The protozoa are acellular, microscopic organisms found everywhere, in water, soil, on the body of plants and

animals. Although they are minute and apparently insignificant, but they are of considerable economic value
to the mankind.
The protozoa are useful in the following ways:
1.

Food

Protozoa provide food for insect larvae, crustaceans and worms, which are taken by large animals like fishes,
lobsters, clams, and crabs, which are eaten by man. Thus they form sources of food supply to man both
directly and indirectly.
2. Symbiotic Protozoa
Certain protozoa like Trichonympha and Colonymphya etc. live in the gut of termites which help in the
digestion of cellulose. The digested cellulose is utilized by the host.
3. Insect Control
Several protozoa control harmful insects by persisting their bodies.
4. Helpful in Sanitation
A large number of protozoa living in polluted water feed upon waste organic matters and thus purify it.
Many protozoa feed upon bacteria and play important role in the sanitary bettermant and keeping water safe
for drinking {Kudo, 1947).
5. Industry
The skeletal deposits of marine protozoa (Foraminifera and Radiolaria) form oceanic ooze at the sea-bottom.
About 30% of oceanic bed is covered with the Globigerina ooze, these skeletal deposits are put to many uses.
Some are employed as filtering agents, others are made into chalk and still others are used for abrasives.
6. Building material
The skeletal deposits in due course of time change in to the limestone rock. Limestone is provided by
the Globigerinaooze, such as that of cliffs of Dover, which have played an important role in the defense of
England. Camerina (Formally known as Nummulites, are the largest protozoa, which form limestone. The
pyramids of Egypt are made largely of this Nummulitic lime-stones. Thus, limestone-beds are used as building
material.
7.

Oil Exploration

Petroleum is organic origin. The skeletal deposit of Formmifera and Radiolaria are often found in association
with oil deposits. In this manner they help in the exact location of oil.
8.

Scientific Study

Many protozoa are used in biological and medical researches. A Holotricha, Tetrachymena geleii is used in
nutritional research. The effects of various foods and poisons have been investigated on this protozoan.

ECONOMIC IMPORTANCE OF MOLLUSCA:

Molluscs are of major interest to man .About 10,000 species are of economic importance. Mostly they are
beneficial to man and some are indirectly harmful. Some of the beneficial mollusca are used for1. [BeneficialMollusca];Most of the mollusca are beneficial for man which are describe below.
1.

As food.

2.

As bait.

3.

As ornament.

7.

In art and medicine.

4.

As money.

8.

In literature.

5.

To form dye and ink.

9.

Animal inventions

6.

Buttons and pears.

10.

A Little description about why this point is important is described below.

11.

1. As food:

12.

Most of the Mollusca species are eaten as food by people. Fore,g Chitons are eaten as main food of

Red Indians. The gastropods are consumed by the numerous predictor chiefly fish, birds, and mammals.
Mytilus edulis is used in chowder, and adductor muscle of pectin are served in flour and dried. Pelecypods
also furnish food for starfish, boring sponges, drilling snails, some marine leeches, fish and shore birds.Other
bivalves, octopus and cuttlefishes furnish the large quantity of a roof in Europe. Million of mounds are
regarded as a delicacy some of them are clams,oysters, scallops and mussels are eaten in China, Japan,
Malaya, Europe, and America.
13.

2. As bait:

14.

Many gastropods are very useful to man, as bait for catching fish. Squids make an excellent bait for

marine fishes . Small Octopus are used as bait by the line fisherman of Palk Bay.
15.

3. Money:

16.

Red Indian tribes of America used the common Dentalium indianorum,as money or sawampum for

various native races.Some of the Mollusca are commercially cultivated and harvested from which a large
amount of money is earned by selling them. Squids, cuttlefish and devil fish earn money as they are sold in the
market for food in China, Japan, India and Italy.
17.

4. Ornament:

18.

Nautilus shell is much used for decoration , art and for many other useful purposes. Dentalium tooth

is used as an ornament. Gastropods shells are used as an ornament. some Mollusca and their parts are used as
ornaments by a human. Gastropods shell are also used in forming tools. Calcareous shells of some marine
snails are sought as curious.
19.

