Professional Documents
Culture Documents
Spring 2010
10-OR-0002
Mark A. Andersen
Executive Editor, Oilfield Review
Mark A. Andersen, Executive Editor of Oilfield Review and Manager of
Oilfield Executive Communications, joined Schlumberger and the Oilfield
Review staff in 2000. He began his career in 1981 as a researcher in production rock properties at Amoco Research Center in Tulsa. He subsequently
spent several years in Stavanger, where he managed Amoco Norways external research program and wrote Petroleum Research in North Sea Chalk.
Mark is the author of many technical papers describing his own and other
scientists work, including 23 articles for Oilfield Review. He earned a BS
degree in engineering physics from the University of Oklahoma at Norman,
USA, and MS and PhD degrees in physics from The Johns Hopkins University
in Baltimore, Maryland, USA.
Schlumberger
Oilfield Review
www.slb.com/oilfieldreview
Executive Editor
Mark A. Andersen
Advisory Editor
Lisa Stewart
Senior Editors
Matt Varhaug
Rick von Flatern
Editors
Vladislav Glyanchenko
Tony Smithson
Michael James Moody
Contributing Editors
Rana Rottenberg
Glenda de Luna
Design/Production
Herring Design
Steve Freeman
Illustration
Chris Lockwood
Mike Messinger
George Stewart
Printing
Wetmore Printing Company
Curtis Weeks
On the cover:
On site at a gas well, experts ready an
electromagnetic corrosion-monitoring
tool for a logging trip to assess pipe
integrity. Transmitters and receivers on
the tool mandrel determine geometric
and electromagnetic pipe parameters.
Sensors on the 18 arms provide an
azimuthal map of damage2D image
logs (inset ) that indicate local thickness
and damage to the inside of the pipe.
Water
Oil
Spring 2010
Volume 22
Number 1
ISSN 0923-1730
Advisory Panel
Abdulla I. Al-Kubaisy
Saudi Aramco
Ras Tanura, Saudi Arabia
Dilip M. Kale
ONGC Energy Centre
Delhi, India
Roland Hamp
Woodside Energy Ltd.
Perth, Australia
George King
Apache Corporation
Houston, Texas, USA
Eteng A. Salam
PERTAMINA
Jakarta, Indonesia
Richard Woodhouse
Independent consultant
Surrey, England
51 Contributors
54 Coming in Oilfield Review
55 New Books
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Mauro Amaya
Ral Amaya
Hctor Castao
Eduardo Lozano
Carlos Fernando Rueda
Ecopetrol SA
Bogot, Colombia
At some point in the operational life of an oil field, natural drive dwindles and
Jon Elphick
Cambridge, England
additional energy is needed to sustain production rates. In the Casabe field waterflooding has been used to enhance oil recovery. However, a combination of sensitive
lithology, structural complexity and water channeling caused hardware to fail and
wells to collapse, disrupting the waterflood efficiency. New techniques in geologic
125
Water
Oil
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15
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2010
2008
2006
2004
2002
2000
1998
1996
1994
1992
1990
1988
1986
1984
1982
1980
25
1978
100
20
1976
25
1974
Walter Gambaretto
Leonardo Mrquez
Diana Paola Olarte Caro
Juan Peralta-Vargas
Arvalo Jos Velsquez Marn
Bogot
Operational year
> Casabe oil production and water injection. Waterflood pilot projects took place in the late 1970s, but it
was not until 1985 that the first of two major waterflood programs began. During the first three years of
each program, high injection rates were possible; however, water soon found ways through the most
permeable sands. Early breakthrough and well collapse forced the operator to choke back injection.
The steady decline in injection was accompanied by a decline in production, and attempts to reverse
this trend were unsuccessful. In 2004, when the Casabe alliance was formed, production rates were
5,200 bbl/d. By early February 2010, these rates had increased to more than 16,000 bbl/d.
Oilfield Review
During the secondary-recovery period, structural complexities, sensitive shales, heterogeneous sands and viscous oils all conspired to
undermine the effectiveness of the waterflood.
And although initially successful at increasing
production, injected water broke through prematurely at the production wells, an indicator of
bypassed oil (previous page). Sand production
occurred in a high percentage of wells, contributing to borehole collapse and causing failure of
downhole equipment. Water-injection rates were
gradually decreased in an attempt to overcome
these issues, and waterflooding became less
effective at enhancing oil recovery; from 1996
onward the production rates declined between
7% and 8% per year.
Spring 2010
Barrancabermeja
Central
Cordillera
Rio Suarez
anticline
A
m
0
5,000
20 km
10,000
10 mi
15,000
150 m
500 ft
La Cira shale
Miocene
50
25
100 km
50 mi
5,000 ft
Cretaceous
Oligocene
Lower sands
B0, B1, B2 and B3
NE
ain
M
0
0
Eocene
str
i
-S
W
C
al
nt
ie
Or
C sands
ra
Upper sands
A1 and A2
fau
lt z
le
ke
-sl
ip
il
on
e
Ce
Peroles
field
Real
Formation
Nuevo Mu
ndo sy
nclin
e
Rio Sua
rez an
ticlin
e
fault
illera
Palestine
Peroles
ntr
al C
ord
Casabe
Peas La Cira
Blancas Infantas
10
La CiraInfantas
field
lt
Galn
u
eja fa
caberm
B a rran
Barrancabermeja
Casabe
field
> Casabe structural setting. The Casabe field lies to the west of La CiraInfantas field in the middle Magdalena River Valley basin (left). The principal
MMVB structures and producing fields are shown in the generalized structural cross section A to A (top right). The basin is limited on the east by a thrust
belt, uplifting the oldest rocks. Cretaceous and Paleocene (green), Oligocene (orange) and Miocene (yellow) rocks are shown in the central part of the basin
cross section. The preMiddle Eocene uplift and erosion have exposed the Central Cordillera on the west (gray). The Casabe field is highly layered, as shown in
the detailed structural cross section (bottom right). (Figure adapted from Barrero et al, reference 3, and Morales et al, reference 6.)
The Colorado, Mugrosa and La Paz formations that make up the Casabe field were deposited during the Paleogene Period. These are
found at depths of 670 to 1,700 m [2,200 to
5,600 ft]. The reservoir sands in the field are
classified in three main groups: A, B and C,
which are subdivided into operational units
(above). Sands are typically isolated by impermeable claystone seals and have grain sizes that
vary from silty to sandy to pebbly.
Structurally the Casabe field is an 8-km
[5-mi] long anticline with a three-way closure,
well-defined eastern flank and a southern plunge.
The northern plunge is found outside the area of
ORSPR10Michael MoodyFigure 02
Oilfield Review
main strike-slip fault. The lack of a more accurate structural model caused two main problems:
Reservoir engineers underestimated OOIP and
waterflood planners found it difficult to locate
injector-producer pairs within the same reservoir
and, to a lesser extent, within the same fault
block.5 These uncertainties led the managers and
experts of the 2004 Casaba alliance to build a
multicomponent redevelopment plan.
Ecopetrol SA has long-standing experience in
and knowledge of the field and the measures
undertaken to keep it producing decade after
decade. Schlumberger provides new oilfield technologies to the operator, including seismic surveying, downhole measurements, data analysis
and specialized drilling, as well as domain expertise to decipher the challenges faced. With these
capabilities the alliance was confident it could
obtain results within a year.
The key goals of the redevelopment plan were
to increase reserves, manage the waterflood programs more efficiently and address drillingrelated problems such as reactive lithology,
tripping problems, low ROP, borehole collapse
Formation Tops
Seismic Data
Depth, ft
3,300
Structural Sketch
with Well Locations
0
1,000
3,000
Depth, ft
3,300
2,000 m
4,050
4,900
4,800
6,500
6,000 ft
N
Area not
drained
or drilled
Well location
0
0
1,000
2,000 m
6,000 ft
> Casabe structural maps and model. Structural maps of the field were
generated using formation tops from well logs (Formation Tops). But
operators avoided drilling along the main strike-slip fault for fear of exiting
the trap; hence, tops were unavailable (Structural Sketch, red-shaded area).
This poorly defined and undeveloped area represented significant potential
reserves. High-resolution 3D seismic data were used to create a refined set
Spring 2010
0
0
1,000
2,000 m
6,000 ft
Bright spots
Offset
AVO anomaly
Offset
Uncorrected common
midpoint gather
AVO-corrected
amplitude map
Amplitude anomaly
Offset
Undeveloped area
Hydrocarbons
> Minimizing uncertainty of amplitude anomalies. Bright spots (top left) are high-amplitude features on
seismic data. These features can indicate oil accumulations, although they are no guarantee. One
technique for understanding bright spots begins with modeling the amplitudes of reflections from
reservoirs containing various fluids (top right). The amplitude at the top of a sand reservoir filled with
water decreases with offset. The amplitude at the top of a similar reservoir containing gas can
increase with offset. The results are compared with actual seismic traces containing reflections from a
sand reservoir (bottom left) to more accurately characterize reservoir fluid. Combined with other
information such as seismic inversion data, AVO-corrected amplitude maps (bottom right) can be a
useful tool to confirm the presence of oil (light-blue areas). (Figure adapted from Gambaretto et al,
reference 7.)
Several conditions can create misleading faults is uncertain. Interpretation of the Casabe
amplitude anomalies, but careful processing and 3D seismic data clarified field corridors where
interpretation can distinguish them. Analysis of wells had not been planned because of the unceramplitude variation with offset (AVO) corrects tainty surrounding the main fault position. Wells
data during the common midpoint gathering have since been drilled along these corridors
process (above).9 Using AVO-corrected amplitude with successful results (next page, top).
ORSPR10Michael
04
A detailed geologic
model provided a better
maps as an additional verification
tool, interpret- MoodyFigure
ers were able to confirm both undeveloped and understanding of the subsurface conditions,
which helped during the waterflood planning and
attic oil accumulations.
Attic oil is an old concept. Operators know drilling processes. Prestack inversion of the 3D
there can be oil in these higher zones, but identi- survey data yielded fieldwide estimates of rock
fying them is difficult if the exact location of
properties.10 Geophysicists calibrated these estimates using data acquired by a suite of newgeneration logging tools (see New Wells and
Results, page 15) in approximately 150 wells.
Using these calibrated rock types, geologists
created a facies distribution map, which they
combined with the structural model to create a
model of reservoir architecture.
The architectural model highlighted more
than 15 reservoirs with an average thickness of
3 m [10 ft] each. Reservoir engineers analyzed
10 of these reservoirs and discovered an additional 5 million bbl [800,000 m3] of estimated
reserves.11 The geologic model was then used during the waterflood redevelopment process to help
improve both areal and vertical sweep efficiency.
Effective Waterflooding
When the Casabe field was switched from natural
drive to waterflood in the late 1970s, the operator
chose to use a typical five-spot pattern with
approximately 500 injector and producer pairs.
To sweep the upper and lower sections of Sands A
and B, up to four wells were drilled per injection
location (next page, bottom). During the initial
waterflood period, injection rates peaked in 1986
and 1991. These dates correspond to the first and
second year after the beginning of the two waterflood programs for the northern and southern
areas of the Casabe field.
