In the context of spaceflight, a satelliteis an object which has been

placed into orbit by human endeavor. Such objects are sometimes

called artificial satellitesto distinguish them from natural satellites
such as the Moon.
History
The first fictional depiction of a satellite being launched into orbit is a
short story by Edward Everett Hale, The Brick Moon. The story was
serialized in The Atlantic Monthly, starting in 1869.The idea
surfaces again in Jules Verne's The Begum's Millions(1879).
In 1903 Konstantin Tsiolkovsky(18571935) published

(The Exploration of Cosmic Space by Means of Reaction
Devices), which is the first academic treatise on the use of rocketry to
launch spacecraft.
He calculated the orbital speed required for a minimal orbit around
the Earth at 8km/s, and that a multi-stage rocket fueled by liquid
propellants could be used to achieve this. He proposed the use of
liquid hydrogenand liquid oxygen, though other combinations can be
used.
In 1928 Herman Potonik(18921929) published his sole book, Das
Problem der Befahrung des Weltraums -der Raketen-Motor(The
Problem of Space Travel The Rocket Motor), a plan for a
breakthrough into space and a permanent human presence there. He
conceived of a space station in detail and calculated its geostationary
orbit. He described the use of orbiting spacecraft for detailed peaceful
and military observation of the ground and described how the special
conditions of space could be useful for scientific experiments. The
book described geostationary satellites (first put forward by
Tsiolkovsky) and discussed communication between them and the
ground using radio, but fell short of the idea of using satellites for
mass broadcasting and as telecommunications relays.
In a 1945 Wireless World article the English science fiction writer
Arthur C. Clarke(1917-2008) described in detail the possible use of
communications satellites for mass communications. Clarke
examined the logistics of satellite launch, possible orbits and other
aspects of the creation of a network of world-circling satellites,
pointing to the benefits of high-speed global communications. He also
suggested that three geostationary satellites would provide coverage
over the entire planet.
The first artificial satellite was Sputnik 1, launched by the Soviet
Union on 4 October1957, and that started the whole Soviet Sputnik
program, with Sergei Korolev as chief designer. This triggered the
Space Race between the Soviet Union and the United States.
Sputnik 1 helped to identify the density of high atmospheric layers
through measurement of its orbital change and provided data on
radio-signal distribution in the ionosphere.
Because the satellite's body was filled with pressurized nitrogen,
Sputnik 1also provided the first opportunity for meteoroid detection,
as a loss of internal pressure due to meteoroid penetration of the
outer surface would have been evident in the temperature data sent
back to Earth.
The unanticipated announcement of Sputnik 1's success precipitated
the Sputnik crisis in the United States and ignited the so-called Space
Race within the Cold War.
Sputnik 2 was launched on November 3, 1957 and carried the first
living passenger into orbit, a dog named Laika.
In May, 1946, Project RAND had released the Preliminary Design
of an Experimental World-Circling Spaceship, which stated, "A

