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Catalysis Today
journal homepage: www.elsevier.com/locate/cattod
Laboratoire des Matriaux, Surfaces et Procds pour la Catalyse, CNRS UMR 7515, Universit de Strasbourg, 25 rue Becquerel, F-67087 Strasbourg, France
State Key Laboratory of Physical Chemistry of Solid Surfaces and National Engineering Laboratory for Green Chemical Productions of Alcohols, Ethers and Esters, College of Chemistry
and Chemical Engineering, Xiamen University, Xiamen 361005, PR China
c
Laboratoire de Ractivit de Surface, CNRS UMR 7197, Universit Pierre et Marie Curie, 4 Place Jussieu, F- 75252 Paris, France
b
a r t i c l e
i n f o
Article history:
Received 18 January 2012
Received in revised form 4 April 2012
Accepted 5 April 2012
Available online 10 May 2012
Keywords:
Heterogeneous catalysis
History
Industrial realisations
Future
Challenges
New materials
Chemicals
Energy
Environment
a b s t r a c t
This review highlights key catalytic discoveries and the main industrial catalytic processes over the last
300 years that involved commodities, ne chemicals, petrochemicals, petroleum transformation for fuels
and energy supply, emission control, and so forth. In the past, discoveries have often followed events such
as wars or embargos, whereas the current driving forces of studies, researches and then discoveries aim
at a better understanding of catalytic processes, at reducing the costs of raw materials and processes, at
developing new catalytic materials and at addressing environmental issues. This review focuses on the
history of many catalytic industrial processes, environmental issues, catalytic materials, especially their
expected catalytic properties, on catalyst characterisation by physical methods and development of in situ
conditions, i.e., characterisation under actual working conditions with reactants and products analyzed
on-line. Emphasis is also placed on high selectivity in catalytic reactions and the major challenges for the
future, such as environmental issues, energy supply, pollution control for vehicles and industrial plants,
air/VOCs/water purication, hydrogen sources and carbon dioxide storage/up grading, transformation of
biomass as a promising source of raw materials, and catalytic water splitting perspectives.
This review is a survey of heterogeneous catalysis and is not comprehensive but leads to the conclusion
that, although many catalysts and catalytic processes have already been discovered and developed over
the past century, many opportunities nevertheless exist for new developments, new processes and new
catalytic materials. It follows that substantial challenges exist for the younger generation of researchers
and engineers, as emphasized at the end of the manuscript.
2012 Elsevier B.V. All rights reserved.
1. Introduction
Catalysis is an important eld in chemistry, with some 90% of
chemical processes involving catalysts in at least one of their steps
[1]. At present, because of environmental issues, catalysis appears
to be even more important than before and to constitute one of
the major sources of improvements in our society [2,3]. A survey
of U.S. industries revealed that the annual revenue from chemical
and fuel production topped all other industrial sectors. The survey
also showed that more than 60% of the 63 major products and 90%
of the 34 process innovations from 1930 to 1980 have involved
catalysis, which illustrates the critical role of this eld in the fuel
and chemical industries.
This review is intended to present some historical background
of catalysis and the major challenges that this eld has faced in the
last half century and that it still must face in the future. This review
is focused only on heterogeneous catalysis.
Our aim in this manuscript is to highlight the major catalysisrelated discoveries and processes that have been developed over
the past three centuries. The history of catalysis and its contribution to chemical industries has already been widely described in
the literature, e.g. [46]. We intended to review some historically
signicant steps in the development of catalysis and catalytic processes. Without discussing ancient beer or wine fermentation, it is
interesting to recall some old processes, as summarized in Table 1
[713].
Some of these processes have been developed in response to
driving forces designated as pullers like the expected Chilean
embargo on saltpeter as a nitrate source, which motivated Haber
and Bosch to develop a process for the xation of atmospheric
nitrogen in ammonia synthesis (1909). Similarly, the need for a
more energetic gasoline inspired racing driver and French mechanical engineer Eugne Houdry to develop the oil (hydrocarbon) acid
cracking process (1930), and catalytic reformation and alkylation
(1940), which have allowed the Allied forces to access a powerful
fuel for air planes during World War II.
More recently, driving forces (pullers) have changed and now
correspond more to a market-driven strategy, in which simpler
Table 1
Historical aspects in heterogeneous catalysis [713].
