A Hybrid AC/DC Micro-Grid

Xiong Liu, Peng Wang, Member, IEEE, Poh Chiang Loh, Member, IEEE
Power Engineering Division, School of Electrical and Electronic Engineering
Nanyang Technological University, Singapore
converted into AC using DC/AC inverters and wind turbine
generators (WTGs) are usually connected into the grid using
power electronics conversion technique. In such case, DC loads
are connected to AC micro grids using AC/DC converters. In
this case conversion steps are required for DC loads in a AC
micro grid with PV sources. The DC micro grids have also
been proposed in [4, 5] to reduce the conversion from DC to
AC. However, AC sources in a DC grid have to be converted
into DC and AC loads are connected into DC Grid using
DC/AC inverters. Therefore the efficiency is reduced
significantly due to multistage reverse conversions in an AC or
a DC grid.

AbstractThis paper proposes a hybrid AC/DC micro-grid

which consists of an AC grid and a DC grid and operates in both
grid-tied and autonomous mode. Wind turbine generators
(WTGs), diesel generators (DGs) and conventional AC loads are
connected to the AC grid whereas photovoltaic arrays with boost
converter (PVBC), fuel cell generators and DC loads are tied to
the DC grid. AC bus and DC bus are coupled through a fourquadrant operating three phase converter which can act as an
inverter or rectifier. Battery is connected to the DC bus through
a charging/discharging converter to maintain energy
requirement when the system operates in the isolated operation
mode. A prototype of the hybrid system has been established and
simulated using Matlab Simulink. The coordination control
algorithms are proposed to balance power flow between AC and
DC grids and to maintain both DC and AC voltages. Uncertainty
and intermittent characteristics of wind speed, solar irradiation
level, ambient temperature and load capacities are also
considered in system control and operation. The simulation
results show that system is stable under various load and supply
conditions. Moreover, the hybrid grid has higher efficiency than
individual DC or AC micro grid due to avoidance of multiple DCAC-DC conversions.
Keywords-Hybrid grid; Wind generation; PV system;
Coordination control; Autonomous operation

I.

In order to reduce the energy loss due to reverse

conversion, the concept of a hybrid ac/dc micro-grid is
proposed in this paper. The control coordination between AC
and DC gird under two operation modes is simulated. AC and
DC networks in a hybrid grid are connected together through a
four-quadrant operating three phase converter which can acts as
an inverter or rectifier. AC power sources such as wind turbine
generators (WTG), diesel generators and conventional AC
loads are connected to the AC grid whereas DC sources such as
photovoltaic arrays with boost converters, fuel cell generators
and DC loads are tied to the DC grid. Voltages at the AC and
DC grids are controlled to meet the corresponding AC/DC
loads requirements. The main converter is designed to operate
at bidirectional power flow operation mode to incorporate
complementary characteristic of wind and solar sources [6].
The hybrid grid can operate in two modes. In grid-tied mode,
the sole task of the main converter is to exchange energy
between the AC and DC buses and provide some reactive
power if necessary. When the output power of the DC sources
is greater than the DC loads, the converter acts as an inverter
and inject power to the AC side or vice versa. When the total
output power of DC and AC sources is greater than the total
DC and AC load, the hybrid micro-grid will inject power to the
utility grid. The hybrid grid will receive energy from the utility
grid if the renewable sources cannot produce adequate power.
In autonomous mode, the ac voltage reference cant be
provided by the utility grid. In this case, battery plays a very
important role for both energy balance and voltage stability
requirements through appropriate charging and discharging
control. Other sources and energy storages can also be added to
AC and DC buses to demonstrate the plug and play feature of
the hybrid grid. In both operating modes, the MPPT control of
PV and WTG systems under variable weather conditions has
also been implemented in order to harness the maximum
power.

