Al-Neelain University-Faculty of Petroleum and Minerals

Technical and Economic Assessment of

Pozzolanic Materials of the Bayuda
Volcanic Field - Sudan

By:
Salih Hussien Sulieman Marrgi
B.Sc.in Geology

Thesis Submitted to the Graduate Collage in Fulfillment of the

Requirements for the Degree of Master of Science in Geology
(Economic Geology)

Supervised by: Prof. Dr. Badr el Din Khalil Ahmed

September 2014

TECHNICAL AND ECONOMIC ASSESSMENT OF POZZOLANIC

MATERIALS OF THE BAYUDA VOLCANIC FIELD SUDAN
By:
Salih Hussien Sulieman Marrgi
B.Sc.in Geology-University of Mosul
A thesis Submitted to the Graduate Collage in Fulfillment of the
Requirements for the Degree of Master of Science in Geology (Economic
Geology)
Examination Committee:
External Examiner:
Dr. Abdel Bagi Gailani
Former Minister Ministry of Minerals
Internal Examiner:
Dr. Mohammed Yahya Abdel Galil
Faculty of Petroleum and Minerals, Al-Neelain University, Khartoum- Sudan
Supervisors:
Main Supervisor:
Prof. Dr. Badr el Din Khalil Ahmed
Faculty of Petroleum and Minerals, Al-Neelain University, Khartoum- Sudan
Co-Supervisor:
Dr.Nadir M. Hassanein
Department of Civil Engineering, Khartoum University, Khartoum- Sudan
September 2014

Dedication
To my parents

Acknowledgement

I would like to express my sincere appreciation to supervisor Prof. Dr. Badr el Din Khalil
Ahmed for his suggestions, guidance, recommendations and support throughout the
study. I also would like to express my sincere gratefulness to the co-supervisor Dr.Nadir
M. Hassanein for his continuous support.

I would like to express gratitude to the staff of Analytical Concrete Laboratory of Civil
Engineering Department at the University of Khartoum for their help in the physical tests
of the samples.
I would like to give sincere thanks to my dear colleagues of the Geological Research
Authority of Sudan (GRAS) Ministry of Minerals for their valuable support in this study.

Finally, I would like to give my special thanks to my family for their understanding,
encouragement and endless support.

II

Abstract:
Pozzolanas are natural or artificial materials contain active silica and alumina,
which on their own have little or no binding property. However when mixed with lime
and water, they will set and harden like cement. Volcanic pozzolans are formed by
volcanic lava resulting from pyroclastic events.
The final product is hyper cooled by the action of the lava being thrown into the air
where it cools rapidly below a certain threshold temperature. This product is primarily
glass but with crystalline phases. The chemical composition range of these products is
quite large but is characterized by a high SiO2 content.
The ancient Greeks between 600 and 700 BC used pozzolan for construction purposes
and their techniques were later passed on to the Romans (Church, 2010).
A large quantity of untapped volcanic pozzolans (pumice, tuff and volcanic ash) in the
Bayuda volcanic field is the area of this study. For while, chemical, physical, and
mechanical tests were conducted to assess the suitability of using naturally occurring
pozzolan as a cement mortar additive.
In the absence of suitable binding substitutes, the demand for cement in Sudan will
remain increasing. Despite high prices of cement in Sudan, the ordinary Portland
cement (OPC) has been used in all construction applications in its pure form without
being mixed with any cheap additives such as pozzolanas. According to the results
recorded in this study volcanic pozzolana can be used as cement replacement up to
30% for use in structural concrete applications which could be compete OPC in quality
and up to 50% for use in non-structural purposes such as mortars, plasters, renders,
walling blocks and roofing tiles.
III

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IV

Table of Contents
Dedication ......................................................................................................................I
Acknowledgements ......................................................................................................II
Abstract in English Language .... III
Abstract in Arabic Language IV
Table of Contents .........................................................................................................V
List of Figures............................................................................................................... IX
List of Plates................................................................................................... IX
List of Tables................................................................................................................. X
1- Chapter One: Introduction.................................................................................... 1
1.1 Location and Accessibility......................................................................................... 1
1.2 Physiographic Features ......................................................................... 3
1.2.1 Topography.. .3
1.2.2 Drainage ............................................................................................................... 3
1.2.3 Climate .................................................................................................................. 4
1.2.4 Vegetation.............................................................................................................. 5
1.3 Socioeconomic Feature............................................................................................ 5
1.4 Previous Works ..... 6
1.5 Objectives of the Geological Studies...................................................................7
2- Chapter Two: Pozzolana Definition, History, Distribution, Types and
Advantages 9
2-1 Definition of Pozzolana............................................................................................. 9
2-2 History of Pozzolana9
V

2-3 Distribution of Natural Pozzolana.11

2-3-1 Global Distribution of Pozzolana11
2- 3-2 local Distribution of Natural Pozzolanas..14
2-3-2-1 Pozzolanas in Jebel Marra....14
2-3-2 -2 Pozzolanas in Meidob Volcanic Field.15
2-3-2-3 Pozzolana in Bayuda Volcanic Field16
2-3-2-4 Other Occurrences of Pozzolana in Sudan17
2.4. Types of Pozzolana................................................................................................ 17
2.4.1Pumice... 18
2.4.2 Tuff. 20
2.4.3 Volcanic Ash. 20
2.4.4 Calcined Clays..... 22
2.4.5. Pulverized Fuel Ash (PFA)... 22
2.4.6 Ash from Agricultural Wastes... 23
2.4.7 Other Types of Pozzolan 24
2-5- Advantages of Pozzolanas........ 24
2.5.1 Increasing Compressive Strength.....29
2.5.2 Increasing Resistance to Chloride Attack....29
2.5.3 Increasing Resistance to Sulfate Attack..30
2.5.4. Reduced Alkali- Aggregate Reaction. 30

VI

3- Chapter Three: Regional Geology.31

3-1 General Geology of Bayuda Area.. 31
3.1.1 Basement Complex..33
3.1.1.1 Abu Harik Series.... 33
3.1.1.2 Bayuda Formation.. 33
3.1.2 Igneous Ring Complexes and Dyke Swarms..33
3.1.3 Paleozoic and Mesozoic Sedimentary Formations.35
3.1.3.1 Amaki Series..35
3.1.3.2 Nubian Sandstone Formation.35
3.1.4 Cretaceous to Tertiary Sedimentary..36
3.1.4.1 Red Earth...36
3.1.4.2 Calcareous Lacustrine Sediments.36
3.1.5 Cainozoic Volcanic Rocks..37
3.1.6 Quaternary to Recent Deposits..37
3.2 Geology of Study Area........................................................................................ 38
4- Chapter Four: Methods of Study.............................................. 50
4.1 Field Methods.. 50
4.1.1 Satellite Imagery ........ 50
4.1.2 Sample Collection....... 51
4.2 Laboratorial Methods........................................................................................ 52
4.2.1 Chemical Analysis .......................................................................... 52
4.2.2 X-Ray Diffraction .... 55
4.2.3 Microscopy ............... 57

VII

4.2 .4 Physical Tests..59

4.2.4.1 Fineness....59
4.2.4.2 Consistence of Standard Paste..59
4.2.4.3 Initial and Final Setting Time...60
4.2.4.4 Compressive strength testing............................................................................ 60
4.3- Experimental / demonstration buildings.65
5- Chapter Five: Discussion of the Results........ 71
5.1 Results of Chemical Analysis ..71
5.2 Results of Physical Tests .75
6- Chapter Six: Conclusions and Recommendations....81
6.1 Conclusion...81
6.2 Recommendations..82
References................................................................................................................... 83

VIII

List of Figures:

Figure 1 Location Map. .................................................................................................. 2

Figure 2 World Wide Deposits of Natural Pozzolanas....13
Figure 3 Sketch Map showing the rock units of the Bayuda...32
Figure 4 Geological Map of the study area..................39
Figure 5 Samples location of the study area..51
Figure 6 XRF patterns of volcanic pozzolana in Bayuda Desert....56
Figure 7 Chemistry of natural pozzolans of volcanic origin.74
Figure 8 Compressive Strength of OPC & P1...77
Figure 9 Compressive Strength of OPC & P4...78
Figure 10.Compressive Strength of OPC & P7.78
Figure 11 compressive strength of OPC& P9....79
Figure12 OPC Replacement with Sample P30.79
Figure13 OPC Replacement with Sample P50.80
List of Plates:
Plate 1 Jebel Marra volcanic field. .............................................................................. 14
Plate 2 Meidob Volcanic Field. ................................................................................... 16
Plate 3 Bayuda Volcanic Field. ................................................................................... 17
Plate 4 Pumice and welded tuff..19

Plate 5 Basaltic lava and Dacite magma erupts............................................................ 21

Plate 6 Explosive volcanism accumulated as pyroclastic rocks ............ 41

IX

Plate7 Explosive volcanism accumulated as pyroclastic rocks ............................... 42

Plate 8 Light Yellowish to brown color sandy tuffs..... 43
Plate 9 Yellowish to brown color sandy tuffs . ...........................44
Plate 10 Bir El-Muweilih explosion crater with Soda Lake ....45
Plate 11 Pyroclastic compact deposit of Tephra ........46
Plate 12 Jebel Hebeish compacted tuff ....47
Plate 13 Pozzolanic Cement Applied in Foundation....66
Plate 14 A steel framework of expanded metal sheets for walls and roofing...67
Plate 15 the twins shell framework filling with millet husks in between.....68
Plate 16 Pozzolanic Cement Applied in Plastering and Rendering of Room..69
Plate 17 Pozzolanic Cement Applied in Roofing.70

List of Tables:
Table 1. Maximum Replacement Level of Pozzolanas in Various Countries................ 26
Table 2. Estimated Production of Pozzolanic Materials in the World. .......................... 27
Table 3. Chemical Analysis of the Pozzolanic materials ............................................ 53
Table 4. Typical chemical mineralogical analysis of some natural pozzolana.... 58
Table 5. Mixing design of the Pozzolana and Portland cement.62
Table 6. Compressive strength of Pozzolana mixed with Portland cement................. 63
Table 7. Physical and chemical requirements by Standard Specifications..73
Table 8. Comparison between requirements of Standard Specifications.76

Chapter One: Introduction

1-1 location and Accessibility:

The area of study is located in the main volcanic field in the Northern Part of
Bayuda Desert, extending in North-West Direction from 18 15 N, 3230 E to 18
30 N, 33 00 E. The main volcanic field extends over a length of 50 km and width
of 20 km occupies an area of almost 1000 km.

The area is accessible from Khartoum by Shrian Al Shimal paved road to

Merowe and then 63Km towards the east by unpaved road or from Atbara to
Merowe by paved road across Bayuda Desert and 46km towards the north by
unpaved road. Figure No.1 shows the location of the study area .The area is
accessible by trucks during all season of the year.

