Considerations on Bribery in Ancient Egypt

Author(s): Hassan El-Saady

Source: Studien zur Altgyptischen Kultur, Bd. 25 (1998), pp. 295-304
Published by: Helmut Buske Verlag GmbH
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on Bribery

Considerations

in Ancient

Egypt*

von
Hassan

El-Saady

Abstract

This paper deals with the terminology and available examples of bribery inAncient Egypt. This is based
on the textual evidences of administration, biographies as well as religious texts. Is also highlights the
different kinds of bribery and the various punishments, which were enacted against the bribers.
?The vice of greed (is) a gravious
It is well-known
the

including
frequently,

that Ancient

Egyptian

structure.

ethical

its order

regulated
breakdowns

Nevertheless,

to the political,

owing

society

sickness without

economic,

social,

to Macet,

according

in this

structure

and other

religious

cure", Ptah-Hotep.

occurred

human

fields

of

activity1.
In spite of the difficulty
by

as an obvious

itself

various

occurrences

examples

which

their terminology

part of
in texts,

deal with

a clear definition

it. Apart

from

the present

writer

bribery

in Ancient

of

bribery stands
..corruption"2;
cases of bribery and their

the controverted
aims

in this paper
as well

Egypt

to highlight

the scattered

as he can, and also

to discuss

and circumstances.

to say, the officials

Needless
represent

in achieving

the repertory

in the administration

for such studies.

at any rate, do not refer

to bribery

left documents

It is noteworthy

specifically3.

and biographies

that the instructions

Probably

because

of

which

of Ptah-Hotep,

the overall

tone

in

I owe deep gratitude to Prof. K. A. Kitchen for having generously supplying me with some of the cited
references here and discussing this output in its first form.
1
See J. Assmann, Macat: Gerechtigkeit und Unsterblichkeit
im Alten Agypten,
1990; M. Lichtheim,
Maat in Egyptian Autobiographies
and related studies, OBO 120, 1992, Ch. 1;B. Menu, Recherches
sur Thistoire Juridique, Economic et Sociale de 1'Ancienne Egypte, 1982, ch. 1/1; H. Brunner, Die

religiose Antwort auf die Korruption in Agypten,

Konstanzer Symposium. Oktober 1979, 1982, 74.

in:W.

Schuller

(ed.), Korruption

W. Helck,

im Altertum:

?Korruption" imAlten Agypten, in:W. Schuller (ed.), Korruption imAltertum: Konstanzer

Symposium. Oktober 1979, 1982, 65.
3
Cf. Z. 2aba, Les maximes de Ptah-hotep, 1956, passim; M. Lichtheim, Ancient
Egyptian Literature I,
1975, 62- 73.

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296 H. El-Saady

SAK 25

these instructions as well as the lack of opportunity for the layman to express himself in
the Old Kingdom when the highly organized administration reached one of its peaks.
The first obvious allusions to bribery would be reflected in the petitions of theEloquent
was

Peasant,

when

accused

the magistrates

still suffering

from

the crisis

The

of decentralization.

petitioner
and even the mayor who did not take
Nemtynakht,
in some way4.
them, that they benefited
any action against
to his eloquence,
the words used are rhetorical
rather than explicit. Hence,
the
Owing
as ..portion": hrt and the action itself could be ..snatch": hnp; when he
is described
bribery
is in your house
The
; a jug of beer and three loaves...
says to the mayor
?your portion
snatch

judges
becomes
pw

Egypt

who

has

what

rdyw sdmw; which

the eighth
magistrates

The
usage;

refers

when

Then,

his

the judges

in describing
to taking bribes6.

it also repeats

fraud,

called

is eventually
above mentioned

use

as

types

refer openly
is addressed

as a promising

of

and briber

of the literary

whereas

King,

category

is definitely

in two different
tends

the advice

of bribery,

echoed
your

mndm

as give

and

in this passage
of
... the
is
full
belly

is an obvious

of bribery

could

in Egyptian

instructions

to bribery
toMerikarec

..greasy baskets";

the action

naming

the reaction

of

instance

as ..portion", while

the

rlwys.

for bribery

in the text in question,

several

Amongst

words

is rising,

anguish

literally

Moreover,

the rhetorical

a ..robber":

to the nature

this is owing

their uncommon

Amenemope
first which

stolen"5.

the corrupted magistrates

and the mayor,
is clearly
as
follows:
is
in
..Your portion
your house,
petition
a
and
Are
take.
then
This
robber?..."7.
you
you
give

administrative
recipient

been

as reflected

evident

take between

exculpated

of the ..Eloquent

Peasant".