Two to three years after each peak there was
a noticeable drop in the water-injection rates.
This was due mainly to the restrictions imposed
on the rates to avoid casing collapse. However,
the reduction in water-injection rates was also
influenced by several other factors. These issues
were identified in the alliances redevelopment
plan and became a large part of the requirements
for reworking the Casabe waterflood programs.
9. For more on AVO analysis: Chiburis E, Franck C,
Leaney S, McHugo S and Skidmore C: Hydrocarbon
Detection with AVO, Oilfield Review 5, no. 1
(January 1993): 4250.
10. For more on inversion: Barclay F, Bruun A,
Rasmussen KB, Camara Alfaro J, Cooke A,
Cooke D, Salter D, Godfrey R, Lowden D, McHugo S,
zdemir H, Pickering S, Gonzalez Pineda F, Herwanger J,
Volterrani S, Murineddu A, Rasmussen A and Roberts R:
Seismic Inversion: Reading Between the Lines,
Oilfield Review 20, no. 1 (Spring 2008): 4263.
11. Amaya R, Nunez G, Hernandez J, Gambaretto W and
Rubiano R: 3D Seismic Application in Remodeling
Brownfield Waterflooding Pattern, paper SPE 122932,
presented at the SPE Latin American and Caribbean
Petroleum Engineering Conference, Cartagena de
Indias, Colombia, May 31June 3, 2009.
12. For more on understanding high-mobility ratios:
Elphick JJ, Marquez LJ and Amaya M: IPI Method:
A Subsurface Approach to Understand and Manage
Unfavorable Mobility Waterfloods, paper SPE 123087,
presented at the SPE Latin American and Caribbean
Petroleum Engineering Conference, Cartagena,
Colombia, May 31June 3, 2009.
Oilfield Review
1,000
Block VIII
2,000 m
6,000 ft
400
Block VII
N
New well
600
Block VI
Depth, m
800
Undeveloped
1,000
Block V
N
Block IV
Block III
Blocks I and II
Attic oil
B sands
1,200
Attic oil
C sands
Drilled wells
Approved locations
Proposed locations
Undeveloped areas
1,400
1,600
> Attic well. Experts had long predicted a field corridor along the main
strike-slip fault, but the lack of accurate seismic data made the risk of
drilling these zones too high. Interpretation of the 2007 3D seismic survey
enabled geophysicists to identify undeveloped drilling locations (red
ellipses, left) close to the major fault. A new offset well, approved for Block
VIII, was very close to the main strike-slip fault (dashed-green box, left). 3D
seismic data and structural maps (middle) visualized using Petrel software
helped well planners position the well. The trajectory avoided major faults
and targeted a large undeveloped zone and two attic oil zones in the B and
C sands (right). The wells constructed during the first and second drilling
campaigns were vertical; in the third campaign, especially from late 2008
onward, most of the wells drilled were offset wells in target pay zones close
to faults. (Figure adapted from Amaya et al, reference 11.)
Spontaneous
Potential
Formation
80
mV
A1
Injection
A2
B1
B2
Production
B
CBA
20 Sand 0 ohm.m 20
La Cira
Shale
Upper sands
Colorado
2,500
3,000
A1
3,500
A2
Oligocene
The operator had recorded early water breakthrough in the fields producers during both
waterflood programs. This was a result of injection water channeling inside high-permeability
layers. Also, a poor mobility ratio was present
throughout the field: Viscous oils (14.8 to 23.3API
gravity in the upper sands and 15.4 to 24.8 API
gravity in the lower sands) were pushed aside by
the more freely flowing water, and once breakthrough occurred the water influx increased.12
These conditions caused a poor vertical sweep
efficiency average of only 20%.
Depth,
ft
Resistivity
A3
4,000
ORSPR10Michael MoodyFigure
05
B1 SUP
Spring 2010
B2 SUP
Lower sands
Mugrosa
B1 INF
4,500
5,000
B2 INF
B3
5,500
La Paz
1986
3,000
2,400
North, ft
1,800
1,200
600
0
0
750
1,500
2,250
3,000
3,750
East, ft
Fault traces
Top of A sands
Producers
Top of B sands
Injectors
Top of C sands
2003
3,000
2,400
North, ft
1,800
1,200
600
0
0
750
2,250
1,500
3,000
3,750
East, ft
> Comparison of 1986 and 2003 waterflood patterns. By 1986 the operator had
established an evenly distributed network of five-spot injection patterns throughout
the Casabe field (top). Well collapses had occurred in nearly 70% of the wells in
Block VI, and a significant number of collapses had been recorded in all other
blocks in the field. In 2003 (bottom) many of the collapsed wells remained abandoned
or inactive and numerous injectors had been converted to producers. Experts
suggested a new drilling campaign to reestablish fieldwide five-spot patterns.
ORSPR10Michael
MoodyFigure
07
(Figure adapted from
Elphick et al, reference
12.)
10
Oilfield Review
fluids within that zone of the wellbore from invading another zone. An injection nozzle is located
within this section and is controlled from the surface. The new selective-string designs have
improved the vertical sweep efficiency by enabling
the operator to maintain higher injection rates
into layers less affected by waterflood-induced
problems. Conversely, the new designs have mitigated issues related to channeling by allowing a
reduction of rates in problematic layers.
Use of a single well designed with packed-off
flow control was also much more cost-effective
than the previous design of up to four wells per
injection location. Up to 16 water-flow regulators
have now been installed in injectors in the
Casabe field. This solution also addressed the
possibility that drilling several injectors in close
proximity to one another was one of the likely
causes of casing collapse.
Gamma Ray
0
gAPI
150
Spontaneous
Potential
Sand
80
mV
20
Resistivity
ohm.m
15
A1H
Packer
A2
WFR
A21
Spring 2010
Perforations
A3
> Selective injection design. New injection strings in the Casabe field have up
to 16 waterflood-flow regulators (WFRs). WFRs and check valves prevent
backflow and sand production in case of well shutdown. The zone-isolated
injection devices are placed in the highly layered stratigraphic profiles of the
most-prolific producers that commingle fluids from A, B and C sands.
Production logs are unavailable because of rod pumps, but injection logs are
available: Track 1 describes a typical lithology of A sands (yellow shaded
areas); spontaneous potential logs (blue curves) are more accurate than
gamma ray logs (red curve) in the presence of radiation from feldspar, which
occurs naturally in the field. Track 2 shows resistivity response of the formation
at two measurement depths (red and blue curves) and water-injection zones
(green shaded area). (Figure adapted from Elphick et al, reference 12.)
operation. In the second campaign this figure the production engineers to display both models
was slightly less, at 68%. This period, however, in the same 3D window. Using modeling tools,
corresponded to the waterflood programs; hence they could then tag and clearly see the wellbore
many more wells had been drilled. During the depths and the locations along the Casabe strucstudy period there were no recorded collapse ture where collapses had been recorded.
The engineers discovered that casing collapse
events in Block VI for wells constructed in the
third drilling campaign. This change was consid- had occurred in all stratigraphic levels. However,
ered to be a result of improved drilling practices, collapse distribution did highlight a strong correlation
to the overburden
and to the waterwhich are discussed later in this
section.
ORSPR10Michael
MoodyFigure
08
To determine a link between casing collapse flooded formations. The analysis of well location
and subsurface conditions, the investigators con- 13. Olarte P, Marquez L, Landinez G and Amaya R: Casing
sidered the updated stratigraphic and structural
Collapse Study on Block VI Wells: Casabe Field, paper
SPE 122956, presented at the SPE Latin American
models built from the new 3D seismic data.
and Caribbean Petroleum Engineering Conference,
Petrel seismic-to-simulation software enabled
Cartagena, Colombia, May 31June 3, 2009.
11
80
70
Production wells
Injection wells
60
50
40
30
20
10
0
A1
Overburden
A2
Colorado
A3
B1
B2
Mugrosa
B3
C
La Paz
Faults
Stratigraphic formation
> Areal and stratigraphic localization of casing collapse in Block VI. Statistical analysis of casing-collapse events within each stratigraphic section (left)
showed collapses in every formation. However, event frequency in the overburden and in the waterflooded zones (mainly Sands A1, A2, B1 and B2) was
several times higher than in other zones, indicating these intervals are more likely to cause collapse. Using Petrel modeling tools, engineers included Block
VI casing collapses in the structural model. A structural map of one reservoir (right) indicates collapses occurred throughout the block and not in any
specific area. (Figure adapted from Olarte et al, reference 13.)
Casing
7-in. H40
20 lbm/ft
7-in. J55
20 lbm/ft
Liners
7-in. K55
23 lbm/ft
7-in. N80
23 lbm/ft
65/8-in. H40
20 lbm/ft
65/8-in. J55
20 lbm/ft
500
1,000
Fluid level, ft
1,500
2,000
2,500
3,000
ORSPR10Michael MoodyFigure 09
3,500
4,000
4,500
0% wall loss
5,000
> Critical fluid levels for production casing and liners of the first drilling campaign. Testing using
TDAS software determined the critical load condition for fluid evacuation in Block VI wells from the first
drilling campaign. Casing (green box, left) and liners (red box, right) were tested first to obtain critical
fluid-evacuation levels based on original design specifications and again after calculations of 10%, 20%
and 30% wall loss. All wells for the simulation were at depths of 5,000 ft; depending on the amount of wall
loss, a collapse was probable as borehole fluid levels fell. For example, 7-in., 20-lbm/ft API Grade H40
casing strings could collapse even at their installed condition when the fluid was evacuated past 3,200 ft.
Wells that passed the first simulated test failed when wall loss was increased. This result indicated
that corrosion or general wear-and-tear (causing wall loss) would have weakened casing or liners
to the limit of collapse when the fluid level dropped to values that had been recorded in the field.
(Figure adapted from Olarte et al, reference 13.)
12
Oilfield Review
Spring 2010
30
Second drilling
campaign
25
20
15
1947
1949
1951
1953
1955
1957
1959
1961
1963
1965
1967
1969
1971
1973
1975
1977
1979
1981
1983
1985
1987
1989
1991
1993
1995
1997
1999
2001
Operational year
105
Water injected
104
2006
2005
2004
2003
2002
2001
2000
1999
1998
1997
1996
1995
1994
1993
1992
1991
1990
1989
1988
1987
103
1986
Oil produced
1985
Operational year
13
Schematic of First Four Sections of the Original BHA with a Concentric Bit
81/2-in. bit
61/2-in. collar
81/2-in. OD stabilizer
Pilot bit
Reamer
Pilot bit
Reamer
28 cutters
5 nozzles
5 blades
13.4-mm cutter
33 cutters
2 nozzles
4 blades
13.4-mm cutter
26 cutters
6 nozzles
4 blades
19-mm cutter
27 cutters
2 nozzles
4 blades
19-mm cutter
Modification: Stabilization
pad and guardian bearing
to drill out
Washout log
Before
After
> New versus old drilling design. Original drilling designs included a traditional polycrystalline diamond
compact bit (top), but swelling clays caused problems during tripping. Engineers designed a reamingwhile-drilling (RWD) BHA that incorporated a smaller pilot bit and a reamer (tan box). RWD enabled
oversized boreholes, which helped compensate for swelling and achieve target diameters for casing.