satellite vehicle with appropriate instrumentation can be expected to

be one of the most potent scientific tools of the Twentieth Century
On July 29, 1955, the White House announced that the U.S.
intended to launch satellites by the spring of 1958. This became
known as Project Vanguard. On July 31, the Soviets announced that
they intended to launch a satellite by the fall of 1957.
Following pressure by the American Rocket Society, the National
Science Foundation, and the International Geophysical Year, military
interest picked up and in early 1955 the Air Force and Navy were
working on Project Orbiter, which involved using a Jupiter C rocket
to launch a satellite. The project succeeded, and Explorer 1 became
the United States' first satellite on January 31, 1958
The largest artificial satellite currently orbiting the Earth is the
International Space Station.
1950s
1957 -Soviet Union-Earth -Success -Sputnik 1is launched, the
first Earthorbiting satellite
1957 -Soviet Union-Earth -Partial success-Sputnik 2is launched,
the first Earthorbiting satellite with an animal (Laika)
1958 -USA-Earth -Success-Explorer 1
1958 -USA-Moon -Failure -Pioneer 1orbiter
1958 -USA-Moon -Failure -Pioneer 3flyby
1959 -Soviet Union-Moon -Success-Luna 1flyby launched, it
discovered solar wind
1959 -USA-Moon -Partial success -Pioneer 4flyby
1959 -Soviet Union-Moon -Success-Luna 2impactor launched, it
was the first spacecraft to impact onto the surface of the moon
1959 -Soviet Union-Moon -Success-Luna 3flyby launched, it
returned the first image of the Moon's hidden side
1960s
1960 -USA-Sun -Pioneer 5solar monitor
1960 -Soviet Union-Mars -Failure -Mars 1960Aprobe
1960 -Soviet Union-Mars -Failure -Mars 1960Bprobe
1961 -Soviet Union-Venus -Failure -1VA (proto-Venera) flyby
1961 -Soviet Union-Venus -Failure -Venera 1flyby
1961 -USA-Earth -Success -OSCAR1 First Amateur Satellite
1962 -USA-Venus -Success -Mariner 2launched and became the
first satelliteto return data about Venus
1962 -USA-Earth -Success -Telstar 1is launched
1962 -Canada-Earth -Success -Alouette 1is launched, the first
Canadian satellite
1962 -UK-Earth -Success 1962 -USA-Moon -Failure -Ranger 3photographic mission
1962 -USA-Moon -Partial Failure -Ranger 4photographic mission
(impacted lunar surface)
1962 -USA-Moon -Partial Failure -Ranger 5photographic mission
(became flyby)
1962 -Soviet Union-Mars -Failure -Mars 1962Aflyby
1962 -Soviet Union-Mars -Failure -Mars 1flyby
1962 -Soviet Union-Mars -Failure -Mars 1962Blander
1963 -USA-Earth -Failure -Syncom 1is launched
1963 -USA-Earth -Success -Syncom 2is launched; the first
geosynchronous orbit
1963 -Soviet Union-Moon -Partial Failure -Luna 4lander (became
probe)
1964 -USA-Earth -Success -Syncom 3is launched; the first
geostationary orbit
1964 -Soviet Union-Venus -Failure -Zond 1flyby
1964 -USA-Moon -Failure -Ranger 6photographic mission
1964 -USA-Moon -Success -Ranger 7photographic mission
1964 -USA-Mars -Failure -Mariner 3flyby
1964 -USA-Mars -Success -Mariner 4flyby, the first successful
Marsmission
1964 -Soviet Union-Mars -Failure -Zond 2flyby
1965 -USA-Sun -Success -Pioneer 6solar probe
1965 -Soviet Union-Venus -Failure -Venera 2flyby

