Module-I

Fuel is a combustible substance which during combustion gives large amount of

heat.
Classification of Fuels
Fossil fuels:
Those which have been derived from fossil remains of plants and animal life and are
found in crust of earth. For example coal, petroleum and natural gas etc.
By-product fuels:
Those which are co-product of regular manufacturing process and of secondary in
nature. For example coke oven gas from manufacturing of coke and blast furnace
gas from making of iron.
Chemical fuels:
Those which are of an toxic in nature and normally not used in conventional
processes. For examples hydrazine, ammonium nitrate etc.
Nuclear fuels:
Those which release heat by fission (uranium, plutonium etc.) or by fusion
(deuterium, tritium etc.)

These can be classified on the basis of their occurrence and physical state
On the basis of occurrence they are of two types:
Primary Fuels: Fuels which occur in nature as such are called primary fuels. E.g.,
wood, peat, coal, petroleum, and natural gas.
Secondary Fuels: The fuels which are derived from the primary fuels by further
chemical processing are called secondary fuels. E,g., coke, charcoal, kerosene, coal
gas, producer gas etc.
(ii) On the basis of physical state these may be classified as:
Solid Fuels

Liquid Fuels
Gaseous Fuels
Calorific value: It is defined as the total quantity of heat liberated when a unit mass
of a fuel is burnt completely.

Gross and net calorific Value

Gross Calorific Value: It is the total amount of heat generated when a unit
quantity of fuel is completely burnt in oxygen and the products of combustion are
cooled down to the room temperature.
As the products of combustion are cooled down to room temperature, the steam
gets condensed into water and latent heat is evolved. Thus in the determination of
gross calorific value, the latent heat also gets included in the measured heat.
Therefore, gross calorific value is also called the higher calorific value (HCV).
Net Calorific Value: It is defined as the net heat produced when a unit quantity of
fuel is completely burnt and the products of combustion are allowed to escape.

The water vapour do not condense and escape with hot combustion gases.
Hence, lesser amount than gross calorific value is available. It is also known as
lower calorific value (LCV).
LCV=HCV-Latent heat of water vapours formed

Characteristics of Good Fuel:

(i) Suitability: The fuel selected should be most suitable for the process.
E.g., coke made out of bituminous coal is most suitable for blast
furnace.
(ii) High Calorific value
(iii) Ignition Temperature: A good fuel should have moderate ignition
temperature.
(iv) Moisture content: Should be low

(v) Non combustible matter content

(vi) Velocity of combustion: It should be moderate
(vii) Nature of the products
(viii) Cost of fuel, (ix) Smoke, (x) Control of the process

Coal,

Oil and Gas are called "fossil fuels because they have been
formed from the fossilized remains of prehistoric plants and animals.
They

provide around 66% of the world's electrical power, and 95% of

the world's total energy demands.

Coal provides around 28% of our energy, and oil provides 40%.

Crude

oil (called "petroleum") is easier to get out of the ground than

coal, as it can flow along pipes. This also makes it cheaper to transport.
Natural

gas provides around 20% of the world's consumption of energy

Very large amounts of electricity can be generated in

one place using coal, fairly cheaply.

Transporting oil and gas to the power stations is easy.

Gas-fired

A fossil-fuelled power station can be built almost

anywhere

power

stations

are

very

efficient.

Basically, the main drawback of fossil fuels is pollution.

Burning any fossil fuel produces carbon dioxide, which

contributes to the "greenhouse effect", warming the Earth.

Burning coal produces sulphur dioxide, a gas that

contributes to acid rain.

Mining coal can be difficult and dangerous. Strip mining

destroys large areas of the landscape.

Fossil fuels are NOT a

renewable energy resource

Once we've burned them all, there isn't any

more, and our consumption of fossil fuels has
nearly doubled every 20 years since 1900.

Nuclear power is generated using Uranium, which is a metal mined

in various parts of the world.

Nuclear power produces around 11% of the world's energy needs,

and produces huge amounts of energy from small amounts of fuel,
without the pollution that you'd get from burning fossil fuels.
How Nuclear Power Works

Nuclear fission makes heat>heated water makes team>steam turns

turbines>turbines turn generators>electrical power is sent around the
country

The reactor uses Uranium rods as fuel, and the heat is

generated by nuclear fission. Neutrons smash into the nucleus
of the uranium atoms, which split roughly in half and release
energy in the form of heat.

Nuclear power costs about the same as coal, so it's not expensive to
make.

Does not produce smoke or carbon dioxide, so it does not contribute to

the greenhouse effect.

Produces huge amounts of energy from small amounts of fuel.

Produces small amounts of waste.

Nuclear power is reliable.

Although not much waste is produced, it is very, very dangerous.

It must be sealed up and buried for many years to allow the
radioactivity to die away.

Is it Renewable?
Nuclear energy from Uranium is NOT renewable.

Solar Cells really called photovoltaic" or "photoelectric" cells)

convert light directly into electricity.
In a sunny climate, you can get enough power to run a 100W light
bulb from just one square meter of solar panel.

Solar energy is free - it needs no fuel and produces no

waste or pollution.

In sunny countries, solar power can be used where there is

no easy way to get electricity to a remote place.

Handy for low-power uses such as solar powered garden

lights
and
battery
chargers

Solar power is renewable.

Doesn't work at night.

Very expensive to build solar power stations.

Solar cells cost a great deal compared to the amount of
electricity they'll produce in their lifetime.