Catalytic process
Catalyst
Main author
Year
Sulfuric acid
Dehydration of alcohols
Esterication of organic acids
Dehydrogenation of alcohols (ethanol)
Oxidation of alcohol
Decomposition of H2 O2 and NH3
Hydrolysis of starch to glucose
Combustion
Decomposition NH3
Oxidation
Oxidation SO2 to SO3 (contact process)
Denition of catalysis
Oxidation of NH3 to nitric acid
HCl + O2 Cl2
Esterication of acid
Hydrolysis of esters
Sulfuric acid
Friedel-Crafts reactions
Nitric acid synthesis
NH3 synthesis from N2 and H2 under high pressure
Hydrogenation
Active site concept
Theory of adsorption
Industrial process of NH3 synthesis under pressure
CO + H2 CH3 OH
CO + H2 hydrocarbons
Contact catalysis theory
Hydrogenation vegetable oils
Catalytic cracking of petroleum
Synthesis gas
Alkylation reaction for gasoline fuel
Synthetic zeolites
Exhaust gas treatment
Lead chamber
Acid
Acid
Metal
Pt black
Metals
Acid
Pt
Fe > Cu > Ag > Au > Pt
Pt
Pt
Roebuck
Priestley
Scheele
Van Marum
Priestley & Dbereiner
Thnard
Kirchoff
Davy
Dulong
Fusinieri
Phillips
Berzelius
Kuhlmann
Deacon
Bertholet
Bertholet
1746
1778
1782
1796
1810
1813
1814
1817
1823
1824
1831
1836
1838
1875
1879
1879
1875
1877
1904
1909
1912
1913
1915
1918
1923
1923
1925
1926
1930
1931
1940
1946
1976
Pt
Cu
Acid
Acid
V2 O5
Lewis acids (AlCl3 )
Pt gauzes
Fe
Ni
Fe
ZnO-chromia
Fe, Co
Ni
Acid
Acid
ne particles. Moreover, one of the most important applications of these novel porous solid catalysts is the replacement
of environmentally hazardous, corrosive, difcult-to-separateand-dispose-of homogeneous catalysts (viz. mineral and Lewis
acids, organic and inorganic bases and toxic metallic compounds)
employed in the liquid-phase synthesis of bulk and ne chemicals
(vide infra) [16]. There are many families of solids catalysts like
metals, oxides, suldes, carbons, etc. as bulk materials or supported
on a more or less catalytically active support like silica, alumina,
zirconia, titania, ceria, carbons, etc. These materials may possess
specic chemical properties, such as acid-base or redox or dehydrogenating or hydrogenating or oxidizing, and physical properties
like porosity, high surface area, attrition resistance, thermal and/or
electrical conductivity, etc. The largest family corresponds to
oxides whatever zeolites, clays, mesoporous materials, mixed
oxides as catalysts or as supports. Among them porous materials
present some fascinating properties, which are described below.
2.1. Zeolites
In the petrochemistry and organic synthesis elds, zeolites have
played a major role in the twentieth century. Zeolites are inorganic
crystalline aluminosilicates which structures consist of a threedimensional arrangement of TO4 tetrahedra (where T is usually
Si4+ and Al3+ tetrahedrally coordinated atoms) assembled together
through the sharing of oxygen atoms to form subunits, which repeat
to form an innite lattice [17], consisting of three-dimensional,
fourfold interconnected TO4 tetrahedra linked via TOT bridges.
The TOT angles are ideally 140150 and rarely over 180 . The
existence of Al in a tetrahedrally coordinated Si structure leaves a
negative framework charge, which requires the existence of compensating cations, located in the porous system.
Consequently, an interesting feature of zeolites is the versatility
of their structures that arises from a large number of modication procedures which also tailor their catalytic properties. The
catalytic activity is associated with the presence of active centres
in the framework. Such centres may be acid, their strength and
number (Brnsted, Lewis) being adjusted in a controlled manner
either during synthesis by isomorphous replacement of the central
Si atom in tetrahedral sites in the zeolite lattice, by for example
trivalent elements like Al, B, Fe, Cr, Sb, As, or Ga, and tetravalent
elements like Ge, Ti, Zr, or Hf; and/or post-synthesis including the
steam procedure, chemical vapor deposition, ion exchange of interstitial cations, reduction of exchanged metal ions to a lower valence
state.
A distinction has been made between small-, medium- and
large-pore zeolites. In the case of small-pore zeolites, such as zeolite A, eight SiO4 tetrahedra form a ten member ring (10MR) with
a diameter a 0.41 nm and in the case of large-pore zeolites, such
as Y-zeolite (Fig. 1), a cavity with a diameter of 0.74 nm is formed
by twelve SiO4 tetrahedra. The medium-pore zeolites, such as pentasil zeolites, contain a ten member ring with an ellipsoidal tubular
diameter of 0.55 0.56 nm. The system of channels and cavities in
these molecular sieves produces solids with very high surface areas
and pore volumes, which are capable of adsorbing large amounts
of hydrocarbons.