1965 -Soviet Union-Venus -Failure -Venera 3atmospheric probe

1965 -USA-Moon -Success -Ranger 8photographic mission
1965 -USA-Moon -Success -Ranger 9photographic mission
1965 -Canada-Earth -Success -Alouette 2is launched aboard a
U.S. rocket
1965 -Soviet Union-Moon -Failure -Luna 5lander
1965 -Soviet Union-Moon -Failure -Luna 6lander
1965 -Soviet Union-Moon -Success -Zond 3flyby
1965 -Soviet Union-Moon -Failure -Luna 7lander
1965 -France-Satellite -Success -Astrixsatellite
1965 -Soviet Union-Moon -Failure -Luna 8lander
1965 -USA-Mars -Success -Mariner 4sends the first clear
pictures of Mars
1966 -USA-Sun -Success -Pioneer 7solar probe
1966 -Soviet Union-Moon -Success -Luna 9lander returned the
first photographs from the surface of the Moon
1966 -Soviet Union-Moon -Success -Luna 10becomes the first
spacecraft to orbit the Moon
1966 -USA-Moon -Success -Surveyor 1lander
1966 -USA-Moon -Success -Lunar Orbiter 1orbiter
1966 -Soviet Union-Moon -Success -Luna 11orbiter
1966 -USA-Moon -Failure -Surveyor 2
1966 -Soviet Union-Moon -Success -Luna 12orbiter
1966 -USA-Moon -Success -Lunar Orbiter 2orbiter
1966 -Soviet Union-Moon -Success -Luna 13lander
1967 -Australia-Earth -Success -WRESATis launched from
Woomera on a U.S. Redstonerocket, the first Australian satellite
1967 -USA-Sun -Success -Pioneer 8solar probe
1967 -Soviet Union-Venus -Success -Venera 4sends the first
data from below the clouds of Venus
1967 -USA-Venus -Success -Mariner 5flyby
1967 -USA-Moon -Success -Lunar Orbiter 3orbiter
1967 -USA-Moon -Success -Surveyor 2lander
1967 -USA-Moon -Success -Lunar Orbiter 4orbiter
1967 -USA-Moon -Failure -Surveyor 3lander
1967 -USA-Moon -Success -Explorer 35orbiter
1967 -USA-Moon -Success -Lunar Orbiter 5orbiter
1967 -USA-Moon -Success -Surveyor 5lander
1967 -USA-Moon -Success -Surveyor 6lander, also took off from
the Moon's surface
1967 -USA-Success -The gamma-ray satellite discovers gammaray emission from the plane of the Milky Way
1968 -USA-Sun -Success -Pioneer 9solar probe
1968 -USA-Moon -Success -Surveyor 7lander
1968 -Soviet Union-Moon -Success -Luna 14orbiter
1968 -Soviet Union-Moon -Success -Zond 5flyby
1968 -Soviet Union-Moon -Success -Zond 6flyby
1969 -Soviet Union-Venus -Success -Venera 5atmospheric
probe
1969 -Soviet Union-Venus -Success -Venera 6atmospheric
probe
1969 -USA-Moon -Success -Apollo 10manned orbiter
1969 -Soviet Union-Moon -Failure -Luna 15lander
1969 -Soviet Union-Moon -Success -Zond 7flyby
1969 -USA-Mars -Success -Mariner 6flyby
1969 -USA-Mars -Success -Mariner 7flyby
1970s
1970 -Japan-Earth -Success -Osumithe first Japanesesatellite
1970 -Soviet Union-Venus -Success -Venera 7, the first
successful landing of a spacecraft on another planet
1970 -Soviet Union-Moon -Success -Luna 16lander is the first
automated return of samples from the Moon
1970 -Soviet Union-Moon -Success -Zond 8flyby
1970 -Soviet Union-Moon -Success -Luna 17/Lunokhod
1lander/roveris the first automated surface exploration of the
Moon
1970 -USA-Success -Launch of Uhuru, the first dedicated X-ray
satellite