Can be unreliable unless you're in a very sunny climate.

We've used the wind as an energy source for a long time.

The Babylonians and Chinese were using wind power to pump
water for irrigating crops 4,000 years ago, and sailing boats were
around long before that.
Wind power was used in the Middle Ages, in Europe, to grind corn,
which is where the term "windmill" comes from.

The Sun heats our atmosphere unevenly, so

some patches become warmer than others.
These warm patches of air rise, other air blows
in to replace them - and we feel a wind blowing.
We can use the energy in the wind by building
a tall tower, with a large propeller on the

Wind is free, wind farms need no fuel.

Produces no waste or greenhouse gases.

The land beneath can usually still be used for farming.

Wind farms can be tourist attractions.

A good method of supplying energy to remote areas.

Wind

power is renewable.

The wind is not always predictable some days have no wind.

Suitable areas for wind farms are often near the coast, where land is expensive.

Some people feel that covering the landscape with these towers is unsightly.

Can kill birds - migrating flocks tend to like strong winds. Splat!

Can affect television reception if you live nearby.

Noisy. A wind generator makes a constant, low, "swooshing" noise day and night.

A dam is built to trap water, usually in a valley

where there is an existing lake.
Water is allowed to flow through tunnels in the
dam, to turn turbines and thus drive generators.
Hydro-electricity provides 20% of the worlds
power

Once the dam is built, the energy is virtually free

.
No waste or pollution produced.

Much more reliable than wind, solar or wave power.

Water can be stored above the dam ready to cope with peaks in demand.

Hydro-electric power stations can increase to full power very quickly, unlike
other power stations.

Electricity can be generated constantly.

The dams are very expensive to build.

Building a large dam will flood a very large area upstream, causing
problems for animals that used to live there.

Finding a suitable site can be difficult - the impact on residents and

the environment may be unacceptable.

Water quality and quantity downstream can be affected, which can

have an impact on plant life.

Hydro-electric power is renewable.

Plant and animal waste is used to produce fuels such as methanol, natural
gas, and oil. We can use rubbish, animal manure, woodchips, seaweed, corn
stalks and other wastes.

Sugar cane is harvested and taken to a mill, where it is crushed to extract the
juice. The juice is used to make sugar, whilst the left-over pulp, called
"bagasse" can be burned in a power station.

Other solid wastes, can be burned to provide heat, or used to make steam for
a power station.

Burn fuel>heat water to make steam>steam turns turbine>turbine turns

generator>electrical power sent around the country

It makes sense to use waste materials

where we can.
The fuel tends to be cheap.
Less demand on the Earth's resources.

Biomass is renewable

Collecting the waste in sufficient quantities can be difficult.

We burn the fuel, so it makes greenhouse gases.

Some waste materials are not available all year round.

 Hot rocks underground heat water to produce steam.

We drill holes down to the hot region, steam comes up, is purified and
used to drive turbines, which drive electric generators.
There may be natural "groundwater" in the hot rocks anyway, or we may
need to drill more holes and pump water down to them.

Geothermal energy does not produce any

pollution, and does not contribute to the
greenhouse effect.

The power stations do not take up much room,

so there is not much impact on the environment.

No fuel is needed.

Once you've built a geothermal power station, the energy is almost free.
It may need a little energy to run a pump, but this can be taken from the
energy being generated.

Geothermal

energy is renewable.

The big problem is that there are not many places where you can build a
geothermal power station.

You need hot rocks of a suitable type, at a depth where we can drill down to
them.
The type of rock above is also important, it must be of a type that we can
easily drill through.

Sometimes a geothermal site may "run out of steam", perhaps for decades.

Hazardous gases and minerals may come up from underground, and can be
difficult to safely dispose of.

Tidal power works rather like a hydro-electric scheme, except that the dam
is much bigger.

A huge dam (called a "barrage") is built across a river estuary. When the
tide goes in and out, the water flows through tunnels in the dam.

The ebb and flow of the tides can be used to turn a turbine, or it can be
used to push air through a pipe, which then turns a turbine. Large lock
gates, like the ones used on canals, allow ships to pass.

Only around 20 sites in the world have been identified as possible tidal
power stations.

Once you've built it, tidal power is free.

It produces no greenhouse gases or other waste.

It needs no fuel.

It produces electricity reliably.

Not expensive to maintain.

Tides are totally predictable.

Tidal energy is renewable.

A barrage across an estuary is very expensive to build, and affects a

very wide area - the environment is changed for many miles upstream
and downstream.

Many birds rely on the tide uncovering the mud flats so that they can
feed. there are few suitable sites for tidal barrages.

Only provides power for around 10 hours each day, when the tide is
actually moving in or out.

 Primary

as well as secondary are widely used in

domestic and industrial purposes.
e.g., wood, coal, charcoal and coke.

Wood: Wood has been used as a fuel from ancient

times. Due to large scale deforestation, wood is no
longer used except in forest areas where wood is
available at a low cost.

Coal: coal is regarded as a fossil fuel produced

from the vegetable debris under conditions of high
temperature and pressure over million of years.

 The transformation of the vegetable debris to coal takes place in

two stages:

(a) Biochemical or peat stage: During this stage, the plant

materials were attacked by various micro organisms.
(b) Chemical stage or metamorphism: In this stage, the peat
deposit buried under sedimentary deposits lose moisture and
volatile components under the effect of high temperature and
pressure. The peat gets enriched in carbon whereas its oxygen
content decreases.