Further optimizations included larger cutters and a backup set of cutters to improve ROP (blue box). A
change in the number of nozzles and in the nozzle diameter dramatically reduced the washouts that
were causing cementing problems (bottom). The decision to redesign the bit was made partly to cope
with clay reactions. A new mud system has successfully inhibited the clay, and engineers are now
reconsidering a concentric bit to improve drilling efficiency.
ORSPR10Michael MoodyFigure 14
14
Oilfield Review
18
Spring 2010
Number of days
15
12
Optimized wells in 2009, average depth 5,400 ft
2010
CB 1137D
CB 1184D
CB 1147D
CB 1110D
CB 1251
CB 1129D
CB 1140D
CB 1271D
CB 1126D
CB 1127D
CB 1125D
2009
2008
2007
2004 to 2006
Well
> Drilling results. The new RWD and bicenter bit drilling technologies have
had18
a considerable impact, improving hole quality, reducing total trip times,
increasing ROP, minimizing stuck-pipe risk, reducing backreaming operations,
and improving the quality of primary cementing jobs. Average drilling-job times
have15been cut15.3
from 15.3 days to 6.8 days.
Average drilling time, days
12
13.5
11.4
9
6
3
0
10.5
6.8
15
Data from this new well included chromatography performed on mud from the B sands,
which revealed well-defined oil shows, and log
interpretation confirmed the oil presence. This
oil is due to a lack of drainage from the updip
wells. New data acquired with the PressureXpress
Resistivity
Invaded Zone
0.1
ohm.m
1,000
ohm.m
1,000
ohm.m
1,000
AIT 30-in. Array
ohm.m
1,000
ohm.m
New well
1,000
ohm.m
1.65
Permeability
0.1
mD
1,000
Schlumberger-Doll Research
0.1
mD
2.65 0
g/cm
Neutron Porosity
Timur-Coates
Depth,
ft
Lithology
Bulk Density
1,000
1,000
60
T2 Distribution
0 0.3
Small-Pore Porosity
Capillary-Bound Fluid
29
T2 Log Mean
ms
3,000
ms
Oil
Sandstone
Bound Water
T2 Cutoff
0.3
Water
3,000
Clay 1
4,850
4,883 to 4,892 ft
MD
A sands
B sands
4,904 to 4,922 ft
MD
4,900
4,950
2,000
PressureXpress data
Hydrostatic
Normal gradient
2,500
5,000
Depth, ft
3,000
Fault 120
Hydrostatic
3,500
Depleted
sands
4,000
Fault 130
4,500
5,000
Original pressure
5,500
500
1,000
1,500
2,000
Pressure, psi
2,500
3,000
3,500
> Discovering the unexpected in Well CSBE 1069. A new well drilled to reach Sand B in Block V (right) reflected a change in previous practices; in this area
the B sands were considered depleted and invaded by water. After interpretation of mud logs indicated oil shows in two locations, Schlumberger acquired
pressure and nuclear magnetic resonance logs in the low-resistivity intervals. Interpretation of the CMR-Plus log (left) confirmed the presence of oil
(green-shaded areas Track 4). Pressure data (inset middle) indicated the bypassed oil zones were at original reservoir pressure (blue box) along the
normal gradient.
16
ORSPR10Michael MoodyFigure 12
Oilfield Review
Density Porosity
40
Resistivity
Invaded Zone
0.1
ohm.m 1,000
40
%
0
Free-Fluid Taper
%
Free Fluid
Density Porosity
30
40
%
0
30
%
0
Resistivity
T2 Distribution
CMR-Plus Bulk Fluid
Spontaneous Potential
Invaded Zone
ohm.m 1,000 CMR-Plus 3-ms Porosity
40
%
0 0
29 30
AIT 30-in. Array
%
0 60
mV
40 0.2
ohm.m
T2 Log Mean
Computed Gamma Ray
AIT 60-in. Array
0.1 ohm.m 1,000 Total CMR-Plus Porosity
Bound Water
40
%
0 0.3
ms 3,000
0
gAPI
140 0.2
ohm.m
Permeability
Moved Water
Small-Pore Porosity
Timur-Coates
T2 Cutoff
AIT 30-in. Array
Caliper
Oil
0.1
mD 1,000 Capillary-Bound Fluid 0.3
ms 3,000
ohm.m
6
in.
16 0.2
AIT 60-in. Array
0.1
Depth,
ft
20
Bulk Density
20 1.65
g/cm3
2.65
Neutron Porosity
20 60
5,200
Free water
5,250
5,300
Free oil
5,350
> Log confirmation of low-resistivity pay. Well CSBE 1060 log interpretation indicated shaly sand zones with
salinities exceeding 50,000 ppm NaCl. Identifying oil in the presence of high-salinity formation water may be difficult
because resistivity measurements cannot be used to distinguish the two (red-shaded area in Resistivity track).
Shaly sands have higher water content than sand alone, and an alternative to resistivity measurements is needed.
The CMR-Plus tool, which measures relaxation time of hydrogen molecules to identify oil and water, uncovered the
presence of oil (Free oil, red-shaded area). Based on these results the interval was tested and returned clean oil,
confirming low-resistivity pay in the Casabe field.
Spring 2010
17
Richard Birchwood
Jianchun Dai
Dianna Shelander
Houston, Texas, USA
Ray Boswell
US Department of Energy
National Energy Technology Laboratory
Morgantown, West Virginia, USA
Scott Dallimore
Geological Survey of Canada
Sidney, British Columbia, Canada
Kasumi Fujii
Yutaka Imasato
Sagamihara, Kanagawa, Japan
Tatsuo Saeki
Japan Oil, Gas and Metals
National Corporation
Chiba City, Chiba, Japan
Oilfield Review Spring 2010: 22, no. 1.
Copyright 2010 Schlumberger.
For help in preparation of this article, thanks to Barbara
Anderson, Brookfield, Connecticut, USA; George Bunge,
Houston; Emrys Jones, Chevron, Houston; Tebis Llobet,
Yuzhno-Sakhalinsk, Sakhalin, Russia; Yuri Makogon, Texas
A&M University, College Station, Texas; and Osamu Osawa,
Sagamihara, Japan.
CHFR, DMR, EcoScope, geoVISION, MDT, PeriScope, RAB,
sonicVISION and TeleScope are marks of Schlumberger.
18
Methane
gas + ice
10
Methane
gas + water
50
Methane
hydrate
+ gas + ice
100
Methane hydrate
+ water + gas
ry
nda
bou
ase
Doug Murray
Beijing, China
s ph
Koji Kusaka
Tokyo, Japan
-ga
rate
Hyd
Masafumi Fukuhara
Moscow, Russia
Ann Cook
Lamont-Doherty Earth Observatory
Earth Institute of Columbia University
Palisades, New York, USA
and evaluate conventional oil and gas reserves are being used to characterize gas
Pressure, atm
Timothy Collett
US Geological Survey
Denver, Colorado, USA
energy resource if ways can be found to exploit them. Techniques designed to find
500
1,000
10
10
20
30
40
Temperature, C
Oilfield Review
> Gas hydrate crystal structure. Methane [CH4] (green and white)
is the guest molecule in a cage formed by water [H2O] molecules
(red and white). This structure is one of five types of water cages
that contain guest gas molecules. Gas hydrates have been
produced from some sites in the Arctic, such as this one in
Alaska, USA. (Photograph courtesy of the Mount Elbert gas
hydrate stratigraphic test well project.)
Spring 2010
19
> Marine and onshore hydrate locations. About 98% of the gas hydrate resources are concentrated in
marine sediments, with the other 2% beneath permafrost. Most of the mapped occurrences of
recovered gas hydrates (blue) have been discovered by scientific drilling programs, and the inferred
gas hydrate accumulations (orange) have been identified by seismic imaging. [Data from Lorenson TD
and Kvenvolden KA: A Global Inventory of Natural Gas Hydrate Occurrence, USGS, http://walrus.wr.
usgs.gov/globalhydrate/index.html (accessed March 24, 2010).]
20
Oilfield Review
Alaminos Canyon
3,300
Seafloor
3,400
3,500
Gas hydrate
stability zone
3,600
Two-way time, ms
3,700
BSR
3,800
3,900
4,000
4,100
Amplitude
4,200
4,300
Spring 2010
km
150
mi
4,400
Green Canyon
150
AT-14
Atwater Valley
4,500
AC-21
Alaminos Canyon
KC-195
Keathley Canyon
GC-955
WR-313
Walker Ridge
fM
o
ulf
exi
co
> Seismic section with a bottom-simulating reflector (BSR) from the Gulf of Mexico. A BSR is caused
by the acoustic impedance contrast between hydrate-bearing and non-hydrate-bearing sediments.
This BSR cuts across layering and a fault and represents the base of the hydrate-stability zone. The
reflecting interface separates stiffer material above from less stiff material below, giving rise to a
seismic reflection with polarity opposite to that at the seafloor. The high-amplitude signals on the right
side of the section probably indicate free gas trapped below the hydrate. The 2005 Gulf of Mexico JIP
expedition investigated sites in the Atwater Valley and Keathley Canyon areas. In 2009 JIP scientists
drilled and logged boreholes in Alaminos Canyon, Walker Ridge and Green Canyon. Geophysical
indicators of the base of the hydrate-stability zone are shown in red on the inset map. (Map adapted
from Shedd et al, reference 12; seismic section courtesy of WesternGeco.)
SE
nB
on
NW
3,400
rizo
Ho
Ho
3,450
3,500
Two-way time, ms
New Orleans
riz
3,550
3,600
3,650
Base of gas
hydrate stability
Oilfield Review
Spring 10
Hydrates Fig. 3/4
ORSPRG10-Hydrate Fig. 3/4
3,700
3,750
3,800
3,850
Amplitude
2010 WesternGeco Used by Permission
3,900
> Seismic data from Walker Ridge Block 313, Gulf of Mexico. The seismic section shows a series of
isolated high-amplitude spots (blue and red) that delineate the base of the hydrate-stability zone. The
high-amplitude reflections are discontinuous in this view because the layers have varying lithology
and are steeply dipping. Free gas and gas hydrates are concentrated in the sand-rich layers. Because
shale-rich layers contain little or no hydrate, they do not exhibit significant amplitudes. Horizons A and
B are discussed in a later figure. (Courtesy of WesternGeco.)
21
Cement at Contacts
M1
Grain Coating
5.5
M2
5.0
4.5
Pore-Fill
M4
4.0
M1
M3
3.5
M2
3.0
M4
2.5
2.0
Fracture-Fill
1.5
M6
M5
0
10
20
30
40
50
60
70
80
90
100
3.0
M1
2.5
M3
2.0
M2
1.5
M4
1.0
M5
0.5
0
10
20
30
40
50
60
70
80
90
100
Predicting gas hydrate saturation from seismic data in the Walker Ridge and Green Canyon
areas requires a rock physics model that establishes the relationship between those elastic
properties that control the speed of acoustic
energy through sediments and gas hydrate saturations; in other settings around the world high
hydrate concentrations have been associated
with increases in acoustic velocities.14 Several
models have been proposed to explain this effect,
and all of them indicate that these properties are
Oilfield
Review
highly dependent on the
location
of hydrate in
Spring
10
the sediment (above left).