1970 -China-Success -Launch of Dong Fang Hong I, the first

Chinesesatellite
1971 -Soviet Union-Moon -Failure -Luna 18lander
1971 -Soviet Union-Moon -Success -Luna 19orbiter
1971 -USA-Mars -Failure -Mariner 8flyby
1971 -Soviet Union-Mars -Failure -Cosmos 419probe
1971 -Soviet Union-Mars -Partial Failure -Mars 2orbiter and lander,
created the first humanartifact on Mars
1971 -Soviet Union-Mars -Partial Success -Mars 3orbiter and lander,
first successful landing on Mars
1971 -USA-Mars -Success -Mariner 9orbiter, first pictures of
Mars' moons (Phobosand Deimos) taken
1971 -UK-Earth -Success -Prospero X-3satellite, first and only
satellite launched by Britainusing a British rocket
1972 -Soviet Union-Venus -Success -Venera 8lander
1972 -Soviet Union-Moon -Success -Luna 20lander
1972 -Success -Launch of the Copernicusultraviolet satellite
1972 -USA-Sun -Success -Explorer 49solar probe
1973 -USA-Venus/Mercury -Success -Mariner 10launched, it
passed by and photographed Mercury, also was the first dual
planet probe
1973 -Soviet Union-Moon -Success -Luna 21/Lunokhod
2lander/rover
1973 -Soviet Union-Mars -Failure -Mars 4orbiter
1973 -Soviet Union-Mars -Success -Mars 5orbiter
1973 -Soviet Union-Mars -Failure -Mars 6orbiter and lander
1973 -Soviet Union-Mars -Failure -Mars 7orbiter and lander
1974 -Germany-Sun -Success -Helios 1solar probe
1974 -Soviet Union-Moon -Success -Luna 22orbiter
1974 -Soviet Union-Moon -Failure -Luna 23probe
1974 -Success -Launch of the Ariel VX-ray satellite
1975 -Soviet Union-Venus -Success -Venera 9returns the first
pictures of the surface of Venus
1975 -Soviet Union-Venus -Success -Venera 10orbiter and
lander
1975 -USA-Mars -Partial Success -Viking 1orbiter and lander; lands
on Mars 1976
1975 -USA-Mars -Success -Viking 2orbiter and lander; lands on
Mars 1976
1975 -India-Earth -Success -AryabhataIndia, launched by USSR
1975 -India-India's first rocket SLV launched
1976 -Germany-Sun -Success -Helios 2solar probe
1976 -Soviet Union-Moon -Success -Luna 24lander
1976 -Earth -Success -Hermes Communications Technology
Satelliteprototype for testing direct broadcast TV
1976 -Success -The Velaand ANSX-ray satellites discover X-ray
bursts
1976 -Success -The X-ray satellite shows that X-ray bursts have
blackbody spectra
1977 -Success -Launch of the X-ray satellite
1978 -USA-Venus -Success -Pioneer Venus 1orbiter
1978 -USA-Venus -Success -Pioneer Venus 2atmospheric probe
1978 -Soviet Union-Venus -Partial Success -Venera 11flyby and
lander
1978 -Soviet Union-Venus -Success -Venera 12flyby and lander
1978 -Success -Launch of the International Ultraviolet
Explorersatellite
1978 -Success -Launch of the Einstein X-ray satellite (HEAO-2)
is the first X-ray photographs of astronomical objects
1979 -Success -Launch of the Hakucho X-ray satellite ()
1979 -Success -Launch of the cosmic-ray and X-ray satellite
1979 -USA-Jupiter -Success -Voyager 1and Voyager 2send back
images of Jupiterand its system
1980s
1980 -USA-Sun -Failure-Solar Maximum Missionsolar probe
succeeded after being repaired in Earth orbit
1981 -Soviet Union-Venus -Success -Venera 13launched, it returned
the first colour pictures of the surface of Venus
1981 -Soviet Union-Venus -Success -Venera 14flyby and lander