Zeolites can be used as sorbents and as catalysts in some catalytic processes. The major breakthrough in zeolite catalysts arose
from the uid catalytic cracking (FCC) process for oil transformation to fuels and chemicals. The addition of zeolites (FAU and MFI)
to acid clays and silicaalumina cracking catalysts in the mid-1960s
resulted in a drastic increase in conversion and gasoline yields as
well as in lower quantities of coke and dry gas [18]. The new catalysts gave gasolines with lower octane numbers, primarily because
of their lower olenicity [1921]. The rst octane-enhancing FCC
catalysts were introduced by catalyst manufacturers in USA in the
mid-1970s. Octane FCC catalysts consist of two major components,
and the zeolites can be used to boost gasoline octane. Chester et al.
[22] have reported that, in addition to MFI (ZSM-5), different members of the MFI family of zeolites (MEL, ZSM-12, ZSM-23, ZSM-35,
ZSM-38) have octane-boosting abilities. Zeolites beta (BEA) [23]
and offretite (OFF) [24] have been reported to produce higher gasoline octane numbers than conventional Y (FAU) zeolites and can be
used as octane-boosting additives.
Major milestones in this domain are summarized below:
R. Milton (Union Carbide in 1950s), D. Breck, R. Barrer and E. Flanigen developed commercially viable routes to various zeolites and
MeAPOs.
J. Rabo, working at Union Carbide, applied the use of zeolites to
petroleum rening (isomerization, 1959), whereas C. Plank and E.
Rosinski of Mobil Oil applied zeolites to catalytic cracking (1962)
of heavy oil fractions.
P. Weisz and V. Frilette of Mobil Oil developed the concept (1960)
of shape-selective catalysts, and W. Haag applied shape selectivity to the production of aromatics.
G. Kerr of Mobil Oil discovered high silica zeolites in 1967 (ZSM-5,
subsequently designated as MFI) and the rst large scale commercial cracking trial was run in 1983.
W. R. Grace discovered the steaming of Y zeolite to produce ultrastable Y (USY) zeolite in 1969.
Mobil Oil developed the siliceous mesoporous-type materials
designated as MCM, HMS, and so forth in the late 1990s.
M. Taramasso, G. Perego, and B. Notari discovered TS-1 (titanium
silicalite-1 with the MFI structure), a selective oxidation catalyst
for the epoxidation of olens, at ENI-SNAM Progetti in 1983.
UOP/HYDRO (1995) developed SAPO-34, a silicoaluminophosphate molecular sieve applied for methanol to olens (MTO
process).
Another fascinating property of zeolites arises from their molecular size porous network, which allows certain reactants to enter
and products to easily leave the pores or cavities, or to remain
trapped, or to leave the pores with difculty if they are too bulky.
This concept, of shape selectivity, pioneered by Mobil scientists
[25], has been developed to explain reactions that do not obey
the classical laws of thermodynamics and that are strongly inuenced by the size of the pores or cavities relative to the size of
the reactant or product molecules. Matching the size and conguration of reacting molecules, intermediates and products with
the geometry and tortuosity of the zeolite channel/cavity system
provides the basis for controlled shape selectivity. Diffusion and
shape-selectivity catalysis in zeolites have been reviewed in several publications [2628]. However, the shape selectivity in zeolites
can manifest itself through: reactant selectivity, product selectivity, transition-state selectivity, molecular trafc control, etc.
Fig. 2. Illustration of a molecule in a pore and shape selectivity in dealuminated mordenite zeolite.
Fig. 5. Adipic acid processes using the old process (left) and the new process (right).
Fig. 4. Variations of van der Waals energy W and the force between a spherical molecule (radius d) and a spherical micropore (radius a) vs. curvature (s = d/a)
[4749].
have applications for the manufacture of ne chemicals. Some studies are described below to exemplify some of their properties.