5. To form dye and ink:

20.

Some of the Mollusca secrets the coloured substance acting as a dye. Ink sac of cattle fish has the rich

brown pigment called 'sepia' which is used by artists. Nowadays a certain brown fish of photograph is termed
as a sepia finish.
21.

6. Button and pearls:

22.

Gastropoda shells are also used to manufacture buttons and their articles. Shells of certain bivalves

have been used for mother of pearl layer also for buttons, knife handles.Pearls are made by the clam and pearl
oysters themselves and are among the most beautiful and valuable of our jewels.
23.
24.

7. In art and medicine:

25.

Some Mollusca shells are used as art and medicine, for eg, internal calcareous shell of Sepia " the

cattle bone" is used as medicine as well as for the other purposes.

26.

8. In literature:

27.

Giant Squids and octopus are used as the major character in various stories ; so that they have

literature valve also.

28.

9. Animal inventions:

29.

These methods used by Mollusca as formed millions of years ago later invented by human and are

used for mankind. Cephalopods get the credit for two inventions. One is the "Jet propulsion" and another is
the "smoke screen"
30.

ECONOMIC IMPORTANCE OF INSECTS

31.
32.

The estimated annual value of the ecological services provided by insects in the United

States alone is at least $57 billion, an amount that justifies greater investment in the conservation of these
services. Without the activities of insects, human life on earth would eventually be extinguished. Over one
lakh currently living species of insects have been identified, but the true number is surely much larger,
about a million.
33.
34.

BENEFICIAL INSECTS

35.
36.

Pollinators of crops (Bees, wasps, butterflies, moths, hoverflies, beetles)

37.
38.

Many plants depend on insects to transfer pollen as they forage. Plants attract insects in

various ways, by offering pollen or nectar meals and by guiding them to the flower using scent and visual
cues. This has resulted in strong relationships between plants and insects. Value of crop production from
pollination by native insects is estimated to be about $3 billion in US alone. When we talk about
pollinators the ones that come to mind are honey bees and butterflies, but there are also many other insects
that perform this job for flowering plants, as well. There are flies, wasps, beetles and even some other
insects that most people know nothing about, such as Hemiptera and thrips. There are many important
pollinating insect species in the orders: Hymenoptera (bees, wasps, and ants), Lepidoptera (butterflies and
moths), Diptera (flies) and Coleoptera (beetles).
39.
40.

As adults these insects feed on pollen and nectar from flowers. They forage from plant to

plant and may initiate pollination by transferring pollen from an anther to a stigma. Female bees and pollen
wasps provision their nests with pollen and nectar that they actively collect onto their bodies. Their larvae
then feed on the collected pollen and nectar. Yucca moth larvae do not feed on pollen or nectar but on the
seeds of yucca plants. The adults pollinate the yucca plant by actively collecting pollen onto their palps and
then placing the collected pollen on a receptive stigma to ensure proper seed set for their offspring.
41.
42.

Economic value of insect pollination worldwide is estimated at U.S. $217 billion

43.

(Science Daily, Sept. 15, 2008). German scientist found that the worldwide economic value of the

pollination service provided by insect pollinators, bees mainly was dollar153 billion in 2005 for the main
crops that feed the world. This figure amounted to 9.5% of the total value of the world agricultural food
production. The study also determined that pollinator disappearance would translate into a consumer loss
of food estimated between dollar 190 to 310 billion.
44.
45.

Predators of pests (Dragonflies, beetles, bugs, lacewings, wasps)

46.
47.

The arthropod predators of insects and mites include beetles, true bugs, lacewings, flies,

midges, spiders, wasps, and predatory mites. Insect predators can be found throughout plants, including the
parts below ground, as well as in nearby shrubs and trees. Some predators are specialized in their choice of
prey, others are generalists. Some are extremely useful natural enemies of insect pests. Unfortunately, some
prey on other beneficial insects as well as pests.
48.

Major characteristics of arthropod predators:

49.

Adults and immature stages are often generalists rather than specialists.

They generally are larger than their prey.

They kill or consume many preys.

Males, females, immature stages and adults may be predatory.

They attack immature and adult prey.

50.
51.