1983 -Soviet Union-Venus -Success -Venera 15orbiter

1983 -Soviet Union-Venus -Success -Venera 16orbiter
1983 -Success -Launch of the EXOSATX-ray satellite
1983 -Success -Launch of the Tenma X-ray satellite (ASTRO-B)
1983 -Success -Launch of the IRASsatellite
1984 -Soviet Union-Venus/Halley's Comet -Success -Vega 1flyby,
atmospheric probe and lander
1984 -Soviet Union-Venus/Halley's Comet -Success -Vega 2flyby,
atmospheric probe and lander
1986 -Europe-Halley's Comet -Success -Giottoflyby
1987 -Success -Launch of the Ginga X-ray satellite (ASTRO-C)
1988 -Soviet Union-Mars -Failure -Phobos 1orbiter and lander
1988 -Soviet Union-Mars -Partial Failure -Phobos 2flyby and lander
1989 -Venus -Success -Magellanorbiter launched which mapped 99
percent of the surface of Venus (300 m resolution)
1989 -USA-Venus/Earth/Moon/Gaspra/Ida/Jupiter -Failure Galileoflyby, orbiter and atmospheric probe
1989 -USA-Neptune -Success -Voyager 2 sends back images of
Neptune and its system
1989 -Success -Launch of the Granatgamma-ray and X-ray satellite
1989 -Europe-Success -Launch of the Hipparcossatellite
1989 -Success -Launch of the COBEsatellite
1990s
1990 -USA-Sun -Success -Ulyssessolar flyby
1990 -Japan-Moon --MUSES-Aprobe, this was the first non-U.S.or
USSRprobe to reach the Moon
1990 -USA/Europe-Success -Launch of the Hubble Space Telescope
1990 -Germany-Success -Launch of the ROSATX-ray satellite is the
first imaging X-ray sky survey
1991 -Japan-Sun -Success -Yohkohsolar probe
1991 -USA-Success -Launch of the Compton Gamma-Ray
Observatorysatellite
1992 -USA-Mars -Failure -Mars Observerorbiter
1993 -Japan-Success -Launch of the ASCA(ASTRO-D) X-ray
satellite
1994 -USA-Moon -Success -Clementineorbiter mapped the surface
of the Moon (resolution 125-150m) and allowed the first accurate
relief mapof the Moon to be generated
1995 -USA-Sun -Success -SOHOsolar probe
1996 -USA-Mars -Mars Global Surveyororbiter
1996 -USA-Mars -Success -Mars Pathfinder/Sojourner lander/rover,
the first automated surface exploration another planet
1996 -Russia-Mars -Failure -Mars 96orbiter and lander
1997 -USA/Europe -Success -Saturn and Titan -Cassini-Huygensarrived in orbit on July 1, 2004, landed on Titan January 14, 2005
1997 PhilippinesMoon Success Aguila 2 satellite
1998 -North Korea-Unknown -Claimed launch of
Kwangmyongsongby North Koreathough no independent source was
able to verify its existence
1998 -USA-Moon -Success -Lunar Prospectororbiter
1998 -Japan-Mars -Failure -Nozomi(Planet B) orbiter, the first
Japanese spacecraft to reach another planet
1998 -USA-Mars -Failure -Mars Climate Orbiter
1999 -USA-Mars -Failure -Mars Polar Lander
1999 -USA-Mars -Failure -Deep Space 2(DS2) penetrators
2000s
2001 -USA-Sun -Partial Success -Genesissolar wind sample return crash-landed on return
2001 -USA-Success -Wilkinson Microwave Anisotropy Probe
(WMAP)performs cosmological observations.
2001 -USA-Mars -Success -Mars Odyssey
2003 -Canada-Earth -Success -MOSTthe smallest space telescope
in orbit
2003 -USA-Comet Encke-Failure -CONTOURlaunched, but lost
during early trajectory insertion.
2003 -Europe-Moon -Success -Smart 1orbiter
2003 -Europe-Mars -Partial Success -Mars Expressorbiter
(successfully reached orbit) and failed lander, the Beagle 2

2003 -USA-Mars -Success -Mars Exploration Rovers-successful

launches, Spirit successfully landed, Opportunity successfully landed
2004 -ESA-Comet 67P-Rosetta space probelaunched -yet to arrive
2004 -USA-Mercury -MESSENGERorbiter -launched -yet to arrive
2004 -USA-Success -Launch of the SwiftGamma ray
burstobservatory.
2005 -Iran-Earth -Sinah-1-launched, first Iranian-built satellite
2005 -USA-Comet Tempel 1-Deep Impact-successful comet impact
2005 -USA-Mars -Mars Reconnaissance Orbiter-in orbit
2005 -Europe-Venus -Venus Express-in orbit
2006 -USA-Pluto -New Horizons-launched -yet to arrive
2006 -France/ESA -Earth -COROT-launched, telescope to search for
extrasolar planets
2007 -USA-Mars -Success -Phoenix-launched and successfully
landed
2007 -Japan-Moon -SELENEorbiter and lander -in lunar orbit since
October 3, 2007
2007 -USA-Vesta/Ceres-Dawn-launched -yet to arrive
2007 -China-Moon -Chang'e-I-in lunar orbit since November 5, 2007
2008 -India-Moon -Chandrayaan(work in progress)
List of communications satellite firsts
1928-Herman Potocnik describes a space station in
geosynchronous orbit
1945-Arthur C. Clarke proposes a station in geosynchronous orbit
to relay communications and broadcast television
1957-Sputnik 1-first satellite equipped by radio-transmitters
1958-Project SCORE-America's first communications satellite
August, 1960-Echo I-first passive reflector satellite
October, 1960-Courier 1B-first active repeater satellite
July, 1962 Telstar-first satellite designed to transmit television and
high-speed data communications
1963-Syncom-first communications satellite in geosynchronous
orbit1
March, 1965-OSCAR-III -first amateur radiocommunications satellite
October, 1965-Molniya-first Soviet communication satellite, highly
elliptic orbit
April, 1965-Early Bird-INTELSAT's first satellite for commercial
service
November, 1967-Orbita-first national TV network based on satellite
television
1973-Anik 1-first national satellite television system, Canada
April, 1945 -Westar 1-USA's first geosynchronous communications
satellite
December 19, 1974-Symphonie-first geostationary communications
satellite to be three-axis stabilized
1976-Ekran-first serial Direct-To-HomeTV communication satellite
July 8, 1976 Palapa A1-first Indonesia communications satellite
1983-TDRSS-first satellite designed to provide communications relay
services for other spacecraft.
February 2, 1985 -Arabsat-1A -first communications satellite for the
Arab League
August 10, 1994 -Turksat 1B-first communications satellite for
Turkey
January 14, 2005 -Cassini spacecraft relays to Earth images from
the Huygens probeas it lands on Saturn's moon, Titan, the longest
relay to date.
NICOMSAT1 1ST Nigeria Communication Satellite
Non-Military Satellite Services
Fixed Satellite Service
Fixed satellite services handle hundreds of billions of voice, data,
and video transmission tasks across all countries and continents
between certain points on the earths surface
Mobile Satellite Systems

