Social Inequality- refers to the creation of socially created

inequalities.
Socil stratification- it is a particular form of social inequality. Refers
to the presence of social groups which are ranked one above the other,
usually in terms of the amount of power, prestige and wealth that their
members possess
Caste system is an eg of social stratification
One social strata is dffrnt to another social strata in terms of culture,
habits, customs, traditions , life style
Hindu society is divided into 4 varnas or caste- fifth group is outcaste
AKA untouchable
Untouchables those who were considered as unclean , impure
Social stratification- involves hierarchy of caste groups. Members of
stratum have a common identity. Social stratification is only one form
of social inequality. Members of each stratum have a tendency to
develop their own subculture I.e certain norms, attitudes and values
that are distinct to them as social group.
FUNCTIONALIST PERSPECTIVE
Functionalists assume that there are certain basic needs or functional
pre requisits which must be met if society is to survive
TALCOTT PARSONS
argued that stratification systems deprived their existence from
common values.
Believed that order, stability and cooperation in society are based on
value consensus i.e a general agreement b/w members considering
what is good and worthwhile
Those who perform successfully in terms of society values will be
ranked highly, and shall receive a variety of rewards.
Stratification- inevitable part of all human societies
Stratification systems are just, right and proper, since they basically an
expression of shared values
Social stratification is inevitable since it derives it authorivey from
shared values which are a necessary part of all social systems
Functional because groups in society w/o social inequality, members of
society would not be able to effectively cooperate and work together
KINGSLEY DAVIS AND WILBERT MOORE
All social systems share certain functional prerequisites which should
be met if the system is to survive and operate efficiently

They argue that all social systems share some functional prerequisites
which must be met of the system is to survive and operate efficiently
One such prerequisite is effective role allocation and performance i.e
all roles must be filled, and they must be filled by those best able to
perform them and necessary training for them be undertaken and the
roles are performed with due diligence
All societies need some mechanism for ensuring effective role
allocation and performance. Social stratification is this mechanism
which they see as a system that attaches unequal reqards and
privileges to different positions in society.
Nutshell- these 2 regard ss as a functional necessity for all societies
Imply that social inequality is an inevitable feature
They see ss as a solution to the problem of placing and motivating
inndividuals in the social structure
MARXISM PERSPECTIVE
Radical alternative to functionalist views.
Relationship b/w major social classes is one of mutual dependence and
conflict
Political power derives its authority from economic power
Power of ruling class- arises from its ownership and control of all
material resources and factors of production
Argued that class struggle was deriving force of social change.
He then basically talks about the inequality created by a
WEBERIAN PERSPECTIVE
Saw class in economic terms
Argues that classes develop on market economies, where individuals
compete for economic gain
Class is a group of individuals who share a similar position in a market
economy and by virtue of that fact receive similar economic rewards.
Major class division is b/w those who own the factors of production and
thos who do not.
WEBEER does not agree completely with MARX when it comes to
analyzing class
He felt that factors other than the ownership or non ownership of
property are significant in the formation of classes.
Webber argues that the white collarmiddle class expands rather than
contracts, as capitalism develops
He maintains that a rational bureaucratic administration is required to
effectively handle a capitalist economy
He saw an expansion of the white collar middle class rather than its
polarization
He rejects the Marxist view that political power derives its authority
from economic power

Argued that class forms only 1 possible basis for power and the
distribution of power in society is not necessarily linked to the
distribution of class inequalities.
MARX VS WEBER- Marx attempted to reduce all forms of inequalities to
scoail class and argued that classes formed the only significant social
groups in society. But, weber argued that the evidence provides a more
complex and diversified picture of social stratification
GLOBAL STRATIFICATION
Increasing income inequality b/w the rich and the poor
First world, second world and third world countries.
Concentration of wealth in the hands of a few prevailing problems in
almost every country. Quality of life differs significantly around the
world as economic productivity is the lowest in those regions where
population growth is the highest
Low income societies distribute their wealth very unequally. Social
inequality is greater in agrarian societies than in industrial societies.
Gender inequality in poor societies= women are kept away from jobs ,
which typically means that they have many children.
An expanding population slows down jeconomic development, if there
is no job creationGlobal power relationships = some nations enrich
themselves through the political and economic control tthat they have
over other nations
AS per the theory of modernization , Industrial Revolution did not
sweep away poverty throughout the world , as not every society wants
to adopt new technology
Doing so requires a cultural environment that emphasizes the benefits
of material wealth and new ideas
Tradition is the greatest barrier to economic development
In some countries, a strong family system and a reverence for the past
dissuades people from adopting new technology
MODERNIZATIONG
AS per Modernization theory, high income countries play 4 imp rolesin
global economic development
1) controlling population( by exporting birth control tech)
2) Increasing food production
3) Introducing Industrial Technology
4) Providing foreign aid
ROSCOWS STAGES OF MODERNIZATION
Traditional stage:- Past traditions, customs and practices are
honouredNo individual freedom/change.Traditional,old fashioned
method of dong things