Theoretically,
hydrate
Hydrates Fig. 6
may occur in sedimentary rocks as cement at
ORSPRG10-Hydrate Fig. 6
grain contacts or as coating on grains. It may also
act as a component of the grain matrix or may fill
pores. These microstructural models all consider
the hydrate to be evenly distributed in sediments,
and equations have been derived to link gas
hydrate concentration to elastic properties.
Because gas hydrates have also been encountered in cores as nodules and fracture-fill, these
less homogeneous forms of distribution must also
be considered, although no quantitative treatment of such distributions has been developed.
22
> Comparison of measured and modeled seismic velocities in hydratebearing sediments. Compressional-wave (P-wave) velocities (top)
measured in hydrate-rich layers in a Canadian well (blue triangles) are
plotted with velocities calculated using the models described in the
previous figure. The measured velocities best fit the velocities from the
model treating hydrate as a component of the grain matrix (M3).
Shear-wave (S-wave) velocities (bottom) show a similar match.
(Adapted from Dai et al, reference 14.)
Oilfield Review
8
Depth,
ft below
rig floor
Horizon B
Well H
BGHS
Density
Ultrasonic Caliper
Gamma Ray
in.
gAPI
12 0
1.4
ohm.m
40
g/cm3
Hydrate Saturation
n = 1.5
2.2
Density Used
Ring
100 1
Hydrate saturation, %
> Gas hydrate saturations in Walker Ridge estimated from seismic inversion. Saturations range from
0% to 40% (green to red). Horizon A (left) lies stratigraphically above Horizon B (right). Well H penetrates
both horizons within the gas hydratestability zone, but Well G penetrates only Horizon A in the gas
hydratestability zone, intersecting Horizon B at a deeper point. The white dot is an oil and gas industry
well not related to the gas hydrate study. The base of the gas hydratestability zone is marked by BGHS.
(Adapted from Shelander et al, reference 14.)
Poor Density
Resistivity
Well H
BGHS
Caliper
12
Well G
Well G
Best Caliper
in.
Horizon A
100 1.4
g/cm
100
n = 2.5
2.2
100
1,340
1,360
1,380
1,400
1,420
Oilfield Review
Spring 10
Hydrates Fig. 9
ORSPRG10-Hydrate Fig. 9
1,440
1,460
1,480
> Well logs (left) from a Green Canyon gas hydrate well. High resistivities (Track 3) are the clearest indications of gas hydrates (pink shading) in this 100-ft
sand. Deeper, thinner sands also contain hydrates. The caliper log (Track 1) shows washouts in the hydrate-free zones (blue shading). Washouts can lead to
poor density results (Track 4). Estimated gas hydrate saturations (Track 5) range from 50% to more than 85% and depend on the saturation exponent, n, used
in Archies law, which relates resistivity to porosity and saturation. Personnel prepare LWD tools on the Q4000 floating drilling unit (right). (Photograph
courtesy of the JIP Leg II Science Team.)
Spring 2010
23
Well H
3,360
Hor
NE
izo
nA
SW
8,600
3,380
3,400
Two-way time, ms
3,440
Ho
rizo
3,460
nB
9,000
3,480
Depth, ft
8,800
3,420
Gamma ray
Resistivity
Sonic slowness
3,500
3,520
Base
3,540
hydr
ate-s
3,560
9,200
tabil
Hydrate saturation, % 40
ity zo
ne
3,580
3,600
9,400
9,380
9,370
9,360
9,350
9,340
9,330
9,320
9,310
9,300
Inline number
> Estimated saturations and acquired well logs through a gas hydrate zone. Seismic inversion
predicted high saturations of gas hydrate (reds) in Horizon B at the location of Well H. High
concentrations of gas hydrate can be inferred from the high resistivity values (yellow log) and sonic
slownesses (green log). The decrease in gamma ray readings (blue log) indicates the layer is a sand.
(Adapted from Shelander et al, reference 14.)
0.56
3.13
0.60
2.72
0.65
2.36
0.69
2.06
0.74
1.80
0.79
420
410
3.40
2.92
2.53
2.19
1.92
1.68
1.48
400
3.16
2.71
2.35
2.04
1.78
1.56
1.38
390
2.93
2.51
2.18
1.89
1.65
1.44
1.28
380
2.71
2.32
2.01
1.74
1.53
1.34
1.18
370
2.50
2.14
1.86
1.61
1.41
1.23
1.09
360
2.30
1.97
1.71
1.48
1.30
1.14
1.00
350
2.12
1.81
1.57
1.36
1.19
1.04
0.92
340
1.94
1.66
1.44
1.25
1.09
0.96
0.84
330
1.77
1.52
1.32
1.14
1.00
0.88
0.77
320
1.62
0.80
0.70
310
1.47
0.73
0.64
300
1.33
0.66
0.58
290
1.20
0.91
1.04
1.20
1.39
Oilfield
Review
Spring
0.83
0.95
1.26 101.09
Hydrates
Fig. 11 0.86
0.75
0.99
1.14
ORSPRG10-Hydrate
Fig. 110.68
0.78
0.89
1.03
0.59
0.52
280
1.08
0.93
0.81
0.70
0.61
0.53
0.47
270
0.97
0.83
0.72
0.63
0.55
0.48
0.42
1.59
> Optimizing circulation rates and bit design for the Green Canyon area.
This table shows bit hydraulic horsepower per square inch (HSI) as a
function of the bit total flow area and the circulation, or pump, rate. The
light-yellow shading denotes the range of circulation rates and bit sizes that
maintains the bit HSI between 1 and 1.5 to minimize hole erosion and
optimize the mechanical action of the bit. An additional design criterion
governing the circulation rate was to ensure that gas hydrate did not
dissociate during drilling.
24
Oilfield Review
Shear Failure
Mud Weight
8
lbm/galUS
18
lbm/galUS
18
Modeled
Horizontal Stress
8
Gamma Ray
Depth,
ft
Dilation Angle
150 10
gAPI
ohm.m
deg
50 0
Friction Angle
Resistivity
20 10
deg
Unconfined Compressive
Strength
MPa
10 8
MPa
500 8
lbm/galUS
18
Out of Gauge
Modeled
Shear Failure Envelope
lbm/galUS
Bit Size
18 8
in.
12
Modeled Overburden
Density Caliper
lbm/galUS
in.
18 8
12
7,000
7,500
Gas
hydrates
in clayrich
layers
Predicted
hole
enlargement
8,000
Target
gas
hydrate
bearing
sands
Observed
hole
enlargement
8,500
Spring 2010
Oilfield Review
Spring 10
Hydrates Fig. 13
ORSPRG10-Hydrate Fig. 13
25
Gamagori
km
a
S e
50
mi
50
n
pa
J a
o f
Na
FI
gh
CI
ou
PA
Tr
ai
nk
East
China
Sea
OC
EA
J A P A N
0
0
km
200
mi
200
> The region of the Nankai Trough, offshore Japan. Drilling locations in the
eastern Nankai Trough area are shown as red dots (inset). Seismic BSRs
(purple) indicate the presence of hydrates over vast areas.
Oilfield Review
Spring 10
Hydrates Fig. 14
ORSPRG10-Hydrate Fig. 14
> Gas hydrates from the eastern Nankai Trough. At one site the gas hydrate (white) occupies a layer within a mud-silt zone (left). At a different site, the gas
hydrate is disseminated in the pore space of a sand layer (right). The scale is in centimeters.
26
Oilfield Review
Spring 2010
Porosity Difference
Density Porosity
Washout
80
10
in.
Caliper
10
in.
Gamma Ray
0
gAPI
NMR Porosity
Bit Size
Depth, m
20
80
Deep Resistivity
20 0.2
ohm.m
ohm.m
200 80
DMR Porosity
%
DMR Water
Saturation
Neutron Porosity
200 80
Shallow Resistivity
100 0.2
100
0
Resistivity Water
Saturation
0 100
X10
X20
X30
X40
> Formation evaluation in a hydrate zone. Track 1 plots gamma ray (green)
and caliper (solid black). Blue fill indicates washed-out intervals. Track 2
contains shallow and deep resistivity data. High resistivities correspond to
hydrate-rich zones. Low resistivities signify laminations without hydrate
layers that tend to wash out during drilling. Track 3 contains neutron
porosity (dotted blue), density porosity (red), NMR porosity (black) and the
DMR porosity obtained by combining density and NMR measurements
(green). Gold shading represents the volume of gas hydrate. Track 4 shows
the water saturations calculated using the resistivity (red) and densityNMR-difference technique (blue). Several spikes in Tracks 3 and 4 correlate
with borehole washouts.
27
BANGLADESH
BURMA
Mahanadi
Mumbai
Krishna-Godavari
Kerala
Konkan
Chennai
Andaman
Islands
0
0
500
km
mi
16A
500
7A-D
15A
5A-E14A
11A
6A
4A
2A-B
3A-C
10A-D 12A
13A
20A
KrishnaGodavari
> Exploration sites (red circles) of the 2006 expedition of the Indian National
Gas Hydrates Program (NGHP). A scientific team aboard the JOIDES
Resolution drilling vessel assessed data from 39 boreholes in four different
regions. Samples from the Krishna-Godavari region (inset) contained
significant hydrate accumulations. (Adapted from Collett et al, reference 29.)
The first NGHP expedition, in 2006, explored four lenses and wispy subvertical veins oriented in
areas of the Indian Ocean (above). The primary a primary direction, with some crossing in a
goal of NGHP Expedition 01 was to conduct scien- secondary direction.
In the intervals where hydrates reside in pore
tific ocean drilling, coring, logging and analytical
space,
the Archie relationship can be used to
activities to assess the geologic Oilfield
occurrence,
Review
determine
saturation. However, in other zones,
regional context and characteristics ofSpring
gas hydrate
10
for example, where hydrate occupies fractures in
deposits along the continental marginsHydrates
of India.29Fig. 17
Fig. 17
sediments, the method is not
The expedition team consisted ofORSPRG10-Hydrate
more than low-permeability
100 scientists and professionals representing more applicable, but resistivity logs and images can
than 30 universities, national institutes and com- still be used to identify hydrate-filled fractures.