The synthesis of adipic acid is an interesting example. The classical process (annual production of 0.7 Mt, off-gas concentration of
2540%) uses nitric acid as an oxidizing agent with the formation of
N2 O, which has to be re-oxidized further to nitric acid and which is
an important greenhouse gas. A catalytic process was subsequently
developed for N2 O decomposition. However, a process that uses a
Fe-MFI catalyst, which is able to oxidize benzene directly to phenol
[5158] has been discovered at the Boreskov Institute of Catalysis
in Novosibirsk, RU, and a process was developed with Monsanto
Co in a spin-off company called Solutia, but does not appear to be
commercialised, according to our knowledge. This process is much
more environmentally friendly because N2 O is used instead of oxygen to oxidize benzene to phenol. The scheme for this process is
presented in Fig. 5.
Another interesting example is FriedelCrafts reactions on
acidic zeolites. The rst mention of acylation related to the later
Al2 Cl6 method of Friedel and Crafts appeared in 1873 in a preliminary communication by Grucarevic and Merz [59], as reported by
Olah in a historical review about FriedelCrafts chemistry [60,61]
on the metal-catalyzed acylation of aromatic compounds. The
FriedelCrafts acylation reaction consists primarily of the production of an aromatic ketone by reaction of an aromatic substrate
with an acyl component in the presence of a catalyst. Many papers
and books have been published and numerous patents have been
granted on this topic, as summarized in a recent review [62]. Interests in electrophilic acylation studies and in the optimization of
preparative processes were spurred by the considerable practical
value of the aromatic ketone products, which constitute important
intermediates in the pharmaceutical, fragrance, avour, dye and
agrochemical industries. The electrophilic acylations are catalyzed
by Lewis acids (such as ZnCl2 , AlCl3 , FeCl3 , SnCl4 , and TiCl4 ) or protic acids (such as HF or H2 SO4 ). However, the use of metal halides
causes problems associated with the hydrolysis of the complex,
which results in the loss of catalyst and the generation of large volumes of corrosive waste streams. Great efforts have thus been made
to achieve the goal of making the Lewis acid using heterogeneous
solid catalysts, in particular acid zeolites. A detailed description of
FriedelCrafts reactions for arenes (e.g., benzene, toluene, xylenes),
aromatic ethers (e.g., anisole) with acetic anhydride or other acylating agents on zeolites and on clays, metal oxides, and so forth is
given in Ref. [60]. The roles of shape selectivity and deactivation by
the products and hydrophobicity versus hydrophilicity for zeolites
have been emphasized. For example, acylation of anisole or toluene
with acetic anhydride was performed on BEA zeolite at 90 C, to
replace the classical AlCl3 catalyst which led to many salts in the
efuents, corrosion problems, low selectivity and a short lifetime
Fig. 6. Scheme of the effect of the adsorption rate of reactants on the reactivity,
depending on the polarity of the reactants versus that of the zeolite [63,64].
Fig. 7. Historical view of functions of coordination polymers reported from 1990 to 2005. Structures of 3-D porous coordination polymers, [Cu(SiF6 )(4,4 -bpy)2 ]n (1, left),
[Zn4 O(BDC)3 ]n (2, right), and the 1-D oxygen array are listed [124].
Fig. 8. Self-assembly of polymetallic cluster nodes (left; top: m4-oxo {M4 O(-CO2 )6 }; bottom: {M2 (-CO2 )4 } paddlewheel) and organic linkers (right) yielding metalorganic
frameworks (center) [125,126].
dealumination. p-Xylene formed within the supercages as a primary product would be isomerized to o- and m-xylene by the acid
sites not only on the external surface but also within the 10-MR
channels. The improvement in the para selectivity by dealumination resulted from the suppression of isomerization activity; the
dealumination treatment probably eliminated framework Al atoms
predominantly on the external surface and inside the 10-MR channels compared with those inside the supercages [102].
Many other ne-chemical reactions have been developed by
Corma, Garcia and their teams [2] at ITQ, Universidad de Valencia,
Spain. These reactions pertain largely to the eld of applications of
zeolites in catalysis, which has previously been limited to petrochemical reactions.
2.2. AlPO4 -n SAPO4 -n, Me-AlPO4 -n, Me-APSO4 -n
In the early 1980s, the discovery of a new family of molecular sieves was reported by researchers at Union Carbide. Wilson
et al. [104,105] described the microporous aluminophosphates prepared hydrothermally from alumina, phosphoric acid and an amine
or quaternary ammonium salt as organic templates. The product
composition for these materials is xRAl2 O3 1.0 0.2 P2 O5 yH2 O,
where R is an organic template located in the intracrystalline
Fig. 9. MOFs structures: Left: MIL-53, metal terephtalate (with Al, Cr, Fe ou V), which captures hydrogen into the framework formed of tunnels. Centre and right: MIL-100,
whose octahedra, constituted by chromates (CrO6 ), organise in tetrahedra and form cavities of diameter 23 nm as observed by electron microscopy from [127].