Thus,

understandable.
those

literature9;
approaches

to enhance

as exceptional

be considered

of Merikarec

and different

the capability

and

terms. The

of his administration

states:

so that they act by your laws; he who has wealth

at home will
?Advance
your officials
not be partial, he is a rich man who lacks nothing. The poor man does not
speak justly, not
one
is
who
I
wish
he
to
inclines
who
whom
will
had",
says ?I
righteous
pay him nb dblw10.
4

6
7
8
9

10

See F. Vogelsang, Kommentar zu den Klagen des Bauern, in: K. Sethe (ed.),
zur
Untersuchungen
Geschichte und Altertumskunde Aegyptens 6,1913; Lichtheim, Literature 1,169-184; R.B.Parkinson,
The Tale of the Eloquent Peasant, 1991.
Vogelsang,

Lichtheim,
Lichtheim,

op.cit.,

88-90,

Literature

92-4;

Parkinson,

I, 175; Vogelsang,
Literature I, 180.

op.cit.,

op.cit.,

23;

124-5,

130.

119-21; Parkinson, op.cit., 26, 164.

Vogelsang, op.cit., 208; Parkinson, op.cit., 43, 333.

Cf. for the instructions of Amenemhat I,Ani, Ankhsheshanq
respectively; M. Lichtheim, Literature I,
135-9, II 135- 46, III 159-84; for Ani in: ANET, 419-20; for Ankhsheshanq
in:M. Lichtheim, Late
Wisdom
in
the
literature
International
Context:
A
Egyptian
Study of Demotic Instructions, OBO 52,
1983, 13ff.
Lichtheim,

Literature I, 100;W. Helck, Die Lehre ftir Konig Merikare,

1977, 24-5.

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1998 Considerations on Bribery inAncient Egypt

This

would

passage

previous

afford

two noticeable

297

the first is the phrase

points;

nb dbiw

which denotes the briber. It is derived from the verb dbi(w); to bribe and its derivatives
which
sense
The

refer

may

in context

of bribery11.
second point

the poverty

to ordinary

would

provoke

and instead

repayment

to a worthwhile

refers

of officials

who iswell-off

either

principle

corruption

or the

in administration,

recognized

and partiality

r- dbi),

(n dbi;

in consequence,

since
the

while

in his office did not need to be bribed12.

The

of partiality
disadvantages
son for being an efficient
official13,

is well-expressed
hence

in Amenemope's

he says in ch. 20:

to his

instructions

?Do not accept

the bribery

(lit.

gift; fqiw) of a powerful man, and deprive the weak for his sake, Maat is a great gift of
god"14. This

latter passage

(honest)

or reward15.

gift

Some

of the royal decrees

Lower
mentions;

also

and its legal punishment.

of Horemheb
The

It also

and Sety

the notion

alongside

of supply

the meaning

or special

of

provisions

implied
The

a reference
to
against corruption
- as
as
are
I
far
know
those
examples

in their codes

two striking

II17.

decree

of Horemheb

Egypt,

officials

states

a strict enactment
of a harsh

and Priests

?..Do not receive

those

against

punishment

the bribery

like you judge others, while

... For any official
or any priest...(..