Figure (1): Location Map

Figure (1) Location Map of the Study Area

2

1-2 Physiographic Features:

1-2-1 Topography:

The area is characterized by high relief such as J. Angalfaib, J.Mahkama,

J.Bararungo, J.Mazrub, J. khulal and other unnamed ridges. In this area the
Nubian Sandstone forms a wasteland of detritus and boulders in which are
morphologically

established

peneplain,

underlain,

by

gneisses

and

metamorphic schists, gently undulating and sloping away to the SW.

The series of grantoid gneisses, erosion cones and Nubian Sandstone, as well
as the mountains of igneous ring complexes and the main volcanic field are
noticeable in the area. The Igneous ring complexes rise in the form of steep
walled massifs (150- 250m above their bases). In Isolated cases the relief was
steepened by young tectonic uplifts.

1-2-2 Drainage:
Dendritic network of dried up Wadis which have an almost consequent pattern
to the Nile and therefore testifies to a pluvial phase of morphological formation
(H.Barth and K.D. Meinhold (1979).

The drainage system in the area is presented by Wadis such as Abu Siba, Wadi
Beida and Wadi Abu Dom. A network of Wadis drains towards the Nile, with high
relief.

1-2-3Climate:

The area of study belongs to the Arid Zone. The mean annual rainfall is
approximately 50mm in Atbara and Merowe and in Abu Hamed it is 25mm. The
rainy season is between July and early September.

The rainfall is normally locally limited and distributed only during few days. Only
exceptionally do extensive, heavy rainfalls occur.

The mean relative humidity in Atbara varies between 19% in June and 38% in
August and annual mean 29%.The highest maximum temperature recorded has
been 48.C in June for Atbara. The mean minimum nighttime temperature in
Atbara varies between 8.c in January and 33c in June with an annual mean
value of 22c.
Wind blows throughout the year, increasing to violent northerly storms in winter
(January). In summer (May- July) real sandstorms occur, carrying sand and dust
into the upper atmosphere. They darken the sun, cause sudden changes in
temperature and bring rains.

1-2- 4 Vegetation:
The sparse vegetation in the area is confined to the valleys. In the ground waterrich valleys, particularly Wadi kirbekan, Wadi Abu Siba, Wadi Abu Dom .Other
swift valleys at the edge of mountains, are of isolated trees. In these valleys Sidr
(Ziziphus Spina), Seyal (Acacia Spirocarpa), Sareh (Macrna Crassifolia), Merekh
4

(Leptadenia Spartium) Hegligh (Balanites Aegyptica), Tundub (Capparis

Decidua), and Araka (Salvavadore Perica) and Hargel (tea plant) are the most
common species of wild plants.

1-3 Socioeconomic Features:

The Bayuda Desert is the homeland of Al Hassaniya, semi - nomadic mountain
tribe who, in a cycle lasting from 2 to 5 days shuttle themselves with their camel,
donkeys , sheep and goats between the water holes at the edge of mountains
and the pasture areas in the wide Wadis . Generally do not travel to the Nile, but
inhabit the desert all the year round and cultivate Durha at preferred places.

Smaller scattered tribal groups e.g.Idrisab, Suwarab, Hauwawir, Manasir

Hawashab, etc. are inhabit the area, have comparable life-style and at the foot of
the hills down the slope and the pasture areas in the wide Wadis breed camels,
sheep and goats. They engage in very limited trade with the settlement-centers
around towns like Atbara and Merowe; they collect Hargel and charcoal to
purchase dominant needs.

Caravan Travelers pass through the area without sheep and goats, but with
sizeable camel herds, visiting a well only every 2-3 weeks, especially when the
acacia (talh, seyal, sareh, merekh, kitr) are blooming. The population density in
the Bayuda Desert is very scarce (less than one person per one sq.kilometer).

1- 4 Previous Geological Studies:

Previous geological studies in the Bayuda Desert started early with Russegger in
1837. More recently, papers were published by Almond and others on the main
volcanic field. Most of the previous work done in the Bayuda Desert was based
on geology of the area rather than prospecting work on Industrial minerals and
large resources of volcanic pozzolana.

Almond et al. (1969) have estimated the total volume of pyroclastic rocks (mainly
pozzolanic materials) in the main volcanic field at 9km 3 , but was not mentioned
them as valuable building materials.

In the geological prospecting work for the Sudanese - German exploration project
in 1976-1978 and as a basis for exploration of mineral resources, in the entire
Bayuda Desert. The result of this prospecting work revealed as mentioned above
potential amount of pozzolanic materials such as tuffs, volcanic ash, pumice and
tephra and scoria.

Recently, the geological Research Authority of Sudan (GRAS) has given great
concern for large resources of pozzolanic deposits in the Bayuda Desert. Almost
the occurrence of natural pozzolanic deposits were studied in general and
revealed encourage results (Sulieman, Salih Hussien (2008)).
Some samples were brought from different locations of pozzolana at Bayuda
volcanic field and tested the chemical contents and that mixed with partial
replaced in the ratio of 0%, 10%, 20%, and 30% by weight of OPC to form
6

concrete to detect the fresh and hardened properties of the mix. The results
recorded were showed that all the samples are reactive material with amorphous
silica and alumina that fulfilled the requirement of the pozzolanic properties
(Elhadi et al2014).

According to El Mamoun (2004) the quality of natural pozzolanic material at the

Bayuda volcanic field is good and confirm with the standard properties of natural
Pozzolana.

In 2010 the author used blended cement containing 50% OPC and 50% of
pozzolana from the study area in plastering, mortar and white concrete in his own
house. The application of blended cement is basically sound and still in a good
condition.

1-5 Objectives of the Study:

The main objectives of this study are:

To pursue field studies with view of evaluating the known deposits and
carrying out laboratory work to determine the quality of the pozzolana.

To promote ways of maximizing returns from the use of the reserves of

pozzolanic raw materials, which are easy to utilize as option to offer
tremendous potential in reducing the shortage and cost of housing locally.

To introduce the most appropriate products such as autoclaved aerated

concrete and green materials, that can have a major impact on
employment and income generation, whilst ensuring optimal utilization of
local resource with minimal detriment to the environment.

To assess the suitability of pozzolanic materials for utilization to produce a

wide range of high - quality precast products that cater for residential
buildings, industrial structurals and road works.

To achieve tangible results and visible impact for low income communities
that can lead to more sustainable and equitable urban development.

To stimulate local initiative and profitable investment.

Chapter Two: Pozzolana Definition, History, Distribution, Types and

Advantages:

2-1 Definition of Pozzolana:

Pozzolana is defined as natural or artificial materials with alumino- siliceous
composition, which in itself possesses little or no cementitous value but will, in
fine powder form and in the presence of moisture, chemically react with calcium
hydroxide at ordinary temperatures to form compounds possessing cementitous
properties (Paul J.Tikalsky et al, 2001).
2-2 History of Pozzolana:
Human beings have used natural pozzolans from 6000-7000 years ago. The
oldest reported example of a hydraulic binder, dating from 5000-4000 B.C., was
a mixture of lime and natural pozzolan; a diatomaceous earth from the Persian
Gulf (T. Parhizkar et al. (2010).

The next oldest report of its use was in the Mediterranean region where the
pozzolan was volcanic ash produced from two volcanic eruptions between 1600
and 1500 B.C. The first one is Santorini Volcano, Greece, which erupted during
1600 BC- 500 BC. Mt. Vesuvius, Italy, is the second volcano which erupted in AD
79 (T. Parhizkar et al. 2010).

Volcanic ash was first used as a pozzolana by Romans from deposits close to
village of Pozzuoli; near Naples-hence the name pozzolana or pozzolan was
9

derived. Scientists have proven that the ancient Greeks began to use natural
pozzolan-lime mixtures to build water-storage tanks sometime between 700 BC
and 600 BC. This technique was then passed on to the Romans about 150 BC
(Paul J.Tikalsky et al, 2001).

According to Roman engineer Vitruvius Pollio who lived in the first century BC:
"The cements made by the Greeks and the Romans were of superior durability,
because neither waves could break, nor water dissolve the concrete." The
Roman farther developed lime pozzolana cement (LPC) technology. Many great
ancient structures, such as the Colosseum, the Pantheon, the Bath of Caracalla,
as well as other structures that are still standing in Italy, Greece, France, Spain
and the islands in the Mediterranean Sea, were built with natural pozzolan-lime
mixtures. Many of them have lasted more than two thousand years (John W.

Wilson and Y.C. Ding. (2007).

The development of hydraulic cements based on lime-pozzolana mixtures led to
radical changes in building during the Roman era. The increased strength of
lime-pozzolana mixtures, their hydraulic properties and good resistance to
seawater, permitted the construction of not only arches and vaults but also
marine structures. Lime-pozzolana mortars were also used as waterproofing
renders in the lining of baths, tanks and aqueducts (Robert L. 1990).

The durability of the material is attested to by the many remains of Roman

structures still in evidence today. The Roman port at Cosa was built of Pozzolana
10

that was poured underwater, apparently using a long tube to carefully lay it up
without allowing sea water to mix with it. The three piers are still visible today,
with the underwater portions in generally excellent condition even after more than
2100 years (Mehta, P.K. (1987)

Despite their long history of use in construction and after the invention of
Portland cement, pozzolanic materials still continue to be the current topic for
research and subject for international conferences. This can be attributed to their
complex interactions with cement and lime, to the large variety of types and
properties, to the several technical and economical advantages involved in their
use in construction (A. Yeginobali (1971).

2-3 Distribution of Natural Pozzolana:

2-3-1 Global Distribution of Pozzolana:

Volcanic pozzolanas widely distributed in the world. Fig.3 shows the major
deposits of volcanic pozzolanas on 6 continents; these deposits occupy more
than 122 locations of pozzolana from 32 different countries. These countries are:
Canada, Canary Islands, Chile, Colombia, Cuba, Dominican Republic, Ecuador,
Egypt, England, Fiji, Finland, France, Germany, Ghana, Greece, Guatemala,
Hungary, Iceland, India, Italy, Japan, Madagascar, Morocco, New Zealand,
Rumania, Sicily, Sudan, Tanzania, Trinidad, Turkey, USA, USSR, and
Yugoslavia (Robert L. 1990).

11

Useful pozzolanic materials are not all of volcanic origin. Many other pozzolanic
materials like diatomaceous earth can be found around the world and also
numerous deposits of gaize is a "soft, porous, siliceous sedimentary rock" found
in Ardennes and Meuse valleys in France. This is usually burnt at 900C and
blended with OPC. This material has been used in many marine structures in
French ports [Lea 1970].

