8.

01

MASSACHUSETTS INSTITUTE OF TECHNOLOGY

Department of Physics
Fall 2009

Review Module: Dot Product

We shall introduce a vector operation, called the dot product or scalar product that takes any
two vectors and generates a scalar quantity (a number). We shall see that the physical concept of
work can be mathematically described by the dot product between the force and the displacement
vectors.

r
r
Let A and B be two vectors. Since any two non-collinear vectors form a plane, we
r
r
define the angle to be the angle between the vectors A and B as shown in Figure 1. Note
that can vary from 0 to .

Figure 1 Dot product geometry.

Definition: Dot Product

r r
r
r
The dot product A B of the vectors A and B is defined to be product of the magnitude
r
r
of the vectors A and B with the cosine of the angle between the two vectors:

ur ur
A B = AB cos( )

(0.0.1)

r
r
r
r
Where A = | A | and B = | B | represent the magnitude of A and B respectively. The dot
product can be positive, zero, or negative, depending on the value of cos . The dot
product is always a scalar quantity.
We can give a geometric interpretation to the dot product by writing the definition as
r r
A B = ( A cos( )) B

(0.0.2)

r
In this formulation, the term A cos is the projection of the vector B in the direction of the
r
vector B . This projection is shown in Figure 2(a). So the dot product is the product of the

r
r
r
projection of the length of A in the direction of B with the length of B . Note that we could also
write the dot product as
r r
A B = A ( B cos( ))

(0.0.3)

r
r
Now the term B cos( ) is the projection of the vector B in the direction of the vector A as
shown in Figure 2(b). From this perspective, the dot product is the product of the projection of
r
r
r
the length of B in the direction of A with the length of A .

Figure 2(a) and 2(b) Projection of vectors and the dot product.

From our definition of the dot product we see that the dot product of two vectors that are
perpendicular to each other is zero since the angle between the vectors is / 2 and
cos( / 2) = 0 .
Properties of Dot Product
r
The first property involves the dot product between a vector c A where c is a scalar and a vector
r
B,

(1a)

r r
r r
c A B = c ( A B)

(0.0.4)

r
r
r
The second involves the dot product between the sum of two vectors A and B with a vector C ,

(2a)

r r r r r r r
( A + B) C = A C + B C

(0.0.5)

Since the dot product is a commutative operation,

r r r r
AB = BA ,

similar definitions hold;

(0.0.6)

(1b)

r r
r r
A c B = c ( A B)

(0.0.7)

(2b)

r r r
r r r r
C ( A + B) = C A + C B .

(0.0.8)

Vector Decomposition and the Dot Product

With these properties in mind we can now develop an algebraic expression for the dot product in
r
terms of components. Lets choose a Cartesian coordinate system with the vector B pointing
ur
r
along the positive x -axis with positive x -component Bx , i.e., B = Bx i . The vector A can be
written as
ur
A = Ax i + Ay j + Az k

(0.0.9)

We first calculate that the dot product of the unit vector i with itself is unity:
i i =| i || i | cos(0) = 1

(0.0.10)

since the unit vector has magnitude | i |= 1 and cos(0) = 1 . We note that the same rule applies for
the unit vectors in the y and z directions:
j j = k k = 1

(0.0.11)

The dot product of the unit vector i with the unit vector j is zero because the two unit vectors
are perpendicular to each other:
i j =| i || j | cos( /2) = 0

(0.0.12)

Similarly, the dot product of the unit vector i with the unit vector k , and the unit vector j with
the unit vector k are also zero:
i k = j k = 0

(0.0.13)

The dot product of the two vectors now becomes

r r
A B = ( Ax i + Ay j + Az k ) Bx i
= Ax i Bx i + Ay j Bx i + Az k Bx i

property (2a)

= Ax Bx (i i ) + Ay Bx (j i ) + Az Bx (k i ) property (1a) and (1b)

= Ax Bx

(0.0.14)

This third step is the crucial one because it shows that it is only the unit vectors that undergo the
dot product operation.
r
Since we assumed that the vector B points along the positive x -axis with positive x -component
Bx , our answer can be zero, positive, or negative depending on the x -component of the vector
r
A . In Figure 3, we show the three different cases.

Figure 3 Dot product that is (a) positive, (b) zero or (c) negative.