There are two main ways for classifying coal - by rank and by type.
Coal Rank
Coal Types
Coal Rank : The degree of 'metamorphisrn' or coalification undergone by a
coal, as it matures from peat to anthracite

This has an important bearing on its physical and chemical properties

Coal is classified into three major types namely anthracite, bituminous,

and lignite.

However there is no clear demarcation between them and coal is also

further classified as semi-anthracite, semi-bituminous, and sub-bituminous.

Anthracite is the oldest coal from geological perspective.

It is a hard coal composed mainly of carbon with little
volatile content and practically no moisture.

Lignite is the youngest coal from geological perspective.

It is a soft coal composed mainly of volatile matter and
moisture content with low fixed carbon.

Fixed carbon refers to carbon in its free state, not

combined with other elements. Volatile matter refers to
those combustible constituents of coal that vaporize when
coal is heated.

Type of coal Percentage (dry, mineral matter free

basis)
C

20-40 0-0.5

%
calorific
moistu value
re
(kcal/kg)

VM

Wood

45-50 5-6

70-90

Peat

45-60 3.5-6.5 20-45 0.75-3 45-75 70-90

Brown Coal 60-75 4.5-5.5 17-35 0.75-2 45-60 30-50

Bituminous 75-90 4.0-5.5 20-30 0.75-2 11-50 10-20
coal
Anthracite

90-95 3-4

2-3

0.5-2

40004500
41255280
66007100
66008800

84703.8-10 1.5-3.5 8800

Coal is analysed in two ways:

1.

Proximate analysis

2.

Ultimate analysis

The results of analysis are generally reported in the following

ways:

As received basis

Air dried basis

Moisture free basis (oven dried)

Moisture and ash free basis

Proximate Analysis
The data varies with the procedure adopted and hence it is
called proximate analysis.
It gives information about the practical utility of coal.
Proximate analysis of coal determines the moisture, ash,
volatile matter and fixed carbon of coal.

1. Moisture Content: Air dried moisture is determined by

heating a known amount of coal to 105-110oC in an electric
hot air oven for about one hour. After one hour, it is taken
out from the oven and cooled in a dessicator and weighed.
Percentage of moisture = Loss in weight 100
Weight of coal taken

Excess of moisture is undesirable in coal.

Moisture lowers the heating value of coal and takes

away appreciable amount of the liberated heat in the
form of latent heat of vapourisation.
Excessive surface moisture may cause difficulty in
handling the coal.

Presence of excessive moisture quenches fire in the

furnace.
2. Volatile Matter: consists of a complex mixture of
gaseous and liquid products resulting from the thermal
decomposition of the coal.

It is determined by heating a known weight of

moisture free coal sample in a covered platinum
crucible at 950 20oC for 7 minutes.
Percentage of volatile matter =
Loss of weight due to volatile matter 100
Weight of coal sample taken
Significance

A high percent of volatile matter indicates that a large

proportion of fuel is burnt as a gas.
The high volatile content gives long flames, high
smoke and relatively low heating values.

For efficient use of fuel, the outgoing combustible gases has to

be burnt by supplying secondary air.
High volatile matter content is desirable in coal gas manufacture
because volatile matter in a coal denotes the proportion of the
coal which will be converted into gas and tar products by heat.
3. Ash: Coal contains inorganic mineral substances which are
converted into ash by chemical reactions during the combustion of
coal.
Ash usually consists of silica, alumina, iron oxide and small
quantities of lime, magnesia etc.

Ash content is determined by heating the residue left after the

removal of volatile matter at 700 50oC for an hour without
covering

Weight of the residue left 100

Percentage of ash =
Weight of the coal

Ash can be classified as intrinsic ash and extrinsic ash.

The mineral matter originally present in vegetable matter from
which the coal was formed is called intrinsic ash. It consists of
oxides of Na, K, Mg, Ca and Si.
The mineral matter like clay, gypsum, dirt which gets mixed up
during mining and handling of coal constitute the extrinsic ash
which remains as a residue after the combustion. E.g., CaSO4,
CaCO3, Fe2O3 etc.

The high percentage of ash is undesirable. It reduces the

calorific value of coal.
In furnace grate, the ash may restrict the passage of air and
lower the rate of combustion.
High ash leads to large heat losses and leads to formation of
ash lumps.
The composition of ash and fusion range also influences the
efficiency of coal.

When coal is used in boiler, the fusion temperature of ash is

very significant. Ash having fusion temperature below 1200oC is
called fusible ash and above 1430oC is called refractory ash.

Apart from loss of efficiency of coal, clinker formation also

leads to loss of fuel because some coal particles also get
embedded in the clinkers.
4. Fixed Carbon: Fixed carbon content increases from lignite
to anthracite. Higher the percentage of fixed carbon greater is
its calorific value and better is the quality of coal.
The percentage of fixed carbon is given by:
Percentage of fixed carbon = 100-[% of moisture+volatile
matter+ash]

Significance: Higher the percentage of fixed carbon, greater

its calorific value

The percentage of fixed carbon helps in designing

the furnace and shape of the fire-box because it is the
fixed carbon that burns in the solid state.
Ultimate analysis:
It is carried out to ascertain the composition of coal.