Images from an RAB resistivity-at-the-bit LWD
panies. During the 113-day operation, the scientific ocean drilling vessel JOIDES Resolution tool clearly show resistive hydrate-filled fractures
drilled 39 boreholes in water depths ranging as well as conductive fractures in several holes in
from 907 to 2,674 m [2,975 to 8,774 ft]. Scientists the Krishna-Godavari region.30 Fractures in most of
recovered 2,850 m [9,350 ft] of core, logged the holes analyzed have steep dips70 to 80
12holes with LWD tools and an additional 13holes (next page). Stress orientations calculated from
with wireline tools, and performed six borehole dip data indicate a maximum horizontal stress
seismic surveys.
direction perpendicular to the edge of Indias
The cores indicate that hydrates occur in a Continental Slopea finding that is inconsistent
variety of settings. In the Indian Ocean, as in with those from other passive continental margins
other parts of the world, hydrates are present documented for boreholes deeper than the holes
in coarse-grained sediments. More surprising in the NGHP study. This contradiction suggests
was the amount of hydrates discovered in fine- that the fractures may be related to local slumps
grained sediments, where they occur as layers, and slides, signifying shallow stresses at work
rather than deep tectonic stresses.31
28
Oilfield Review
Deep Resistivity
Caliper
Medium Resistivity
8 in. 20
Depth, m
Gamma
Ray
Density
gAPI
g/cm3
60
120 1.3
2.0 0.2
ohm.m
200
Conductive Resistive
S
Conductive
S
Dip and
Dip Direction
Gas Hydrate
Filled Fracture
Dip, deg
50 60 70 80
65
70
75
> Borehole image and core from the Krishna-Godavari region. Among the logs acquired in Well
NGHP-01-10A, a borehole image log (Tracks 4 and 5) exhibits high-resistivity gas hydrate (light colors) in
steeply dipping fractures (Track 6). Dips are consistently 70 to 80. (Log courtesy of Ann Cook,
Lamont-Doherty Earth Observatory.) The core (inset) shows gas hydrate (white) filling a fracture in
black fine-grained sediments. (Photograph courtesy of the NGHP Expedition 01.)
Spring 2010
29
o r t
B e a u f
a
S e
Mallik
e
zi
n
ke
ac Bay
M
Ice
Yukon Territory
Northwest Territories
d
roa
Inuvik
0
0
km 50
mi
50
> The Mallik field, Northwest Territories, Canada. The Mallik field has been the site of hydrate
discoveries and research since 1972. The site is accessible only in winter by way of an ice road.
(Photograph courtesy of Scott Dallimore, Geological Survey of Canada.)
Oilfield Review
Spring 10
Hydrates Fig. 19
ORSPRG10-Hydrate Fig. 19
> A Mallik gas hydrate core sample collected in 2002. Gas hydrate (white)
resides within the pore space of a pebbly conglomerate. (Photograph
courtesy of Scott Dallimore, Geological Survey of Canada.)
30
Oilfield Review
Spring 2010
Resistivity, ohm.m
900
10
100
Radius, m
1,000
910
Collar
Depth, m
920
Collar
930
CHFR log
CHFR model
Hole radius
Dissociation radius
> Determining hydrate dissociation volume. Logs were acquired before and
after a 2002 thermal stimulation production test in the Mallik field (left).
Openhole resistivity logs acquired before the test (orange) were compared
with CHFR cased hole formation resistivity logs run afterward (purple) to
determine the radius of hydrate dissociation over the test interval. The
differences correspond to a modeled radius of dissociation (right) that
varies with depth. (Adapted from Anderson et al, reference 38.)
separation was performed in the wellbore; the in the 5 days of thermal stimulation in the 2002
gas was produced to surface and the produced test.44 Sand production was much greater than
water was reinjected into water zones below the anticipated, a problem that would have to be
gas hydrate test interval.42
overcome in future operations. The team planned
The April 2007 production test was performed to return the next year, when freezing conditions
without sand control measures to monitor and would allow operations to continue.
After reviewing the experience from the first
measure the direct formation response to pressure drawdown.43 As expected, a significant winters operation, the team returned to Mallik in
amount of sand was producedso much that the the winter of 2008 with a simplified research proOilfield Review
gram. This time produced water was flowed to
test was curtailed after 60 hours. However,
Springduring
10
the surface and reinjected into a water-disposal
the most successful 12.5 hours ofHydrates
pumping,
Fig. 21
a custom-designed sand screen
830m3 [29.3 Mcf] of gas was produced,
more than well. In
ORSPRG10-Hydrate
Fig.addition,
21
31
Water
Gas
Permafrost zone
650
Depth, m
ESP
Gas separator
Heater
890
Pressure and
temperature sensors
1,070
Sand screen
1,100
Bridge plug
Aquifers
> Well completion for the Mallik 2008 depressurization production test. An
electric submersible pump (ESP) installed above the perforations
depressurized the formation by lowering the water level in the well. Sand
screens prevented sand influx from the unconsolidated formation into the
borehole. Hydrate dissociation produced gas and water. After gas-water
separation, gas flowed to the surface, and produced water was sampled
then reinjected in a separate water-disposal well. (Adapted from Yamamoto
and Dallimore, reference 42.)
4
3
10
End flow
period 2
End flow
period 3
4
2
0
End flow
period 1
0
Oilfield Review
Spring 10
Hydrates Fig. 22
ORSPRG10-Hydrate Fig. 22
10
11
12
Test time, h
> Gas hydrate production test. An MDT tool was used to reduce well pressure
by drawing water from a layer containing high saturations of gas hydrate.
Between fluid-withdrawal, or flow, periods, the pump was shut off, pressure
build-up was monitored and gas and water samples were collected. During
the first flow period the bottomhole pressure (blue) was kept above the
hydrate-stability pressure (green), so no methane was produced. During the
second and third flow periods the bottomhole pressure was decreased to
below the stability pressure, allowing the gas hydrate to dissociate and gas to
be produced. (Adapted from Anderson et al, reference 51.)
32
Oilfield Review
Spring 2010
Point Barrow
Prudhoe Bay
ARCTIC
OC E AN
km
100
mi
Kuparuk
River
oil field
Milne Point 3D
seismic survey
Prudhoe Bay
oil field
> Gas hydrates in Alaska. The northern Alaska gas hydrate total petroleum system is shaded in
blue-gray. The limit of the gas hydratestability zone is outlined in red. The area covered by the 3D
seismic survey is shown as a red-dashed rectangle. (Modified from USGS Fact Sheet 2008-3073,
reference 46).
the Mount Elbert case, when the well pressure Early Days for Hydrates
was greater than the hydrate-stability pressure, The current state of understanding of the producin situ effective permeability was 0.12 to 0.17 mD. ibility of gas from hydrates is analogous to that of
Decreasing the wellbore pressure to below the coalbed methane and heavy-oil sands about
level required for hydrate stability caused disso- 30years ago.54 Although recovery from both coalciation of hydrate within the pore space, and the bed methane formations and oil sands took seveffective permeability increased.
eral decades to become commercially viable, it is
To conduct extended production tests in the too early to determine the development horizon
Alaska North Slope, scientists will need year- of gas hydrate resources.
round access to a wellsite with existing
infraOilfield
Review As far as resource supply and access are con10 cerned, several countries are optimistic about the
structure. Seven potential surface Spring
locations
23
within the Prudhoe Bay, Kuparuk RiverHydrates
and MilneFig. potential
of gas hydrates to meet future energy
ORSPRG10-Hydrate Fig. 23
Point fields have been evaluated.52 A site in the needs. Japan, India, China and South Korea, all
Prudhoe Bay field has been identified as optimal countries that import oil and gas, have launched
because of its combination of low geologic risk, programs to explore the possibilities of unlocking
low operational risk, maximal operational flexi- methane from the hydrate cage. As with other
bility and promise of meaningful reservoir unconventional resources, development of hydrate
response. BP and the other companies with work- reserves will undoubtedly benefit from technoloing interest in the site are discussing plans for gies originally designed for conventional oil and
gas exploration and production.
LS
long-term production testing there.53
33
Permanent Monitoring:
Taking It to the Reservoir
John Algeroy
John Lovell
Gabriel Tirado
Ramaswamy Meyyappan
Rosharon, Texas, USA
George Brown
Robert Greenaway
Southampton, England
Michael Carney
Joerg H. Meyer
Houston, Texas
John E. Davies
BP Exploration
Sunbury on Thames, England
Ivan D. Pinzon
BP America
Houston, Texas
Oilfield Review Spring 2010: 22, no. 1.
Copyright 2010 Schlumberger.
For help in preparation of this article, thanks to Christian
Chouzenoux, Clamart, France; David Morrissey, Sugar
Land, Texas; and Eghosa Oriaikhi, Emmanuel Rioufol, Scott
Rubinstein and Garrett Skaggs, Rosharon.
Intellitite, Neon, Petrel, RTAC, THERMA, WellNet and
WellWatcher Flux are marks of Schlumberger.
1. For more on reliability testing: Al-Asimi M, Butler G,
Brown G, Hartog A, Clancy T, Cosad C, Fitzgerald J,
Navarro J, Gabb A, Ingham J, Kimminau S, Smith J and
Stephenson K: Advances in Well and Reservoir
Surveillance, Oilfield Review 14, no. 4 (Winter
2002/2003): 1435.
2. Survival analysis is a branch of statistics dealing with
failure in mechanical systems (or death in biological
organisms). In the field of engineering, it is often called
reliability theory; it involves time-to-event modeling to
determine the fraction of a population that will survive
past a certain time, the rate at which survivors
will fail, ways to account for multiple causes of failure
and special circumstances that may increase or
decrease the odds of survival.
3. Veneruso AF, Kohli H and Webster MJ: Towards
Truly Permanent Intelligent Completions: Lifelong System
Survivability Through a Structured Reliability Assurance
Process, paper SPE 84326, presented at the SPE
Annual Technical Conference and Exhibition, Denver,
October 58, 2003.
4. Konopczynski M: Intelligent Wells: Whos Calling the
Shots? E & P (September 1, 2008), http://www.epmag.
com/Magazine/2008/9/item8226.php (accessed
February 9, 2010).
34
Oilfield Review
1970
1980
2003: Development of
Intellitite connector
1990
2008: Distributed
sandface measurements
2000
2010
2006: WellWatcher
and Neon hybrid cable
2010: Fiber-optic
pressure gauge
> Evolution of permanent monitoring. This time line illustrates the evolution of permanent gauges since Schlumberger installed the first permanent downhole
analog pressure gauge in 1972, offshore Congo. Industry acceptance of fiber optics in downhole environments, breakthroughs in electrical connectors, improved
gauge reliability and a hybrid fiber-optic cable have moved permanent monitoring to the sandfaceincluding to lower sections of two-stage completions.
Spring 2010
35
two stages. The lower stage containing the gravelpack assembly is placed across the production
zone, followed by the upper stage containing the
packer and production tubing (below).
Connecting cables and hydraulic lines
between the upper and lower completions as part
of the second step in the procedure is extremely
problematic. As a consequence, operators have
traditionally opted not to deploy gauges over the
reservoir interval of the lower completion.
Surface-controlled
subsurface safety valve
Packer
Gravel pack
36
Oilfield Review
ORSPR10RVFFigure 03
Spring 2010
DTS cable
Joule-Thomson
inflow temperature
Shunt tube
Wellbore wall
Screen
Basepipe
Axial-flow
temperature
Gravel pack
Screen shroud
> DTS cable placement. By strapping the DTS cable to the outside of the
gravel-pack screen shroud, the resulting measurement is of the JouleThomson inflow temperature, unaffected by the temperature or fluid
properties of the axial flow.
