge of ; &
between
& the
, all nuclei have same nuclear density, which is true as strong nuclear
force can only act in short range on a few nucleons (i.e. both
&
is
) close-by
; or instead of acceleration,
Radioactivity
Penetrative power
Ionization (
Alpha
Beta
Gamma
Through air
Through metal
Through lead
ions per
particles)
Speed
of air
6% of
ions per
of air
ion per
of air
98% of
-decay: e.g.
-decay: e.g.
Both
&
Caused by weak nuclear force (i.e. weak interaction) which is basically a transfer of - &
spontaneous reaction
- bosons
binding energy inside the nucleus is used to make up for the difference in mass)
-
(i.e.
) during the decay carry continuous energy because total energy must be shared with as well
predict exactly when a particular nucleus will decay, but we can predict the probability that it will decay!
-
Half-Life formula:
Natural-Exponential formula
, thus
)
As
In experiment measuring the activity, background radiation must be taken into account!!!
& ) include:
Exposing them to electromagnetic field & observe the deflections (as they all have different charges)
Geiger-Mller (GM) tube: ions of gas molecules created by the radiations can create a current by measuring
-vs-
than
(because as no. of
increases,
electrostatic forces increase, but strong nuclear force doesnt grow proportionately since
its a short-range force, thus extra
Nuclear Reactions
Mass ( )
Mass (
mass of
atom
)
)
)
Alpha (
Fission: process of splitting a nuclide (i.e. a specific nucleus containing a particular no. of
nuclei of similar mass e.g.
&
) into other
Fusion: process of combining small nuclei into a bigger one, requiring high temp to overcome electrostatic
repulsion to maintain temp & conditions for the plasma (ionized) form, fusion must be done within magnetic
fields (far away from any materials) inside tokamaks e.g.
is deuterium)
Transmutation: conversion of a nuclide into another similar-mass nuclide can either be natural (e.g. -, decays) or artificial (e.g. transmutation of nitrogen
(where
Electron Capture:
into
Mass Defects, Binding Energy Curve, & Energy Transformation during Nuclear Reactions:
-
(where
is mass; &
can be found
by subtracting the mass of electrons in an atom from the mass of that atom found on the periodic table)
From
, binding energy is
nucleons from a nucleus (i.e. binding energy is the energy that is lost when a nucleus is formed from its
constituent parts)
is more stable than other nuclei of roughly the same mass (thus -decay is
per nucleon (
(of products)
(of products)
) of approx.
)
(of product) if
(of reactant)
(of product); if
, then energy
Photoelectric Effect
Photoelectric effect is when
gain
-
, thus
, the corresponding
10
is
(of
); but classical theory (namely Maxwells) offers no explanations of why this should be so
(of
(b)
theory (as classical theory claims that energy carried by light is continuous & should be absorbed gradually)
(c) Intensity (of light)
of
this is a violation
To solve problems with the experiment, Einstein decided to re-define what we know about the nature of light we
visualize one single quantum (i.e.
(where
Result (c): According this new definition, intensity of light is dependent on no. of
(
(of
(of
(of
)!!!
) explains why increasing intensity of light affects the current produced (because the more
there
of
of
is -intercept
(i.e. when
, then
, which
is -intercept
Quantum Theory
The World of Discrete Energy:
-
This must be true because repeated measurements always give the same mass-to-charge ratio of
Discreteness in energy of
is also necessary to explain the discrete nature of the atomic line spectrum (i.e.
&
are particles themselves, but only that they behave as if they are!!!
11
as particles doesnt mean that we can forget entirely about the wave nature of light; in fact, its
To think of
as a packet of waves, in which its frequency ( ) can determine how much energy
Wave theory is very successful in explaining why light is diffracted & interfered when passing through a slit
By Einsteins relativity,
By rearranging the equation, De Broglie hypothesized that every particle has a De-Broglie wavelength of
associated with it (where
this
Wave theory of everything continues to be confirmed by typical Young-typed double-slit experiments, in which
or
&
they are (due to the ability of these elementary particles to diffract & interfere with themselves)
Electron-in-a-Box Model:
-
be
-
as a wave; as it cant lose energy & it cant escape the box, its amplitude at the boxs edges must
Consider
From
,&
, then
of
in a box is
(where
but since
, therefore
must be discrete now imagine that each box represents an atomic energy level (where indicates which
level it is), then its obvious that energy of each atomic level is discrete!
This model shows that even when we think of
be explained! However, the model is very oversimplified, thus only gives us an intuitive & classical picture of
the discreteness nature of the atomic energy levels
Duality of Particles & Matters:
-
As mentioned, everything can behave both as waves & as particles, thus giving rise to duality of matters an
object has wave-like properties whenever diffraction occurs (i.e. when the object passes through a slit of
comparable size to its
&
&
&
as described in Quantum Field Theory, QFT), rather than just calling them as particles or waves!