Ultimate analysis includes the estimation of carbon,

hydrogen, sulphur, nitrogen and oxygen.
1. Carbon and Hydrogen: A known amount of coal is
taken in a combustion tube and is burnt in excess of
pure oxygen.
C O CO
2
2
H 1O H O
2 2 2
2

Fig 3. Estimation of carbon and hydrogen

2KOH CO K CO H O
2
2 3
2
CaCl 7H O CaCl .7H O
2
2
2
2
44 g of CO2 contain = 12 g of carbon
y g of CO2 contain = 12 y
44

y 100
Percentage of carbon 12
44 weight of coal taken
18 g of water contain = 2 g of hydrogen
Z g of water contain 2 z g of hydrogen
18
z 100
Percentage of hydrogen 2
18 weight of coal taken
Significance:

Calorific value of a fuel is directly related to its

carbon content.
A higher percentage of carbon reduces the size of
the combustion chamber

High percentage of hydrogen also increases the

calorific value of coal. The content of hydrogen in
coals varies between 4.5 to 6.5 percent from peat to
bituminous stage.
2. Nitrogen: Nitrogen present in coal sample can be
estimated by Kjeldahls method.
Nitrogen H SO Heat
( NH ) SO
2 4
42 4
The contents are then transferred to a round
bottomed flask and solution is heated with excess of
NaOH.
The ammonia gas thus liberated is absorbed in a
known volume of a standard solution of acid used.

Fig 4. Estimation of nitrogen by Kjeldahls method

The unused acid is then determined by titrating with

NaOH. From the volume of acid used by NH3
liberated, the percentage of nitrogen can be
calculated.

( NH ) SO 2NaOH
Na SO 2 NH 2H O
42 4
2 4
3
2
NH H SO ( NH ) SO
3
2 4
42 4

Uncertainty in the availability and transportation of fuel necessitates

storage and subsequent handling.

Stocking of coal has its own disadvantages like build-up of inventory,

space constraints, deterioration in quality and potential fire hazards.

Other minor losses associated with the storage of coal include

oxidation, wind and carpet loss.

A 1% oxidation of coal has the same effect as 1% ash in coal, wind

losses may account for nearly 0.5 1.0% of the total loss.

The main goal of good coal storage is to minimize carpet loss and
the loss due to spontaneous combustion.

Formation of a soft carpet, comprising of coal, dust, and soil causes

carpet loss.
On the other hand, gradual temperature builds up in a coal heap, on
account of oxidation may lead to spontaneous combustion of coal in
storage.
The measures that would help in reducing the carpet losses are as
follows:
1. Preparing a hard ground for coal to be stacked upon.
2. Preparing standard storage bays out of concrete and brick.
In process Industry, modes of coal handling range from manual to
conveyor systems.
It would be advisable to minimize the handling of coal so that further
generation of fines and segregation effects are reduced.

Preparation of coal prior to feeding into the boiler is an important step for
achieving good combustion. Large and irregular lumps of coal may cause
the following problems:
1. Poor combustion conditions and inadequate furnace temperature.
2.

Higher excess air resulting in higher stack loss.

3.

Increase of unburnts in the ash.

4.

Low thermal efficiency

(a) Sizing of Coal

Proper coal sizing is one of the key measures to ensure efficient
combustion.

Proper coal sizing, with specific relevance to the type of firing

system, helps towards even burning, reduced ash losses and better
combustion efficiency.

Coal is reduced in size by crushing and pulverizing. Pre-crushed coal

can be economical for smaller units, especially those which are
stoker fired.

In a coal handling system, crushing is limited to a top size of 6 or 4

mm. The devices most commonly used for crushing are the rotary
breaker, the roll crusher and the hammer mill.

It is necessary to screen the coal before crushing, so that

only oversized coal is fed to the crusher.

This helps to reduce power consumption in the crusher.

Recommended practices in coal crushing are:

1. Incorporation of a screen to separate fines and small
particles to avoid extra fine generation in crushing.
2. Incorporation of a magnetic separator to separate
iron pieces in coal, which may damage the crusher.

(b) Conditioning of Coal

The fines in coal present problems in combustion on account of

segregation effects.

Segregation of fines from larger coal pieces can be reduced to a

great extent by conditioning coal with water.

Water helps fine particles to stick to the bigger lumps due to

surface tension of the moisture, thus stopping fines from falling
through grate bars or being carried away by the furnace draft.
While tempering the coal, care should be taken to ensure that
moisture addition is uniform and preferably done in a moving or
falling stream of coal.
If the percentage of fines in the coal is very high, wetting of coal can
decrease the percentage of unburnt carbon and the excess air level
required to be supplied for combustion.

(c) Blending of Coal

In case of coal lots having excessive fines, it is
advisable to blend the predominantly lumped
coal with lots containing excessive fines.

Coal blending may thus help to limit the

extent of fines in coal being fired to not more
than 25%.
Blending of different qualities of coal may also
help to supply a uniform coal feed to the
boiler.

Gaseous fuels in common use are liquefied petroleum

gases (LPG), Natural gas, producer gas, blast furnace gas,
coke oven gas etc.

The calorific value of gaseous fuel is expressed in

Kilocalories per normal cubic meter (kCal/Nm3) i.e. at
normal temperature (20C) and pressure (760 mm Hg).

Calorific Value

Since most gas combustion appliances cannot utilize the

heat content of the water vapour, gross calorific value is of
little interest.
Fuel should be compared based on the net calorific value.
This is especially true for natural gas, since increased
hydrogen content results in high water formation during
combustion.