Temperature
Borehole
Shroud
Basepipe
Gravel pack
Shale
Reservoir
Geothermal
temperature
Shale
Reservoir
Axial-flow
temperature
(center of pipe)
Shale
> DTS data. When a well is shut in, the temperature reading from a fiber-optic
ORSPR10RVFFigure
cable strapped to the external
wall of a gravel-pack05
shroud (right) is a
function of the geothermal gradient (green). As the well is produced, the cable
reads the temperature of the upwardly flowing mixture (right), or the axial flow
(red). The gradient of the mixture remains essentially constant during flow
through shales. Discrete changes in the axial-flow temperature are caused by
drawdown due to inflow from the reservoir as a consequence of the
Joule-Thomson effect.
Conference and Exhibition, Anaheim, California, USA,
November 1114, 2007.
Al-Asimi et al, reference 1.
For more on fiber optics and DTS: Brown G: Downhole
Temperatures from Optical Fiber, Oilfield Review 20,
no. 4 (Winter 2008/2009), 3439.
7. Fryer V, Shuxing D, Otsubo Y, Brown G and Guilfoyle P:
Monitoring of Real-Time Temperature Profiles Across
Multizone Reservoirs During Production and Shut-In
Periods Using Permanent Fiber-Optic Distributed
Temperature Systems, paper SPE 92962, presented at
the SPE Asia Pacific Oil & Gas Conference and Exhibition,
Jakarta, April 57, 2005.
37
Temperature, C
72.4
Reservoir layers
08/10/200607:30
08/07/200621:08
72.0
08/05/200603:15
08/02/200609:22
71.5
07/30/200615:29
07/27/200621:36
71.0
71.0
Tempera
71.5
ture, C
72.0
70.5
70.5
3,800
4,200
4,000
Depth, m
Joule-Thomson inflow temperatures
> Early-time DTS data. In this plot of the DTS data, temperature decreases correspond to the reservoir
layering as the fiber-optic DTS responds to the inflow of gas cooled by the Joule-Thomson effect.
Temperature decreases in the Pereriv B layers (pink) are greater than those in the Pereriv D (green),
indicating the drawdown in the Pereriv B is less than in Pereriv D. This difference is explained by the
pressure in Pereriv B being 200 psi [1.4 MPa] lower than that in Pereriv D. A short shut-in period
around 08/05/2006 is reflected in higher temperatures. (Adapted from Pinzon et al, reference 6.)
3,700
3,800
Depth, m
3,900
4,000
ORSPR10RVFFigure 05A
4,100
4,200
4,300
65
70
Temperature, C
75
thorough understanding of production and injection conformance, both geographically and by formation. Also, because gas breakthrough was a
concern, it was important to monitor the gas/oil
ratio (GOR) in the producers. This is possible
using DTS because an increase in GOR causes
reservoir-layer fluid viscosity to decrease and the
flow rate to change. These events produce a
decrease in temperature that is clearly detectable
through DTS.
These principles were clearly demonstrated
by results from one new well in the Azeri field
that flowed at 35,000 bbl/d [5,565 m3/d] with a
constant GOR of 880 ft3/bbl [156.6 m3/m3].
DTS data acquired over the first four months of
production clearly show temperature decreases
correspond with three reservoir layers within
the Pereriv reservoir into which the well was
drilled (left).
Engineers built a thermal model using a coreto-log permeability correlation, reservoir intervals as defined by gamma ray log, and a skin of 4
as determined by well testing. The model was
calibrated to the measured flowing well pressure
by defining the reservoir layers based on the DTS
measurements. Options to calibrate the model to
the bottomhole pressure (BHP) measurements
included significantly increasing skin to 10 or
decreasing permeability by 25%. Reservoir engineers, however, decided to adjust the net to gross
pay of the model reservoir layers based on the
Joule-Thomson inflow intervals on the temperature profile. This created sufficient drawdown to
match reservoir pressures to the BHP gauge.
The calculated Joule-Thomson temperature
decrease, which resulted from the drawdown in
those redefined inflowing layers, matched the
DTS data. The modeled and DTS axial-flow temperatures also agreed, as did the flow distribution
resulting from individual layer drawdown, permeability and skin.
After two months of production, sensors in
the Pereriv B reservoir layers and in the top layers of the Pereriv D reservoir indicated increased
cooling. Knowing the fluid propertiesand
therefore the Joule-Thomson coefficienthad
not changed, the operator concluded that the
only explanation for the temperature changes
was a lower drawdown caused by increased
depletion (left).
> Time dimension. Differences in DTS readings between August (blue) and October (red) indicate inflow
temperature decreases in several layers of the Pereriv B (pink stripe), C (blue stripe) and D (green
stripe) reservoirs. All other parameters were unchanged, so the only explanation for the temperature
shifts is depletion. The gamma ray log (black curve) was used to define intervals. (Adapted from Pinzon
et al, reference 6.)
38
Oilfield Review
Wireless Connection
Operators have placed numerous permanent temperature and pressure gauges on an electrical
line along the length of traditional completions
for many years. However, because of complexities
already mentioned in subsea wells, permanent
sensors have not been been placed in the lower
Spring 2010
AC power
Inductive
coupler
Bidirectional
communication
Electronic control
module
DC power
section of two-stage completions. Instead, operators have typically chosen to restrict the location
of electric or hydraulic instrumentation to above
the packer. This has meant that the temperature
of fluids from the entire lower production intervaloften hundreds of meters long and comprising multiple primary production targetsis a
single measurement. With so little input, determining such important factors as reservoir connectivity and compartmentalization, or how much
of the perforated interval is actually contributing
to production in the lower completion, may be difficult or impossible.
While Schlumberger engineers have recently
deployed an opto-electric cable that incorporates
an optical wet-mate connector into a North Sea
subsea well, they have also developed an alternative method that is particularly suited to twostage completions. The WellWatcher Flux system
replaces hard-wire connections with a large-bore
inductive coupler that provides wireless power
and data communication across the upper and
lower connections, allowing sensors to be placed
at the reservoir section of the completion (right).11
To eliminate the time-consuming need to weld
splices at each sensor, engineers also designed
digital temperature sensors short enough that they
can be welded along a single spooled cable, or bridle. The welds are performed in a clean-room and
undergo full helium-leak testing to further ensure
against failure in the field. Also as a result of the
spoolable system design, sensors can be tested
again before installation to avoid problems arising
on site. The spacing of the sensors is arbitrary but
constrained by the limit of fewer than 48 sensors
per 1 km [0.6mi] of bridle.
Additionally, the sensors are miniaturized to fit
on the spool. WellWatcher Flux temperature sensors have ODs of 3/4 in. [19 mm] and are less than
1 ft long. This means they can be placed along
sections too small to accommodate a traditional
permanent sensor and its typically large-gauge
mandrel. This sensor array is strapped to the production string of the lower completion, obviating
the need for making connections as the upper
completion is run.12
WellWatcher Flux sensors use high-resolution
platinum resistance thermometry to provide
high-precision, low-drift measurements. The sensors uncalibrated accuracy is better than 0.3C
[0.5F] at 100C [212F]. This accuracy was
further improved during manufacturing by calibrating them to 0.1C [0.18F] over the range of
typical reservoir temperatures.13
Block data
In a second new well within the field BP engineers observed a GOR increase from 1,000 to
2,500 ft3/bbl [178 to 445 m3/m3] during the first
three months of production. DTS data indicated
the temperature in some layers was decreasing
rapidly while that in others remained unchanged.
The temperature profile also clearly showed gas
breakthrough in much thinner layers than would
be expected from the gamma ray shale indicator.
BP used the DTS-defined layering to analyze the
well. To match the DTS data after gas breakthrough with the thermal model, both reservoirlayer pressure and GOR had to be changed. To
achieve a unique solution, it was essential that
modeled-layer GORs and flow match surfacemeasured GORs and flow
chosen reservoir pressures result in a flowing well
pressure that matches the pressure-gauge value
within reservoir layers, calculated Joule-Thomson
inflow temperature match the DTS curve
the axial-flow temperature between reservoir
layers match measured DTS data.
Engineers calculated the Joule-Thomson
inflow and axial-flow temperatures and used
them to compute the oil and gas flow rates of the
Pereriv B and D reservoir layers. A third formation,
the Pereriv C, was ignored because pressure data
indicated it was impermeable. Pereriv B showed
significant depletion over the three-month period
while the Pereriv D showed less depletion. When
the well was shut in, DTS data indicated crossflow
from D into B, which was consistent with observed
reservoir-layer pressure differences.
These results confirmed that gas had broken
through at the top and middle of the Pereriv B
and in one reservoir layer of the Pereriv D. The
flow contibution after three months had also
gone from 50% each from Pereriv B and D to 25%
and 75%, respectively. Analysis confirmed that
gas was not breaking through in a flat flood front.
Based on these results, BP gained a better
understanding of layering in the Pereriv reservoir
and has used this approach to review its reservoir
pressure support strategy. Consequently, the
company was able to reduce gas breakthrough in
another well in the field using a water-injection
well to locally raise reservoir pressures.
Sensor
39
124.89
Temperature, C
124.88
124.87
124.86
124.85
7
8
Time, days
10
11
12
13
14
> High-resolution sensors. Sensors tested in a laboratory oven detected minute changes in
temperature. The module test oven was set to 125C, but because of variations in the air conditioning
within the building, records show the oven attained 124.87C [256.77F] during the day and 124.86C
[256.75F] at night. Because of its high resolution, the sensor detected these small variationsin effect
detecting when the engineers were present. Plotted here are measurements taken taken every minute
and averaged over an hour. (Adapted from Gambhir et al, reference 14.)
10
20
4,200
30
40
Interpreted flow
70
80
90
100
4,300
4,400
ORSPR10RVFFigure 08
Depth, ft
4,500
Sensor data
4,600
4,700
4,800
4,900
5,000
160
162
164
166
168
170
172
174
176
178
180
182
184
Temperature, F
> Determining flow profile from temperature. In this prejob simulation, synthesized sensor data (blue
dots) are input into THERMA reservoir modeling software, which uses an iterative process to solve for
composite gas or black-oil drainage and perform a nodal pressure analysis along the length of the
wellbore. Iterations are performed to calculate a temperature profile (red) that best fits the measured
data. The software program then creates an interpreted flow profile (black). Reservoir layers are
depicted in pink and orange. (Adapted from Gambhir et al, reference 14.)
40
tion, plus two quartz gauges to update temperature and pressure measurements every second.
Array temperature data were transmitted every
minute and upper completion temperature and
pressure data every second. The data from the
dual-stage subsea wells were transmitted to
shore in real time during well cleanup and the
system continuously monitored the reservoir
once production began.
The data combined diagnostic information
with raw temperature values in packed blocks. A
downhole communication hub, the WellNet multisensor station, merged those blocks with temperature and pressure data acquired above the
production packer. These stations may be deployed
in each production zone on gauge mandrels with
power and telemetry provided by a single cable.
This configuration minimizes wellhead and packer
penetrations and simplifies installation.
Data transmitted from the lower to upper
completion through the WellWatcher Flux inductive coupler were then transferred to a subsea
interface card in the tree. The information went
to an RTAC real-time acquisition and control system on the production platform, which provided
real-time communication to the RIL offices in
Mumbai. Engineers there were then able to use
THERMA software to derive gas flow profiles from
the sensor arrays.