Mobile satellite systems help connect remote regions, vehicles, ships

and aircraft to other parts of the world and/or other mobile or
stationary communications units, in addition to serving as navigation
systems
Scientific Research Satellite (commercial and noncommercial)
Scientific research satellites provide us with meteorological
information, land survey data (e.g., remote sensing), and other
different scientific research applications such as earth science,
marine science, and atmospheric research.
Types of Satellites
Anti-satellite weapons/Killer Satellites
-are satellites that are armed, designed to take out enemy warheads,
satellites, other space assets. They may have particle weapons,
energy weapons, kinetic weapons, nuclear and/or conventional
missiles and/or a combination of these weapons. In fiction, one has
been featured in the movie Maximum Overdrive in which one of
these, disguised as a "Weather Satellite" had taken out a UFO with
Class IV nuclear weapons and laser cannon.
Astronomical satellites are satellites used for observation of distant
planets, galaxies, and other outer space objects.
Biosatellitesare satellites designed to carry living organisms,
generally for scientific experimentation.
Communications satellitesare satellites stationed in space for the
purpose of telecommunications. Modern communications satellites
typically use geosynchronous orbits, Molniya orbitsor Low Earth
orbits.
Miniaturized satellitesare satellites of unusually low weights and
small sizes. New classifications are used to categorize these
satellites: minisatellite (500200kg), microsatellite (below 200kg),
nanosatellite (below 10kg).
Navigational satellitesare satellites which use radiotime signals
transmitted to enable mobile receivers on the ground to determine
their exact location. The relatively clear line of sight between the
satellites and receivers on the ground, combined with ever-improving
electronics, allows satellite navigation systems to measure location to
accuracies on the order of a few meters in real time.
Reconnaissance satellites are Earth observation satelliteor
communications satellitedeployed for militaryor
intelligenceapplications. Little is known about the full power of these
satellites, as governments who operate them usually keep information
pertaining to their reconnaissance satellites classified.
Earth observation satellitesare satellites intended for non-military
uses such as environmental monitoring, meteorology, map making
etc.
Space stationsare man-made structures that are designed for
human beings to live on in outer space. A space station is
distinguished from other manned spacecraft by its lack of major
propulsion or landing facilities instead, other vehicles are used as
transport to and from the station. Space stations are designed for
medium-term living in orbit, for periods of weeks, months, or even
years.
Tether satellitesare satellites which are connected to another
satellite by a thin cable called a tether.
Weather satellitesare primarily used to monitor Earth's weatherand
climate
Orbit types
The first satellite, Sputnik 1, was put into orbit around Earthand was
therefore in geocentric orbit. By far this is the most common type of
orbit with approximately 2456 artificial satellites orbiting the Earth.
Geocentric orbits may be further classified by their altitude,