LPG is a predominant mixture of propane and Butane with a small

percentage of unsaturates(Propylene and Butylene) and some lighter C2
as well as heavier C5 fractions.

Included in the LPG range are propane (C3H8), Propylene(C3H6),

normal and iso-butane (C4H10) and Butylene(C4H8).

LPG may be defined as those hydrocarbons, which are gaseous at

normal atmospheric pressure, but may be condensed to the liquid state
at normal temperature, by the application of moderate pressures.

Although they are normally used as gases, they are stored and
transported as liquids under pressure for convenience and ease of
handling.

Liquid LPG evaporates to produce about 250 times volume of gas.

LPG vapour is denser than air: butane is about twice as heavy as air
and propane about one and a half times as heavy as air.

Consequently, the vapour may flow along the ground and into drains
sinking to the lowest level of the surroundings and be ignited at a
considerable distance from the source of leakage.

In still air vapour will disperse slowly. Escape of even small quantities of
the liquefied gas can give rise to large volumes of vapour / air mixture
and thus cause considerable hazard.

To aid in the detection of atmospheric leaks, all LPGs are required to be

odorized.

There should be adequate ground level ventilation where LPG is stored.

For this very reason LPG cylinders should not be stored in cellars or
basements, which have no ventilation at ground level.

Methane is the main constituent of Natural gas and

accounting for about 95% of the total volume.

Other components are: Ethane, Propane, Butane, Pentane,

Nitrogen, Carbon Dioxide, and traces of other gases.

Very small amounts of sulphur compounds are also present.

Since methane is the largest component of natural gas,

generally properties of methane are used when comparing
the properties of natural gas to other fuels.
Natural gas is a high calorific value fuel requiring no storage
facilities.
It mixes with air readily and does not produce smoke or
soot. It has no sulphur content.
It is lighter than air and disperses into air easily in case of
leak

Liquid fuels like furnace oil and LSHS are predominantly used
in industrial application.

The various properties of liquid fuels are given below.

1. Density

This is defined as the ratio of the mass of the fuel to the

volume of the fuel at a reference temperature of 15C.

Density is measured by an instrument called hydrometer.

The knowledge of density is useful for quantity calculations
and assessing ignition quality. The unit of density is kg/m3.
.

2. Specific gravity

This is defined as the ratio of the weight of a given

volume of oil to the weight of the same volume of
water at a given temperature.
The density of fuel, relative to water, is called specific
gravity. The specific gravity of water is defined as 1.
Since specific gravity is a ratio, it has no units.
The measurement of specific gravity is generally made
by a hydrometer

3. Viscosity

Viscosity is the most important characteristic in the

storage and use of fuel oil.

It influences the degree of pre-heat required for handling,

storage and satisfactory atomization.

If the oil is too viscous, it may become difficult to pump,

hard to light the burner, and tough to operate.

Poor atomization may result in the formation of carbon

deposits on the burner tips or on the walls.

Therefore pre-heating is necessary for proper atomization.

4. Flash Point
The flash point of a fuel is the lowest temperature at which the fuel can be heated so
that the vapour gives off flashes momentarily when an open flame is passed over it.
Flash point for furnace oil is 66C.
5. Pour Point
The pour point of a fuel is the lowest temperature at which it will pour or flow when
cooled under prescribed conditions. It is a very rough indication of the lowest
temperature at which fuel oil is readily pumpable.
6. Specific Heat
The specific heat determines how much steam or electrical energy it takes to heat oil to
a desired temperature. Light oils have a low specific heat, whereas heavier oils have a
higher specific heat
.

7. Calorific Value
The calorific value is the measurement of heat or energy
produced, and is measured either as gross calorific value
or net calorific value.

Gross calorific value (GCV) assumes all vapour produced

during the combustion process is fully condensed.

Net calorific value (NCV) assumes the water leaves with the
combustion products without fully being condensed. Fuels
should be compared based on the net calorific value.
The calorific value of coal varies considerably depending
on the ash, moisture content and the type of coal while
calorific value of fuel oils are much more consistent.

Ash Content
The ash value is related to the inorganic material in the fuel
oil. The ash levels of distillate fuels are negligible. Residual
fuels have more of the ash-forming constituents.

These salts may be compounds of sodium, vanadium,

calcium, magnesium, silicon, iron, aluminum, nickel, etc.
Typically, the ash value is in the range 0.030.07%. Excessive
ash in liquid fuels can cause fouling deposits in the
combustion equipment.
Ash has erosive effect on the burner tips, causes damage to
the refractories at high temperatures and gives rise to high
temperature corrosion and fouling of equipments.

Carbon Residue
Carbon residue indicates the tendency of oil to deposit a
carbonaceous solid residue on a hot surface, such as a burner or
injection nozzle, when its vaporizable constituents evaporate.

Residual oil contain carbon residue ranging from 1 percent or more.

Water Content
Water content of furnace oil when supplied is normally very low as
the product at refinery site is handled hot and maximum limit of 1%
is specified in the standard.

Water may be present in free or emulsified form and can cause

damage to the inside furnace surfaces during combustion especially
if it contains dissolved salts.
It can also cause spluttering of the flame at the burner tip, possibly
extinguishing the flame and reducing the flame temperature or
lengthening the flame.

It can be potentially hazardous to store furnace oil in

barrels.