INTRODUCTION

Three phase AC power systems have existed for over

hundred years due to easy transformation at different voltage
levels and over longer distance as well as inherent
characteristic from fossil energy driven rotating machines.
Steady state adequacy, transient stability and conversion
efficiency under various supply and load conditions are three
major issues in power system operation. Power system loads
consist of electric motors, resistive lighting devices, computers,
fluorescent lamps, air-conditioners, TV, laundry machines,
battery chargers, refrigerators etc. Those loads can be divided
into AC loads which need AC sources to supply power and DC
loads which need DC suppliers. In conventional AC power
systems. AC voltage source is converted into DC power using
an AC-DC inverter to supply DC loads. Even for industrial
motors which need AC power, AC-DC-AC converters are
commonly used as drive system in order to easily control motor
speed. Efficiency is obviously reduced when an AC power
system supplies DC loads or motors.
Recently more renewable power sources are connected in
low voltage distribution systems which operate as distributed
generations or as AC micro grids due to environment problems
caused by coal or gas fired generators. The distributed
renewable sources are usually connected to local AC utility
grid to supply local loads. In this case long distance high
voltage transmission is no longer necessary [1]. In an AC micro
grid [2, 3], DC power from PV and fuel cell systems is

978-1-4244-7398-4/10/$26.00 2010 IEEE

746

IPEC 2010

II.

SYSTEM CONFIGURATION AND MODELING

DC Load

AC Load

A. System Configuration
Figure 1 shows a typical hybrid system configuration which
consists of AC grid on the left side and DC grid on the right
side. The AC and DC grids have their corresponding sources,
loads and energy storage elements, and are interconnected by a
three phase converter. The AC bus is connected to the utility
grid through a transformer and circuit breaker.
A compact hybrid grid as shown in Figure 2 is proposed to
simulate system operation and control. In the proposed system,
PV arrays are connected to DC bus through boost converter to
simulate DC sources. A DFIG wind generation system is
connected to AC bus to simulate AC source. A battery with
bidirectional DC/DC converter is connected to DC bus as
energy storage. A variable DC load and a variable AC load are
connected to DC and AC buses respectively to simulate various
loads.

Figure 2. A compact representation of the proposed hybrid grid.

B. Modeling of Solar Panel

According to the physical property of the p-n
semiconductor, the model of PV panel has been developed
based on the following three equations [11]. Ipv and Vpv are
terminal current and voltage of the PV array respectively, all
the other parameters can be obtained from specifications.
I pv = n p I ph n p I sat [exp(( q / AkT )(V pv / ns + I pv Rs )) 1] (1)

A 40 kW PV modules are connected in series and parallel.

The output power of the solar panel alters as solar irradiation
level and ambient temperature changes. In order to harness
maximum power from the solar panel at any instant, a MPPT
control algorithm is accomplished by the DC/DC boost
converter between PV array and capacitor Cd. A capacitor Cpv
is added to the PV array terminal in order to suppress high
frequency ripples of the PV output voltage. The bidirectional
DC/DC converter is designed to maintain the DC bus voltage
stable through charging or discharging the battery when system
operates in autonomous operation mode. The choice of battery
capacity is well documented in [7]. The three converters (boost
converter, main converter, and bidirectional DC/DC converter)
share a common DC bus. A 50 kW wind generation system
consists of doubly fed induction generator (DFIG) with backto-back AC/DC/AC PWM converters connected between the
rotor through slip rings and AC bus. Variable wind speed is
applied to the WTG to simulate different output power of AC
source and test the MPPT control algorithm. Different control
schemes such as direct torque control (DTC) and direct power
control (DPC) have been proposed for DFIG in literatures [8]
and [9, 10], DTC is selected as the control method for rotor
side converter of DFIG in this paper. The AC and DC buses are
coupled through a 3-phase transformer and a main bidirectional
power flow converter to coordinate power exchange between
DC and AC sides. The transformer is used to step up the AC
voltage of the main converter to utility voltage level and to
isolate AC and DC grids.