Fig. 10. MOF: MIL-101 metal terphthalate with cages of 3.2 nm [128].
10
Table 2
Comparison of MOFs with zeolites for some properties relevant to catalysis [131].
Properties
Zeolites
MOFs
Lewis acidity
Brnsted acidity
Surface area
Pore volume
Thermal stability
Chemical stabilility
Diffusion
Basicity
Metal site density
Framework defects
Active site environment
Poisoning of active sites
Chirality
High
Bridging Si(OH)Al hydroxyl groups
200500 m2 g1
0.10.5 cm3 g1
>450 C
High
High for small molecules in gas phase, slow in liquid phase
Arises from framework oxygens
Low
Important role in many reactions
Mostly hydrophilic, but may also be hydrophobic
Reactivation by thermal treatment
Not possible or difcult
Low to medium
Introduced by post synthesis
Up to 5000 m2 g1
Over 1 cm3 g1
300 C
Limited, depends on solvents
High but strongly inuenced by linkers
Introduced post synthesis or through linkers
High
Expected to play a minor role
Considerably hydrophobic
Thermal treatment not valid
Homochiral solid from chiral linkers or post synthesis modications
molecules can access the large pores, which should be important for
catalytic purposes, if the MOF structure has been functionalised or
has active sites and presents accessible framework atoms or metal
cationic sites (Table 2).
Garcia et al. have described [131] the use of metalorganic
frameworks (MOFs) as heterogeneous catalysts for oxidation reaction using hydroperoxides or molecular oxygen. The authors have
limited themselves to the oxidation of cycloalkanes, oxidation of
benzylic positions, oxidation of cycloalkenes and aerobic oxidation
of alcohols, but many more oxidation reactions may be imagined
and studied. The use of MOFs as catalysts for enantioselective oxidations has also been considered with the peculiarity of the required
oxidants and the advantages of having homo chiral MOFs.
Main applications of MOFs concern: adsorption, gas storage
(H2 , CO2 , etc.), gas separation, acid (Lewis; Brnsted), basic, redox
and enantioselective (chirality) catalyses, biomass transformation,
biomimetism, enzymes, drug delivery, magnetism, non linear optic,
lasers, sensors, luminescence, etc. In catalysis, the thermal stability
and leaching have been a big problem for many years and restrained
researches, but now some new systems have been claimed to be stable up to 500 C. The MOFs may not replace zeolites in petrorening
Fig. 12. Comparison of sizes of cavities and organic molecules diameters [132].
11
Fig. 13. World energy consumption in 2005 (13 TW or 87 Gbarrels oil) [245].
have advantages compared with the exclusively micro- or mesoporous materials. The reactant molecules are thus expected to
diffuse more easily [140] within these pores to reach the active
zeolite sites. These materials provide better hydrothermal stability
[141], better multifunctionality to process a large variety of feedstocks, more controlled leaching rates for a constant and gradual
release of active components, and are more capable of encapsulating wastes in the micropores [142144]. Different porous
materials that combine micro- and meso-pores, such as SBA-15,
plugged hexagonal templated silica (PHTS), mesoporous aluminum
silicates (MAS), mesoporous titanium silicates (MTS), UL-ZSM-5,
and zeolites, have been developed within the last few years. Of
these materials, the latter four are mesoporous materials built up
from zeolite precursors. Such porosity in the mesoporous materials with zeolite character can be created after synthesis by
chemical treatments, including hydrothermal, acidic, basic, desilication/dealumination [2] or recrystallization treatments [145,146],
or templating [147149] or carbon-based [150153] approaches.
Desilication in alkaline media has become a widely applied preparation method to tailor these modied zeolites because of the
methods optimal combination of efciency and simplicity. Alkaline treatment is also a key step in strategic combinations with
other post-synthesis modications.
2.7. Carbon materials
Carbon nanotubes (CNTs) constitute another class of porous
materials. They have been widely studied since their discovery
in 1991 [154]. CNTs have highly unique electronic, mechanical,
catalytic, adsorption, and transport properties, which make them
interesting for a variety of applications. Carbon multiwall nanotubes (MWNTs) and single-wall nanotubes (SWNTs) should be
distinguished. They are easily fabricated and may be employed
either as catalyst supports, by entrapping active moieties within the
pores, or to improve photoconversion and electrical energy storage
(vide infra) [136,155160]. Other forms of nanographitic carbon
may also prove to be promising in the development of renewable
energy devices. For example, graphene, which consists of a single sheet of graphite, is considered a promising form of carbon for
device engineering applications and catalysis [161165]. A signicant volume of literature devoted to graphene and other forms of
carbon, including graphitic nanobers, has suggested that CNTs are
not the only promising nanostructures for either photoconversion
or electrical energy storage applications. The highly unique physical
properties of carbon nanotubes have been demonstrated for a variety of photovoltaic devices as well as for improved Li-ion batteries
and electrochemical capacitors.