A better practice is to store it in cylindrical tanks, either

above or below the ground. Furnace oil, that is delivered,
may contain dust, water and other contaminants.
The sizing of storage tank facility is very important. A
recommended storage estimate is to provide for at least
10 days of normal consumption.

Industrial heating fuel storage tanks are generally vertical

mild steel tanks mounted above ground.

It is prudent for safety and environmental reasons to build

bund walls around tanks to contain accidental spillages.

As a certain amount of settlement of solids and

sludge will occur in tanks over time, cleaning should
be carried out at regular intervals-annually for
heavy fuels and every two years for light fuels.
A little care should be taken when oil is decanted
from the tanker to storage tank. All leaks from
joints, flanges and pipelines must be attended at
the earliest.
Fuel oil should be free from possible contaminants
such as dirt, sludge and water before it is fed to the
combustion system.

Furnace oil arrives at the factory site either in tank lorries

by road or by rail. Oil is then decanted into the main
storage tank.
To prevent contaminants such as rags, cotton waste, loose
nuts or bolts or screws entering the system and damaging
the pump, coarse strainer of 10 mesh size (not more than
3 holes per linear inch) is positioned on the entry pipe to
the storage tanks.
Progressively finer strainers should be provided at various
points in the oil supply system to filter away finer
contaminants such as external dust and dirt, sludge or
free carbon.
It is advisable to provide these filters in duplicate to
enable one filter to be cleaned while oil supply is
maintained through the other.

Heavy fuel oils are best pumped using positive

displacement pumps, as they are able to get fuel moving
when it is cold.

A circulation gear pump running on LDO should give

between 7000-10000 hours of service.

Diaphragm pumps have a shorter service life, but are

easier and less expensive to repair.

A centrifugal pump is not recommended, because as the

oil viscosity increases, the efficiency of the pump drops
sharply and the horsepower required increases.
Light fuels are best pumped with centrifugal or turbine
pumps. When higher pressures are required, piston or
diaphragm pumps should be used.

The viscosity of furnace oil and LSHS increases with decrease in temperature, which
makes it difficult to pump the oil. At low ambient temperatures (below 25C), furnace oil
is not easily pumpable.

To circumvent this, preheating of oil is accomplished in two ways: (a) the entire tank may
be preheated. In this form of bulk heating, steam coils are placed at the bottom of the
tank, which is fully insulated; (b) the oil can be heated as it flows out with an outflow
heater.

To reduce steam requirements, it is advisable to insulate tanks where bulk heating is

used.

Bulk heating may be necessary if flow rates are high enough to make outflow heaters of
adequate capacity impractical, or when a fuel such as Low Sulphur Heavy Stock (LSHS)
is used.

In the case of outflow heating, only the oil, which leaves the tank, is heated to the
pumping temperature. The outflow heater is essentially a heat exchanger with steam or
electricity as the heating medium.

Thermostatic temperature control of the oil is necessary

to prevent overheating, especially when oil flow is
reduced or stopped.
This is particularly important for electric heaters, since
oil may get carbonized when there is no flow and the
heater is on.

Thermostats should be provided at a region where the

oil flows freely into the suction pipe.

The temperature at which oil can readily be pumped

depends on the grade of oil being handled.

Oil should never be stored at a temperature above that

necessary for pumping as this leads to higher energy
consumption.

Combustion refers to the rapid oxidation of fuel accompanied

by the production of heat, or heat and light. Complete combustion
of a fuel is possible only in the presence of an adequate supply of
oxygen.
The combustion process is a chemical reaction whereby fuel is
oxidized and energy is released

Fuels are usually composed of some compound or mixture

containing carbon, C, and hydrogen, H2.

Fuels are usually composed of some compound or mixture containing

carbon, C, and hydrogen, H2.
Examples of hydrocarbon fuels are
CH4 Methane
C8H18 Octane
Coal Mixture of C, H2, S, O2, N2 and non-combustibles
Initially, we shall consider only those reactions that go to completion. The
components prior to the reaction are called reactants and the components
after the reaction are called products.
87

The components prior to the reaction are called reactants and the
components after the reaction are called products.
For complete or stoichiometric combustion, all carbon is burned to carbon
dioxide (CO2) and all hydrogen is converted into water (H2O). These two
complete combustion reactions are as follows:
Carbon may also combine with Oxygen to form Carbon Monoxide, which
results in the release of a smaller quantity of heat (2430 kCals/kg of carbon)

Most of the 79% of air (that is not oxygen) is nitrogen, with traces of
other elements. Nitrogen is considered to be a temperature reducing
dilutant that must be present to obtain the oxygen required for combustion.

This nitrogen also can combine with oxygen (particularly at high

flame temperatures) to produce oxides of nitrogen (NOx), which are
toxic pollutants.
Theoretically complete or perfect combustion can be obtained
when stoichiometric amount of air is used. Stoichiometric amount
(also termed theoretical air or air for complete combustion)

The objective of good combustion is to release all of the heat in the fuel.
This is accomplished by controlling the three Ts of combustion which are
(1) Temperature high enough to ignite and maintain ignition of the fuel,
(2) Turbulence or intimate mixing of the fuel and oxygen, and
(3) Time sufficient for complete combustion

The combustion process is a chemical reaction whereby fuel is oxidized and

energy is released.

Fuels are usually composed of some compound or mixture containing carbon,

C, and hydrogen, H2.
Examples of hydrocarbon fuels are
CH4Methane
C8H18 Octane
Coal Mixture of C, H2, S, O2, N2 and non-combustibles

The components prior to the reaction are called reactants and the
components after the reaction are called products.