11

incorporates

for bribery,

in administration16.

mainly

bribery

as a word

gives fqi(w)

the two judges

for any possible

bribery,
... [how
of another
then]

(lit. reward: fqiw)

there is one among you committing
who)

opposes

justice,

of Upper

crime

it shall be against

against
him

and
as it
shall

justice
a capital

"^
Ik <*
see,WB V, 559; Faulkner, CD, 321; Meeks, Annee
Jj
P.
et Scandales sous les Ramses, 1993, 248.
Affaires
Vermis,
lexicographique I, 446; III, 439;
12
Helck, ..Korruption" im Alten Agypten, 67.
13
des Amenemope,
ANET, 421-25; Lichtheim, Literature II, 146-63; H.O. Lange, Das Weisheitsbuch
1925. Another example in pBerlin 3034 can be likely quoted concerning the relation between payments
and partiality in the opening three mutilated lines in the text of ?theman who was tired of life"; see,
R.O. Faulkner, in: JEA 42, 1956, 21, 22; 1-3.
14
Lange, op.cit., 104-5, esp. 104; 3-4; F. Griffith, in: JEA 12,1926, 218; Brunner, Die religiose Antwort
auf die Korruption inAgypten, 72.
15
For fql(w)
and its further meanings; see, Wb I, 579; Faulkner, CD, 98; Meeks, Annee
*S/:r1|\c=
lexicographique I, 144; Vemus, op.cit., 246-7.
16
A. Spalinger, in: SAK 13, 1986, 240-44; S. Quirke, The Administration of Egypt in the Late Middle
1990, 48, no. 9, 58, 62. It also refers to royal supplies (e.g.
Kingdom: The Hieratic Documents,
For meaning

and derivatives of dblw ft

costs, access to normal daily supply or food...) to individual officials in return for official
service; ibid., 106-7.
17
See for both decrees, BAR III, ? 45- 67; M. Mtiller, in: ZAS 26,1888,70-94;
Kitchen, Ram. Inscr. IV,
maintenance

263-66.

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298 H. El-Saady

This

crime"18.

decree,

for bribery,
but it rather adds an explicit
adopts fqi(w)
or eventually
a capital crime (bti ri)19, for which
the sentence

however,

for it as a crime

description

a reference

be the death penalty20. Meanwhile

would

to recipients

SAK 25

in these passages

is mentioned

to the level of bribery used to be given

as it was either silver, gold or
of the decree,

copper21.

The decree of Sety II at Karnak also deals with any bribery thatmay be committed
by the priesthood.

mainly

?... His

relevant

The

that command

decreed]

[majesty

of the decree

passage

runs as follows:

to the bearer

be given

of Amon,

Mut

and

[Khons] in Thebes; the good and gracious, (and) for all [the gods and god]esses of the
and North,

South

[(to) the god's

fathers?],

(to) the wr6-priests

and

that anything

lectors,

nkt(w) should (not) be allowed to be required from them (namely; to be bribed), by any
prophet who functions in the [time of his majesty?].
[As for any prophet of whom it shall be heard that] (he) requires any bribe (lit. anything;
them, one

from

nkt(w))

[As for any bearer,

shall dismiss
father,

any god's

him from his post,

and any

any wr6-priests

to a field-labourer.

reduced

being

lector]

of whom

it shall be

heard that he gives any bribe (lit. anything; nkt(w)) to the prophet, he shall [be dismissed
from]

his post,

[against
Here,

him

to a field-labourer;

reduced

being

two

notice

important

points.

as ?anything",

the second

dismissal

an offender

nkt(w) ^p X23. Whilst

from a post, by degrading
of the social

In dealing
another

with

example

level. That

shall cause

to be executed

the [law]

...]"22.

we would

the bottom

one

which

first

is the additional

is the punishment

which

term for bribe

exceeds

to be just a field

socially

the mere

labourer,

i.e. at

pyramid.
reaction

royal

is during

The

may

towards

bribery,

the present

writer

to suggest

is inclined

stand at the edge of the sphere

at national
of bribery,
if viewed
was
to expel
regime
preparing
to keep the status
spoke in the counsel
preferring

the time of the Hyksos

them from

when

Kamose

the North, while his nobles

- as
fields are ploughed
?their (the Hyksos)
quo since
they said
emmer
in the Delta,
is sent for our pigs and our cattle
pastured

for us, our

have

not

cattle

been

are
taken

away"24.