There may be more countries which contain pozzolanic materials for which
detailed scientific evaluations have not yet occurred; these countries may not
have started the exploitation for various reasons or may not have brought the
existence of such materials to the attention of the technical community (Robert L.
1990).

Due to the limited supply of high quality of natural pozzolan. In the last 30 years,
the USA and European countries were compelled to lower their quality criteria so
that waste materials such as fly ash could be used as a substitute for natural
pozzolan (John W. Wilson and Y.C. Ding. (2007).

12

Volcanic Deposits in Asia

Volcanic Deposits in Australasia

Volcanic Deposits in Africa

Volcanic Deposits in Europe

Volcanic Deposits in South America

Volcanic Deposits in North America

Figure (2): World Wide Deposits of Natural Pozzolanas (Modified After

Robert 1990)
13

2- 3-2 local Distribution of Natural Pozzolanas:

2-3-2-1 Pozzolanas in Jebel Marra

The vast Jebel Marra volcanic field, located in the Darfur province of western
Sudan, is the youthful Deriba caldera. The 5-km-wide, steep-walled caldera,
located at the southern end of the volcanic field, was formed about 3500 years
ago at the time of the eruption of voluminous airfall pumice and pyroclastic flows
that traveled more than 30 km from the volcano. Ash eruptions at Deriba caldera
may have continued into early historical time and fumarolic activity has been
observed on the flanks of a small pyroclastic cone within the caldera (Vail, J.R.,
1972a and 1972b).

Plate (1): Jebel Marra Volcanic Field

NASA Space Shuttle image STS32-94-24, 1990 (http://eol.jsc.nasa.gov/).
Volcano Type: Volcanic field, Volcano Status: Radiocarbon
Summit Elevation: 3042 m/9,980 feet
Latitude: 12.95N 1257'0"N, Longitude: 24.27E 2416'0"E
14

2-3-2 -2 Pozzolanas in Meidob Volcanic Field

The alkaline Meidob volcanic field located in western Sudan and covers an area
of 5000 sq km with nearly 700 Pliocene-to-Holocene vents. The volcanic field
was constructed over an uplifted Precambrian igneous and metamorphic
basement and is elongated in an E-W direction (Bisschop & Partners B.V. 2001).

The Meidob Hills have been built up entirely from volcanic material. Field work
and photo interpretation led to the identification of 695 volcanoes, which include
scoria cones 66%, mesa flows 9%, maars and tuff rings 7%, composite cones
and strongly eroded volcanic relicts 19% ( Gerhrd Franz et al , 1997).

Basaltic scoria cones and associated lava flows dominate, but trachytic-phonolitic
lava domes, tuff rings, and maars (maar is a volcanic crater that forms when
magma contacts ground water to produce a steam explosion) are among the
youngest volcanic products. Basaltic scoria cones are scattered throughout the
field; their lavas have produced a broad lava plateau. The central part of the field
consists of younger phonolitic lava flows, trachytic pumice-fall deposits,
ignimbrites, and maars. The youngest dated eruptions about 5000 years ago
produced a tuff ring and a lava flow (Bisschop & Partners B.V. 2001).

15

Plate (2): Meidob Volcanic Field

http://www.volcanodiscovery.com/meidob.html
Volcano Type: Scoria cones, Volcano Status: Holocene
Summit Elevation: 2000? M /6,562 feet
Latitude: 15.32N *1519'0"N, Longitude: 26.47E 2628'0"E

2-3-2-3 Pozzolana in Bayuda Volcanic Field

The Bayuda volcanic field is located near the center of the Bayuda desert of NE
Sudan. The numerous small cinder cones that trend horizontally across the
center of the volcanic field were erupted along a WNW-trending line. Lava flows,
one of which was erupted about 1100 years ago, are visible in plate (3), but
about 10% of the vents are explosion craters. Bayuda was constructed over
Precambrian and Paleozoic granitic rocks, which form the darker areas at the
lower right (Vorgelegt Von, 2013).

16

Plate (3): Bayuda Volcanic Field

Volcano Type: Cinder cones, Volcano Status: Radiocarbon,

Latitude: 18.33N * 1820'0"N Longitude: 32.75E 3245'0"E
Summit Elevation: 670? M 2,198 feet

2-3-2-4 Other Occurrences of Pozzolana in Sudan:

Other limited occurrences of natural pozzolana were reported namely obsidian

(pitchstone) at Sabaloka, natural burnt clay at southern of the Bayuda Desert,
quaternary lake deposits at Abu Hadied and diatomaceous earth deposits at
Gregrieb, El Mamoun (2004).

2-4 Types of Pozzolana:

A wide variety of siliceous or aluminous-siliceous materials may be pozzolanic.
Pozzolanas can be divided into two groups: natural pozzolanas such as volcanic
ash pumice, tuffs, scoria, obsidian and diatomite, and artificial pozzolanas such
17

as calcined clays and industrial and agricultural wastes. The following brief
description of these types of pozzolana:
2-4 -1Pumice:

Pumice is a frothy, gas-filled volcanic rock in which the walls of the gas bubbles
and gas tubes are composed primarily of volcanic glass. Pumice is typically a
light-toned rock (white, gray, tan) whose very low density (due to the gas
bubbles) allows it to float in water; at least until the bubble structure fills with
water.

Typical pumice is siliceous (rhyolite or dacite) in composition figure (6) illustrated

pumice and rhyolite tuff, but the lightest and most vesicular pumice is of basaltic
composition. Volcanic glass forms naturally when magma is cooled so rapidly
that the atoms do not have time to connect with one another in regular lattice
structures. As a result of its irregular structure, glass is unstable and eventually
breaks down (devitrifies) to form a variety of minerals that are stable at Earth's
surface temperature and pressure (Cronin, V.S., 2001).

18

Plate (4) Pumice and welded tuff

19

2-4 -2Tuff

Tuff is a volcanic or volcaniclastic rock formed of material that accumulated on or

around the volcano after an eruption. Tuff has a pyroclastic texture. Ash-fall tuff is
a fine-grained rock composed of volcanic ash. Other examples of tuff may have
the look of a coarse breccia (or concrete with angular aggregate), with broken
angular pieces of whatever was blasted out of the volcano or carried along in a
pyroclastic flow. Sometimes, older tuff layers can be metamorphosed by the heat
and weight of subsequent tuff deposition into a dense silica-rich rock called a
welded tuff (Cronin, V.S., 2001).

2-4 -3 Volcanic Ash

Volcanic ash consists of powder-size to sand-size particles of igneous rock

material that have been blown into the air by an erupting volcano see plate (5).
Volcanic ash consists of fragments of pulverized rock, minerals and volcanic
glass, created during volcanic eruptions, less than 2 mm (0.079 in) in
diameter. The term volcanic ash is also often loosely used to refer to all explosive
eruption products (correctly referred to as tephra), including particles larger than
2mm (R. Siddique 2008)
Ash is also produced when magma comes into contact with water during
magmatic eruptions, causing the water to explosively flash to steam leading to
shattering of magma. Once in the air, ash is transported by wind up to thousands
of kilometers away (Spence, R.J.S.; Cook, D.J. 1983).
20

The types of minerals present in volcanic ash are dependent on the chemistry of
the magma from which it was erupted. Considering that the most abundant
elements found in magma are silica (SiO2) and oxygen, the various types of
magma (and therefore ash) produced during volcanic eruptions are most
commonly explained in terms of their silica content (John N. Faick, 1963).
Figure (7) shows basaltic and dacite magma eruption. Low energy eruptions of
basalt produce a characteristically dark colored ash containing ~45 - 55% silica
that is generally rich in iron and magnesium . The most explosive rhyolite
eruptions produce a felsic ash that is high in silica (>69%) while other types of
ash with an intermediate composition (e.g. andesite or dacite) have a silica
content between 55-69% (Snellings, R.; Mertens G.; Elsen J. (2012).

Plate (5): Basaltic Lava and Dacite Magma Erupts

Basaltic lava erupts from a vent on Kilauea

Volcano, Hawai`i, (September 2003) to form
row of fountains and lava flows. Basalt magma
typically generates very little ash compared to
other types (andesite, dacite, and rhyolite).

Dacite magma erupts from the crater of Mount

St.Helens (May 1980) to form a Plinian eruption
column. Dacite and rhyolite magmas with low
concentrations of dissolved gases can erupt as
lava flows, producing little or no ash.

http://volcanoes.usgs.gov/ash/properties.html

21

2-4 -4 Calcined Clays

Calcined or burnt clays were the earliest pozzolanas used, in the form of crushed
reject clay bricks, tiles, or pottery which were mixed with lime to produce cement
for mortars. This process is still used in many countries today and is known as
surkhi in India, homra in Egypt and semen merah in Indonesia. In general, the
best clays for pozzolanas will be plastic clays of the type normally used for
pottery and clay tile manufacture. The optimum calcining temperature is normally
taken to be between 700 and 800C, although for some clay types it may be
higher or lower than this (Pozzolanas: ITDG Publications 1994, 1992).

2-4 -5 Pulverized Fuel Ash (PFA)

Pulverized fuel ash, often referred to as fly ash or PFA, is probably the pozzolana
in greatest use globally today. PFA is the residue from the combustion of
pulverized coal in power stations and is essentially a waste material. PFA is
already in a fine powdered form and requires no further processing for use as a
pozzolana and this, combined with its availability in bulk and low cost, makes it
ideal for blending at cement factories or at large civil engineering projects. Its
reactivity is not as high as other commonly used pozzolanas and it is, therefore,
less frequently used in combination with lime (Pozzolanas: ITDG Publications
1994).

The carbon content of fly ash is a major concern. Class C fly ash, most of which
is produced from lignite coal, contains little carbon. However, Class F fly ash,
22

produced primarily from anthracite and bituminous coal, contains significant

amounts of carbon. Class C and Class F material also differ from each other and
from source to source with regard to strength, rate of strength gain, color and
weatherability (Pozzolanas: ITDG Publications 1994, 1992).

2-4 -6 Ashes from Agricultural Wastes:

Many ashes of plant have high silica content and are therefore suitable as a
pozzolana. In recent years considerable research has gone into identifying plant
wastes whose ashes produce good pozzolanas and which are available in
exploitable quantities. Rice husk, a waste product of rice milling has been shown
to have the greatest potential (Pozzolanas: ITDG Publications 1992).

Agricultural Wastes are available in large quantities in many parts of the world.
When burnt, every five tones of husk produce about one tone of ash. The ash
typically contains approximately 90 per cent silica and is therefore an excellent
pozzolana. Rice hull ash, as long as quality is controlled, is another material that
can be used to replace cement (Pozzolanas: An Introduction, ITDG Publications
1992).