12
template ion exchange method [214,215]. The objective was to synthesize porous materials able to accommodate bulky molecules and
thus treat heavier petroleum feedstocks. For example, the introduction of Al into such silica frameworks led to medium-strength
acidity compared with the acidity of normal zeolites because of
larger Si O Al bond angles. The applications of such materials in
petrochemistry were subsequently limited. At present, research is
focused on the introduction of catalytically active functions within
the mesopores (i.e., functionalization of the walls) or of nanoparticles of metals or oxides. Interesting results were obtained;
however, to our knowledge, no study has yet produced a breakthrough in catalytic processes. H-Al-MCM41 materials have been
used as catalysts for the conversion of a large variety of substrates
in reactions as diverse as hydrocarbon cracking, hydrocracking and
hydroisomerization, olen polymerization, oligomerization and
isomerization, FriedelCrafts aromatic and phenol alkylations and
acylations, acetylazations, Beckmann rearrangements, glycosidation, aldol condensations, and Prins condensations. Several reviews
on the subject have been published [2,216,217].
Interesting results for the metal-mesoporous materials were
reported with respect to the FischerTropsch reaction [218,219],
hydrodesulfurization [220222], the conversion of methylcyclopentane [199,201], the acylation of phenol [223], the naphthalene hydrogenation [224], the hydrogenation of arenes [225],
cyclohexane hydrogenation [226], NO reduction with CO [227],
the acylation of aromatic compounds [228], the benzoylation of
benzene [229], the metathesis of oct-1-ene [230], and the photocatalytic decomposition of NO [231], the oxidation reactions [232,233]
and soforth.
2.9. Versatile heterogeneous catalytic systems
Combining connement and synergy effects has appeared
recently as a promising way to synthesise efcient and versatile
heterogeneous catalytic systems. For instance, many studies have
been performed in the past half century to immobilize homogeneous catalysts on solid supports to synthesize heterogeneous
catalysts [234], known to result in easy separation of the catalyst
from the reactants and products. Originally, the active centres were
designed to be away from a support surface in order to minimize the
support destructive inuence on the catalytic sites and to maintain
the homogeneous metal complexes environment of ligands with
a long spacer and thus catalytic properties [235]. Later on, it was
observed that a support can even have some benecial effects on
the anchored homogeneous catalysts [236] such as connement
[237] and synergy effects [238240]. Heterogeneous bifunctional
and even trifunctional catalysts could then be prepared and studied because a synergy between multifunctional groups could be
developed within conned spaces. An important further objective
was to try to synthesise heterogeneous catalysts with enantioselectivity enhanced after chiral catalysts are introduced into conned
spaces. For example, Raja and Thomas [241] have shown that,
compared with the racemic products obtained in homogeneous
catalysis, improved enantioselectivity (ee% 5394%) in asymmetric
hydrogenation reactions was obtained after chiral RhI complexes
were introduced into the channels of mesoporous silica. He et al.
[242] have also shown that after a bifuntional catalyst, 9-thiourea
epi-quinine, was incorporated in the channels of mesoporous silica
SBA-15, the heterogeneous catalyst exhibited improved selectivity and enantioselectivity (92.5% selectivity and 99.2% ee versus
83.8% selectivity and 93.2% ee) in asymmetric FriedelCrafts reaction between indoles and imines.
Layered compounds, with two-dimensional exible interlayer
regions, are also promising supports for the immobilization
of homogeneous catalysts. For instance, the immobilization of
copper complexes in laponite clay was found [243] to increase the
13
Fig. 14. Some perspectives of oil demand in a near future from WEO 2006. Note that
billions tonnes should read giga tonnes.
247
+520
206
+41
+38
Total oxidation
9. CH4 + 2O2 CO2 + 2H2 O
+802
Boudouard reaction
10. 2CO C + CO2
+172
Biomass, i.e., all products from plants (crops, algaes, wood, agricultural wastes, etc.), has emerged as an important future source
of energy and raw chemicals to replace, at least in part, coal, oil
and natural gas. The origin of biomass from CO2 and water under
solar photons and chlorophyll to produce sugar blocks at the origin of cellulose, hemicellulose, lignin, and so forth is well known.