18

BAR

III, ? 63-4; B.G. Davies, Egyptian Historical Records of the Later Eighteenth Dynasty, fasc. VI,
1995,81.
19
U. Bouriant, in: RecTrav. 6, 1835,46; 5,47;6.
20
BAR III, ? 64a; C. Lalouette, Textes sacres et textes profanes de l'ancienne Egypt, 1984, 83.
21
Helck, ?Korruption" imAlten Agypten, 67.

22

23

Kitchen,

Ram.Inscr.

IV,

266;

1-4.

Vernus, Affaires et Scandales, 246.

24
ANET, 232; CAH 2/1,291; A. Gardiner,

in: JEA 3,1916,103;

B. Gunn/A. Gardiner,

46.

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in: JEA 5,1918,

Considerations on Bribery inAncient Egypt

1998

These

were

latter privileges

..generous

great deal of loss25. And

on the Hyksos

in his account

Seters

as

the break and suffer a

- were
to the
restricted
in the text

to precipitate

reluctant
- as
implied

these benefits

since

the present writer

rather than all the Egyptians,

nobles

were

the nobles

whereas

rights",

by Van

described

299

consider

would

common

the nobles'

defence of keeping theHyksos privileges as implying a specific form of bribery, by which

the decision-making
is never expressed

would

to the point

be influenced

and

treason,

this concept

although

openly.

the vast extent of the biographies

Amongst
as far as we can - where
ones
the reference
obvious,

of high

one

each

consequently

of high

to the harms
himself

exculpates

we may

officials

the available

quote

of the vice

is quite

of bribery
of committing

constantly

this

offence.
Menthu-weser

who

as ?the one who

Paheri
received

who
bribes

was

inmany

functioned

did not allow

a high

partiality

in the time of Sesostris

the briber

offering another term for bribery namely hsy(w) s ^ ^,

only

since

Yet

himself

states

the matter

of this passage

as ?I never
stands

in its

which might have been used

the time of the 18 th. Dynasty30.

another

relevant

I26boasts

(nb dblw)"21.

at the time of Hatshepsut28

the revenues29. The importance

official
from

(hsy(w))

offices
towards

point

is Rekhmirec,
of our research

vizier

of Thotmosis
?... I judged

by saying

III, who

deals

great matter

extensively

(?) [I caused]

the

with

both parties

to go forth at peace. I did not per[vert] justice for bribes (dblw). Iwas not deaf to empty
for indeed,

handed,

I never

accepted

bribe

anyone's

I judged

hsy(w)...

the suppliant,

I did

not incline to one side. I did not pay attention (lit. set the brow) to rewards (bribes;
dblw)"31.
We

would

different
The

note here

the condemnation

terms for it were

last example

26

steward,

overseer

of partiality,

i.e. dbl(w),

as well

of granary,

as two

hsy(w).

is derived

from pAnast.
Ill, where Amenemope
... he
as ?... a lover of justice
reign boasts himself
(who)
the guilty..."32. This text speaks obviously
for itself.

J. Van Seters, The Hyksos: A New

E.g.

as a cause

in the latter passage;

in this category

inMerenptah's
high official
not take bribery
(fql) from
25

used

of bribery

Investigation,
overseer

of

the
does

1966, 167.

labor-force

(people),

overseer

of

cattle

whole

...; see

for

the

1913.
text, C. Ransom, The Stela of Menthu-weser,
27
Sethe, Lesestucke, 79; 19; Idem, Erlauterungen zu den agyptischen Lesestticken,
1927, 125.
28
He started his career earlier than her reign and reached the position of Mayor of El- Kab; see, S. Ratie,
La Reine Hatshepsut: Sources et Problemes, 1979, 338.
29
Urk. IV, 118; 17; 58-9.
30
(Var.?-A
hsy, hsiy), Wb III, 332-3; Faulkner, CD, 197; Vernus, Affaires et Scandales, 247.
31

32

Davies,

Rekh-mi-Rec,

81 -2.

LEM, 21(1,7-8); R.A. Caminos, Late-Egyptian Miscellanies,

1954, 69, 72 (1,7-8).