The result for the dot product can be generalized easily for arbitrary vectors
r
A = Ax i + Ay j + Az k

(0.0.15)

r
B = Bx i + By j + Bz k

(0.0.16)

r r
A B = Ax Bx + Ay By + Az Bz

(0.0.17)

and

to yield

Work:

A typical physics application of the dot product between two vectors involves the calculation of
r
r
the work done by a force F on an object that undergoes a displacement r . If the force is
uniform during the entire displacement, then the work done by the force on the object is given by
r r
WF = F r .

For a non-uniform force, the work done by the force in displacing the object from an initial point
i to a final point f is given by a line integral

r r
WF = F dr
f

(see Review Module: Line Integrals).

Problems:
r
r r
r
2.1 Given two vectors, A = 2 i + 3 j + 7 k and B = 5i + j + 2k , find A B .
r r
A B = Ax Bx + Ay By + Az Bz
= (2)(5) + (3)(1) + (7)(2) = 21
r
r
2.2 Find the cosine of the angle between the vectors A = 3 i + j + k and B = 2i 3 j k .
r r r r
Solution: The dot product of two vectors is equal to A B = A B cos where is the angle
between the two vectors. Therefore

r r r r
cos = A B / A B
= ( Ax Bx + Ay By + Az Bz ) /( Ax 2 + Ay 2 + Az 2 )1/ 2 ( Bx 2 + By 2 + Bz 2 )1/ 2
= ((3)(2) + (1)(3) + (1)(1)) /((3) 2 + (1) 2 + (1) 2 )1/ 2 ( (2) 2 + (3)2 + (1)2 )1/ 2
= (10) /(11)1/ 2 (14)1/ 2 = 0.806
2.3 In the methane molecule, CH 4 , each hydrogen atom is at the corner of a tetrahedron with the
carbon atom at the center. In a coordinate system centered on the carbon atom, if the direction of
r
one of the C H bonds is described by the vector A = i + j + k and the direction of an adjacent
r
C H is described by the vector B = i j k , what is the angle between these two bonds.

r r r r
Solution: The angle between two vectors is given by = cos 1 A B / A B . Therefore

r r

r r

= cos 1 A B / A B

= cos 1 ( (1)(1) + (1)(1) + (1)(1)) /((1)2 + (1)2 + (1)2 )1/ 2 ( (1)2 + (1)2 + (1)2 )1/ 2 )
= cos 1 ( (1) / 2(3)1/ 2 ) = 106.7o

2.4 Suppose a vector makes angles x , y , and z with the x , y , and z axes coordinate axes.
The direction cosines of a vector are the cosines of the angles it makes with the coordinate axes,
thus = cos x , = cos y , and = cos z . Prove that 2 + 2 + 2 = 1 using vector algebra.

r
r
r
r
Solution: Let A = Ax i + Ay j + Az k . Then A i = ( Ax i + Ay j + Az k ) i = Ax = A cos x = A .
r
r
r
r
In a similar fashion , A j = A , and A k = A . Now the magnitude of a vector
r2
r2
r2
r2
r2
A = ( Ax 2 + Ay 2 + Az 2 ) = A 2 + A 2 + A 2 = A ( 2 + 2 + 2 ) . Thus 1 = 2 + 2 + 2 .
r r
r r
r
r
2.5 Show that if A B = A + B , then A is perpendicular to B .
r r
r r r r 1/ 2
r r
r r r r 1/ 2
Solution: Recall that A B = ( A B) ( A B)
= ( A A 2 A B + B B) .
r r
r r
r r
r r r r 1/ 2
r r
r r r r 1/ 2
= ( A A + 2 A B + B B) . So if A B = A + B , then
Similarly A + B = ( A + B) ( A + B)
r
r r
r
A B = 0 hence A is perpendicular to B .

2.5 Show that the diagonals of an equilateral parallelogram are perpendicular.

r
r
Solution: Make an equilateral parallelogram using two equal length vectors A and B . The
r r
r r
vectors
A+B
and
AB
form
the
diagonals.
The
dot
product

r r

r r

( A + B ) ( A B ) = A A B B = A B . Since the vector are equal in length,

r r
r r
So ( A + B ) ( A B ) = 0 . Therefore the diagonals are perpendicular.
2

r2 r2
A =B .