inclinationand eccentricity.
The commonly used altitude classifications are Low Earth
Orbit(LEO), Medium Earth Orbit(MEO) and High Earth Orbit(HEO).
Low Earth orbit is any orbit below 2000km, and Medium Earth Orbit is
any orbit higher than that but still below the altitude for
geosynchronous orbitat 35786km. High Earth Orbit is any orbit higher
than the altitude for geosynchronous orbit.
Galactocentric orbit: An orbit about the center of a galaxy. Earth's
sun follows this type of orbit about the galactic center of the Milky
Way.
Heliocentric orbit: An orbit around the Sun. In our Solar System, all
planets, comets, and asteroids are in such orbits, as are many
artificial satellites and pieces of space debris. Moons by contrast are
not in a heliocentric orbit but rather orbit their parent planet.
Geocentric orbit: An orbit around the planet Earth, such as the
Moon or artificial satellites. Currently there are approximately 2465
artificial satellites orbiting the Earth.
Areocentric orbit: An orbit around the planet Mars, such as moons
or artificial satellites
Altitude classifications
Low Earth Orbit(LEO): Geocentric orbits ranging in altitude from 0
2000 km (01240 miles)
Medium Earth Orbit(MEO): Geocentric orbits ranging in altitude
from 2000 km (1240 miles) to just below geosynchronous orbit at
35786 km (22240 miles). Also known as an intermediate circular orbit.
High Earth Orbit(HEO): Geocentric orbits above the altitude of
geosynchronous orbit35786 km (22240 miles).
Inclination classifications
Inclined orbit: An orbit whose inclination in reference to the
equatorial plane is not zero degrees.
Polar orbit: An orbit that passes above or nearly above both poles of
the planet on each revolution. Therefore it has an inclination of (or
very close to) 90 degrees.
Polar sun synchronous orbit: A nearly polar orbit that passes the
equatorat the same local time on every pass. Useful for image taking
satellites because shadows will be nearly the same on every pass.
Eccentricity classifications
Circular orbit: An orbit that has an eccentricity of 0 and whose path
traces a circle.
Hohmann transfer orbit: An orbital maneuver that moves a
spacecraft from one circular orbit to another using two engine
impulses. This maneuver was named after Walter Hohmann.
Elliptic orbit: An orbit with an eccentricity greater than 0 and less
than 1 whose orbit traces the path of an ellipse.
Geosynchronous transfer orbit: An elliptic orbit where the perigee
is at the altitude of a Low Earth Orbit (LEO) and the apogee at the
altitude of a geosynchronous orbit.
Geostationary transfer orbit: An elliptic orbit where the perigee is
at the altitude of a Low Earth Orbit (LEO) and the apogee at the
altitude of a geostationary orbit.
Molniya orbit: A highly elliptic orbit with inclination of 63.4and
orbital period of half of a sidereal day(roughly 12 hours). Such a
satellite spends most of its time over a designated area of the planet.
Tundra orbit: A highly elliptic orbit with inclination of 63.4and
orbital period of one sidereal day(roughly 24 hours). Such a satellite
spends most of its time over a designated area of the planet.
Hyperbolic orbit: An orbit with the eccentricity greater than 1. Such
an orbit also has a velocity in excess of the escape velocity and as
such, will escape the gravitational pull of the planet and continue to
travel infinitely.
Parabolic orbit: An orbit with the eccentricity equal to 1. Such an
orbit also has a velocity equal to the escape velocity and therefore will
escape the gravitational pull of the planet and travel until its
velocityrelative to the planet is 0. If the speed of such an orbit is
increased it will become a hyperbolic orbit.