Using the same strategy as for wells with DTS
systems, analysts input the profiles into THERMA
modeling and analysis software. This software
performs an iterative inversion to vary reservoir
properties until simulated temperature data
match measured data. Standard fluid modeling
programs then deliver a flow profile using those
interpreted reservoir properties (left).
As the wells were cleaning up, data from the
sensors were used to confirm brine displacement
followed by gas flow from each of the major sand
bodies. As individual wells were brought on line,
Reliance engineers identified crossflow in some
wellsupward flow in some wells and downward
flow in others. Comparisons of when individual
wells had been brought on line clearly established that the data were not just indicating
crossflow between compartments within individual wells but also from one well to another.
Prompted by this evidence of connectivity,
engineers added traditional interference testing
14. Gambhir HS, Shrivastav A, Lovell J, Mackay S,
Chouzenoux C, Juchereau B, Arachman F and
Chaudhary A: Sensor Architecture for Open Hole
Gravel Pack Completions, paper SPE 116476, presented
at the SPE Annual Technical Conference and Exhibition,
Denver, September 2124, 2008.
15. Integrated Project Teams Achieve Fast-Track
Conclusion at KG-D6, in RILs KGD6 Fields
Transforming Indias Energy Landscape, Oil & Gas
Journal (Supplement, 2010), 3438.
Oilfield Review
Polymeric encapsulation
Cable armor
Polymeric jacket
Flexibility
Multiple permanent pressure gauges and DTS
systems make powerful reservoir management
tools, especially when deployed together. However,
operators typically have been reluctant to use
them together because to do so requires an extra
penetration through packers and wellheads to
accommodate both a fiber-optic cable and an
electrical line. In response, Schlumberger has
developed the Neon hybrid opto-electric permanent monitoring cable that allows deployment of
quartz pressure gauges along with DTS in a single
cable. Versions of the Neon cable have been
developed to meet fluid characteristics of various
downhole pressure and temperature environments. The hybrid opto-electric connectors have
been qualified for continuous operations at conditions up to 103 MPa [15,000 psi] and 175C
[350F] (right).
The ability to measure pressure and distributed temperature simultaneously is especially
useful when operators are forced to drill into
reservoir layers with unknown pressures, flow
dynamics or permeabilities. Such was the case
for one operator whose redevelopment program
of a field offshore east Malaysia included completing dual-string multizone wells in deep layers. The operator had little information with
which to calculate zonal allocation and depletion
and wanted the ability to monitor pressure and
temperature from individual zones.
Because operator engineers were also anxious to monitor gas lift performance and to identify potential leak points, sensors were installed
across each reservoir perforation interval.
Experts used THERMA modeling software to analyze the DTS data and then adjusted variables
until measured and calculated data agreed.
The permanent system allowed uninterrupted
reservoir surveillance without costly interventions and deferred production. Downhole gauge
data, in conjunction with other techniques,
helped determine flow from individual zones.
Information about layer pressure communication
was captured by wireline formation testers, well
tests and pressure-transient analyses.
DTS data and analysis of zonal production in
the stacked reservoir enabled early detection of
internal crossflow zones during well cleanup.
Zonal pressure and rate profiling helped optimize
application of an inflow control valve. Further,
the installation eliminated the time-consuming
and often risky intervention required for cased
Spring 2010
Polytetrafluoroethylene tape
Filler rod
Conductor insulation
Optical fiber
Stranded conductor
Filler rod
> Hybrid cable. The Neon cable contains an electrical line for the pressure gauge stranded to a fiber
metal tube capable of supporting up to three optical fibers. The optical fibers and electrical line are
surrounded by a polymeric jacket to keep the core in place. This is then housed inside a 6.35-mm
[0.25-in.] cable armor and surrounded by an 11-mm by 11-mm [0.43-in. by 0.43-in.] polymeric
encapsulation to protect the cable as it is run in the well.
using cyclic steam injection, the continuous measurements from permanent temperature sensors
could prove critical in determining the sweep
efficiency and for optimizing the timing of injecExtracting Value
Permanently installed pressure gauges have long tion and production. The same sensor may probeen used to monitor oil and gas production. vide valuable subsurface information about a CO2
Downhole temperature sensors also have a long flood program, but if the operators overarching
history, but traditionally they have been used to concern is pressure maintenance, a temperature
correct for temperature effects on measurements gauge is not the optimal sensor.
of pressure gauges and logging tools. However,
The proliferation of permanent downhole
industry acceptance of fiber-optic measure- monitoring systems has been driven in large meaments, along with improvements in sensor reli- sure by operator need to manage production from
ability and interpretation capabilities, has begun complex and remote wells. DTS and sandface
to create demand for permanent temperature pressure data allow operators to visualize what is
sensors for continuous monitoring and control of happening in their wells and to judge the effiproduction and injection operations.
ciency of such production strategies as artificial
Operators are also turning to permanent DTS lift, injection and secondary-recovery programs.
systems to acquire information that was previBut maximum value from permanent sensors
ously obtainable only through production logs: is realized only when the raw data are properly
detecting or monitoring fluid flow behind pipe interpreted. This realization plus a trend toward
and identifying flow from or into individual zones. more multichannel systems and higher sampling
Permanent DTS systems are also used with rates will likely drive development of automated
increasing frequency to identify tubing leaks as systems that can identify and respond to producthey occur and to monitor gas lift performance in tion problems with minimal human intervention.
artificial lift wells.
Until that
ORSPR10RVFFigure
10 time, however, the task of interMaximizing the value of permanent downhole pretation and response to permanent sensor
sensors requires operators to take a considered data must be the purview of experienced, knowlapproach to their use. In many instances simple edgeable engineers armed with appropriate
databases of temperature and pressure are pow- software. Their interpretations, combined with
erful decision-making tools, useful throughout other subsurface information and reservoir simthe life of a well or field. In others, realizing the ulations, allow operators to take a broad, fieldfull value of a sensor is contingent on its being wide view of assets. Properly applied, the results
the right tool for the circumstances, expected are fewer wells drilled, more accurate well
production problems or well architecture. For placement, fewer days spent on drilling and
instance, in an enhanced oil recovery campaign completion operations and, ultimately, optimal
hydrocarbon recovery.
RvF
hole logging while offering continuous wellbore
data over the life of the well.
41
Thilo M. Brill
Princeton, New Jersey, USA
Hilbrand Graven
Frans Mulders
GDF SUEZ E&P Nederland B.V.
Zoetermeer, The Netherlands
Jean-Luc Le Calvez
Edward A. Nichols
Fernando Zapata Bermudez
Clamart, France
Dian M. Notoadinegoro
Balikpapan, Indonesia
Ivan Sofronov
Moscow, Russia
42
Oilfield Review
Tool Physics
The EM Pipe Scanner tool provides nondestructive casing inspection using electromagnetic
induction. Its principle of operation is similar to
that of a transformer with losses. A transformers
Spring 2010
Pipe wall
2
100
100
90
180
270
360
Medium
Relative Magnetic
Permeability, r
Conductivity,
, S/m
Frequency,
f, Hz
Skin Depth,
, mm
Vacuum
Arbitrary
Infinite
10
22,500
1,000
2,250
10
21
Brine
50
Copper
60 x 10 6
Casing
100
5 x 10 6
1,000
10
1,000
0.7
Oilfield Review
Spring 10
basic
primary coil generates a time-varyingPipeScanner
magnetic Fig.
1 EM physics is the same for all transmitterORSPRG10-PPSCN
Fig.pairs,
1
but the responses differ because
field that flows through a magnetic core
to induce receiver
a voltage in its secondary coil. In comparison, the of the frequency of the signal and the transmittools transmitter coilacting as a primary coil ter-receiver spacing. The general aspects of the
generates a magnetic field whose flux is guided physics of EM induction are described next,
by the casing; this magnetic flux induces a volt- followed by specific tool applications.
When a time-varying EM wave penetrates a
age in a secondary or receiver coil.
The flux guide provided by the casing is conductive body, such as the steel pipe of tubing
lossyenergy is lost or dissipated in the or casing, its magnitude decays exponentially. The
mediumbecause of the currents induced in the rate of decay depends on the bodys conductivity
casing metal. The tool measures these losses to and magnetic permeability and the frequency of
determine geometrical, electrical and magnetic the wave; the decay rate is characterized by a
properties of the casing, including the presence length called the skin depth, (above). The phase
of corrosion or pitting in the pipe.
of the wave also changes as it passes through the
Oilfield
Reviewconductor, a property that is useful in measuring
The EM Pipe Scanner tool contains
several
Spring 10
EM transmitters and associated receivers.
The Fig.
the1Athickness of the material.
PipeScanner
ORSPRG10-PPSCN Fig. 1A
43
Transmitter
coil
Transmitter
coil
25
50
75
100
25
Radius, in.
Radius, in.
Pipe wall
3
50
75
100
> Lines of potential for transmitter coils inside a pipe from finite-difference models. Each color contour represents a one-decibel decrease in the potential
voltage of the electric field created by a transmitter coil. A low-frequency signal (left) penetrates the pipe wall and decays slowly outside the pipe. Because
of this, in the RFEC region at large offset from the transmitter, the main flow of energy (yellow arrows) goes through the pipe wall, along the outside of the
pipe, then back through the wall to the inside of the pipe. In contrast, the direct signal within the pipe (black arrow) decays rapidly. A high-frequency signal
(right) reaches the pipe wall but decays rapidly within the pipe. The signal and response in this NFEC region (black arrows) provide information about the
properties of the metal on the inner surface of the pipe wall. The radial scale is greatly expanded in comparison to the axial scale, and the low- and
high-frequency transmitter coils are of typical sizes for an EM corrosion-monitoring tool.
44
Oilfield Review
Potential
Phase
Transmitter
coil
Transmitter
coil
25
50
75
100
25
Radius, in.
Radius, in.
Pipe wall
3
50
75
100
> Response to a low-frequency source in a grooved pipe. Lines of electric potential (left) and phase (right) are perturbed by grooves on the inner (white box
at 10 in.) and outer (white box at 90 in.) surfaces of the pipe wall. Both the potential and phase perturbations within the pipe where measurements are made
are identical for the inside and the outside grooves.
Spring 2010
A long transmitter-receiver offset with a lowfrequency signal investigates what is called the
remote-field eddy current (RFEC) region. This
region is dominated by the indirect field, which
involves the signal path described previously: The
path goes through the pipe metal twice in its
traversal from transmitter to receiver. That passage through the metal generates both signal
attenuation and a phase shift.
Between the RFEC and the NFEC lies the
transition region. Both the direct and indirect
signals influence the field here, and the interpretation may be quite complex. For that reason,
commercial induction-tool designs for corrosion
detection avoid placing receivers in this region.
6. At certain frequencies a waveguide such as a metal
pipe transmits EM signals with little loss. This range
is bounded by the upper and lower cutoff frequencies;
signals beyond those cutoffs decay exponentially
with distance.
7. Although it seems counterintuitive to be able to
measure pipe thickness using a source and receiver
that are both inside the pipe, the physics is well-defined.