Important insect predators include lady beetles, ground beetles, rove beetles, flower bugs

and other predatory true bugs, lacewings and hover flies. Spiders and some families of mites are also
predators of insects and mite pests. Natural enemies play an important role in limiting potential pest
populations. We have seen what happens when pesticides devastate the natural enemies of potential pests.
Surveys of agricultural systems give an indication of the potential number and diversity of predators in a
crop. For example, over 600 species of predators in 45 families of insects and 23 families of spiders and
mites have been recorded in cotton. Eighteen species of predatory insects (not including spiders and mites)
have been found in potatoes in the northeastern United States.
52.
53.

Parasites of pests (Hymenoptera and Diptera)

54.
55.

Parasitoids are insects with an immature stage that develops on or in an insect host, and

ultimately kills the host. Adults are typically free-living, and may be predators. They may also feed on
other resources, such as honeydew, plant nectar or pollen. Because parasitoids must be adapted to the life
cycle, physiology and defenses of their hosts, many are limited to one or a few closely related host species.
Crop losses averted by beneficial insects from predators or parasites of agricultural pests are estimated to
be $4.5 billion. The most valuable insect parasites belong to the following groups:

56.

Tachinid Flies (Diptera)

Ichneumonid Wasps (Hymenoptera)

Braconid Wasps (Hymenoptera)

Chalcid Wasps (Hymenoptera)

57.
58.

These parasites live in or on one host insect pest which is killed after the parasite completes

its development. Parasite (also called parasitoid) adults are free-living; the immature stage lives on or
inside a host and kills the host before the host completes its development. Parasites lay one or more eggs
on the outside of the host body or they insert the eggs inside their host. The immature parasite feeds on the
host and requires only a single individual prey to complete its development. Free-living adults may feed on
nectar from flowering plants or obtain nutrients by piercing the body of host insects and withdrawing fluids
(host-feeding). Parasites are often considered more effective natural enemies than predators because many
have a narrower host range, require only one host to complete development, have an excellent ability to
locate and kill their host and can respond rapidly to increases in host populations.
59.
60.
61.

Productive insects (Silkworm, Honey bees, Lac insects)

Sericulture is an agro-based industry. It involves rearing of silkworms for the production

of raw silk, which is the yarn obtained out of cocoons spun by certain species of insects. The major
activities of sericulture comprises of food-plant cultivation to feed the silkworms which spin silk cocoons
and reeling the cocoons for unwinding the silk filament for value added benefits such as processing and
weaving. Five varieties of silk worms are reared in India for producing this natural fibre. Bombyx
mori, the silk worm, feeds on the leaves of mulbery to produce the best quality of fibre among the different
varieties of silk produced in the country. Antherea assama is confined to only Brahmaputra Valley of India
in the world. It produces the famous muga silk. Tasar silk is a product of Antherea mylitta, which feeds
on Terminalia tomentosa grown in the thick jungles of Bihar, Madhya Pradesh and Orissa. The recent
introduction of Antherea royeli and Antherea perniyi has enabled the country to produce the oak tasar
silk, Phylosamia ricini, the eri silkworm, which feeds on Ricinus communis, is raised in Assam and Orissa
commercially. Of the total production of 2,969 tonnes of silk in India, as much as 2,445 tonnes is produced
by the mulberry silkworms, Bombyx mori.
62.
63.

Lac Insect any of the species of Metatachardia, Laccifer, Tachordiella, Austrotacharidia,

Afrotachardina,and Tachardina of the superfamly Coccoidea, order Homoptera that are noted for resinous
exudation from the bodies of females. Members of two of the families viz. Lacciferidae and Tachardinidae
appear to be more concerned with lac secretion. There are several lac insects, some of which secrete highly
pigmented wax. The Indian lac insect Laccifer lacca is important commercially. It is found in tropical or
subtropical regions on banyan and other plants. The females are globular in form and live on twigs in cells
of resin created by exudations of lac. Of the many species of lac insect, Laccifer lacca, (=Tachardia

lacca) is the commercially cultured lac insect. It is mainly cultured in India and Bangladesh on the host
plant, Zizyphus mauritiana and Z. jujuba. The insect starts its life as a larva or nymph which is about 0.6
mm long and 0.25 mm wide across the thorax. The young settles down on a suitable place of the host plant
gregariously. On the average some 150 of such larvae may be present per square inch of the twig.
64.
65.