The disadvantage of rice husk is that for its ash to be highly pozzolanic it has to
be burnt under controlled conditions at temperatures below 700C; otherwise the
silica becomes crystalline and loses a degree of reactivity. Rice husk ash has
been utilized as a pozzolana in cement production in Asia, particularly India, and
is under research in rice growing areas of Africa. Other agricultural wastes which
23

have been identified as having potential as a pozzolana include rice straw and
bagasse (Pozzolanas: ITDG Publications 1992).

2-4 -7 Other Types of Pozzolanas:

In addition to the above types of pozzolana, other sources of pozzolanas worth

mentioning include shale, diatomite, bauxite, metakaolin and blast furnace slag.
Shale requires similar treatment to clay, as does bauxite, although the latter's
temperature of calcination is lower at between 250 and 300C. Diatomites are
usually highly reactive but are rarely used as pozzolanas because they require a
large quantity of water to produce a plastic mix, due to their porous nature (R.
Siddique and Mohammad Iqbal Khan, 2011).

Blast furnace slag is a by-product of the iron and steel industry which has a
limited pozzolanic reactivity but has been very successful when blended with
OPC. Silica fume is also referred to as microsilica or condensed silica fume, a by
product of the reduction of high purity quartz with coal in electric arc furnaces
in the production ferrosilicon alloys and silicon metal (R. Siddique, 2008).

2-5- Advantages of Pozzolanas:

The addition of a pozzolana in either a lime or OPC-based product has three
major advantages. Firstly, the properties of the cement will be improved.
Secondly, as the costs of a pozzolana are usually low and certainly well below
that of lime or OPC, overall cost will be significantly reduced. Thirdly is the
lowering carbon dioxide emitted during Portland cement production.
24

In OPC-based concretes pozzolanas are used to replace up to 30 per cent of

OPC for use in structural applications and up to 50 per cent for non-structural
purposes. The United Nations Centre for Human Settlements (UNCHS),
estimates that only 20% of the worldwide use of cement requires the strength of
an OPC, and another 40% has intermediate strength requirements, and the
remaining 40% used for applications such as mortars, plasters, foundation
concrete, concrete blocks and soil stabilization, where low grade cements could
be used (Agevi, Otto Ruskulis and Theo Childerman .1995).
Table No (1) shows countries which officially permit pozzolans: cement blends to
be specified according to the standard for cement allow anywhere from 10%
replacement (Iceland) to 50% replacement. Italy allows any amount of pozzolan
to be used as long as the specifications with respect to activity are met (Robert L.
1990).

25

Table (1) Maximum Replacement Level of Pozzolanas in Various Countries

Country
Max. allowed replacement, %
Italy
no limit
Argentina
50
Chile
50
China
50
Indonesia
50
Brazil
40
Canada
40
Cuba
40
Finland
40
GDR
40
GFR
40
Greece
40
Korea
40
Mexico
40
Netherlands
40
Peru
40
Turkey
40
U.S.
40
Sudan
35
France
35
Japan
30
USSR
30
Yugoslavia
30
India
25
Austria
20
Belgium
20
Hungary
20
Poland
20
Spain
20
Morocco
15
Rumania
15
South Africa
15
Iceland
10
Modified after Robert L. 1990.
Sudanese Standard & Metrology Organization recently allowed replacement %

26

As previously mentioned, it is not necessary to use OPC for all purposes of

construction industry. In fact pozzolanic cements can be more appropriate to a
wide range of applications of construction. For this reason many countries
worldwide produce and utilize natural pozzolanas in construction industry table
(2) shows estimated World production of pozzolanic materials.
Table (2): Pumice and related materials: Estimated World Production
(Metric tons), By Country

Country

2007

2008

2009

2010

2011

Algeria, pozzolan
Argentina, pumice
Burkina Faso
Cameroon, pozzolan
Chile, pumice &
pozzolan
Croatia, volcanic tuff
Dominica, pumice
and volcanic tuff
Ecuador:
Pozzolan
Pumice

570,000
16,200
10,000
600,000
1,135,771

490,567
6,500
10,000
600,000
1,063,176

328,000
7,020
10,000
600,000
919,249

236,961
7,582
10,000
600,000
824,049

300,000
7,000
10,000
600,000
850,000

15,085
100,000

15,000
100,000

15,000
100,000

15,000
100,000

15,000
100,000

803,502
153,500
55
22,000
250,000

901,379
137,241
60
35,000
276,000

884,773
44,171
60
25,000
276,000

640,620
75,000
60
35,000
276,000

700,000
100,000
60
35,000
276,000

1,400,000
850,000
210,000
220,389

1,059,000
828,000
210,000
393,779

830,000
381,000
200,000
394,955

900,000
380,000
200,000
340,000

850,000
375,000
210,000
150,000

100,000
1,000
1,500,000

100,000
1,000
1,500,000

100,000
1,000
1,500,000

100,000
1,000
1,500,000

100,000
1,000
1,500,000

Eritrea, pumice
Ethiopia
France, pozzolan &
lapilli
Greece:
Pozzolan, Santorin
Pumice
Guadeloupe, pumice
Guatemala, pumice
Iceland:
Pumice
Scoria
Iran

27

Italy:
Pozzolan
4,000,000
3,000,000 3,000,000 3,000,000 3,000,000
Pumice &
20,000
20,000
20,000
20,000
20,000
pumiceous lapilli
Jamaica, pozzolan
114,482
124,304
132,470
125,000
125,000
Kosovo, volcanic tuff NA
39,631
51,769
52,800
52,800
Macedonia, volcanic 80,910
103,476
113,064
113,000
113,000
tuff
Martinique, pumice 130,000
130,000
130,000
130,000
130,000
New Zealand
354,903
174,729
159,357
118,249
120,000
Philippines:
Pumice
1,912
2,063
2,064
2,274
2,300
Volcanic tuff
16,490
17,570
18,830
19,166
19,500
Saudi Arabia,
784,000
810,000
800,000
915,000
950,000
pozzolan
Slovenia, volcanic
40,000
40,000
40,000
40,000
40,000
tuff
Spain, including
600,000
600,000
600,000
600,000
600,000
Canary Islands
Syria, volcanic tuff
810,000
901,000
957,639
950,000
900,000
Tanzania, pozzolanic 184,070
260,403
171,904
45,240
45,000
materials
Turkey
3,995,423
3,449,773 4,322,543 4,000,000 4,500,000
Uganda, pozzolanic
140,000
140,000
140,000
140,000
140,000
materials
U. S., pumice, sold & 1,270,000
791,000
410,000
390,000
489,000
used by producers
Grand total
20,500,000 18,300,000 17,700,000 16,900,000 17,400,000
Of which:
Pumice
2,950,000
2,600,000 1,670,000 1,630,000 1,560,000
Pozzolan
8,600,000
7,390,000 6,890,000 6,600,000 6,710,000
Scoria
1,000
1,000
1,000
1,000
1,000
Volcanic tuff
962,000
1,120,000 1,200,000 1,190,000 1,140,000
Unspecified
7,990,000
7,230,000 7,930,000 7,480,000 8,010,000
Source: United States Geological Survey Mineral Resources Program
http://www.indexmundi.com/en/commodities/minerals/pumice_and_pumicite/pum
ice_and_pumicite_t4.html
28

As OPC is an expensive commodity in Sudan, usage of pozzolanic materials

can minimize the cost. In addition pozzolanic cement has a number of significant
technical advantages over the plain OPC. According to Mehta, P.K. (1987) and

Cook D.J. (1986) these advantages are explained below:

2-5- 1 Increasing Compressive Strength
At the early stage of curing, 30% pozzolana substituting Portland cement mixture
slightly lower than reference OPC in regard to compressive strength.

As time goes by, pozzolana keeps on reacting with the calcium hydroxide
produced by cement hydration and increasing the compressive strength by
producing additional C-S-H. After 21 curing days, 30% pozzolana 70% Portland
cement mixture begins to exceed reference OPC in compressive strength after
28 days; it exceeds reference OPC by about 15%. Pozzolanic reaction keeps on
until there is no free calcium hydroxide available in the mass and the
compressive strength exceeds reference OPC by 30% to 40%.

2-5- 2 Increasing Resistance to Chloride Attack

Concrete deterioration caused by the penetration of chloride occurs faster when

chloride ions react with calcium hydroxide to form strongly expanding hydrated
calcium oxychloride. The expansion of hydrated calcium oxychloride enlarges the
micro-cracks and increases the permeability that causes quicker chloride
penetration and more damage from freezing and thawing action.

29

The 30% natural pozzolan added into cement can react with almost all the free
calcium hydroxide and form a much denser paste. Thus, the penetration of
chloride can be minimized and the penetrated chloride ions cannot find calcium
hydroxide with which to react.

2-5- 3 Increased Resistance to Sulfate Attack

The calcium hydroxide produced by hydrating OPC is readily subject to sulphate

attack which can cause a serious deterioration of the concrete, particularly in
area with ground waters containing soluble sulphate, or in concrete in contact
with sea water. In Portland-pozzolana cements, the calcium hydroxide combine
with pozzolana to form more stable silicate or aluminate hydrate and therefore
sulphate resistance is increased. Concrete made with Portland- pozzolana
cement is also more resistant to acid attack, although this is probably due to a
reduction in permeability rather than any chemical reaction.

2-5- 4 Reduced Alkali-Aggregate Reaction

Alkali-aggregate reaction sometimes called concrete cancer is caused by a
reaction between the alkali environment of concrete and certain types of
aggregate containing a form of silica which react with alkalis.
Expansion due to alkali-aggregate reaction can be a serious problem with
concrete structures. This undesirable expansion causes micro-cracks between
and hardened cement paste. Some experiments show that substituting only 25%
of natural pozzolan for OPC can reduce alkali-silica expansion by 70%.
30

Chapter Three: Regional Geology

3-1 General Geology of Bayuda Area:
The first Bayuda volcanic field was discovered from the air in1920 in the
triangular desert area between the towns of Merowe, Abu Hamed and Berber on
the remarkable bend of River Nile north of the city of Atbara (Amin R.and Amazis
S.1968). Previous investigations in the Bayuda desert was done by several
geologist starting with J.Russeger (1837) and more recent work published (Vail,
J.R., 1975 b, Al-Khalifa, Mohamed 2008).
Most area of the Bayuda Desert is underlain by metamorphic rocks of basement
complex which was subdivided into four different rock series. These are intruded
by non-orogenic alkaline ring complexes and dyke swarms and

are

unconformably covered by Paleozoic, Mesozoic and Cainozoic sediments (K.D.