In the simplest combustion process, known as Stoichiometric

Combustion, all the carbon in the fuel forms carbon dioxide (CO2)
and all the hydrogen forms water (H2O) in the products.
Fossil fuels are mainly compounds of carbon and hydrogen
(hydrocarbons - CmHn). The reaction of its oxidation can by written by
the equation of stoichiometry:

Stoichiometric combustion assumes that no excess oxygen exists in

the products, thus d = 0.

Enthalpy of Formation
When a compound is formed from its elements (e.g., methane, CH4, from C
and H2), heat transfer occurs. When heat is given off, the reaction is called
exothermic. When heat is required, the reaction is called endothermic.
Consider the following.

The reaction equation is

C 2 H2 CH4
The conservation of energy for a steady-flow combustion process is

Ein Eout
Qnet HReactants HProducts
Qnet HProducts HReactants

Qnet

N h

e e

Products

Nh

i i

Reactants

Qnet 1hCH4 (1hC 2hH2 )

A common reference state for the enthalpies of all reacting components is
established as
The enthalpy of the elements or their stable compounds is defined
to be ZERO at 25oC (298 K) and 1 atm (or 0.1 MPa).

Qnet 1hCH4 (1(0) 2(0))

hCH4
This heat transfer is called the enthalpy of formation for methane, h fo . The
superscript (o) implies the 1 atm pressure value and the subscript (f) implies
25oC
During the formation of methane from the elements at 298 K, 0.1 MPa, heat
is given off (an exothermic reaction) such that

Qnet h fo CH 74,850
4

kJ
kmolCH4

More Exothermic

More Endothermic

Consider two reactions:

H2+O2 H2O
Heat of formation (gas): -241.83 kJ/mol
Reaction is exothermic
O2 O
Heat of formation (gas): 249.17 kJ/mol
Reaction is endothermic

H2O H2+O2
Reaction 1 going backwards
Reaction is endothermic

The enthalpies are calculated relative to a common base or reference called

the enthalpy of formation. The enthalpy of formation is the heat transfer
required to form the compound from its elements at 25oC (77 F) or 298 K
(537 R), 1 atm. The enthalpy at any other temperature is given as

h h fo (hT h o )
Here the term h o is the enthalpy of any component at 298 K. The enthalpies
at the temperatures T and 298 K can be found in Tables. If tables are not
available, the enthalpy difference due to the temperature difference can be
calculated from

Based on the classical sign convention, the net heat transfer to the
reacting system is

Qnet H P H R

o
o
N
[
h

(
h

h
e f T )]e

Products

o
o
N
[
h

(
h

h
i f T )]i
Reactants

Example
Butane gas C4H10 is burned in theoretical air as shown below. Find the net
heat transfer per kmol of fuel.

Balanced combustion equation:

C4 H10 6.5 (O2 3.76 N 2 )

4 CO2 5 H2 O 24.44 N 2
The steady-flow heat transfer is

Qnet H P H R

N [h
e

Products

o
f

(hT h o )]e

N [h
i

Reactants

o
f

(hT h o )]i

Reactants: TR = 298 K
Comp

h fo

Ni
kmol/kmol
fuel

kJ/kmol

kJ/kmol

N i [h fo (hT h o )]i
kJ/kmol fuel

ho

hT

kJ/kmol

C4H10

-126,150

--

--

-126,150

O2

6.5

8,682

8,682

N2

24.44

8,669

8,669

N [h

HR

o
f

(hT h o )]i

Reactants

126,150

Products: TP = 1000 K
Comp

h fo

Ne
kmol/kmol
fuel

kJ/kmol

kJ
kmol C4 H10

hT

kJ/kmol

N e [h fo (hT h o )]e
kJ/kmol
kJ/kmol fuel

ho

CO2

-393,520

42,769

9,364

-1,440,460

H2O

-241,820

35,882

9,904

-1,079,210

N2

24.44

30,129

8,669

+524,482

HP

N [h
e

o
f

(hT h o )]e

Products

1,995,188

kJ
kmol C4 H10

Qnet H P H R
1,869,038

kJ
kmol C4 H10

Adiabatic Flame Temperature

The temperature the products have when a combustion process takes place
adiabatically is called the adiabatic flame temperature.
.

For an adiabatic combustion process, with no change in KE or PE,

temperature of products is called Adiabatic Flame Temperature
Maximum temperature that can be achieved for given concentrations
of reactants
Incomplete combustion or heat transfer from reactants act to lower
temperature
Adiabatic flame temperature is generally a good estimate of actual
temperature achieved in a flame, since chemical time scales are often
shorter than those associated with transfer of heat and work
Most common is constant-pressure adiabatic flame temperature

H reac Ti , P H prod Tad , P

hreac Ti , P h prod Tad , P

Conceptually simple, but in practice difficult to evaluate because

requires detailed knowledge of product composition, which is function
of temperature

Example
Liquid octane C8H18(liq) is burned with 400 percent theoretical air.
Find the adiabatic flame temperature when the reactants enter at
298 K, 0.1 MPa, and the products leave at 0.1MPa

The combustion equation is

C8 H18 4(12.5) (O2 3.76 N 2 )

8 CO2 37.5 O2 9 H2 O 188 N 2

The steady-flow heat transfer is

Qnet H P H R

N [h
e

Products

o
f

(hT h o )]e

N [h
i

o
f

(hT h o )]i

Reactants

0 ( Adiabatic Combustion)
Thus, HP = HR for adiabatic combustion. We need to solve this equation for TP.