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SAK 25

300 H. El-Saady

one would

In effect,

not

had never

that bribery

invisage

or been

occurred

in

recorded

Egyptian documents. Thus, the following examples would exemplify bribery in some
actual

of administrative

incidents
of Deir-El

village
workman

in the tomb-robberies

and

the scribe Qenherkhepeshef

from some legal dockets

he attained

II's reign,

of Ramesses

his higher

lasting

until

the time of Sety

during

office

within

the seventh

of the chief
Besides

Amonpanefer.

cases.

a long career which

of Ramesses

he was

II where

the quarryman

as minor

or at the

investigations
are the cases

of which

instances

striking

are cited

for Paneb,

its peak

The most

Medinah.

Paneb,

those which
As

fraud either

III33. His

reached

corruption

by the vizier

backed

at the end

started

Pere-em-hab.

In his

impeachment recorded in pSalt 124 (BM 10055)34 two cases of bribery may be noted as
by his

stated

rival Amennakht.

The

first

concerns

over

the passing

the

right which

is

claimed by the latter to inherit the position of chief-workman after themysterious death of
his brother

servants

five

(rdv, bribed)
him

in the place

Apart
view

of

from

of my
father

of?] my
the case

of their father Nebnefer.

to Pere-em-hab

father

who

states

He
was

that Paneb

then vizier...

?gave

[and he put

[...]"35.

itself as showing

the post by Paneb

inheriting

heritance-rights
This

the successor

Neferhotep,

a corrupt way to achieve

a certain
as a foster son is still controversial

his adoptive
father's property36.
case of corruption
committed
by

target,
since

the legal
he had

in

through

two-pronged

a vizier

and

chief-workman

is

paralleled by another one who was bribed also by Paneb, but this time to facilitate his
intruding

into and robbing

three

tombs.

It is stated

in the text of

Paneb bribed (gave; rdi) something to the [scribe] Qenherkhepeshef

(may be some

impeachment

that ?...

and he took it out"37;

of the tomb fittings).

It is worth

that the bribe here is denoted by the word

nkt(w), while
noting
..something";
the bribe itself was described
straightforwardly
by rdi(t); ?to give"38.
who
held
the
scribal
for approximately
office
five decades
(i.e. 46
Qenherkhepeshef
and 54 as maximum)
from the reign of Ramesses
II up to that of Sety
years as minimum

33

34

For Paneb's career and fraud see, Cerny, Community, 301-5; Vemus, Affaires et Scandales, 101-20;
J. Janssen, Two Personalities,
in: R.J. Demaree/J. Janssen (eds.), Gleanings from Deir El- Medina,
D.
de
Les
Ouvriers de laTombe: Deir El-Medineh a l'epoque Ramesside, IFAO
1982,113-5;
Valbelle,
1985, 77-8, 107.
See for the whole

impeachment of Paneb; J. Cerny,

in: JEA 15,1929,

244- 6; Kitchen, Ram.Inscr.

IV,

408-14.
35

36

Cerny,

op.cit.,

244;

Kitchen,

See and cf.,M.Bierbrier,

Ram.Inscr.

IV, 408;

The Tomb-builders

13-4.

of the Pharaohs,

1992,108; Vemus, Affaires

102-4.

37
38

Cerny, op.cit., 245; Kitchen, Ram.Inscr.

Kitchen, Ram.Inscr. IV, 410; 5.

IV, 410; 3-6.

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et Scandales,

1998 Considerations on Bribery inAncient Egypt

II39, stood
9

year

He

If we

the one

on

of yarn,

shaved

the hair

consisted

scribe

Paneb,

Qenher

and Qenher

the perks of their positions

to the
were backed by the vizier whose
on the other enabled
him to be

the list of crimes

However,

the

?In

his misdeeds"40.

by Pere-em-hab,

character

impure

officials.

of

after he had concealed

at Deir-El-Medinah
and

197, v. 3-6 where

in O. Gardiner

say that they exploited

hand

the two corrupt

with

It is stated

RaTiotep

of fraud

both officials

Undoubtedly,
position

involved

the triangle

as one entity, we would

khepeshef

strong

him nine balls

gave

consider

case.