Escape orbit(EO): A high-speed parabolic orbit where the object

has escape velocity and is moving away from the planet.
Capture orbit: A high-speed parabolic orbit where the object has
escape velocity and is moving toward the planet.
Synchronous orbit: An orbit where the satellite has an orbital period
equal to the average rotational period(earth's is: 23 hours, 56
minutes, 4.091 seconds) of the body being orbited and in the same
direction of rotation as that body. To a ground observer such a
satellite would trace an analemma(figure 8) in the sky.
Semi-synchronous orbit(SSO): An orbit with an altitude of
approximately 20200 km (12544.2 miles) and an orbital period equal
to one-half of the average rotational period (earth's is approximately
12 hours) of the body being orbited
Synchronous classifications
Geosynchronous orbit(GEO): Orbits with an altitude of
approximately 35786 km (22240 miles). Such a satellite would trace
an analemma(figure 8) in the sky.
Geostationary orbit(GSO): A geosynchronous orbitwith an
inclination of zero. To an observer on the ground this satellite would
appear as a fixed point in the sky.
Clarke orbit: Another name for a geostationary orbit. Named after
scientist and writer Arthur C. Clarke.
Supersynchronous orbit: A disposal / storage orbit above
GSO/GEO. Satellites will drift west. Also a synonym for Disposal orbit.
Subsynchronous orbit: A drift orbit close to but below GSO/GEO.
Satellites will drift east.
Graveyard orbit: An orbit a few hundred kilometers above
geosynchronous that satellites are moved into at the end of their
operation.
Disposal orbit: A synonym for graveyard orbit.
Junk orbit: A synonym for graveyard orbit.
Areosynchronous orbit: A synchronous orbit around the planet
Marswith an orbital period equal in length to Mars' sidereal day,
24,6229 hours.
Areostationary orbit(ASO): A circular areosynchronous orbit on the
equatorial plane and about 17000 km(10557 miles) above the
surface. To an observer on the ground this satellite would appear as a
fixed point in the sky.
Heliosynchronous orbit: An heliocentric orbit about the Sun where
the satellite's orbital period matches the Sun's period of rotation.
These orbits occur at a radius of 24,360 Gm (0,1628 AU) around the
Sun, a little less than half of the of Mercury.
Sun-synchronous orbit: An orbit which combines altitude and
inclination in such a way that the satellite passes over any given point
of the planets's surface at the same local solar time. Such an orbit
can place a satellite in constant sunlight and is useful for imaging,
spy, and weather satellites.
Moon orbit: The orbital characteristics of earth's moon. Average
altitude of 384403 kilometres (238857 mi), elliptical-inclined orbit.
Pseudo-orbit classifications
Horseshoe orbit: An orbit that appears to a ground observer to be
orbiting a certain planet but is actually in co-orbit with the planet.
Exo-orbit: A maneuver where a spacecraft approaches the height of
orbit but lacks the velocity to sustain it.
Suborbital spaceflight: A synonym for exo-orbit.
Lunar transfer orbit(LTO)
Prograde orbit: An orbit with an inclination of less than 90. Or
rather, an orbit that is in the same direction as the rotation of the
primary.
Retrograde orbit: An orbit with an inclination of more than 90. Or
rather, an orbit counter to the direction of rotation of the planet. Apart
from those in sun-synchronous orbit, few satellites are launched into
retrograde orbit because the quantity of fuel required to launch them
is much greater than for a prograde orbit. This is because when the
rocket starts out on the ground, it already has an eastward
component of velocity equal to the rotational velocity of the planet at
its launch latitude.

Halo orbitand Lissajous orbit: Orbits "around" Lagrangian points.

Satellite Modules
Spacecraft bus or service module
This first module consist of five subsystems:
The Structural SubsystemsThe structural subsystem provides the
mechanical base structure, shields the satellite from extreme
temperature changes and micro-meteorite damage, and controls the
satellites spin functions.
The Telemetry SubsystemsThe telemetry subsystem monitors the
on-board equipment operations, transmits equipment operation data
to the earth control station, and receives the earth control stations
commands to perform equipment operation adjustments.
The Power SubsystemsThe power subsystem consists of solar
panels and backup batteries that generate power when the satellite
passes into the earths shadow.
The Thermal Control SubsystemsThe thermal control subsystem
helps protect electronic equipment from extreme temperatures due to
intense sunlight or the lack of sun exposure on different sides of the
satellites body
The Attitude and Orbit Controlled Control SubsystemsThe
attitude and orbit controlled subsystem consists of small rocket
thrusters that keep the satellite in the correct orbital position and keep
antennas positioning in the right directions.
Communication Payload
The second major module is the communication payload, which is
made up of transponders.
A transponders is capable of:
Receiving uplinked radio signals from earth satellite
transmission stations (antennas).
Amplifying received radio signals
Sorting the input signals and directing the output signals
through input/output signal multiplexers to the proper downlink
antennas for retransmission to earth satellite receiving stations
(antennas).