Apiculture or beekeeping is the maintenance of honey bee colonies, commonly in hives by

a beekeeper in apiary in order to collect honey and beeswax, and for the purpose of pollinating crops. The
genus Apis is comprised of a comparatively small number of species including the western honeybee Apis
mellifera, the eastern honeybee Apis cerana, the giant bee Apis dorsata, and the small honeybee Apis
florea.
66.

Nectar is a sugar solution produced by flowers containing about 80% water and 20% sugars.

Foraging bees store the nectar in the honey sac where the enzyme invertase will change complex sugars
into simple sugars called mono-saccharides. Upon return to the hive, the foraging bee will disgorge the
partially converted nectar solution and offer it to other bees. Housekeeping bees will complete the
enzymatic conversion, further removing water until the honey solution contains between 14 20% water.
67.
68.

Human food value

69.
70.

There are 1,462 recorded species of edible insects. Doubtless there are thousands more

that simply have not been tasted yet. 100 grams of cricket contains: 121 calories, 12.9 grams of protein, 5.5
g of fat, 5.1 g of carbohydrates, 75.8 mg calcium, 185.3 mg of phosphorous, 9.5 mg of iron, 0.36 mg of
thiamin, 1.09 mg of riboflavin, and 3.10 mg of niacin. Compare this with ground beef, which, although it
contains more protein (23.5 g.), also has 288.2 calories and a whooping 21.2 grams of fat. Usually crickets,
grasshoppers, beetle and moth larvae and termites are eaten. Australian aborigines regularly ate honey pot
ants, adult bogong moths and the larvae of wood moths. Being rich source of protein, grasshoppers have
been eaten in nearly all regions of the world. They are a common food in parts of Asia and Africafried,
roasted or ground to be mixed with flour. The grasshoppers eat green plants, however, by far outweighs
their value as food. Insects are an important food for many vertebrates, including birds, amphibians,
reptiles, fish and mammals. These insectivorous vertebrates usually feed on many insect species, and
rarely focus on specific pests, unless they are very abundant.
71.
72.

Scavangers
Ants, beetles, apterygotes, cockroaches, crickets and a large number of other insects

thrive on dead carcasses, left over organic matter or excreta and in the process clean the environment.
Economic losses avoided every year by the burial of livestock waste by dung beetles only are estimated to
be over $3.8 billion.
73.
74.
75.

NEUTRAL INSECTS

76.

Majority of insects, almost 98% of all insect species, live in low populations in different

ecosystems, without causing appreciable damage. But they form an important component of the food web
and work unnoticed. Conservation of such fauna is important since we do not know the interactions of such
insects with the animal and plant species.
77.
78.

INJURIOUS INSECTS

79.
80.

Less than 1% of insects are regarded as pests. They can be classified into the following

categories.
81.
82.

Pests of agriculture and forestry (Locusts, caterpillars, bugs, hoppers, aphids etc.)

83.
84.

Locusts are among the most destructive of all insect pests. Swarms of desert locusts were

among the plagues of the Biblical Egyptians, and they still plague farmers throughout Asia and Africa.
Their threat is so great that regional and international organizations monitor desert locust populations and
launch control measures when necessary.
85.
86.

Locusts are particularly destructive in hot, dry regions when a sudden increase in their

numbers, combined with food shortage, forces them to migrate. They migrate in huge swarms, devouring
virtually every green plant in their path.
87.
88.

Pests of stored grains

89.
90.

The most common insect pests of stored cereal grains are:

91.

Rice Weevil (Sitophilus oryzae); Lesser Grain Borer (Rhyzopertha dominica);

92.

Rust Red Flour Beetle: (Tribolium spp.); Sawtooth Grain Beetle: (Oryzaephilus surinamensis); Flat

Grain

Beetle:(Cryptolestes spp.);

Indian

Meal

Moth (Plodia interpunctella); Angoumois

Grain

Moth (Sitotroga cerealella);Khapra beetle (Trogoderma granarium); Rice moth (Corcyra cephalonica).
93.
94.