Lignin constitutes one of the three major components of lignocellulosic biomass; the other two components consist of cellulose
and hemicellulose. Lignin is a three-dimensional amorphous polymer that consists of methoxylated phenylpropane structures. In
plant cell walls, lignin lls the spaces between cellulose and hemicellulose and acts as a glue that holds the lignocellulose matrix
together. Cross-linking with the carbohydrate polymers then confers strength and rigidity to the system [245,247].
In 2005, more than 3% of the total energy consumption in the
United States was supplied by biomass, and it recently surpassed
hydroelectric energy as the largest domestic source of renewable
energy. Similarly, the European Union receives approximately 66%
of its renewable energy from biomass, which surpassed the total
combined contribution from hydropower, wind power, geothermal energy, and solar power. In addition to energy, the production
of chemicals from biomass is also essential because it is the only
renewable source of liquid transportation fuel.
Over the last 30 years, three generations of biomass products
have emerged [248,249], which are distinguished by their nature.
Whereas oil was the principal source of energy in the twentieth century, the 21st century is expected to bring new sources of energy,
particularly renewable energies such as bioenergies [248].
Three strategies for biomass valorization can be followed [249].
In the rst strategy, biomass is gasied to syngas or degraded by
pyrolysis to a mixture of small molecules, which can be used to
produce chemicals using technologies developed for petroleum
feedstocks. In the second strategy, extensive removal of the functional groups present on the lignin monomers yields simple
aromatic compounds, such as phenol, benzene, toluene and xylene.
These platform chemicals are then reacted in a second step using
existing catalytic technology developed for petroleum reneries
to produce bulk and ne chemicals. In the third strategy, biomass
is converted directly to valuable chemicals in a one-pot process,
which requires highly selective catalysts that eliminate functionalities and linkages. This strategy is best suited for the production of
ne chemicals with a high degree of functionality, such as vanillin,
that already resemble the lignin structure; however, more complicated target molecules may also be produced with additional
improvements in catalytic technology. Indeed, this approach could
yield a plethora of complex aromatics that are not otherwise readily available via conventional petrochemical routes. Because none
of these strategies is expected to yield a single product in high
yield, product separation is an important component of each process. In each case, after the catalytic processing of the lignin stream,
the chemicals or fuels produced must be puried, which obviously
must be taken into account in evaluations of the environmental
impact of the whole process. Components from the cellulose and
hemicelluloses streams are integrated within the lignin framework,
but the process arrows are not fully depicted for clarity [245]
Fig. 15.
The transformation of cellulose, which is the main constituent
of the most abundant renewable lignocellulosic feedstock and is
non-edible, into chemicals and fuels has attracted signicant attention in recent years. Compared with other conversion routes, such
as high-temperature gasication and pyrolysis and enzymatic fermentation, a low-temperature and selective catalytic route for the
transformation of cellulose in, e.g., a water medium, into a platform molecule, which may be facilely transformed into valued
14
Table 3
Main chemical products from natural gas.
Products
Production (Mtons/y)
CO2 (t/t)
Main technology
Ammonia
Ethylene
Propylene
Methanol
Hydrogen
Synfuel
120
100
55
30
20
15
29
15
28
12.6
67
1.6
0 .65
0.28
9.0
1
Syngas/synthesis
Steam cracking of C2 H6
Steam cracking
Syngas/synthesis
Steam reforming
Syngas/synthesis
chemicals and fuels in the subsequent step, is more desirable. Glucose, polyols, organic acids, and 5-hydroxymethylfurfural (5-HMF)
are all promising platform molecules. Some bifunctional catalysts
and catalytic systems that contain both acidity for the hydrolysis
of -1,4-glycosidic bonds in cellulose and metal nanoparticles for
the hydrogenation or oxidation of monosaccharide to polyols or
organic acids have been developed [250256].