TAKE OF STAGE- once the grip of traition and past practices is shaken
off, people start to use their talent and skill This sparks economic
growth and a market emerges..Greater demand for goods more job
creation- people ready to take more risks- more profit
DRIVE TO TECHNOLOGICAL MATURITY-use of industrial technology
extinguishment of traditional methods. GREAter production- greater
job creations- reduction in poverty
HIGH MASS CONSUMPTION- Economic development raises standaards
of living leads to mass production mass consumptions
DEPENDENCY THEORYModel of economic and social development
that explains global inequality in terms of the historical exploitation of
poor nations by rich ones.
This analysis follows the social
conflict approach..It states that
global poverty exists due to the role played by rich nations, who for
centuries have systematically impoverished low income countries and
made them dependent on rich ones
DIPARKAR GUPTA ARTICLE- HIERARCHY AND DIFFERENCE
India most stratified of all societies. CASTE system- different forms of
subordination- leads to social stratification
Economically also india is highly stratified
Eg- of inequalities- slums at the border of residential areas.Basic
argument social stratification is synonymous with income inequality.
Scoial Stra- includes a lot more than just the caste system..SS does
not only mean differentiation, it means differentiation that is made
socially visible.THIS is done through rituals, dress codes, marriage
practices and a host of other phenomena that separates one caste
from another
M N SRINIVAS ARTICLE EVOLUTION of caste in india
Roots of the caste system = in the rig veda.INITIAL division among
the Aryans= Brahmins=priests and scholars occupying the highest
position.
Kshatriyas= warriors and rulers..Vaishyas= people who were looking
TOWARDS the end of the Rig Veda, shudras emerged as the 4th caste,
their duty was to serve the other 3 varnas..Development of
unntouchability = hinted to the elaboration of the notions of purity and
impurityThere was an emergence of a jati system all over the
country,JATI being a local, hereditary and endogamous unit practicing a
traditional occupationThere is uncertainty as to how the JATI
system emerged and spread all over the country..CASTE system

traditionally provided a certain amount of mobility, but with the

establishment of the British Rule, certin routes towards upward cast
status got closed
GS GHORYE: FEATURES OF CASTE SYSTEM
Panchayat= governing body of a casteCASTES are small and
complete social worlds I themselves, marked off definitely from one
another , thogh subsisting within the larger society.CASTE is a
separate arrangement for meting out justice to its members apart from
that of the community as a whole
RESTRICTIONS ON FEEDING AND SOCIAL INTERCOURSE
Minute rules exist with regard to what sort of food/drink can a person
accept and from what caste..BRAHMIN could accept kaccha food only
from the hands of another Brahmin and from no other castEVEN
wells were claimed to be polluted if a lower caste man would draw
water from themDIFFERENCES exist in different regions and cates.
South india, Bengal and Gujarat- no distinction b/w food as kaccha or
pakka
CIVIL AND RELIGIOUS DISABILITIES AND PRIVILEGES OF DIFFERENT
SECTIONS
RAJNI KOTHARI = RELATIONSHIP BTW CASTE AND POLITICS
The word caste is derived from castea which means Reace, breed or
kind.
Process of caste , according to Kothari is one of manipulating existing
social structures in order to mobilize support and consolidate your
position
THE role of caste differs in different aspects of politics. For eg in the
panchayati Raj system, politics is determined exclusively by the caste
factor
POST independence the introduction of democratic system and a
universal adult franchise imparted new vigour to the caste and the
caste identity. Political parties openly indulge in vote manipulation and
try to consolidate their position to be at the HELM of affairs
RAJNI Kothari has examined the relationship between caste and politics
by analyzing the issue ass to what happens to the political system
because of the vote of castes.
He found that 3 factors have penetrated the caste system, because of
which it has affected democratic politics in the country
These 3 factors are-EDUCATION, GOVT PATRONAGE, Slowly expanding
franchise( including 18-21 yr old persons who join in the elections)