Meinhold 1983). The following stratigraphic succession in the Bayuda Desert is
adapted from Meinhold 1983, from top (younger) to bottom (older):
6- Quaternary to recent deposits (alluvial deposits, superficial deposits)
5- Cainozoic volcanic rocks (basaltic activities)
4- Cretaceous to Tertiary sedimentary (lacustrine sediments, red earth)
3- Paleozoic and Mesozoic sedimentary formations (Nubian sandstone formation
Amaki series)
2- Paleozoic and Mesozoic igneous rocks (dyke swarms, igneous complexes)
1- Precambrian Basement Complex (Bayuda formation, Abu Harik series)
31

Figure (3) Sketch Map showing the rock units of the Bayuda and the
surrounding areas (after David Otone Obeyok, 2013).
32

3-1-1Basement Complex:
More than 60% of the area of the Bayuda Desert is made up of metamorphic
rocks of the Basement Complex (Fig.8) shows the rock units of the Bayuda. This
complex could be subdivided into two major rock units:
3-1-1-1Abu Harik Series:
The Abu Harik series crops out near the Nile between Wadi Kurmut and Wadi
Abu Harik and in the cores of three anticlinal structures at Wadi Singeir. This
formation consists of biotite, biotite-hornblende and hornblende gneisses with
intercalations of amphibolites and rare quartzitic layers. The grade of the
metamorphism is that of amphibiotite facies.

This rock formation is considered to be the remnant of the old Basement rocks
which was folded and metamorphosed prior to deposition of the rocks of
geosynclinals Bayuda formation. It is possible that it was reworked and
overprinted by the later Bayuda orogeny (K.D. Meinhold1983).

3-1-1-2 Bayuda Formation:

Bayuda formation is a geosynlinal formation which makes up most of the Bayuda

Desert. The Bayuda formation was subdivided into three rock series: the Absol
series; the Rahaba series; the Kurmut series.

3-1-2- Igneous Ring Complexes and Dyke Swarms:

Essentially three areas of igneous complexes can be identified in the Bayuda
Desert; Abu Handal Singeir area; Gilif- Abu Nahal area; Asma-Razam area.
33

These areas differ from one another partly through morpho-tectonic exposure
and partly in geological structure and petrographical composition.
The Abu Handal Singeir area of the eastern desert is thus characterized by its
deep erosion level with ring shaped structures in the basement plain. They are
dominated by alkali granites and syntectonic biotite-granites alternating with
migmatized basement (H.Barth and K.D. Meinhold 1979).

Gilif- Abu Nahal area of the central and southern desert displays on other hand a
higher erosion level. A composition structure is generally identifiable, consisting
of a basal complex of interlocking intrusive ring structures dominated by alkali
granite with marginal syntexite facies of biotite granite and a superstructure
consisting essentially of quartz porphyries (D.C. Almond et al1969).

The northern Asma-Razam area is comparable in its erosion level with southern
part of the above mentioned area, but it differs petrologically from the other two
areas in that here the trachytic extrusive facies is most prominent.
Swarms of alkali rhyolitic and alkali trachytic dykes some of them grading into
cataclastic quartz dykes are widespread throughout the Bayuda desert. All the
larger ring complexes are situated on such swarms. Common to the all three
areas is a uniform geological history, despite difference of form and disparate
rock sequences.

The composite structure, can be seen best in J.Gilif, J.

Musran, J. Sultaniyat and J.Abu Nahal (K.D. Meinhold1983).

34

3-1-3- Paleozoic and Mesozoic sedimentary formations:

3-1-3-1- Amaki series:

In the Bayuda desert, on the west side of the Nile near the village of Al Akaba,
south of Amaki, the series attains its greatest outcrop width, approx.3 km. north
of Amaki, the basal part of the series consists of a conglomerate, approx.150m
thick, which consists of pebbles up size of an egg, of milky quartz and basement
rocks (gneisses, schist, and amphibolites) in a coarse sandy matrix. The
conglomerate is overlain by pebble sandstones and quartzitic sandstones, which
again contain a layer of conglomerate approx.100m thick (K.D. Meinhold1983).

The largest continuous section of the Amaki series on the west side of the Nile is
situated west of Al Akaba. There, the series begins with marly schists a few
meters thick, which very soon pass into medium to fine-grained, brownish-red
sandstones. They contain a thin layer of grauhwacke-like limestone and also
several layers of grey and banded, siliceous cherts, as well as pebble
sandstones, and at Al Akaba an intercalation of greenish tuff-like rock (H.Barth
and K.D. Meinhold 1979).
.

3-1-3- 2- Nubian sandstone formation:

The basement rocks in the Bayuda Desert are unconformably overlain by the
rudaceous and arenaceous beds of Nubian sandstone formation, which
35

according to paleontological findings are considered to have been deposited

mainly in upper cretaceous time (K.D. Meinhold1983).
The Nubian sandstone formation is dominated by arenaceous and rudaceous
beds, although siltstones and mudstones are not common. Calcareous and
ferruginous horizons are also common. The most common lithology is poorly
sorted, coarse to medium grained cream or brown sandstone containing quartz
pebbles and mud flakes and feldspar are the main minerals. Cross-bedding is
common and graded bedding is present. Silicified wood fragments are locally
common, but otherwise fossils are rare (H.Barth and K.D. Meinhold 1979).

3-1- 4- Cretaceous to Tertiary sedimentary:

3-1- 4- 1- Red Earth (Lateritic Soil):

Remains of lateritic soil are preserved on the lower slopes of hills in the
southwestern Bayuda desert, where covering basaltic lava flows of the Abu
Ruygheiwa volcanic field protected the underlying rocks from erosion. In Wadi
Biti a thick lateritic layer above the Nubian sandstone contains bones of giant
Probocidea (Elephantine)which put the age of the discovered strata at not older
than Miocene.

3-1- 4- 2- Calcareous lacustrine sediments:

Lacustrine sediments were deposits in a small, tectonically formed basin at the

top of the Nubian sandstone in Wadi Iberiq, south of J.Asma.They consist from
36

bottom to top of white sandstone, dolomitic gritstone, white mudstone and

silicified chalk. They are assumed to be deposited in fresh water lakes in the
Tertiary Quaternary time (H.Barth and K.D. Meinhold (1979).
3-1- 5- Cainozoic volcanic rocks

In the Bayuda Desert, young volcanic rocks are widespread. The following areas
can be distinguished as regional fields of intensified volcanic activity:

1- W. Abu Ruygheiwa Volcanic field

2- W.Shaq Umm Bosh Volcanic field
3- Northern Volcanic field
4- J.Umm Arafieb shield volcano
5- Bayuda main volcanic field
6- Isolated eruptived centers

From radiometric age determination, the eroded plug basalts and phonolites of
volcanic fields are placed at the boundary between Cretaceous and Tertiary (6275Ma.). The volcanic rocks of J. Umm Arafieb were formed in the Pliocene,
whereas the volcanoes of the main volcanic field are of Pleistocene (H.Barth and
K.D. Meinhold 1979).

3-1-6- Quaternary to recent deposits:

Superficial deposits of Quaternary age cover large parts of the Bayuda Desert.
These include dark grey soils in the plains, reddish loam and humus flash-flood
37

sediments in the areas of the upper Wadi courses, as well as debris and talus
fans the pediments of steeper slopes and scraps.
Qoz sand and fixed dunes occur in the southwestern Bayuda desert. Modern he
most recent and continually moving deposit and is found everywhere. Wadis
plains are filled with loamy silt, those in the mountain with detrital boulders and
coarse sand.
3-2 geology of the study area
The main volcanic field differs fundamentally in both its geologic-geotectonic
position. The excellent preservation of primary volcanic morphology and the
youngest of volcanoes indicate that the activity was geologically recent, perhaps
in Pleistocene or later (D.C. Almond et al1969).

Figure (4) Geological Map of the study area. The Bayuda Volcanic field is a
collection of more than 90 eruptive centers, including at least 15 named cinder
cones, and five named craters in the Bayuda Desert. The largest explosive crater
Hosh ed Dalam, is 1.3 km wide, and approximately 500 m deep (a
volcanism program". Retrieved 10 October 2011).

38

b c d e

"Global

Figure (4) Geological Map of the study area (after SudaneseGerman

Project1978)

39

The pyroclastic cones and composites volcanoes from the central mountains of
the Bayuda Desert, rising to attitude of 900m, starting from them, basaltic lava
flows, tuffs and tephra cover more or less completely the crystalline basaltic
structure of volcanic. The recent volcanicity at Bayuda was characterized by a
multiplicity of short-lived centers of eruption, none of which was active long
enough to create a major volcano (D.C. Almond et al1969).

The main volcanic field consist of 100 small monogenetic volcanoes, most of
while comprise cinder cone of a few hundred meters high and a simple lava flow
with a volume similar to that cone. Many of the volcanic centers are small
composite volcanoes and all are composed of basaltic lava and tephra. Each of
the composite volcanoes passed through stage of pyroclastic cone-building,
followed by a period of lava extrusion, which usually resulted in the breaching of
the cone K.D. Meinhold (1983).

Unconformities exposed on the flanks of eroded cones and overlapping of craters

on better-preserved cones show those small shifts of the active vent was
common at the pyroclastic stage. When the lava followed, they were erupted
through the crater vent rather than on the flanks of the cone (D.C. Almond et
al1969).
.

40

Plate (6): Explosive volcanism accumulated as pyroclastic rocks (main volcanic

field)

This simple sequence was rarely repeated at the same center. Perhaps two-third
of the volcanoes evolved in this way and most of others ended their lives at the
cone-building stage (K.D. Meinhold, 1983).
Volcanic field in the Bayuda Desert has abundant resources of natural pozzolana
materials, they are largely lying unexploited. The main types of pozzolanic
materials found in the target area are pumice, welded tuffs, volcanic ash and
tephra plates6,7,8,9,10,11&12 show images these materials.

41

Plate (7): Explosive volcanism accumulated as pyroclastic rocks

42

Plate (8): light Yellowish to brown color sandy tuffs (Main Volcanic Field)

43

Plate (9): Yellowish to brown color sandy tuffs (Main Volcanic Field)

44

Plate (10): Bir El-Muweilih explosion crater with Soda Lake (Main Volcanic
Field)

45

Plate (11): Pyroclastic compact deposit of Tephra (Main Volcanic Field)

46

Plate (12): Jebel Hebeish compacted tuff (Main Volcanic Field

47

The cones of the volcanoes are built of thin-bedded ashes, thick beds of cinder
breccias and agglomerates. The cinder breccias are well graded rocks composed
of externally reddish sub-angular fragments of the finely vascular basalt up to 10
cm or 15cm in diameter.