Insect management for stored grain depends upon good sanitation and grain storage

practices. Clean storage areas to reduce the potential for insect migration into the new grain. Once the
grain is dried to 13 percent moisture or less, cool it as soon as possible by running aeration fans. Reducing
the grain temperature to less than 60F stops insect reproduction, and lowering it to less than 50F stops
insect feeding activity. Infested grains should be fumigated by Aluminum phosphide (Phostoxin,
Fumitoxin), which is best in most circumstances. Methyl bromide may also be used.
95.
96.
97.

Household pests (carpet beetles, furniture beetles, cloth moth, termites and silverfish)

98.

Common household pests include ants, termites, bed bugs, carpet beetles, furniture beetles,

book lice, house flies, fleas, cockroaches, silver fish, clothes moths and spiders the list seems almost
endless. Common household pests enter our homes for shelter and food, and also to nest and breed.
Common household pests can cause damage to our homes especially clothes, eatables and furniture.
Household pests can also be a threat to health of our families by spreading bacteria, diseases or allergens in
our homes. Household pests can be irritating, annoying or irritating and annoying. They can be controlled
by spraying insecticides or by fumigants and by maintaining hygiene.
99.
100.

Insects of medical and veterinary importance (Mosquitos, flea, beetles, flies)

101.
102.

Mosquitoes can spread diseases such as malaria, yellow fever, dengue fever. Tsetse flies

spread sleeping sickness. Lice suck human blood and can cause sores, which if left untreated can become
infected which may lead to blood poisoning.
103.

Screw worm flies lay their eggs in the wounds of farm animals and pets. Horseflies and black flies

suck blood and have painful bites, which can become infected. Houseflies spread germs and spoil meat by
laying eggs in it. Bubonic Plague (or Black Death) was the worst disease epidemic in human history. It
took 14 million livesnearly 1 out of 4 peoplein 14th-century Europe. The plague is passed to humans by
the bite of the Oriental rat flea (Xenopsylla cheopis), which picks up the disease-causing bacteria from rats.
104.
105.
106.

Nematodes are simple roundworms. Colorless, unsegmented, and lacking appendages, nematodes

may be free-living, predaceous, or parasitic. Many of the parasitic species cause important diseases of plants,
animals, and humans. Other species are beneficial in attacking insect pests, mostly sterilizing or otherwise
debilitating their hosts. A very few cause insect death but these species tend to be difficult (e.g., tetradomatids)
or expensive (e.g. mermithids) to mass produce, have narrow host specificity against pests of minor economic
importance, possess modest virulence (e.g., sphaeruliids) or are otherwise poorly suited to exploit for pest
control purposes. The only insect-parasitic nematodes possessing an optimal balance of biological control
attributes are entomopathogenic or insecticidal nematodes in the genera Steinernema and Heterorhabditis.
These multi-cellular metazoans occupy a biocontrol middle ground between microbial pathogens and
predators/parasitoids, and are invariably lumped with pathogens, presumably because of their symbiotic
relationship with bacteria.
107.
108.
109.
110.
111.

Brief note on Fate map of frog

112.
The whole surface of a frog blastula can be divided into three main regions. In side each region thee
can be recognized areas corresponding to the future organs of the animal.

113.

(1) The animal region:

114.
It is a large dark, gray or black part of the blastula around the animal pole. It co9nsists of two main
regions.
115.
(a) Region of prospective central nervous system which contains material for brain spinal cord and the
area of sense organs like eyes, ears and nose.
116.
(b) Region of prospective central nervous system which contains material for brain spinal cord and
the area of sense organs like eyes, ear and nose.
117.

(2) The Intermediate or marginal zone:

118.
It is the grey crescent area that extends all-around the equater of blastula and contains following
regions.
119.

a) Notochordal Region: It is the region of notochord present in the dorsal side of blastula.