Since the temperature of the reactants is 298 hK,

( ho
T

Nh

HR

)i = 0,

o
f i

Reactants

1( 249,950) 4(12.5)(0) 4(12.5)(3.76)(0)

kJ
249,950
kmol C4 H10
Since the products are at the adiabatic flame temperature, TP > 298 K

HP

N e [h fo (hTP h o )]e

Products

8(393,520 hTP 9364)CO2

9(241,820 hTP 9904) H 2O
37.5(0 hTP 8682)O2
188(0 hTP 8669) N2
(7, 443,845 8hTP , CO2 9hTP , H 2O
37.5hTP , O2 188hTP , N2 )

kJ
kmol C4 H10

Thus, setting HP = HR yields

N h

e TP , e

8hTP , CO2 9hTP , H2O 37.5hTP , O2 188hTP , N 2

Pr oducts

7,193,895
To estimate TP, assume all products behave like N2 and estimate the
adiabatic flame temperature from the nitrogen data, Table A-18.

242.5hTP , N 2 7,193,895
hTP , N 2 29,6655
.

kJ
kmol N 2

Tp 985 K
Because CO2 and H2O are triatomic gases and have specific heats greater
than diatomic gases, the actual temperature will be somewhat less than 985
K. Try TP = 960 K and 970K.
Ne

h960 K

h970 K

CO2

40,607

41,145

H2O

34,274

34,653

O2

37.5

29,991

30,345

N2

188

28,826

29,151

7,177,572

7,259,362

N h

e TP , e

Produts

Enthalpy of Reaction and Enthalpy of Combustion

When the products and reactants are at the same temperature, the enthalpy
of reaction hR, is the difference in their enthalpies. When the combustion is
assumed to be complete with theoretical air supplied the enthalpy of reaction
is called the enthalpy of combustion hC. The enthalpy of combustion can be
calculated at any value of the temperature, but it is usually determined at
25oC or 298 K.
hC H P HR when TP TR 25o C 298 K

N h
e

Products

o
f e

N h
i

o
f i

Reactants

Heating Value
The heating value, HV, of a fuel is the absolute value of the enthalpy of
combustion or just the negative of the enthalpy of combustion.

HV hC
The lower heating value, LHV, is the heating value when water appears as a
gas in the products.

LHV hC hC with H2 Ogas in products

The lower heating value is often used as the amount of energy per kmol of
fuel supplied to the gas turbine engine.
The higher heating value, HHV, is the heating value when water appears as a
liquid in the products.

HHV hC hC with H2 Oliquid in products

The higher heating value is often used as the amount of energy per kmol of
fuel supplied to the steam power cycle.
See Table A-27 for the heating values of fuels at 25oC. Note that the heating
values are listed with units of kJ/kg of fuel. We multiply the listed heating
value by the molar mass of the fuel to determine the heating value in units of
kJ/kmol of fuel.
The higher and lower heating values are related by the amount of water
formed during the combustion process and the enthalpy of vaporization of
water at the temperature.

HHV LHV N H2O h fg H2O

Example 15-11
The enthalpy of combustion of gaseous octane C8H18 at 25oC with liquid
water in the products is -5,500,842 kJ/kmol. Find the lower heating value of
liquid octane.
LHVC8 H18 gas HHVC8 H18 gas N H 2O h fg H 2O

5,500,842

kJ
kmol H 2O
kJ
9
(44, 010)
kmol C8 H18
kmol C8 H18
kmol H 2O

5,104, 752

kJ
kmol C8 H18

LHVC8 H18 liq LHVC8 H18 gas h fg C8 H18

(5,104752 41,382)

kJ
kmol C8 H18

kJ
5, 063,370
kmol C8 H18 liq
Can you explain why LHVliq< LHVgas?

Closed System Analysis

Example 15-12
A mixture of 1 kmol C8H18 gas and 200 percent excess air at 25oC, 1 atm, is
burned completely in a closed system (a bomb) and is cooled to 1200 K.
Find the heat transfer from the system and the system final pressure.

Apply the first law closed system:

Assume that the reactants and products are ideal gases; then

PV NRu T

The balanced combustion equation for 200 percent excess (300 percent
theoretical) air is
C8 H18 (3)(12.5) (O2 3.76 N 2 )

8 CO2 25 O2 9 H2 O 141 N 2

Qnet 8( 393,520 53,848 9364 8.314(1200)) CO2

9( 241,820 44,380 9904 8.314(1200)) H2 O
25(0 38,447 8682 8.314(1200)) O2
141(0 36,777 8669 8.314(1200)) N 2
1( 208,450 h298 K h o 8.314(298)) C8 H18
37.5(0 8682 8682 8.314(298)) O2
141(0 8669 8669 8.314(298)) N 2
112
. 106

kJ
kmol C8 H18

To find the final pressure, we assume that the reactants and the products are
ideal-gas mixtures.

PV
1 1 N1 Ru T1
PV
2 2 N 2 Ru T2

where state 1 is the state of the mixture of the reactants before the
combustion process and state 2 is the state of the mixture of the products
after the combustion process takes place. Note that the total moles of
reactants are not equal to the total moles of products.

but V2 = V1.

PV
N 2 Ru T2
2 2

PV
N1 Ru T1
1 1