I ph = ( I sso + ki (T Tr )) S / 1000

(2)

I sat = I rr (T / Tr )3 exp(( qE gap / kA) (1 / Tr 1 / T ))

(3)

C. Modeling of Battery
Battery is modeled as a nonlinear voltage source whose
output voltage depends not only on the current but also on the
battery state of charge (SOC), which is a nonlinear function of
the current and time. The voltage of battery Vb is described by
the follow equation [11].

Vb = Vo Rb ib K

SOC = 100(1

Q
Q ib dt

+ A exp( B ib dt ) (4)

i dt )
b

(5)

Where Rb is internal resistance of the battery, V0 is constant

open circuit voltage, ib is battery current, K is polarization
voltage (V), Q is battery capacity (Ah), A is exponential
voltage (V), and B is exponential capacity (Ah)-1.
D. Modeling of Wind Turbine Generator
Power output from the wind turbine can be represented as
follow:
Pm = 0.5 AC p ( , )Vw3

(6)

Where is air density, A is rotor swept area, Cp(, ) is

power coefficient function which is determined by tip speed
ratio and pitch angle , Vw is wind speed. From (6), the output

Figure 1. A hybrid AC/DC micro-grid.

747

power of wind turbine is determined by the power coefficient

Cp under a constant input wind speed. In order to harness
maximum power, Cp should be controlled to achieve its
optimum value through regulating turbine rotating speed and
pitch angle.

TABLE I
PARAMETERS FOR DFIG

When wind speed fluctuates, a DFIG can generate constantfrequency power to the grid by controlling the converter.
Equivalent circuit and mathematical model of a DFIG are
essential requirements for the control system. An induction
motor model was established using a rotating (d, q) field
reference as follow. The voltage equations:
uds Rs
u
qs = 0
udr 0

uqr 0

0
Rs

0
0

0
0

Rr
0

0 ids

0 iqs
+
0 idr

Rr iqr

ds 1qs

ds
qs
p + 1
dr 2qr

qr 2 dr

Lm

Ls
0
Lm

0
Lr
0

0 ids

Lm iqs
0 idr

Lr iqr

Value

Nominal power
Nominal voltage
Stator resistance
Stator inductance
Rotor resistance
Rotor inductance
Mutual inductance
Inertial constant
Number of poles
Nominal DC voltage of
AC/DC/AC converter
Nominal mechanical power

50kW
400V
0.00706 pu
0.171 pu
0.005 pu
0.156 pu
2.9 pu
3.1s
6
800V

(8)

A. Modeling and Control of Boost Converter

The input-output voltage equations of the boost converter
are described as follows:

(9)

The electromagnetic torque in (9):

(10)
Tem = n p Lm (iqs idr ids iqr )
Base on the d- and q-axis components of the voltage and
current of the stator and rotor, the active power and reactive
power generated by the DFIG can be represented:
Ps = uds ids + uqs iqs
Qs = uqs ids uds iqs

45kW

isolated operation mode. The purpose of the main converter is

to maintain a stable DC-link voltage in grid-tied mode and to
provide high quality three phase AC voltages with good
dynamic response in isolated mode regardless of load
conditions. The back-to-back AC/DC/AC converter of DFIG is
controlled to regulate rotor side current to achieve MPPT
operation of WTG. All these converters in the hybrid system
have to be properly controlled to harness maximum power
from the solar panel and wind turbine and supply an
uninterrupted, high efficiency and high quality power to the
loads in both grid-tied and isolated mode. The control
algorithms for the converters are presented in this section.

The mechanical equation of the DFIG:

J d r
= Tm Tem
n p dt

Description

Pnom
Vnom
Rs
Ls
Rr
Lr
Lm
J
np
Vdc_nom
Pm

(7)

The stator and rotor flux linkages in (7) is:

ds Ls

qs = 0
dr Lm

qr 0

Symbol

V pv VT = L1 di1 / dt + R1i1

(6)

I pv i1 = C pv dV pv / dt

(7)

VT = Vd (1 d1 )

(8)

Where Vd is and DC-link voltage, VT is the voltage across

switch ST, d1 is the duty ratio of switch ST. The MPPT of a
solar panel under time varying environmental conditions is
achieved by a boost converter. Figure 3 shows time-average
model and control scheme for the boost converter.