120.
b) Pre-chordal Plate: It lies next top the notochordal region towards the vegetal pole and develops into
the pre-chordal connective tissue of the embryo
121.
c) The area for anterior part of alimentary canal lies below the prechodal plate and gives rise to
endodermal lining of mouth, gill region and pharynx.
122.
d) Region of segmental muscle: That lies on both the sides of notochordal area and develops into
trunk muscles of somites.
123.
e) Ventrolateral mesoderm consists of lateral and ventral parts of marginal zone and gives raise the
mesodermal lining of the body cavity, kidney and reproductive organs.
124.
(3) Vegetal region:
125.
It occupies the vegetal half of the embryo and is formed of unpigmented large macromeres. This
region develops into the midgut and hind gut.
126.

Amphibians[edit]

127.
Limb regeneration in the axolotl and newt has been extensively studied and researched. Urodele
amphibians, such as salamanders and newts, display the highest regenerative ability among tetrapods. [44] As
such, they can fully regenerate their limbs, tail, jaws, and retina via epimorphic regeneration leading to
functional replacement of new tissue.[45]Salamander limb regeneration occurs in two main steps. First, the
local cells dedifferentiate at the wound site into progenitor to form a blastema [46] Second, the blastemal cells
will undergo proliferation, patterning, differentiation and growth using similar genetic mechanisms that
deployed during embryonic development.[47] Ultimately, blastemal cells will generate all the cells for the new
structure.[48]
128.
129.

Axolotls can regenerate a variety of structures, including their limbs

130.
After amputation, the epidermis migrates to cover the stump in 12 hours, forming a structure called
the wound epithelium (WE).[49]Epidermal cells continue to migrate over the WE, resulting in a thickened,
specialized signaling center called the apical epithelial cap (AEC). [50] Over the next several days there are
changes in the underlying stump tissues that result in the formation of a blastema (a mass of dedifferentiated

proliferating cells). As the blastema forms, pattern formation genes such as HoxA and HoxD are activated
as they were when the limb was formed in the embryo.[51][52] The positional identity of the distal tip of the limb
(i.e. the autopod, which is the hand or foot) is formed first in the blastema. Intermediate positional identities
between the stump and the distal tip are then filled in through a process called intercalation. [51] Motor neurons,
muscle, and blood vessels grow with the regenerated limb, and reestablish the connections that were present
prior to amputation. The time that this entire process takes varies according to the age of the animal, ranging
from about a month to around three months in the adult and then the limb becomes fully functional.
Researchers at AustralianRegenerative Medicine Institute at Monash University, have published that
when macrophages, which eat up material debris,[53] were removed, salamanders lost their ability to regenerate
and formed scarred tissue instead.[54]
131.
In spite of the historically few researchers studying limb regeneration, remarkable progress has been
made recently in establishing the neotenous amphibian the axolotl (Ambystoma mexicanum) as a model
genetic organism. This progress has been facilitated by advances in genomics, bioinformatics, and somatic
cell transgenesis in other fields, that have created the opportunity to investigate the mechanisms of important
biological properties, such as limb regeneration, in the axolotl. [47] The Ambystoma Genetic Stock Center
(AGSC) is a self-sustaining, breeding colony of the axolotl supported by the National Science Foundation as a
Living Stock Collection. Located at the University of Kentucky, the AGSC is dedicated to supplying
genetically well-characterized axolotl embryos, larvae, and adults to laboratories throughout the United States
and abroad. An NIH-funded NCRR grant has led to the establishment of the Ambystoma EST database, the
Salamander Genome Project (SGP) that has led to the creation of the first amphibian gene map and several
annotated molecular data bases, and the creation of the research community web portal.[55]
132.
Anurans can only regenerate their limbs during embryonic development. [56] Once the limb skeleton
has developed regeneration does not occur (Xenopus can grow a cartilaginous spike after amputation).
[56]
Reactive oxygen species (ROS) appear to be required for a regeneration response in the anuran larvae.
[57]
ROS production is essential to activate the Wnt signaling pathway, which has been associated with
regeneration in other systems.[58] Limb regeneration in salamanders occurs in two major steps. First, adult cells
de-differentiate into progenitor cells which will replace the tissues they are derived from. [59][60] Second, these
progenitor cells then proliferate and differentiate until they have completely replaced the missing structure.[61]
133.
134.
135.
136.
137.