bribery

the workman

(of Merenptah)

khepeshef.

extreme.

in another

accused

301

and misdeeds

the

by

two vain men would have been finally punished by a dismissal from their jobs. Although
we

only

have

textual
occur

that did not

like Paneb,

The
various
powered

from

of

gangs

official

headed

confessed

and succeeded

confessions

documents.

would

committed,

Amonpanefer
after a formal
the vizier,

by

he was

in escaping,

stated in pBM 10054 r.(l-ll);

that ?when we were

who
have

succeeded

including
looting

eventually

of several
which

he committed

several

and

time,

punishments
bribery.

of

was

to the Mayor

the second

speculate

Pere-em-hab42,

since he disappeared,

happened

investigation

for

we would

to say that the heavy

as a response

arrested

whereas

from office41,

Needless

whose

when

the examination

during

as well

Hori

also disclosed

delegation

Amonpanefer

removal

the vizier

they had both

the quarryman
was

Paneb's

of the scribe

the contemporary

to all the misdeeds

case

about

the time of

until

a dismissal

consequently

applied

evidence

the tombs with

by a high

done
Paser's

report43.
an

that he bribed

robberies.

In one of his

he pointed out the case of bribery as he says

arrested,

the scribe

of the quarter Khaemope

came to [me] and I gave (rdi(t)) him the 4 kite of gold which had fallen tomy lot"44.
The

same

case

confessed

Amonpanefer
some
steeling
gold

is most

tombs

that had fallen

in pLeopold
II, where
likely repeated with
slight differences
that he was seized and imprisoned
in the office of the mayor
after

of royal and noble members.

Then he adds: ?... I took the 20 deben of
to me as (my) portion,
and gave them to Khaemope,
the scribe of the

39

Cerny, Community, 329-37.

Ibid., 231-2; Kitchen, Ram.Inscr. IV, 159; Vernus, Affaires et Scandales, 104.
41
Cerny, in: JEA 15, 1929, 246; Kitchen, Ram.Inscr. IV, 414; 8; D. de Valbelle,
40

42

Tombe,

Les Ouvriers

de la

54,e.

See Cerny, Community, 304; whereas he supposed that Paneb was removed from both the
foremanship
and the community of workmen. This harsh punishment most likely was applied to
Qenherkhepeshef
as well; cf. C. Eyre, in:Mediterranees No. 6/7, 1996, 191.
43
The examination proved that the tombs of the 17 th. dynasty' sKing Sebekemsaef and his wife Nubkhas
were themost important ones robbed by Amonpanefer and his fellows; for the tomb see, H.E. Winlock,

44

in: JEA 10,1924,237-43;

for the documents of these incidents see, T.E. Peet, The Great Tomb Robbe
ries of the Twentieth Egyptian Dynasty, 1930.
Ibid.,

61-2;

Kitchen,

Ram.Inscr.

VI,

491.

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SAK 25

302 H. El-Saady

...He

quarter
a portion

me

released

once

the tombs
to decide

case or two different

similar

my

I together with

again. Thus

of robbing
in the practice
It seems very difficult
one

and I rejoined

other

me with

and they compensated

companions
thieves...

have

continued

down

to this day

...,f45.
whether

the available

since

ones,

documents

Amonpanefer's

dates

cited

are mostly

above

typical

are of
and the

are the same, whilst

in quantity
the bribe differs
and the looted tombs
figures of the cases
as
are mainly
document
rather
than
of
nobles
stated in that of the first
royal in the second
some
one. Moreover,
make
the reconstruction
of the order of events
these considerations
as the relevant

difficult

times

It is noteworthy,
was

officials

that

however,

handled

or

directly

the conduct
indirectly

that dealing

It is well-known

Khacemwas.

are scattered

details

in two different
of

by
with

the above-cited

the contemporary
abuses

crimes,

papyri46.
cases

against

viziers

either
acts

and culpable

high
Hori

or

formed

part of the vizier's juridicial duties, either by himself or by delegating the Qnbt of the
some

to deal with

village

of them47.

