Chp 24: The Americas and Oceania

Intro

Malintzin, AKA Dona Marina, played pivotal role in Spanish conquest of Mexico
Principal language of Aztec people was Nahuatl
Sent to Mexican coast as slave, later sent to Yucatan Peninsula, became
fluent in Maya
Hernan Cortes arrived w/ his army, 1 soldier spoke Maya, communicated with
Marina
Soldiers were on their way to Aztect capital of Tenochtitlan
Dona Marina learned Spanish and helped warn Cortes of attacks by the
Natives
Marina got the name La Malinche, or the traitor, for helping w/ Cortess
invasions
This represented 1 of the many problems Aztecs dealt with
B/c of symbolic richness, Marina attained the status of mother of the Mexican
peoples
She had two children with Cortes, which symbolizes emergence of a mestizo
population
Some Norse sailors & Asian or Austronesian mariners probably had contact
with American Indigenous peoples before Columbus, but not much interaction
until 15thC
Because of their advanced technology, weaponry, and immunity to diseases,
Europeans established large presence throughout Americas & Pacific basin
after 1492
Europeans didnt lead to immediate change in Australia and Pacific islands
In western hemisphere, European migrants brought about transformation to
form new worlds

I: Colliding Worlds

More important than European technology were the divisions between

indigenous peoples and the Europeans and the effects of epidemic diseases
that devastated native societies
Spanish conquerors then toppled the Aztec & Inca empires & took over
Mexico & Peru
Later, Portuguese planters built sugar plantations in Brazil
European migrants displaced indigenous peoples in North America &
established colonies

A: The Spanish Caribbean

Europeans & Americans first interacted in Caribbean

Spanish mariners interacted with the Taino (Arawaks)- most prominent people

Taino ancestors sailed in canoes from Orinoco River valley (S. America) to C
Islands
Lived in small villages led by chiefs who allocated land & supervised
community affairs
Were interested in glass, beads, & metal tools brought by Spanish, showed
little resistance
Columbus made Hispaniola (Haiti & D.R.) base of Spanish operations in the
Caribbean (1492)
Spanish settlers established fort of Santo Domingo (capital) there
Plan was to build ports where merchants could trade with natives, but
Caribbean region offered no silks or spices for the European market
First tried to support society by mining gold, but didnt have enough settlers
They used the Taino people to mine gold- recruited via encomienda, which
gave Spanish encomenderos (settlers) the right to make the Taino work their
mines or fields
In exchange, Spanish looked after their health and encouraged conversion to
Christianity
Taino were punished harshly if they didnt work hard enough in the field
Staged rebellions, but were no match for the armed Spanish
Social disruption and abuse brought decline to Taino populations by 1515
To replace laborers lost by disease, Spanish made Taino slaves, which
increased disease
Native population went from 4 million to a few thousand in ~50 years
Taino cultural elements that survived: canoe, hammock, hurricane, barbecue,
maize, tobacco
Spanish seeked treasure in Caribbean until silver was found in Mexico & Peru
Then, the Caribbean became inactive except for pirates & was not a center of
production
In 1640s, French, English, & Dutch went to Caribbean to form plantations
Supreme conditions to grow sugar & tobacco = high prices in European
markets $$
Planters lacked labor since the indigenous population was killed out, so they
imported millions of African slaves, who made up most of the Caribbean
population

B: The Conquest of Mexico and Peru

Spanish soon became more interested in American mainland, hoping to find

more resources
Conquistadores moved into Mexico & Panama & Peru
Hernan Cortes & his men brought down the Aztec empire in Mexico
Francisco Pizarro toppled the Inca empire in Peru