2.6 Let a and b be unit vectors in the xy plane making angles and with the x axis,
respectively. Show that a = cos i + sin j , b = cos i + sin j , and using vector algebra prove
that cos( ) = cos cos + sin sin .
Solution:, Since
a and b are unit vectors, vector decomposition yields that
a = a cos i + a sin j = cos i + sin j , and similarly for b = cos i + sin j ( see figure). Since
the angle between the unit vectors a and b is equal to , the dot product is given by
a b = a b cos( ) = cos( ) . Equivalently in Cartesian coordinates the dot product is also

)(

equal to a b = cos i + sin j cos i + sin j = cos cos + sin sin .

Therefore cos( ) = cos cos + sin sin .

2.7 Work
An object of mass m = 4.0 kg , starting from rest, slides down an inclined plane of length
l = 3.0 m . The plane is inclined by an angle of = 300 to the ground. The coefficient of kinetic
friction k = 0.2 . While the object is sliding down the inclined plane, three uniform forces act on
the object, the gravitational force which points downward and has magnitude Fg = mg , the
friction force which opposes the motion and is equal in magnitude to Ff = k mg cos , and
finally the normal force which is perpendicular to the surface of the inclined plane and has
magnitude FN = mg cos . The free body force diagram on the object is shown below.

a) Choose a coordinate system with the origin at the top of the inclined plane and the
positive x -direction pointing down the inclined plane, and the positive y -direction
pointing towards the upper right as shown in the figure. (i) What is the work done by
each of the three forces while the object is sliding down the inclined plane? (ii) For each
force, is the work done by the force positive or negative? (iii) What is the sum of the
work done by the three forces? Is this positive or negative?

b) Now choose a coordinate system with the origin at the base of the inclined plane and the
positive x -direction pointing horizontally to the right and the positive y -direction
pointing upward as shown in the figure. Repeat parts (i)-(iii) above in this new coordinate
system

Solution:
a) With our choice of coordinate system with the origin at the top of the inclined plane and
the positive x-direction pointing down the inclined plane, the displacement of the object
r
is given by the vector r = l i .

r
The vector decomposition of the three forces are Fg = mgsin i mgcosj ,
r
r
F f = k mgcos i , and FN = mgcosj . Then the work done by the friction force is
negative and given by

r
r
W f = F f r = k mgcos i l i = k mgcos l < 0 .
Substituting in the appropriate values yields
W f = k mg cos l = (0.2)(4.0 kg)(9.8m s -2 )(3.0 m)(cos(30o )(3.0 m) = 20.4 J

The work done by the gravitational force is positive and given by

r
r
Wg = Fg r = mgsin i mgcosj l i = mglsin > 0 .

Substituting in the appropriate values yields

Wg = mglsin = (4.0 kg)(9.8 m s -2 )(3.0 m)(sin(30o ) = 58.8 J

The work done by the normal force is zero because the normal force is perpendicular the
displacement
r
r
WN = FN r = mgcosj l i = 0 .

The scalar sum of the work done by the three forces is then

W = Wg + W f = mgl (sin k cos )

W = mgl (sin k cos ) = (4.0 kg)(9.8m s -2 )(3.0 m)(sin(30o ) (0.2)(cos(30o )) = 38.4 J
b)

We shall now use our second coordinate system with the origin at the base of the
inclined plane and the positive x -direction pointing horizontally to the right and the
positive y -direction pointing upward.

r
The displacement of the object is now given by the vector r = lcos i lsin j . The
r
Fg = mgj ,
vector
decomposition
of
the
three
forces
are
r
r
F f = k mgcos cos i + sin j , and FN = mgcos sini + cosj . Then the work

done by the friction force is negative and given by

r
r
W f = F f r = k mgcos cos i + sin j lcos i lsin j = k mgcos l ( cos 2 sin 2 )

)(

= k mgcos l < 0

which is identical to our previous result. The work done by the gravitational force is positive and
given by

r
r
Wg = Fg r = mgj lcos i lsinj = mglsin > 0 ,

also identical to our previous result. The work done by the normal force is also zero although
computing the dot product is more involved

r
r
WN = FN r = mgcos sini + cosj lcos i lsinj = mgcos ( sin lcos cos lsin ) = 0 .

)(

The scalar sum of the work done by the three forces is the same as before.