Basaltic tuffs are present in the main volcanic field as subordinate materials. In
the pyroclastic cone fragmental tuffs and pumice tuffs are interbedded with ash.
Fairly widespread are the very recent, sandy cover tuffs of which the ring wall of
the explosion crater are built and which are striking in their bright, yellowish,grey
to ochre-brown color, their earthy baked consistency and their wealth of
hornblende crystals (D.C. Almond et al1969).
Pozzolanic materials in volcanic field including pumice, tuffs, ash and tephra and
concentrated mainly on isolated centers and some pyroclastic cones and
compose volcanoes. Within this area the close spacing of eruptive centers has
resulted in a more or less complete cover of volcanic rocks, while isolated
volcanoes occur scattered over the plain beyond the limits of the field.

The isolated centers are included Jebel Mazrub and Jebel Hebeish (explosion
crater) in the west, Jebel Sergein, J. Zein Umm Araysh, J. Hosh Umm Araysh, J.
Bararumbo and J. Mersidat in the north, and J. Abu Siba and J. Ban Gidid in the
east (D.C. Almond et al1969).

48

These isolated centers are typical composite volcanoes, each is comprising a

breached and eroded remnant of pyroclastic cone rising some 180m above the
plain and skirted by a sub-circular lava field about 3km in diameter. Besides
isolated centers the study area covered some pyroclastic cones and composite
volcanoes such as Jebel Angalfaib in NW, Umm Qureinat, J. Hosh Es Siddig, J.
Hosh Edalam, Bir Muweilih and other nameless D.C.Almond 1974.

The pozzolanic materials found in dry or arid region, are less likely to have been
altered chemically by weathering effect and are more likely to retain their original
actively .The formation of welded tuffs and unconsolidated volcanic ash like in
the target area are reactive.

These are considered potential as far as pozzolana properties such as tuff and
ash, will have a glassy structure and will be relatively lightly weathered,
chemically they contain more silica than other volcanic materials. The volcanic
pozzolanas in the target area are concentrated mainly on Cainozoic volcanic
rocks H.Barth and K.D. Meinhold (1979).

49

Chapter four: Method of Study

4-1 Field method
4.1.1 Geological mapping:
Systematic regional and detailed geological mapping was carried out on the
study area, based on topographic maps at scale of 1:250,000 and 1: 100,000.
Geological map of the Bayuda Desert, scale 1:250,000 were used as guide in the
field work. GPS and Satellite Imagery technique was used for determining
locations and locality names.
4.1.2 Satellite imagery:
The remote sensing activities represented by preparation of digitally base maps
and different image processing techniques for regional geology survey and
detection of mineralogical resources with the enhancement of structural features
using Environment for Visualizing Image (ENVI) 3.4 software.
The processes that applied on in this land sat imagery of the area include the
following:

Color composite image of three bands 7, 4 and 1 the combination of these

bands enhances the image for geological units verification purposes.

Saturation stretch enhanced the rock types differences in the image.

Filtering direction filter enhanced the linear features structure and the
drainage system in this image.
50

4.1.3 Sample collection:

In this study more than 70 rock and chip samples were collected from the
outcrops representing the various lithological units in the area, throughout the
three blocks. The weight of each sample is about 25 kg, sampling network cover
all the area of study (Figures 17 shows location of samples).

Figure (5) Samples Location of the Study Area.

51

4-2 Laboratory investigations

4.2.1. Chemical analysis
The properties of natural pozzolans vary considerably, depending on their origin.
Most natural pozzolans contain substantial amounts of constituents other than
silica, such as alumina and iron oxide, which will react with calcium hydroxide
and alkalies (sodium and potassium) to form complex compounds.

Generally, a pozzolana will contain silica, alumina, iron oxide and a variety of
oxides and alkalis, but the following can be taken as a rough guide.
Silica + Alumina + Iron Oxide not less than 70%. Other Oxides and alkalis not
more than 15%. Loss on ignition not more than 15% (R. Stulz, and K. Mukerji
1993).

Table (3) Shows chemical composition and loss on ignition of pozzolana samples
of the study area. Pozzolanic activity cannot be determined just by quantifying
the presence of silica, alumina, and iron. The amount of amorphous material
usually determines the reactivity of a natural pozzolan. The constituents of a
natural pozzolan can exist in various forms, ranging from amorphous reactive
materials to crystalline products that will react either slowly or not at all (R.J.S.
Spence and D.J. Cook1983).

52

Table (3) Chemical Analysis of the Pozzolanic material.

Sample No

Location Area

CaO

MgO

Fe2O3 Na2O

SiO2 Al2O3

SO3

L.O.I

P1

J. Angalfaib

9.961

11.257 10.01

2.36

41.69 11.27 1.73

0.77

P2

J. Angalfaib

7.768

7.046

10.29

2.26

44.92 12.54 4.56

3.13

P3

J. Muweilih

9.656

10.428 10.15

2.13

42.02 11.93 4.33

0.64

P4

J. Mazroub

17.448

5.703

8.15

1.32

37.49 10.22 2.08

12.61

P7

J. Hebeish

8.470

7.444

9.58

1.93

54.94 12.84 2.78

1.72

P9

J. Abu-Sergien

7.942

5.769

8.44

1.58

47.83 13.28 3.39

4.47

P11

J. Abu-Sergien

25.283

3.465

4.58

0.700 30.06 8.17

P13

E. J. Abu-Sergein

7.705

6.83

9.15

P15

S. J. Abu-Sergien

7.946

7.626

P16

S. J. Abu-Sergein

8.293

P18

J. Baraumbo

P20

1.81

22.68

0.65

39.43 11.49 2.54

11.96

9.29

1.33

45.89 11.59 4.09

5.22

6.316

9.58

2.10

47.51 13.24 1.94

3.20

7.154

5.355

8.29

1.94

47.55 13.97 4.14

4.93

J.El-Karbaken

7.637

7.825

9.15

2.39

45.62 13.13 3.45

1.64

P21

J.El-Karbaken

7.372

6.664

8.58

1.54

47.55 11.51 2.22

5.04

P23

J. Mersidat

6.698

9.168

11.01

1.30

40.16 13.80 3.55

5.02

P24

W, J.Mersidat

8.266

7.013

10.29

1.93

44.33 14.08 2.24

2.42

P26

NW,J.Mersidat

10.134

9.002

8.72

1.54

39.83 12.24 3.95

4.99

P27
P28

E,J.Hosh Umm Araysh

N. J.Hosh Umm Araysh

6.603
7.644

12.467 7.86
8.853 8.01

1.23
2.45

45.94 9.33 3.35

47.55 12.46 3.11

4.72
1.29

P30

J. Abu Siba

6.373

5.206

7.72

1.75

49.79 13.69 2.66

5.92

P37

E. Main Volcanic Field

8.182

7.560

9.58

2.25

46.9

2.85

P39

W. Main Volcanic Field

26.17

2.868

4.43

0.75

26.11 7.41

P40

E. Main Volcanic Field

8.805

7.427

9.86

1.98

40.26 12.69 2.07

5.69

P42

E. Main Volcanic Field

6.607

6.515

9.01

2.49

47.81 14.70 2.93

16.46

53

13.97 1.89
2.19

24.16

Sample No

Location Area

CaO

MgO

Fe2O3 Na2O SiO2

Al2O3 SO3

P45

NE Main Volcanic Field

16.27

8.621

7.29

0.71

30.83 9.13

P48

E. Main Volcanic Field

7.462

8.273

9.58

1.70

48.44 13.15 2.67

4.02

P50

E. Main Volcanic Field

6.524

6.664

9.15

1.08

49.7

13.26 2.06

8.16

P52

J. Hosh EL Siddg

9.724

10.196 9.29

1.64

42.15 12.23 2.65

4.02

P55

J. Hosh EL Siddg

13.180 9.151

8.01

0.44

34.29 9.93

15.32

P57

J. Umm Qureent

8.843

9.135

9.72

2.22

42.78 13.55 3.12

1.55

P60

J. Hosh EL-Dalam

12.481 8.306

8.58

1.75

42.78 12.46 2.37

5.58

T1

J. Hebeish

8.10

7.38

8.58

2.48

44.6

13.7

N.D

6.08

T2

J. Hebeish

7.69

7.13

7.72

3.17

47.1

13.5

N.D

5.89

VT

J. Hebeish

9.44

8.04

8.93

4.11

45.5

15.8

N.D

1.78

PC

J. Hebeish

8.6

7.62

8.65

4.38

47.1

13.7

N.D

1.28

PUMI

J. Hebeish

8.57

7.79

8.93

4.25

43.9

14.2

N.D

1.13

PT

J. Hebeish

8.25

7.21

8.15

4.58

47.7

13.5

N.D

1.87

T6

J. Hebeish

6.36

6.3

7.58

2.83

49.0

13.6

N.D

8.30

T9

J. Hebeish

7.34

7.29

7.93

2.7

48.1

13.7

0.36

13.7

5.4

4.18

L.O.I
16.46

N.D = Not detected

As the amount of amorphous materials cannot be determined by standard

techniques, it is important to evaluate each natural pozzolan to confirm its degree
of pozzolanic activity. There is no clear distinction between siliceous materials
that are considered pozzolans and those that are not. In most cases no direct
correlation can be found between chemical content and reactivity. Table 4 shows
54

typical chemical composition and mineralogical analysis of some natural

pozzolana in the world . Other characteristics of the pozzolana also affect its
reactivity, such as fineness and crystalline structure.

Materials with a high percentage of silica that is amorphous tend to be more

pozzolanic because amorphous silica is more soluble than crystalline silica.
Crystalline silica is slower or does not have a pozzolanic reaction at all and, as a
general rule, the larger the crystals the less rapid the reaction. Also, calcium
hydroxide and silica combine at different rates for different materials and the
reaction can sometimes be very slow (Raymond E. Davis1950).

4.2.2 X-Ray Diffraction:

X-Ray Diffraction (XRD) and Scanning Electron Microscopy (SEM) also can be
used in characterizing pozzolans. These methods allow the determination of
whether the silica in the pozzolan is amorphous or crystalline to predict whether it
will react with lime, as well as determining chemical composition in order to
estimate reactivity according to proportions of silica and alumina (Technical Brief,
Testing Methods for Pozzolans, Practical Action). XRD analysis of the samples in
this study revealed that quartz, anorthite, calcite, diopside, dolomite, augite were
the most abundant mineral phases identified as shown in (Figure 6).

55

Figure .6.XRF patterns of volcanic pozzolana in Bayuda Desert

56

4.2.3 Microscopy:

Another method for assessing pozzolans in raw form is the use of optical
microscopy. These kinds of studies can be useful in identifying and estimating
the amounts of reactive constituents in a raw pozzolan, identifying mineralogical
composition and characterizing the material based on particle size and
distribution, etc. When reactive constituents are amorphous and not identifiable
through X-ray diffraction, they can sometimes be identified through microscopy.