Spanish found societies different in Mexico & Peru- agricultural societies &
large states
Mexica people founded Aztec empire that expanded to most of Mesoamerica
Incas imposed rule from Ecuador to Chile (largest state in S. America)
Both empires had large populations and govt could collect taxes, mobilize
men, etc.
In search of gold, Cortes led 450 men to Mexico, traveled from Veracruz to
Tenochtitlan
Seized emperor Motecuzoma II, who died during fight between Aztecs &
Spanish
Cuauhtemoc, nephew & son-in-law of Motecuzoma, offered leadership
Cortes sieged the city in 1521
Steel swords, muskets, cannons, & horses helped Cortes overcome large
native population
Cortes benefited from divisions of the Aztec people- unwilling to band
together
Was helped by Dona Marina- got natives who resented govt to help fight w/
the Spanish
Diseases (mainly smallpox) helped to kill tens of thousands of natives
Smallpox caused Aztec society to be unable to function, thus they suffered
defeat
Francisco Pizarro led Spanish expedition from C. America to Peru w/ 180
soldiers in 1530
Later he was joined by reinforcements to make a force of 600
Arrive in Peru after a dispute b/t Huascar & Atahualpa, 2 brothers in ruling
house
Pizarros forces took advantage of the times & took Incan capital in Cuzco by
1533
Called Inca ruling elites together for a meeting and killed them
Spared Atahualpa until he delivered a large quantity of gold (then strangled &
decapitated)
After conquering, Pizarro continued to look for treasure- took gold & silver
plaques from public buildings, melted statuettes, took jewelry & ornaments
from bodies of dead rulers
Pizarros tiny force succeeded because many Incas hated the govt and didnt
resist Spanish
Epidemic disease helped kill off a lot of the population- ruled Peru by 1540
(took longer to conquer Peru than Mexico)
4 Reasons the Spanish could topple big empires-diseases, technology, aligned
with tribes that hated Aztecs and Incas, and the Spanish were welcomed bc
they were viewed as deities
Cortex-led against Aztecs
Pizarro-led against incans

C: Iberian Empires in the Americas

Conquests of Mexico and Peru result of individual efforts

Originally, Cortes & Pizarro allocated lands and labor rights to their troops
Eventually, land of the conquistadores under formal rule under the Spanish
crown
Bureaucrats implemented royal policy and replaced the soldiers who
previously did
Two main centers of authority- Mexico (New Spain) and Peru (New Castile)
Mexico City and Lima
Viceroys = kings representatives in the Americas, had considerable power
Audencias were courts that reviewed policies and cases against viceroys
Transportation and communication difficulties impeded viceroys supervisory
powers
Local administration fell to audencias in many regions
Spanish monarchy in Spain didnt influence American affairs, didnt respond
to queries
Viceroys often altered kings orders
Spanish rule in Americas led to establishment of cities
Jurisdiction of viceroyality in New Spain- St. Augustine, Florida > Mexico City
Jurisdiction of viceroyality in Peru- Panama > Concepcion & Buenos Aires
Portuguese forces established an imperial presence in Brazil
Treaty of Tordesillas, signed by Spain and Portugal, drew imaginary line 370
leagues west of the Azores and Cape Verde Islands- Spain had any land to
west, so long as it was not already under Christian rule, and Portugal gained
same rights for lands to the east.
Portuguese mariner Pedro Alvares de Cabral sailed to Brazil- at first had no
interest, then claimed the land. Eventually established a governor and gave
land grants to nobles
Cities of Iberian empires became centers of European-style society in the
Americas
Ways of indigenous people also existed- no agricultural surplus & no minerals
Spanish and Portuguese colonists in Amazon basin & Paraguay, for example,
adapted to indigenous societies- manioc flour bread, Guarani & Tupi
languages, etc.
Western hemisphere land to exploit and administer more than land to settle
& colonize
King + Monarchs directly ruled latin America colonies
Independent Countries funded north America
Spanish and Portuguese set to exploit and brought only men (85%)

D: Settler Colonies in North America

During 16th century, explorers sought opportunities north of Mexico &

Caribbean
French, English, Dutch mariners sailed North Atlantic for fish, passage to Asia,
and began to dislodge Spanish colonists
French established permanent colonies at Port Royal (Nova Scotia) & Quebec---Canada
English founded Jamestown in 1607 & Massachusetts Bay Colony- mainly in
United States
Dutch built settlement at New Amsterdam (seized by Englishbecame New
York)
Life in early settlements was difficult- hoped to sustain communities by
valuable goods
Relied on provisions sent from Asia, and sometimes avoided starvation thanks
to indigenous
60 of 500 Jamestown inhabitants died during the Winter of 1609-1610
Some resorted to cannibalism to survive
Whereas Iberian explorations had royal backing, French, English based on
private investors
French & English colonies were more self governed and people had more
control, but still subject to royal authority
French and English colonies didnt not have large centralized states of
indigenous peoples like the Iberian colonies had- many Natives moved
villages frequently with hunting and there were many cultures
Fertile farmland attracted many Europeans- land that Natives commonly
crossed
Europeans made treaties with the peoples whose lands they colonized
Natives frequently raided English farms and villages b/c didnt like English law
1622- natives massacred 1/3 of Europeans in Chesapeake region
Edward Waterhouse, raid survivor, advocated annihilation of indigenous
population- had long quote of the ways he could be victorious and kill them
Diseases and conflicts reduced indigenous populations- from 5-10 million to
600k