Further cases of bribery may be cited here from legal dockets

temple affairs, either in return for illegal service
first case refers to a prophet was given a bribe ht(w) to let someone

concerning
The

in pTurin 1887

or to conceal

some misdeeds.
enter

in before

god48.
The

second

one

is about

the ship's

captain

of the temple

of Khnum

who

burnt

a barge

of the temple along with itsmast and tackle. He gave a bribe ht(w) to the agents of the
then did not report about

temple

of Khnum,

who

The

third case

is a memo

who were mainly

from

a theft from

concerning

the Deir

it49.

el-Medinah

workforce,

the temples of Anquet.

The thieves,
were examined,
and confessed
that

they sold the looted material and received the payment. The mayor
ht(w)

from

them and

[accepted] the bribe

let them go50.

45

J. Capart/A.H. Gardiner/B. van deWalle, in: JEA 22, 1936, 171-2.

See and cf.; ibid., 184-5, 192; Peet, op.cit., 60-1; A.G. McDowell,
Jurisdiction in theWorkmen's
of
Deir
190.
El-Medina, 1990,
community
47
See, G.P.F. Van den Broom, The duties of the Vizier, 1988, 315-7. As for the power of the Qnbt and
its limits in the terms of justice see, S. Allam, in:Mediterranees No. 6/7,1996,195ff;
M. della Monica,
46

sous les Pharaons, 1975, 74-6; McDowell,

op.cit., 114-7, 170-9; A. Theodorides,
in: LA I, 765, s.v. Bestechung.
48
1968,75 (1,14); Vermis, Affaires
pTurinr. (1,14); A. Gardiner, Ramesside Administrative Documents,
La Classe Ouvriere

137.

etScandales,
49
50

pTurin
pTurin

v.

(2,15-6);

r. (1,3);

Gardiner,

Gardiner,

op.cit.,
op.cit.,

78

81
(1,3);

(2,15-6);
Vernus,

Vernus,
op.cit.,

op.cit.,

135.

131.

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1998 Considerations on Bribery inAncient Egypt

303

The three previous cases, however, afford us another term for bribe which is ht(w)
J^;
thing51.
It would
of deities
known

seem quite

as a misdeed

either

we discover

when

astonishing

or as a matter

tale of the contendings

that bribery

for exculpation.
of Horus

(or conflict)

This

is reflected

in the world

is the case

and Seth52, when

in the well

the judging

gods

moved to the island of theMidst asking the ferryman Nemty (cAnty) not to ferry any one
especially Isis. The latter, after disguising herself, tried to bribe Nemty to ferry her by
a cake. Nemty

offering

for your

(r-dbl(w))

says:

..What is it to me,

cake"53? Then

removing

In the sense

would

coincide

(or cAnty) whose

a god: Amon

of exculpating

she crossed

to the island

in

given

punishment

the story as the falcon Nemty

... in
exchange

shall I ferry you

to the ferryman.
Nemty
(cAnty) was punished

ring in her hand

the device was disclosed,
his claws54. This

cake?

a deal by which

they made

return for a golden

When

your

claws

with

the Ennead

before

the nature

by

of the ferryman

in

are the major

is described

part of his power55.

in a praise as ?the Vizier
of the

poor who does not take bribe (fql) from the guilty"56.
Another prayer toAmon cited in pAnast. II (8,5- 9,1); implies allusions to bribery and
total corruption
the prayer
?Amon,

in the court which

can overcome

the poor

by the defence

of Amon.

Hence

runs as follows:
ear to one who

thrive

is alone

in the tribunal, who

is poor,

not rich. When

the

tribunal defrauds him of silver and gold for the scribes of the mat, and clothes for the
retainers;

perchance

perchance

the poor

Finally,

one may

1) It seems
is shown

bribery
Book
except

of the Dead
as being

Amon

transforms

is vindicated;
reach

by officials

silently

poverty

the following

remarkable

in spell

may

himself

into a vizier
outstrip

keenness

mentioned

supra, yet

125 of the negation

within

to release

the poor,

wealth"57.

conclusions:

that although

included

in order

to be exculpated
from the charge
the trend was not universal,
since

confession;

has no direct mention

the sins of extortion

of
the

of bribery,

or greed58.