(11)

i1 L1 R1

where the subscripts s and r denote the stator and rotor; L

represents the inductor, p represents the differentiation
operator, represents the flux linkage, Lm is the mutual
inductance between the rotor and the stator, 1 and 2 are the
synchronous speed and the slip speed respectively, 2= 1- r,
Tm is the mechanical torque and np is the number of poles, J is
the inertia constant of the rotor. All the parameters of DIFG
are listed in TABLE I.

Ipv

III. MODELING AND CONTROL OF CONVERTERS

The objective of the boost converter is to track the
maximum power point of the solar panel by regulating the solar
panel terminal voltage using the power-voltage characteristic
curve. The objective of the battery converter is to guarantee a
stable DC-link voltage through charging/discharging control in

+
Vpv Cpv

(1-d1)Vd

+ Vd

(1-d 1)i 1

Figure 3. Time-avearge model and control scheme for boost converter, from
top to bottom

748

B. Modeling and Control of Battery Converter

The battery converter is a bidirectional DC/DC converter
and is used to maintain a stable DC link voltage in isolated
operation mode. The boost converter injects current i1(1-d1) to
the DC-link. The inverter and DC loads draw current iac and idc
from the DC-link respectively. The battery converter can be
depicted as below:

VD Vb = L3 dib / dt + R3ib

iA
i A vSA vCA
d

L2 iB + R2 iB = vSB vCB
dt
i v v
iC
C SC CC

The dq-coordinate expressions can be obtained by using the

synchronous reference frame transformation TABC-dq,

(9)

VD = Vd d 3

(10)

i1 (1 d1 ) iac idc ib d 3 = ic = Cd dVd / dt

(11)

L2

x1 = vsd vcd + L2iq vcd = vsd + L2iq x1

(26)

x2 = vcq L2id
vcq = L2id x2

Where (iA, iB, iC) and (vCA, vCB, vCC) are three phase currents
and voltages of the main converter, (vSA, vSB, vSC) are three
phase voltages of the AC bus. The dq-coordinate variables (id,
iq), (vsd, vsq), and (vcd, vcq) are transformed from (iA, iB, iC), (vSA,
vSB, vSC) and (vCA, vCB, vCC) respectively. Two PI controllers are
selected for real and reactive power control respectively as
shown in Fig.9.
2) VSI Source Control
The inverter acts as a voltage source in the isolated system
and needs to provide a stable and high quality AC voltage
reference for the AC grid. Through TABC-dq transformation,
instantaneous d- and q-axis voltages can be obtained when
three phase output voltages of the main converter are known.
These voltages are DC quantities, so PI controllers are adequate
to guarantee a good response.

L3 R3 ib
+
Cd

d3i b

+
d3Vd

d id R2 L2 id vsd vcd
=
+ (25)
dt iq L2 R2 iq vsq vcq

Set

Where VD and Vb are the voltage across switch ST8 and the
battery terminal voltage respectively, ic is the current flowing
through the capacitor, d3 is the duty ratio of the switch ST7. The
two switches conduct complementally, which means that the
duty ratio of ST8 is (1-d3). This converter can operate in buck
mode or boost mode. Suppose the battery current ib is positive
when operating in charge mode, and it is negative in discharge
mode. Figure 4 shows time-average model and control scheme
for the battery converter.

Iin

(24)

+ Vb

Figure 4. Time-avearge model and control scheme for battery converter,

from top to bottom

C. Modeling and Control of Main Converter

The role of the main converter is to exchange power
between the AC bus and DC bus. The converter operates in two
modes according to the external grid conditions. When
operating in grid-tied mode, the converter is to supply a given
active and reactive power. When running in the emergency
mode, the converter is controlled to provide an AC voltage and
frequency reference for the AC grid.

Figure 5. DQ control scheme for the main converter.