ECONOMIC opprt , administrative patronage and positions of power

offered by the new institutions and the new leadership drew castes into
politics
The involvement of castes resulted in 2 things- 1) the caste system
made available to the leadership the structural and ideological basis
for political mobilization. 2) the leadership was forced to make
concessions to local opinion and organize cate for economic and
political purposes.
Conclusions drawn by rajni Kothari from the present relationship b/w
caste and politics
1) a new elite structure has emerged in politics, which is drawn
from different castes but shares a common secular outlook and is
homogeneous in terms of some values
2) Castes have assumed a new organizational form. Thus caste
associations are now functioning at various levels( universities,
hostels,cuns, govt- offices and so forth) caste conferences have
becme broad based and caste federations have emerged.
3) Castes have started functioning on a factional basis. These
factions divide both political groups as well as social groups
4) The caste identifications have given a new relevance to the
electorate system . it is not only the large castes which affect
politics but also the smaller castes which have become important
in seeking votes
BEFORE independence generally the upper caste groups occupied the
centre of the political stage in the Congress Party, that was engaged in
the freedom struggle.BUT after independence , individuals from the
middle and the lower class have also entered the political power field
THE reservation policy has enabled people from the lower cases to
emerge as leaders, while elite from the middle class emerged due to
their improved educational and socio- economic status
Thus, the caste system , which only had a ritualistic function assumed
the new role of regulating political behavior of the people
M.N SRINIVAS ON CASTE
During the last century or so the institution of caste has expanded its
scope, and has found new fields of activity.Provisions of
constitutional safeguards to the backward sections of the population,
especially the SCc and the ST;s has given a new lease of life to
caste..The building of roads all over INDIA and the introduction of the
Railways,postage, telegraph, cheap paper and printing( especially in
regional languages) enabled castes to organize like never before..A
postcard carried news of a caste meeting and the railway enabled
members scattered in far flung villages to come together when
necessary..Availability of cheap newsprint facilitated the founding
of caste journals whose aim was to promote the interests of the
individual castes

CASE STUDY ON CASTE

Andhra Pradesh triangular struggle among 3 major caste groups =
reddys, aaddas and vellammas.
Caste politics here is linked intimately with regional politics.People of
a particular caste living in a specific region have tended to give a caste
cum regional complexion to the issues facing the state
BIHAR- 4 main castes- RAJPUTS, Brahmins Kayasthas, ADivasis---- these
different caste groups extended support to different political parties
from time to time
KERALA- Nayans and Erhavas, the 2 main castes are involved in a
perpetual struggle..The communist party was the first regional party
to capture power in the state..this can be attributed to its ability to
manipulate political strategy and different caste lobbies
MAHARASHTRA
3 major castes- marathas, Brahmins and Mahars.Perpetual power
struggle b/w the Brahmins who constitute only a small percentage of
the total population of the state have enjoyed a predominant position
because of their socio cultural status.In places like kolapur and
satara Marathas enjoy a dominant position
MANDAL COMMISSION
Mandate was to consider the question of seat reservation and quotas
for people to redress caste discriminationrecommendation a
reservation of 27% for OBC in govt services and public undertakings
INDIRA SAWNEY CASE- creamy layer should be excluded from the
reservation policy.
The concept Sanskritization was first introduced by Prof. M.N. Srinivas the
famous Indian sociologist. He explained the concept of sanskritization in his book
Religion and society among the coorgs of South India to describe the cultural
mobility in the traditional caste structure of Indian society. In his study of the
coorgs of Mysore, he came to know that the lower castes were trying to raise
their status in their caste hierarchy by adopting some cultural ideals of the
Brahmins. As a result they left some of their ideals which are considered to be
impure by the Brahmins. To explain this process of mobility, Srinivas used the
term Brahminization. Later on he called it Sanskritization in a broad sense.
Defining Sanskritization Srinivas writes, Sanskritization is a process by which a
lower caste or tribe or any other group changes its customs, rituals, ideology and
way of life in the direction of a higher or more often twice-born caste.
Characteristics of Sanskritization:
1. Sanskritization is a process of imitation in Indian society, the social status of an
individual is fixed on the basis of caste hierarchy. There are many lower castes
who suffer from economic, religious or social disabilities. So in order to improve

the status, the lower castes people imitate the life style of the upper caste
people.
2. Sanskritization is a process of cultural change towards twice-born castes.
Sanskritization is a process in which the lower castes adopt the cultural patterns
of the higher castes, to raise their status in the caste hierarchical order. In some
societies the lower caste people followed not only the customs of the Brahmins
but also the customs of the locally dominant castes like Kshatriyas and Vaisyas
to raise their status.
3. Sanskritization is helpful in the social mobility of lower caste:
In this process a caste is only trying to change the status and not the social
structure.
4. Sanskritization process also followed by the tribal:
Sanskritization process is not only confined to the caste people of Hindu society,
it is also found among the tribal society.
5. The concept of Sanskritization has also given rise to De-sanskritization. There
are some instances in modern times, some of the higher castes are imitating the
behaviour pattern of lower caste, and for example Brahmins have started taking
meat and liquor. This process is called De-sanskritization .