For example, some clay minerals and volcanic glass yield no characteristic X-ray
Pattern because of their amorphous structure, but can be identified visually by
observation under magnification. Unless combined with other methods, optical
analysis cannot conclusively determine pozzolanicity. It is a useful tool, however,
for supplementing other types of analyses and characterizing pozzolans (W. T.
Moran and J. L. Gilliand, 1950).

57

Table (4) typical chemical and mineralogical analysis of some natural pozzolana (Mehta1987)
Pozzolana

Chemical composition percentage

SiO2 Al2O3 Fe2O3
CaO
MgO

Alkalies

Amorphous
mater%

Major crystalline
minerals

6.5

Loss on
ignition
%
3.5

Santorin
Earth
Rhenish
trass
Phonolite

65.1

14.5

5.5

3.0

1.1

65 to 75

Quartz, plagioclase

53

16.0

6.0

7.0

3.0

6.0

50 to 60

4.2

1.1

10.8

3.6

10.1

10.3

4.4

6.7

4.4

18.3

4.0

7.4

1.0

11.0

3.1

50 to 70

Quartz, feldspar,
analcime
Orthoclase, albite,
pyroxene, calcite
Herschelite,chabazite,
phillipsites
Quartz, feldspar

55.7

20.2

2.0

Roman tuff

44.7

18.9

Neoplitian
glass
Opaline
shale
Diatomite
Rhylolite
pumicite
Jalisco
pumice

54.5
65.4

10.1

4.2

4.6

2.7

1.4

6.3

86
65.7

2.31
15.9

1.8
2.5

3.4

0.6
1.3

0.4
6.9

5.2
3.4

68.7

14.8

2.3

0.5

9.3

5.6

90

Sanidine

After: Paul J. Tikalsky 2001

58

4.2.2. Physical tests:

4.2.2. 1 Fineness
Pozzolana fineness is controlled in most cases by limiting the amount retained on
the 45m (No.325) sieve by wet sieving and the Blaine air permeability test.
Reactivity has been found to be directly related to the quantity passing this sieve,
as coarser particles generally do not react. ASTM C 618 limits the amount
retained to 34% for natural pozzolanas. Pozzolanic fineness in this study retained
on the 45m (No.325) sieve by wet sieving is 65% .It is clearly the fineness of
pozzolana is coarse and did not met ASTM C 618 requirements . Some
specifications use the Blaine air permeability test. Indian Standard (IS 14489)
2

specifying a minimum Blaine fineness of 300m /kg for pozzolana fineness.

4.2.2. 2 Consistence of Standard Paste:

For the determination of initial and final setting times and for Le Chatelier
soundness test, neat cement paste of a standard consistency has to be used. It
is necessary to determine for any given cement, the water content of the paste,
which will produce the desired consistency.
The water content of the standard paste is expressed as a percentage by weight
of the dry cement, the usual range of values being 26%-33%. Table (6) shows
the testing results of the consistency of Pozzolana mixed with Portland cement.

59

4.2.2. 3 Initial and final setting time

Setting of cement paste or concrete refers to a change from a fluid to a rigid

stage. During the setting the temperature of cement paste changes, the initial set
accompanied by a rapid rise in temperature and the final set corresponds to the
peak temperature. Analyzing the amount of time required for a fresh cementpozzolan mortar samples to set is another way of indirectly measuring
pozzolanicity.

A Vicat apparatus is used to test the speed at which the mortar reaches initial
and final set, the measurement of the penetration of the needle at various time
intervals indicates the time of initial and final set (ASTM C191 Standard Test
Methods for Time of Setting).

The initial and final setting times for mortar with and without pozzolan were
measured as shown in Table (6). According to Lea, the setting time of limepozzolan mixes is variable. Initial set may occur in 1-3 hours but final set is
usually 10-12 hours or longer (F. M. Lea. 1971).

4.2.2. 4 Tests of Compressive strength

The most common and accepted pozzolanicity test is the strength test in which a
test specimen is created using a set ratio of pozzolan to binder and the cube is
subjected to compressive and/or tensile strength tests to measure pozzolanicity
based on strength enhancement (W. T. Moran and J. L. Gilliand, 1950).
60

The strength tests appear in many specifications for pozzolans and form the
basis for the ASTMs Pozzolanicity Index. The pozzolanicity index is simply a
ratio of the compressive strength of a pozzolan mortar mix to that of a control
made without pozzolan, expressed as a percent.
Lime or Portland cement can be used as the binder for this test. The Test for
Pozzolanic Materials in the Indian standard uses the Lime Reactivity test, which
is simply a measure of the compressive strength of a lime: pozzolan: sand
mixture cured for 8 days (Technical Brief, Testing Methods for Pozzolans,
Practical Action )
Strength development varies with different ratios of lime to pozzolan and also
with temperature and humidity during curing. Higher temperatures and moist
curing conditions have the effect of higher ultimate strength, and a long period of
moist curing is essential to the development of high strength in pozzolans (F. M.
Lea. 1971).
Strength tests were conducted on design mixes shown in Table (6). A control
sand-cement mix was also prepared for comparison purposes. All design mixes
were molded at moisture contents around the laboratory determined optimum
moisture contents for each individual material.

The details of mix proportions are presented in Table (5). The water to
cementitous ratio was fixed at 0.55 for all mixes. Mixing was done in revolving
drum mixer in accordance with BS-12-1978. The pozzolan replacements were

61

selected at 20%, 30%, 40% and 50% as a partial cement replacement by weight
of cement content.
Table (5) mix design of the Pozzolana and Portland cement.
Weight (gm)

Blending %

Water

Sand

Cement

Pozzolana

Pozzolana

Cement

78

585

195

0.0

100

78

585

156

39

20

80

78

585

136.5

58.5

30

70

78

585

117

78

40

60

78

585

97.5

97.5

50

50

Compressive strength test is carried out on each mold with a ratio of 1:3 sand :
cement, and water 0.4%. Blended Portland cement specimens containing 20, 30,
40 and 50% pozzolana have been incubated for 3, 7, 14, 28 and 60 days. The
compressive strength of mortar made with blended cements and reference
Portland cement were determined, and the results are given in Table (6).
Three specimens had been mold for each percent and the final results of the test
are the average of these specimens in Kg/cm 2 unit. Those are done at the
Concrete Laboratory in Civil Engineering Department, at the University of
Khartoum. Three 50mm cubes are tested for each sample and the average figure
2

used. Again the result is given in kg/cm .

However the Pozzolana activity index tests were done to evaluate the
pozzolanic properties Table (6) shows the results. The pozzolanicity index is

62

simply a ratio of the compressive strength of a pozzolan mortar mix to that of a

control made without pozzolan, expressed as a percent.

Table (6) compressive strength of Pozzolana mixed with Portland cement.

Sample No

OPC

P1

P4

P7

P9

P13

Pozzolana

Cement

Setting Time

(min.)

100

20

Compressive Strength Kg/cm

Initial

Final

3days 7 days

14 days

28 days

28.0

150

230

339

409

506

545

80

25.5

147

185

266

335

387

441

40

60

23.5

144

194

164

262

290

358

50

50

22.5

148

188

131

148

192

292

20

80

27

121

168

274

383

436

485

40

60

26

101

138

148

228

290

348

50

50

25

72

121

135

174

236

275

20

80

26

114

141

233

258

434

469

40

60

25.5

111

142

160

213

303

335

50

50

24

118

141

147

188

241

264

20

80

26

101

165

261

360

380

466

40

60

27.5

104

155

200

284

362

388

50

50

27.5

85

155

140

203

253

319

20

80

27.5

95

135

359

378

431

582

40

60

27

77

136

191

252

304

343

50

50

26

70

120

131

179

232

266

20

80

27.5

100

135

279

349

427

424

40 60

25.5

84

144

168

264

304

343

50

50

24.5

74

134

143

203

250

296

20

80

26.5

120

153

272

338

408

446

40

60

26.0

124

169

213

245

330

364

50

50

25.5

114

178

230

271

319

357

P18

P20

Consistency
Blending %

63

Consistency

Setting Time (min.)

Compressive Strength Kg/cm2

Initial

7days

14 days

28 days

60 days

425

560

545

578

148

351

404

460

571

116

142

309

396

422

500

25.5

120

148

261

273

349

387

80

31

101

138

380

440

493

602

30

70

31

109

144

358

370

505

513

40

60

30.5

56

131

271

332

413

455

20

80

27.6

122

172

330

350

513

530

30

70

26

112

167

272

324

412

452

40

60

25

126

166

245

273

345

436

20

80

27.5

103

161

333

364

480

551

30

70

27

106

169

294

319

405

474

40

60

26.5

89

145

232

288

341

362

20

80

27.5

140

174

349

464

494

551

30

70

27

112

156

288

402

458

498

40

60

26

98

131

232

299

373

442

20

80

27.5

123

175

398

449

506

576

30

70

27

135

180

336

426

475

571

40

60

26.5

145

193

247

310

391

453

20

80

27.5

155

189

342

373

509

559

30

70

26.5

127

161

260

325

416

504

40

60

25.5

112

137

218

293

321

365

20

80

25

153

188

335

403

474

520

30

70

24

159

192

279

332

387

472

40

60

23.5

169

194

206

303

294

370

Sample

Blending %

No

Pozzolana

Cement

OPC

100

P24

20

80

26.5

116

30

70

25.5

40

60

20

P30

P37

P39

P45

P50

P57

P60

64

Final

4.3- Experimental / demonstration buildings:

The author in 2002 invented Green sandwich building (GSB) is a new technique
of constructing buildings, to minimize the enormous impact of buildings on the
environment and positively promote alternative solutions for low-cost housing in
Sudan.
On May 2010 the author built two green sandwich rooms in his owns house for
the first time on the North Bahry (Samrab) to demonstrate applicability of this
new method of construction in Sudan (see plates). The patent was registered in
Sudan under number 1751 in Registrar General of Intellectual Property.

The GSB method consists of steel framework for walls and roofings, forming a
double layer grid of thin expanded metal sheets, with lightweight core
sandwiched between two stiff face sheets.