D. Modeling and Control of DFIG Converters

Grid side converter of DFIG is used to maintain the dc link
voltage of the back-to-back converter constant and control of
this converter is similar to that of the main converter in gridtied mode. The objective of the rotor-side converter is to track
the maximum power point (MPPT) of wind turbine and
manage the stator side reactive power. A Direct Torque Control
(DTC) strategy with feed forward voltage compensation is
selected for the DFIG control system as shown in Fig.10. The
rotor rotational speed is obtained through the MPPT algorithm,
which is based on the power and speed characteristic of the
wind turbine. The rotational speed r and mechanical power Pm
are used to calculate reference electromagnetic torque Te, and
this torque is applied to figure out the d-axis rotor side current
reference through stator flux estimation. After that, the rotor
side d-, q-axis voltage is obtained through control of the

1) PQ Control
The PQ control is achieved using a current controlled
voltage source. DC bus voltage is kept constant through PI
control, the regulatory result of PI controller is set as
instantaneous active current id reference and the instantaneous
reactive current iq reference is set by reactive power
compensation command. The converter is modeled in ABC
coordinates as follow:

749

corresponding axis current with appropriate feed forward

voltage compensation.
MPPT and expected
Torque calculation
Stator Flux
Estimation

i*dr

PI +
idr

Qs

PI

i*qr

2.5

+ Rr idr

iqr

PI +

Power (W)
irradiation (W/m2)

udr

2
1.5

(s r)(Lm ids + Lr idr)

Qs*+

x 10

3.5

(s r)(Lm iqs + Lr iqr)

Te*

n Lm /Ls

uqr

0.5

+ Rr i
qr

0
0

0.1

0.2

Description
Capacitor across the solar panel
Inductor for the boost converter
Capacitor across the dc-link
Filtering inductor for the inverter
Equivalent resistance of the inverter
Filtering capacitor for the inverter
Inductor for the Battery converter
Resistance of L3
Frequency of the AC grid
Switching frequency of power converters
Rated DC bus voltage
Rated AC bus line voltage (rms value)
Ratio of the transformer

IV.

0.4

0.5

Figure 7. PV output power vs solar irradiation. (Irradiation level times 30 for

comparison)

TABLE II
PARAMETERS FOR THE HYBRID-GRID SYSTEM
Symbol
Cpv
L1
Cd
L2
R2
C2
L3
R3
f
fs
Vd
Vll_rms
n1:n2

0.3
Time: (s)

Figure 6. DTC control scheme for rotor side converter.

100

Value
110uF
2.5mH
4700uF
0.43mH
0.3ohm
60uF
3mH
0.1ohm
60Hz
10kHz
400V
400V
2:1

V (V)
I (A)

80
60
40
20
0
-20
-40
-60
-80
0.15

0.2

0.25

0.3

Time: (s)

0.35

0.4

Figure 8. AC side voltage vs current in grid-tied mode. (Voltage times 0.2

for comparison)

SIMULATION RESULTS

400

Load levels and environmental conditions such as wind

speed, solar irradiation level and ambient temperature vary
with time. The operations of the hybrid grid under various
source and load conditions are simulated to verify the proposed
control methods. Parameters of system components are listed in
TABLE II.

Voltage (V)

350

300

250

200
0.15

A. Grid-Connected Mode
In this mode, the main converter is working in PQ mode.
Power is balanced by the utility grid. AC bus voltage is
provided by the grid and DC bus voltage is maintained stable
by the main converter. Figure 7 shows the solar radiation vs
output power of the PV panel where the radiation level is preset
as the system input parameter and the power is calculated
through the multiplication of voltage and current. It is
demonstrated that the two shapes are very similar to each other,
which means that the output power is nearly proportional to the
input irradiation level when the ambient temperature is fixed.
The solar irradiation level is set as 400W/m2 in the starting
0.1s, it increases to 1000W/m2 from 0.1s to 0.2s and is kept
constant until 0.3s. After that time, it decreases to 400W/m2
again from 0.3s to 0.4s and keeps that value until the final time
0.5s. Figure 8 and 9 show the dynamic responses at both sides
of the main converter when DC load increases from 20kW to
40 kW at t=0.25s with a fixed irradiation level 800W/m2.
Figure 8 shows clearly that DC grid injects power to the AC
grid before t=0.25 and DC grid receives power from the AC
grid after t=0.25. Figure 9 shows that the voltage drops at
t=0.25 and recovers quickly by the controller.