II: Colonial Society in the Americas

Relations b/t Americans, Europeans, and Africans, led to mestizo population

Europeans controlled economic affairs in Americas- brought supplies to
European capitalist markets
Established Christian religion as dominant faith

A: The Formation of Multicultural Societies

Europeans didnt enter interior of Americas until 19th century

Adventurer Alvar Nunez de Vaca (Spanish nobleman) traveled w/ 300 to

Florida
Most of the people died- built boats to get across Gulf of Mexico when strong
current of Mississippi River pushed flotilla (boats) into gulf and fierce storm
destroyed boats
Washed up near Galveston, Texas, and fell captive to natives (8 years as
slaves, physicians)
All European territories became multicultural societies- varied ancestry
European or Euro-American dominance in all societies
Spanish and Portuguese territories became ethnically mixed b/c of migration
patterns
Migrants to Iberian colonies were mostly men- had to have relations w/
indigenous women
Gave rise to a mestizo (mixed) society
Most Spanish migrants went to Mexicolarge mestizo population
In Peru, more women- most people lived in cities, closer communities than in
Mexico
In the colonial cities, Spanish migrants married among themselves- less
mestizos in Peru
Few European women in Brazil- Portuguese men had relations with indigenous
& Africans
Brazil had large mestizo population, zambo population, and mulatto
population
Mulatto- born of Portuguese and African parents-- Zambo- born of indigenous
and African parents
Peninsulares- migrants born in Europe- stood at top of social class
Those who were born in Americas from European parents- criollos or creoles
Originally, mestizos lived on edges of society, but eventually became more
important (Brazil and Mexico)
Mulattoes and zambos, although had large populations, were subordinate
Imported slaves and conquered peoples stood at the very bottom of social
hierarchy
Women were more numerous among the French and English- married w/ own
groups
French fur traders associated with native women and produced metis
(mixed)
In French colonial cities (Port Royal and Quebec), mixed relations less
common
Mingling b/t peoples of difference ancestry least common in English colonies
N. America
English settlers attempted to maintain sharp boundaries b/t themselves &
natives & slaves

English settlers still interacted with Americans and Africans- borrowed cultural
elements
Took native terms to refer to unfamiliar things, adapted clothing, gave up
European military customs, borrowed African food crops, cultivation
techniques
Still, unlike Iberians, discouraged relationships b/t two individuals of different
ancestry

B: Mining and Agriculture in the Spanish Empire

Greatest attractions of the Americas to the Spanish were metals

Looted Aztec and Inca treasures and melted gold & silver to form ingots
Other Spanish migrants opened mines to get more gold and silver
Silver was most abundant American treasure- also outweighed in price and
value
Silver located in Mexican north (around Zacatecas), and high, cold, central
Andes (Potosi)
Both sites had many indigenous laborers- many went to Zacatecas voluntarily
b/c home villages experienced conquest and disease
Indigenous became pro miners, spoke Spanish, and lost touch with
communities of birth
Potosi was a boomtown- pop of 150k, relied mostly on voluntary labor, also
used draft labor
Mita system- draft labor, first used in Inca society, to get people to work in
mines
Required native village to send 1/7 of male pop to work for 4 months
Laborers got paid, wages low, conditions harsh- death rates high- some fled
to evade mita
Draft laborers only represented 10% of workforce at Potosi
Mining industries stimulated world economy- profits for private investors & for
the crown
Spanish govt reserved 1/5 of silver production for itself- known as quinto
Quinto represented principal revenue that the crown got from American
possessions
Silver made its way to European markets- traded for silk, spices, porcelainalso Asian
Apart from mining, principal occupations were farming, stock raising, & craft
production
These merchants^ made profits by selling things to mining towns
Most of the agricultural and craft works was the estate, or hacienda- self
sufficient
Most food crops were of European origin- wheat, grapes, pig & cattle meat
Indigenous population recruited via encomienda system (developed during
Reconquista)

Rewarded conquerors by getting labor and tribute from defeated Moorish

populations
Encomenderos required to look after the physical and spiritual welfare of
workers
After encomienda, Spanish resorted to system of debt peonage to recruit
labor
Landowners advanced loans to native people so they could buy supplies to
farm
Debtors were supposed to pay, but many never did b/c of low wages
Some indigenous peoples resisted work by rebellion, halfhearted work,
retreated into mountains & forestslike the Pueblo revolt, which was led by
native shaman Pope
Another rebellion of 60k people led by Tupac Amaru (last Inca ruler)beheaded him
Felipe Guaman Poma de Ayala sent 1,200 page letter w/ 400 drawings to King
Philip III of Spain asking for protection
Told & warned king that women forced into prostitution, wives seized, over
taxation, etc
After workers stopped working, used slaves