12
At first, no one could explain what the wave-function stands for; then Max Born suggested that
is
, in which |
The theory shows that its the probability that is waving this means that
(the wave-function
has
(where is energy level; is the constant in Coulombs law; & are mass & charge of
; & is
the Plancks constant) each atomic energy level has the energy of
o
Not only giving energy for each level, the theory also predicts probability of electronic transitions between
particular energy levels, which is important to explain why some spectral lines are brighter than others
This model is a correct description the discrete atomic energy levels as the theory is supported by tonnes of
empirical evidence hence, Schrdinger theory has replaced our oversimplified electron-in-a-box model!
through the
because of the collapse of wave functions, which causes the superposition to disappear
(a)
(b)
13
by hitting it with a
However, observers effects havent been universally explained as therere many interpretations of QM
Heisenberg Uncertainty Principle claims
(for energy-time);
i.e. one cant measure accurately position & momentum of an object at the same time hence, one cant determine
of an object at a specific moment in time (because
-
depends on momentum)
This is consistent with everything that has been mentioned it shows that when an
small size (i.e.
Applying
of energy) in an atom,
of
must be
Digital Technology
numbers; st digit
of a binary number is called most significant bit (MSB), while the last digit is called least significant bit (LSB)
Analogue Signals are continuous signals, varying between
really what that matters) in a way that is proportional to the physical mechanism that created it
Digital Signal is a coded form of an analogue signal, & only takes discrete values of
or
(for representations of
binary codes) these signals are recorded by first sampling, & then coding:
-
Sampling Rate/Frequency ( ) is no. of times per second that the signal is sampled data lost always occurs
between each sampling times sampling gives rise to pulse amplitude modulated signals (PAM)
quantization
levels, & then assign each level with a specific -bit number use these numbers to code the original message!
o
Quantization Error (which shows how much data is lost due to coding) can be determined by
( is
basically the size of each quantization level) the higher , the more no. of levels, the less the size of
each level, thus the smaller the quantization error!!!
14
Storing Devices
Compact Disk (CD):
Distance between the spirals
Width of a pit
Length of a pit
Depth of a pit
-
Read-only CD is covered with optically transparent material (polycarbonate) to avoid the re-writing of data
Signals are stored on a CD by marking pits & lands (which are of different heights) on the CDs surface the
CD is designed such that the laser beams reflected at the edge between a pit & a land interfere with each other
destructively, in order to represent the binary number
o
Since laser beam reflected from the land has to travel an extra distance of
compared to the beam reflected from the pit destructive interference only occurs when
(i.e. when
-
Processes of marking pits & lands are quite different for different kinds of CD:
o
For CD-ROM, a master disk can be used to stamp pits & lands on a molten CD
For CD-R, a colour dye can act as pits & lands as it reflects different light intensities when exposed to lasers
For CD-RW, lasers can melt the disks alloy, & thus change the reflectivity of different parts on the CDs
surface to help varying light intensities in order to represent pits & lands
Digital Versatile Disk (DVD): Similar to a CD; however, the pit length is much shorter & the data can be stored on
both sides or in double layers DVD thus has higher storage capacity than CD
Long Play (LP): A needle, connected to a diaphragm, is allowed to make marks (analogue signals) on a rotating
tinfoil-covered cylinder LP has limited capacity, & can easily get damaged (due to scratches or dust) Viny LP
works basically the same way but signals can be amplified electrically during playback
Cassettes: Using electro-magnetism to store magnetic fields on tape coated with Fe2O3; it is a sequential device
which means that data is stored in sequence of the tape
Floppy Disks: Storing data magnetically in a concentric ring direct-access device
Hard disks: Made of several disks of aluminium or glass covered with magnetized material (cobalt) data is stored
magnetically in tracks (concentric rings) & sectors (parts of the tracks)
Advantages of Digital Storage: Huge capacity; reliable; direct-access device; data is easily copied, erased,
encrypted, processed, & transported both physically & electronically
15
conductors (or plates) that are separated by a vacuum or an insulator is called a capacitor
, where
dependent on the surface areas of the plates, their distance apart, & material between the plates
Steps for CCD to Take a Picture:
-
We can think of the CCD as a collection of small capacitors (the pixels) each pixel can release
depending
on intensity ( ) of the light incident on it, due to the electron-hole production of semiconductors (this process is
very similar to photoelectric effects) no. of
o
-
Now, information (incl. position & voltage) of each pixel is moved down row-to-row (hence the phrase
charged-coupled) in order to be recorded & then converted into digital forms
However, the process above can only be used to construct a black-&-white image; to produce coloured images:
o
An algorithm (called Bayer-filter algorithm) will look for information of the missing colours in the nearby
(incl.
red,
blue, &
pixels, interpolate it, to get the information for all the colours in each pixel
Description of CCD:
-
to
-
to
hence, this
decides the time the shutter needs to be opened in order for us to get a decent image
-
Magnification is the ratio of linear size of the physical image on the CCD to the size of the actual object
Resolution:
points must not fall the same pixel for them to be fully resolved thus, the closer the pixels are
to each other (i.e. the smaller the pixels are), the better the resolution!
Advantages of Using CCD:
-
Quantum efficiency is high (7080%) CCD can deal with very low brightness of stars, & take much shorter
time to take images (which is good for patients using X-rays)
CCD often has high pixel density, meaning that it often has very good resolution
In astronomical imaging (e.g. Hubbles telescope): CCD must be cooled down to take very accurate images, because
can actually be ejected from the CCD at high temp, leading to inaccurate captures of images
16