0.2

0.25

0.3
Time: (s)

0.35

0.4

0.45

Figure 9. DC bus voltage transient response in grid-tied mode.

kW

30
Power of DFIG (kW)

20
10
0
0.15

0.2

0.25

0.3

0.35

0.4

0.45

150

0.5
V (V)
I (A)

100
50
0
-50
-100
0.15

0.2

0.25

0.3
0.35
Time: (s)

0.4

0.45

0.5

Figure 10. Top: output power of DFIG; Bottom: AC side voltage vs current in
isolated mode. (Voltage times 1/3 for comparison)

750

system reconfiguration is analyzed in this paper. Mathematical

models and control schemes containing MPPT control are
provided for the all the converters, which are boost converter,
battery converter, main converter and AC/DC/AC converter of
DFIG. The proposed coordinated control strategies are verified
by Matlab/Simulink with detailed solar and wind power
generation models. Various control methods have been
incorporated in the system to harness the maximum power
from DC and AC sources and to coordinate the power flow
exchange between DC and AC grid. Different environmental
conditions and load capacities are tested to validate the control
methods. Simulation results show that the hybrid grid can
operate in both grid-tied and isolated mode. Stable AC and DC
bus voltage can be guaranteed when environmental conditions
or load capacities change in both operation modes. The hybrid
grid can provide a reliable, high quality and more efficient
power to electricity consumer.

450

Voltage (V)

400

350

300

250

200
0.1

0.15

0.2

0.25

0.3
Time: (s)

0.35

0.4

0.45

0.5

Figure 11. DC bus voltage transient response in isolated mode.

B. Isolated mode
In isolated mode, the main converter is working in VSI
mode, energy balance is guaranteed by receiving from or
injecting power into the battery. DC bus voltage is maintained
stable by the battery converter and AC bus voltage is provided
by the main converter.

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Stability of the DC bus voltage is very important for the

whole system in isolated operation mode, it is guaranteed by
the battery converter. The reference of DC-link voltage is set as
400V. Figure 10 and 11 show the dynamic responses at both
sides of the main converter when AC load increases from
20kW to 40 kW at t=0.3s with a fixed wind speed 12m/s.
Figure 10 shows clearly that AC grid injects power to the DC
grid before t=0.3 and AC grid receives power from the DC grid
after t=0.3. AC bus voltage is kept constant and the amplitude
is 326.5V regardless of load conditions as shown in the bottom
of Figure 10. Figure 11 shows that the voltage drops at t=0.3
and recovers quickly by the controller. It can be seen that the
voltage is kept 400V. Figure 12 shows the waveforms of
battery voltage and battery current. Since wind power source is
greater than AC load before t=0.3s and not enough to feed the
AC load after t=0.3s, so the battery works in charging and
discharging mode before and after that instant respectively. The
battery charging or discharging current is determined by the
power differences between the wind power source and AC
loads. The nominal voltage and rated capacity of the battery are
selected as 200V and 65Ah respectively.
Voltage (V)

238
236
234
232

Current (A)

230
0.1
60
50

0.15

0.2

0.25

0.3

0.35

0.4

0.45

0.5

0.15

0.2

0.25

0.3
Time: (s)

0.35

0.4

0.45

0.5

25
0
-25
-50
0.1

Figure 12. Battery voltage and current from top to bottom.

V.

CONCLUSIONS

As the DC loads becomes more and more common, a

comprehensive study of a hybrid AC/DC micro-grid for power

751