C: Sugar and Slavery in Portuguese Brazil

Portuguese empire in Brazil depended on production and export of sugar

Relied on African slaves as laborers- Africans became majority
Colonical Brazilian life revolved around the sugar mill, or engenho
Engenho (engine) refers to sugar mill, but came to represent land, labor,
buildings, animals, capital, and technical skills related to production of sugarreqd extensive processing
Thus, engenhos combined agricultural and industrial enterprisesvery
complex
Portuguese planters and owners of sugar mills were privileged class- had lots
of power
Got strong royal supportowners often had financial hardships
Locals resisted working and retreated to interior lands
Many diseases (smallpox) ravaged area and killed indigenous population- few
laborers
Used slaves since there were few local laborers- constantly needed more
slaves
Business of producing Brazilian sugar was brutal- every town of sugar cost
one human life

D: Fur Traders and Settlers in North America

European mariners traded fur w/ indigenous, then found rich fur lands near
Hudson Strait
Built forts and trading posts so they could get fur
Traded fur pelts w/ indigenous for goods like wool, iron, guns, etc
Beavers- chief targets of fur trade- often declined rapidly, causing Europeans
to enter unknown lands in search of more beavers, thus sparking war
Fur trade also took place in context of competition b/t European states
Iroquois, who allied with Dutch, had firearms and almost annihilated Hurons
during war
European cultivators displaced indigenous peoples and rid hunting grounds
Original colonies had difficulty growing crops- natives provided them w/ food
In Virginia and Carolinas, English settlers produced tobacco (Colombus
observed Taino smoking plant through Tobago pipe)nicotine named after
French diplomat Jean Nicot
Many associated healing powers w/ tobacco- called it the herb panacea,
divine tobacco, or holy herb nicotine
Southern plantations produced ride, indigo and tobacco, also cotton by 19th
century
Plantations = high demand for cheap labor- initially recruited indentured
European servants
Obliged to 4-7 years of work, then new, independent lifemany died before
end of work
Also used slave laborers from Africaeventually all blacks were slaves
Not much slave labor in northern colonies since climate didnt permit
plantations
Economies of northern colonies benefited from slave labor- boats, rum (sugar
from slaves)

E: Christianity and Native Religions in the Americas

Explorers also had desire to spread Christianity

Priests served as representatives of the crown and reinforced civil
administrators
Franciscan, Dominican, Jesuit, campaigned to Christianize indigenous peoples
Franciscans made a school in Tlatelolco, Mexico- market district of
Tenochtitlan
Bernardino de Sahagun preserved info on language, customs, beliefs,
literature, history of Mexico before arrival of Spanish forces- shed light on
Aztec society and early missionaries
Indigenous peoples in Mexico & Peru resisted Christianity- practiced in caves,
etc
In wake of conquest and disease, some Mexicans believe their Gods hated
them
Adopted Christianity and blended it with their own interests

Mestizo society of Mexico embraced the Virgin of Guadalupe

VoG worked miracles on those who visited the shrine of meeting of Juan Diego
and V Mary
VoG symbolized distinctly Mexican faith & promise of salvation
French and English missionaries didnt get many followers, since they didnt
rule many conquered peoples and English also didnt care to convert
indigenous peoples
French worked to convert native communities in St Lawrence, Mississippi,
Ohio River areas
Although many natives didnt convert, guaranteed European religious
traditions in America

III: Europeans in the Pacific

Europeans explored Australia and Pacific islands

Natives had no immunity to disease, thus were killed when Europeans arrived
Had permanent settlements in Guam and the Mariana Islands
Scouting of region led to intense interactions of Europeans, Euro-Americans,
Asian, Oceanic

A: Australia and the Larger World

Terra australis incognita- unknown southern land- thought there was a large
S. landmass
Dutch sailors made first recorded European sightings of continent in 1606
Dutch VOC authorized voyages, but not much to gain in Australia
Dutch mariner Jan Carstenz reported he had seen no trees or anything man
could use
Still, many Dutch merchants traveled there- Australia became known as New
Holland
No one visited eastern coast of Australia until James Cook (English)
European mariners didnt stay long enough to become familiar w/ indigenous
peoples
Considered indigenous as savages since they hunted- therefore Europeans
didnt permanently settle there
Cook anchored at Botany Bay and report region could be permanently settled
British fleet brought convicts to Australia to form the first penal colony
Australia wasnt linked to larger world until 19th and 20th centuries