The twins shell sandwich constructions have a limited width with loose filling
materials in between and covered with pozzolanic cement plaster on both sides,
to provide adequate protection against fire and harmful atmospheric conditions,
especially water. Pozzolanic cement containing 50% OPC and 50% of pozzolana
from the study. The application of blended cement is basically sound and still in a
good condition.
The loose filling materials include sawdust, wood shaving and chips, bagasse,
shell of peanut, crushed pumice, brick wastes, straw, diatomaceous earth, husk
of millet, rice, wheat and recycled waste of paper, plastic and organic materials.
65

Plate (13): Pozzolanic Cement Applied in Foundation

66

Plate (14): A steel framework of expanded metal sheets for walls and
roofing
67

Plate (15): The twins shell framework filling with loose materials (Millet
Husks) in between
68

Plate (16):Pozzolanic Cement Applied in Plastering and Rendering of Room

69

Plate (17): Pozzolanic Cement Applied in Roofing

70

Chapter five: Discussion of the results:

5-1 Results of Chemical Analyses:

Results of the analysis of chemical composition of natural pozzolan were

measured for 38 samples as shown in table (3). The SiO2 content for all of these
samples are within the range of 42 to 49%. Al2O3 and Fe2O3 are within the
ranges of 9 to 15% and 7 to 10%, respectively.

Early studies sought to relate pozzolan performance with chemical analysis for
silica, alumina, or iron oxide but had little success. Today, many, but not all,
specifications have a minimum requirement for the sum of the oxides SiO 2
+Al2O3 + Fe2O3 as shown in table (7). The intention is to ensure that sufficient
potentially reactive constituents are present. ASTM C 618 requires a minimum of
70% for the sum of these oxides for Class N pozzolans, 10.0% maximum loss on
ignition, 4.0% maximum SO3, and 3.0% maximum moisture content.
The results of chemical test of the natural pozzolan specimens were compared
with the ASTM C 618 Class N pozzolana requirements, as shown in Table
(3).The natural pozzolan specimens meet the requirements for natural pozzolana
class N for loss on ignition, sulfur trioxide (SO3) and activity index with ordinary
Portland cement at 28 days, but did not meet a minimum requirement for the sum
of Fe2O3, Al2O3, and SiO2. The silica is normally considered to be the most
important and should not normally fall below 40 per cent of the total.

71

The chemical characteristic of the Bayuda pozzolana based on mineralogical

composition can be classified as basic (42- 52% SiO2) according to
(Olekambainei, A.K.E. et al, 2004), illustrated in figure (7).

Hence, the chemical composition of a pozzolana will only provide a rough guide
to its reactivity. Chemical tests tend to indicate the presence of a pozzolanic
reaction but not its magnitude. This means that the best way to determine the
reactivity of a pozzolana is to measure the compressive strength of mortar cubes
(Pozzolanas - An Introduction & Technical Brief Practical Action).

72

Table (7) physical and chemical properties of pozzolan requirements by Standard Specifications

Requirements

Blaine Fineness (m2/kg), min

Retained on 45-m (325) sieve,
max%
Strength Activity Index with cement
(%) at 7days, min
Strength Activity Index with cement
(%) at 28 days, min
Autoclave expansion (%), maximum
Dry Shrinkage (%) at 28 days, max.
(Fe2O3+Al2O3+SiO2),min.%
MgO, max. %
SO3, max. %
Loss on ignition, max. %
Free moisture, max. %
Available alkalies as Na2O, max

ASTM C 618
Fly ash
Natural

Australia
AS 1129

Canada
U.K.
CAN-A 23.5 BS 3892

Japan

None
34

None
12.5

2400
None

68

85

60

None

None

None

Pozzolan
Class N

Class F

Class C

None

34

34

34

50

75

75

75

None

75

75

75

None

0.8
0.03
70
4
10
3.0
1.5%

0.8
0.03
70

0.8
0.03
50

None

0.8

None

None

5
6
3.0

5
6
3.0

None
None
2.5

None
None
5

None
4
2.5

None
None
None

1.5
None

3.0
None

1.5
None

1.0
None

JIS A6201

Natural pozzolans are referred to as "Class N" pozzolans, defined by ASTM as: "Raw or calcined natural pozzolans that
comply with the applicable requirements for the class as given herein, such as some diatomaceous earths; opaline cherts
and shales; tuffs and volcanic ashes or pumicites, any of which may or may not be processed by calcination to induce
satisfactory properties, such as some clays and shales".

73

Figure (7): Chemistry of natural pozzolans of volcanic origin: the IUGS classification diagram
(After Snellings, R.; Mertens G.; Elsen J. 2012).

74

5-2 Results of the Physical Tests:

The compressive strength of the mortars with blended cement and reference
Portland cement were determined and the results are shown in table (6).The
reaction between pozzolana and calcium hydroxide happens after the cement
begins to hydrate. At the early age of curing, 20% of natural pozzolana
substituting Portland cement mixture is slightly lower than reference Portland
cement mortar in regard to the compressive strength as detected at samples
(P13, P24, P30, P37, P39, P45, P50, P57) and moderately lower than reference
Portland cement at samples (P1, P4, P7, P9, P18, P20, P24) .

With time, natural pozzolana keeps on reacting with the calcium hydroxide, that
produces cement hydration, and hence increasing the compressive strength
slightly. The results in Figures (8, 9, 10 and 11) show that the compressive
strength increased by time .Moreover the 30% of the natural pozzolana
substituting Portland cement result similar to that of 20 % pozzolana substituting
that revealed high mortar strength.

The high reduction in the compressive strength values observed in most of the
mortar pozzolanic samples could be attributed to fineness. Pozzolana fineness in
this study retained on the 45m (No.325) sieve by wet sieving is 65% and ASTM
C 618 limits the amount retained to 34% for natural pozzolanas. It is clearly the
pozzolanas of the study area require more grinding in order to achieve the
desired fineness, the comparison shown in table (8).
75

Table (8) Comparison pozzolanic results obtained with requirements of

Standard Specifications
Test Conducted

Result Obtain Requirements of Standard

Specifications
(Range)

1-fineness % retained on
sieve No.325 (45)
2-Setting time (Vicat)
- Initial (minutes)
- Final (minutes)

65%

34% for ASTM C618-78

classes N, pozzolana

(72-148)
(121-194)

Not < 45min for BS-12-1978

Not >420 min for BS-12-1978

3-Pozzolana activity index

with OPC at 28 days (% of
control)

77.9%

75% for ASTM C618-78

classes N, pozzolana

339
(260-274)
(148-213)
(131-147)

Min 130kg/cm for ASTM

(C595) Portland
pozzolana(type IP) cement

7days 100%: 0.0

80%: 20%
60%: 40%
50%: 50%

425
(335-383)
(228-284)
(148-230)

Min 200kg/cmfor ASTM

(C595) Portland
pozzolana(type IP) cement

14 days 100%: 0.0

80%: 20%
60%: 40%
50%: 50%

506
(350-464)
(273-362)
(192-271)

250kg/cm for IS 1489-1967

Portland Pozzolana Cement

28 days 100%: 0.0

80%: 20%
60%: 40%
50%: 50%

545
(424-509)
(294-413)
(264-319)

Min 250kg/cm for ASTM

(C595) Portland
pozzolana(type IP) cement

4-Compressive Strength
Proportion OPC: Pozzolan
(by weight)
3 days

100%: 0.0
80%: 20%
60%: 40%
50%: 50%

Type IP- Portland pozzolana cement in which the pozzolan constituent is

between 15 and 40 mass % of the Portland-pozzolan cement.

76

However, high substituted pozzolanic percentage has low compressive strength

as shown in Figures 12 &13, but as the time goes the strength increases. This
can be used in the long term strength projects.

The reaction between natural Pozzolana and Calcium Hydroxide happens after
the C3S (Tricalcium silicate (CaO)3 SiO2) and the C2S (Dicalcium silicate (CaO)2
SiO2) in the cement begins to hydrate .At the early stage of curing, 30% natural
Pozzolana substituting Portland cement mixture is moderately lower in
compressive strength than the reference OPC .

Compressive Strength Mpa

Figure 8 compressive strength of OPC& P1

77

Compressive Strength Mpa

Figure 9 compressive strength of OPC& P4

Compressive Strength Mpa

Figure 10 compressive strength of OPC& P7

78

Compressive Strength Mpa

Figure 11 compressive strength of OPC& P9

Compressive Strength Mpa

Figure12 OPC Replacement with Sample P30

79

Compressive srength Mpa

Figure13 OPC Replacement with Sample P50

60
40

7days
14days
28days
60days

20
0

20%
30%
40%
Pozzolana replacement

With time, natural Pozzolana keeps on reacting with the calcium hydroxide
produced by cement hydration and increasing the compressive strength by
producing additional the calcium silicate hydrate (C-S-H).After 28 and 60 days of
curing, 20% natural Pozzolana 80% Portland cement mixture begins to exceed
reference Portland cement in compressive strength as revealed in sample P30.

As mentioned in some literatures, after 60 days pozzolanic reaction keeps on

until there is no free Calcium hydroxide available in the mass then the
compressive strength exceeds the reference Portland cement by 30%-40%.

80

Chapter Six: Conclusion and Recommendations

6-1 Conclusions:
6-1-1 There are huge geological reserve of natural pozzolana materials such as
pumice, tuffs, and volcanic ash as outcropping on the surface in the main
volcanic field of the Bayuda Desert. Natural pozzolana of the study area has
revealed positive results as building materials. This has been internationally
proved in the process of producing Portland Pozzolana Cement (PPC), lime
Pozzolana Cement (LPC) and aerated concrete blocks, which is very popular in
both developed and under developing countries and for which relevant standard
have already been established.
6-1-2 The compressive strength tests conducted on mixture of OPC with various
percentages of pozzolana samples containing 80% OPC and 20% pozzolana
meet the BS-12-1978 requirements. Blend containing 30-50 % pozzolana
matches ASTM (C595) for Portland pozzolana cement type IP.
6-1-3 pozzolana in this study recommended to replace (30%) of OPC for use in
ordinary concrete works (i.e. structural applications), and up to 50% for non
structural purposes such as mortar, plasters, concrete blocks, renders, etc. This
has been illustrated experimental in the demonstration buildings erected by the
author and reduce the cost of buildings in Sudan.

81

6-2 Recommendations:
The following points are recommended:
1. The positive results obtained in this study can be upgraded by increasing
the fineness of pozzolana, i.e. fineness similar to or slightly greater than
that of the ordinary Portland cement (OPC).
2. To make full use of the results of this study the researcher suggests
training of professionals in cement technology and construction industry.
3. High strength of OPC is not a requirement for many basic building
applications and LPC and blended cements are ideal for use in plasters,
mortars, renders and in non structural concrete such as ground floor
slabs.
4. Detailed geological investigations and material testing is required for
development and stimulation activity in this area.
5. If this study is achieved to establish small scale plants for producing
pozzolanic cements the viability of geological reserve of the pozzolanic
materials will be proved.
6. To achieve the above mentioned recommendations there must be
coordination between government officials, local authorities, private sector
and local communities to insure proper collaboration.

82

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89