The energy flux, as indicated by the Poynting vector,
flows approximately radially outward through the pipe
wall at the transmitter, along the outside wall of the pipe,
then approximately radially inward again, providing the
receiver is more than about two pipe diameters from
the transmitter. For an example of a finite-element
analysis: Lord W, Sun YS, Udpa SS and Nath S: A
Finite Element Study of the Remote Field Eddy Current
Phenomenon, IEEE Transactions on Magnetics 24, no. 1
(January 1988): 435438.
45
Tool outer
diameter
2D discrimination
Sensitive
region
TH
RP
Discriminator
transmitter, TH
Pipe
Pad
receiver, RP
RP
RLL
RP
TH
Average thickness
RP
RLS R
LL
RLS
TL
TL
2D thickness
RLS
RLL
TL
Skin-depth decay
RLS
Z properties
RLL
RZ
RZ
RZ
RZ
TZ
TZ
1 1
0 ID
Oilfield Review
Spring 10
PipeScanner Fig. 3
ORSPRG10-PPSCN Fig. 3
46
, Coil configurations for the EM Pipe Scanner tool. The tool makes four
measurements. The Z-properties measurement (bottom) uses a transmitter
(TZ) operating at three frequencies and one of two nearby receivers (RZ).
The response signal can be used to determine a quantity, , that is a function
of the pipe ID, the angular frequency , and the EM properties of the pipe
metal: the permeability and the conductivity . The term 0 is the constant
permeability of free space. The average thickness d is determined from the
low-frequency transmitter (TL) in the middle of the tool, along with two
receivers above and two below the transmitter (lower middle). Two lowfrequency receivers (RLL) are termed long-spacing receivers and two are
termed short-spacing receivers (RLS), but all are in the RFEC region. The
phase shift of the signalwhich is a function of skin depth as it goes
through the pipe at the transmitter and again at each receiver is used to
determine the EM thickness of the pipe d/. Near the top of the tool 18 caliper
arms press pad receivers (RP) against the inside of the pipe. Combining these
sensors with the low-frequency signal from the transmitter (TL) at the middle
of the tool provides a 2D thickness measurement (upper middle). The 18
sensors are also used with a high-frequency discriminator transmitter (TH)
located on the tool mandrel in line with the sensor pads (top). The highfrequency signal does not penetrate the pipe wall, so this part of the tool
provides a 2D map that discriminates damage on the inside wall from
other signals.
Oilfield Review
> Configuration of 18 arms with sensors. Wellsite sensor experts examine and service the sensor pads after a logging run.
Spring 2010
With inclusion of the Z-properties measurement the thickness of a single string can be calculated from either the conductivity of the pipe
or its magnetic permeability. The conductivity
depends on the pipe chemistry and is typically
constant for a given pipe joint and even for a
majority of joints in a well, since they often come
from one manufacturing run. A computation
based on conductivity provides the basic measurement of thickness. In contrast, the magnetic
permeability is highly variable, so derivation of
the thickness based on permeability is used as a
quality-control measure.
Thickness is measured at a user-selected frequency. The operator typically chooses a signal at
8.75 Hz for multiple strings, at 17.5 or 35 Hz for
single strings, and at 70 Hz for chromium-steel
strings. Processing combines data from multiple
Review
receivers,Oilfield
all at offsets
sufficient to be in the
Spring
RFEC region,
to 10
remove ghosts.8 Although the
Fig.
4 of the phase
thicknessPipeScanner
is almost a linear
function
ORSPRG10-PPSCN
Fig. 4 by invershift, more-accurate
values are obtained
sion modeling to account for nonlinearity.
47
EM Thickness
0
in.
1.5
Depth,
m
in.
4.7
in.
in.
2.35
Relative
Bearing
2.35
in.
2.35
0 deg 360
Tension
10,000 lbf 0
Cable
Speed
Gamma Ray
0
20
Outer
casing
collar
gAPI
150
Discriminated CCL
V
2D Thickness
Minus
Average (EM)
Radii Minus
Average (Caliper)
2D Discriminator
Minus
Average (EM)
X,580
X,590
X,600
Casing Inner
Diameter
Depth,
ft
4
in.
EM
Thickness
6 0
in.
Casing
Properties
0.4 0
Double-Coil
Amplitude
10 30
dB
Double-Coil
Phase
2D Thickness
Minus Average
deg
in.
0 0
X,X40
X,X60
270 0.2
2D Discriminator
Minus Average
0.15
X,X80
X,Y00
X,Y20
Oilfield Review
Spring 10
PipeScanner Fig. 5
ORSPRG10-PPSCN Fig. 5
X,Y40
X,Y60
48
Oilfield Review
13 /8 in.
72 lbm/ft
12.347-in. ID
0.514-in. thickness
Depth,
m
Double-Coil Double-Coil
Short-Spacing Short-Spacing
Amplitude
Phase
CCL
3
V 1
Tension
1,000 lbf 0
Gamma
Ray
dB
0 0
deg 360
Double-Coil Double-Coil
Long-Spacing Long-Spacing
Phase
EM Computed Thickness Amplitude
0 gAPI 150 0
in.
1 5
dB
0 0
deg 360
2D
Thickness
55
0
deg
2D
Discriminator
55 0.943
1.069
X00
95/8 in.
53.5 lbm/ft
8.535-in. ID
0.545-in. thickness
X50
Y00
41/2 in.
12.75 lbm/ft
3.958-in. ID
0.271-in. thickness
Y50
> Evidence of metal loss in outer casing. The logged section has 41/2-in. tubing and 95/8-in. casing (well
diagram, left). The EM computed thickness of the double string of pipe is significantly less than nominal
above X40 m (Track 1), but there is no evidence of loss on the 2D discriminator log (Track 5), indicating
the loss is not on the inside wall of the tubing. The EM computed thickness curve also shows metal loss
from X83 to Y50 m, which also is not evident on the 2D discriminator log. In addition, the PMIT caliper
log (not shown) indicated no metal loss from the inner surface of the 41/2-in. tubing. The log response is
Oilfield
Review
interpreted as loss of thickness in the outer
wall
of the 9 5/8-in. casing in these sections. In Track 4 the
10 phase-angle change.
thickness change is represented as theSpring
proportional
PipeScanner Fig. 7
ORSPRG10-PPSCN Fig. 7
Spring 2010
49
Casing Nominal
Inner Radius
1.75
in.
2.25
Casing Inner
Diameter (EM)
Depth,
m
3.5
Gamma Ray
0
gAPI
in.
4.5
Average Internal
Radius (Caliper)
3,000 1.75
in.
2.25
1,625
1,750
1,875
2,000
2,125
2,250
2,375
2,500
Oilfield Review
Spring 10
50
Oilfield Review
Contributors
Irlec Alexandra Acua has been a Schlumberger
Wireline Account Manager since 2008. Based in The
Hague, she manages all international and emerging
accounts in the Netherlands, oversees the growth of the
wireline and slickline business and leads key account
activities in marketing, business development, relationships and technology engagement. She began her
career in 1997 and worked as a mechanical engineer for
SuperOctanos, Den Spie and PDVSA in Caracas and
Puerto La Cruz, Venezuela. In 2000 she joined
Schlumberger as a Wireline field engineer with offshore
and onshore assignments in various countries such as
Venezuela, the UAE, Kazakhstan, Italy, France, Romania
and Norway. Six years later she moved to Assen, the
Netherlands, as technical support sales engineer,
responsible for Schlumberger Wireline business development for the Shell account there. Irlec earned a masters degree in mechanical engineering from Instituto
Universitario Politcnico de la Fuerzas Armadas
Nacionales (IUPFAN), now Universidad Nacional
Experimental Politcnica de la Fuerza Armada
Bolivariana (UNEFA), in Venezuela.
John Algeroy is Schlumberger Systems Manager at the
Schlumberger Reservoir Completions Center (SRC) in
Rosharon, Texas, USA. There he is responsible for the
development of a new completion system for Saudi
Aramco. In 1986 he joined Camco and held various
management positions in Norway and the UK before
the Schlumberger acquisition of Camco in 1998. He was
the global intelligent completion business development
manager from 1999 to 2001, based at SRC, and transferred to Dubai in 2001. Prior to his current assignment, he spent six years in the Middle East, including
time as completions operations manager for the East
Africa and East Mediterranean GeoMarket* region, in
Cairo. John has a BS degree in petroleum engineering
from Rogaland Regional College in Stavanger.
Mauro Amaya, who is an Ecopetrol SA Senior
Engineer, has experience in Colombias Casabe field.
Ral Amaya is a Senior Petroleum Engineer with
Ecopetrol SA. He has worked on the Casabe field project in Colombia.
Mark A. Andersen, Executive Editor of Oilfield Review
and Manager of Oilfield Executive Communications,
joined Schlumberger and the Oilfield Review staff in
2000. He began his career in 1981 as a researcher in
production rock properties at Amoco Research Center
in Tulsa. He subsequently spent several years in
Stavanger, where he managed Amoco Norways external research program and wrote Petroleum Research
in North Sea Chalk. Mark is the author of many technical papers describing his own and other scientists
work, including 23 articles for Oilfield Review. He
holds a BS degree in engineering physics from the
University of Oklahoma at Norman, USA, and MS and
PhD degrees in physics from The Johns Hopkins
University in Baltimore, Maryland, USA.
Richard Birchwood is a Geomechanics Specialist with
Schlumberger in Houston, where he has developed
methods for predicting the mechanical and thermal
stability of formations containing gas hydrates. He has
also conducted research on sand production and inversion of sonic logging data for the attributes of rocks
and fractures. Prior to his Houston assignment, he was
Spring 2010
51
52
Oilfield Review
Spring 2010
53
sis and partial differential equations; and the construction and mathematical analysis of numerical
methods for hyperbolic, parabolic and elliptic problems with applications in computational elastodynamics, computational fluid dynamics and computational
electromagnetics. He joined Schlumberger after 27
years of research at the Keldysh Institute of Applied
Mathematics, Russian Academy of Sciences in
Moscow. Ivan earned MS and PhD degrees in computational mathematics at the Moscow Institute of
Physics and Technology and a Doctor of Science
degree, also in computational mathematics, at the
Institute of Mathematical Modeling, Russian Academy
of Sciences in Moscow.
Gabriel Tirado is Global Business Development
Manager for Schlumberger Completions headquarters
in Rosharon, Texas. There he oversees worldwide new
technology introduction and growth of the companys
reservoir monitoring product line. He joined
Schlumberger in 1994 as a Testing field engineer. In
1997 he became a field supervisor for Testing operations
and quality assurance officer for Schlumberger Nigeria.
Two years later he was named field service manager for
Testing operations in eastern Venezuela. He became an
account and support manager in 2000, overseeing Well
Completions & Productivity (WCP) operations in Brazil.
Before assuming his current post in 2007, he was reservoir monitoring and upper completions manager for
operations in the US Gulf of Mexico and also WCP district manager in Louisiana, USA. Gabriel has a degree in
chemical engineering from the Universidad
Metropolitana (UNIMET) in Caracas.
54
Oilfield Review
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Spring 2010
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56
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Two Cultures
Uncertain Science and Engineering
Great Achievements and
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Prizing Engineering
Notes, Illustration Credits, Index
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Oilfield Review