B: The Pacific Islands and the Larger World

Entry of European mariners into Pacific Ocean basin didn't bring immediate
change
Guam and Mariana Islands underwent dramatic change earlier- set stage for
more islands

Magellan encountered Marianas, dominated by Guam, in 1521

Spanish mariners used Manila galleon trade- Manila and Acapulco- in 1565
Since goal was to link New Spain to Asian markets, didnt explore more in
Pacific Ocean
Visited some Pacific islands, but found mostly nothing to interest them
Manila galleons went to Guam, traded with indigenous Chamorro people
Spanish govt wanted to bring Mariana Islands & Guam under control of
viceroy
Chamorro opposed, but they were harmed by smallpox epidemic
At first, Europeans not interested in Pacific Islands, then in 18th century were
interested
English & French explored Pacific basin in search of commercial opportunities,
NW passage
Frequently visited Tahiti, began to trade with the islanders
Had sexual relations with Tahitian women in exchange for nails, knives, iron,
etc.
Trade was mostly peaceful, but occasional misunderstandings let to minor
skirmishes
James Cook happened across Hawaiian Islands- communicated w/ them on
basis of familiarity w/ Tahitians and traded pigs and provisions for iron
Sailors and island women had relations- disease spread
When Cook revisited Hawaii in 1779, islanders were less accommodating
Dispute over petty thefts escalated to larger conflict, taking Cooks life
Eventually, many European & Euro-American whalers, missionaries,
merchants, and planters became prominent figures in all major Pacific island
groups
Later, interactions among islanders, visitors, and migrants brought rapid &
often unsettling change to Pacific islands societies

Doa Marina was a Mexican woman who aided Corts in his conquest of the
Aztecs.
The term mestizo refers to an individual of indigenous and European
parentage.
The most important factor in explaining the Spanish victory over the Aztecs and
Incas was the devastating loss of life caused by European-borne diseases.
The first people of the Americas to come into contact with the Spanish were the
Tainos.
Christopher Columbuss first plan was to build trading posts where merchants
could trade with the local population.

The encomenderos were Spanish settlers.

The population of the Caribbean went from about 4 million in 1492 to _______ in
the 1540s
a few thousand

Hernn Corts was responsible for the conquest of the Aztecs.

The last emperor of the Aztec empire was Motecuzoma II.
The conquistador who conquered the Inca was Pizarro.
The last emperor of the Inca empire was Atahualpa.
The conquistadores eventually lost control and were replaced by formal rule by
the Spanish crown.
The two centers of Spanish royal authority in the Americas were Lima and
Mexico City.
The chief Spanish royal administrators in the Americas were the viceroys.
The power of the viceroys was checked by reviews led by the Spanish king
himself.
The Treaty of Tordesillas split Central and South America between Spain and
Portugal.
The Portuguese began to show much more interest in Brazil after the
establishment of profitable sugar plantations.
The English, French, and Dutch were more interested in setting up permanent colonies than the Spanish.

Which of the following sites in North America was originally a Dutch colony? New
York
The English colony of Jamestown was nearly destroyed due to mass starvation.

Which of the following was not a difference between the Spanish approach to colonization and that of the English and
French? The English and French viewed the indigenous populations as their equals.
Which of the following was not true of the American Indians that the English and French came into contact with?
The Indians guarded their claims to private ownership of land even more jealously than the Europeans did.
The Indian population in the present-day United States stood at five million to ten million in 1492 and at ________ in
1800. six-hundred thousand

Spanish migrants who were born in Europe were known as peninsulares.

The mtis were individuals of French and indigenous parentage.

For the Spanish, the greatest attraction of the Americas was precious metals.
By the seventeenth century, the most prominent site of agriculture in Spanish
America was the hacienda.
To provide labor for their sugar plantations, the Portuguese relied on imported
African slaves as laborers.
In North America the Europeans initially found a profitable commodity when they
bartered for fur.
Plantations created a high demand for cash crops.

The first plentiful labor force for North America was indentured servants.
The Virgin of Guadalupe essentially became a national symbol for Mexico.
The first recorded European sighting of Australia was made by the Dutch.
Which of the following countries established the first permanent settlement in
Australia? England
The British initially made use of Australia as a penal colony.
In the 1670s and 1680s, the Spanish were interested in consolidating control in this area because it lay directly on the
route from Acapulco to Manila. Guam

Which of the following colonies generated great interest in the Pacific? Hawai`i.