51

Cf. ibid., 245-6.

LESt, 37-60; J. Capart, in: CdE 8, 1933, 247ff; Lichtheim, Literature II, 215-23.
53
Gardiner, op.cit., 44 (5, 14).
54
Ibid., 47, (7, 14-8,1).
55
Cf. W. Barta, in: LA IV, 453, s.v. Nemti; E. Otto, in: LA I, 318-9, s.v. Anti.
56
pBologna 1094, 2 (4-5); pAnast. II, 6 (5-7); see also LEM, 2 (4-5); 16 (6; 5-6); R.A. Caminos, Late
9 (2; 4-5), 50, 7 (6; 5-6).
Egyptian Miscellanies,
57
17
LEM,
(8; 5-9; 1); Caminos, op.cit., 56,9 (8; 5-9; 1);McDowell,
op.cit., 169; Brunner, Die religiose
52

58

Antwort,

72-3.

Cf. Lichtheim, Literature II, 125; idem., Maat,

103ff.; R.O. Faulkner, Book of the Dead,

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1993,29-31.

SAK 25

304 H. El-Saady

2) It seems
with

while

bribery,

above

3) The
nature

decrees

Royal

mentioned

of bribery

are noticeable
cases

ties between

as itmight

separately,
varied,

afford

positions

harms

while

would

as part of a whole

be dealt with

to office

penalty

to some
was

for bribery

sentence

as in the

extent

if the

not prescribed

corrupt

against

that there

It

official.

as loss of rank.

as well

removal

long periods,

less

be

the legal punishment

Moreover,

and yarns. Also

for

as the

such

of note,

worthy

to clothes

and holding

corruption

from death

however,

points

metals

in dealing

ideals

remedies.

practical

certain

from precious

and Qenherkhepeshef;

are very well-off.

apply

to the ethical

incline

always

naturally

examples

varies

which

of Paneb

officials

that instructions

also noticeable

4) We would also emphasize the difference between bribery and themutual greetings
or exchanging of presents between the high officials and their retainers during their official
visits.

Some

sented
VI;

of treasury;

by the vizier

in loaves,

Tjay,

5) The word

this crime.

terms of bribery
of context.

Thus

with

Moreover.

d'une maniere

Any

autre
further

in the relevant

of neutral

Vernus

since

however,

by the vizier
as his fellow
the chief

reference

has

terms. Alongside
could

tips

be used

?cinq termes

between

in Ancient

also

be adopted

to be considered

that these

the difference
on

several

nktw and htw would

of the verb rdit, which

le bakchich",
study,

texts by

hsyw,

with

of Ramesses

and cakes59.

garments

disagree

pre

once

as well

of Merenptah,

dbiw,fqiw,

addition

One would

ou d'une

notable.

the words

to the vizier

members

to the workforce

given

other words

?bribery",

further

of his gang's

Pensakhmet

expressed

such as the two silver picks

in this respect

in return

sesame-oil,

was

bribery

that are specifically

to cover

is fairly

on behalf

that rewards

Or

and another

Panehsy

be considered

the chief-workman

by

Neferompet.

words

would

examples

bribery

Egypt

will

as

in terms
designant
and tips
be most

welcome60.

59

O. Berlin, P 12654; Kitchen, Ram.Inscr. VI, 345; O. C GC 25504, r. 2 v. 1, r. 2 (2-3); Kitchen, Ram.
Inscr. IV, 155-7. For further examples of official visits see, Kitchen, Ram.Inscr. IV, 155-8, 315;
Kitchen, Ram.Inscr. VI, 143-8; cf. Eyre, in:Mediterranees No. 6/7, 1996, 191-2.
60
An outwardly descent word for bribery rather than ..bakchich" is ..ikramiyah"
<^ S^ j ,while ht(w)
and nkt(w) are very explicit for the word ?hagah"
or
something", cf. Vermis, Affaires
H^r L*; ?thing
et Scandales, 245- 8.

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