Some analogies can be drawn between the twentieth century
petroleum renery and the twenty-rst century biorenery. In the
beginning, the petroleum renery made few products and incorporated little chemical and energy components. The development
of the petroleum renery required considerable effort-spanning
decades-to become the highly efcient, integrated system that
exists today. Many of the breakthroughs that allowed this remarkable transformation involved advances in catalysis. Similarly,
current bioreneries, which are still in their infancy, produce relatively few chemicals (primarily ethanol or bio-oils) with little
chemical and energy integration. Analogous to the history of the
petroleum renery, with the development of catalytic technology,
the biorenery may become an efcient, highly integrated system
to meet the chemical and fuel requirements of the twenty-rst century. To realize this system, in addition to the catalytic conversions
of cellulose and hemicellulose, the lignin fraction of biomass should
be transformed from a low-quality, low-price waste product into a
high-quality, high-value feedstock for bulk and specialty chemicals
by the development of the appropriate catalytic technology. The
direct transformation of lignin into valued chemicals appears to be
more difcult than the transformation of cellulose. However, this
transformation is critical because lignin represents the only viable
renewable source for the production of the aromatic compounds
on which society currently depends.
It can be concluded that biomass is currently the leading renewable energy source in the world. Moreover, the introduction of
biomass into energy systems presents certain advantages, such
as a reduction in greenhouse gas emissions, because its synthesis uses CO2 and water. However, its mobilization still presents
many challenges relative to the competition between uses and
the management of local natural resources (e.g., water, soil, biodiversity, farmer land and forest private properties). Therefore, the
technologies involved should be structured so that this resource
is developed to be truly sustainable. Two technologies exist for
the production of diesel replacement fuels: vegetable-oil methyl
esters (VOME) and hydrotreated vegetable oils (HVO). The latter
oils, blended with kerosene, have begun to be used as aviation
fuel.
Crop yields depend on the nature of the biosource, as detailed
in Table 4. Wood is an important source for lignin. The production
and transformation of wood into biofuel is presented in Table 5.
Algae as oil seed appears to be particularly efcient (yield of
70 t ha1 and fuel efciency of 14 toe ha1 ), whereas sugar cane
and sugar beets have high yields (ca. 70 t ha1 ) but lower fuel efciency (ca. 3 toe ha1 ). For comparison, the majority of the other
biomass resources have yields of 1020 t ha1 and efciencies of
24 toe ha1 . The cultivation of microalgae to produce oil biomass,
cellulose or hydrogen is free of many terrestrial constraints. Such
microalgae are cultured in photobioreactors and need only be in
proximity to water, light, heat and CO2 . Microalgae constitute the
prevailing trend in current research.
In the future, solar, geothermal, wind and presumably nuclear
power plants will presumably be used for electricity; biomass,
natural gas, coal and oil will be used for syngas and chemicals, hydrogen will be used for GTL and hydroprocessing, and
Fig. 15. Lignocellulosic biorenery scheme with particular emphasis on the lignin stream [245].
Corn
With USA
Rape sunower
0.3
120
77
With USA
Soybean
23
With USA
144
193
With Asia
Sugar beet
165
With EU
0.3
4
115
1591
8
15
641
606
Wheat
2
0.2
247
Sugar cane
51
1
221
Palm oil
1
17
With EU
37
0.3
120
15
Table 5
Commercial uses of wood (in Mm3 ) and breakdown of conventional energy uses in 2007.
World
Europe
North America
South America
Asia
Africa
Wood harvest
Sawn wood
Fuel wood %
3,591
729
640
366
1,027
672
1,007
330
386
82
150
25
354
102
149
36
55
6
266
84
56
15
105
3
1,886
153
54
184
787
603
53
21
8
53
77
90
16
starting point for practical applications or the critical conversion efciency of light energy to hydrogen from photocatalytic
water decomposition (15%). Therefore, more efcient visiblelight-driven photocatalysts need to be developed to allow the
construction of the necessary high-efciency and cost-effective
water-splitting systems. To develop more efcient visible-lightdriven photocatalysts, the band gaps need to be narrowed to
harvest visible light in longer-wavelength regions of the spectrum and to enhance the photogenerated charge separation during
photocatalysis. Band-gap engineering for the modication of the
band structure of semiconductor photocatalysts using ion doping, semiconductor sensitization, or solid solutions all present
signicant opportunities to render such materials active in the
visible-light region. Computational predictions based on rstprinciples calculations could provide an efcient way to identify
candidates.
The loading of co-catalysts on the surface of the host photocatalysts has been shown to be rather effective in inhibiting charge
recombination. Alternative, more economical co-catalysts, such as
the non-noble metals and other derived metal-based compounds,
also need to be tested as possible substitutes for the most frequently
used noble metals, such as Pt, which is very efcient but expensive. In addition, new insights are needed into the water-splitting
mechanism, particularly regarding the identication of any thermodynamic and kinetic bottlenecks. Such determinations would
facilitate the design of the most effective photocatalytic watersplitting systems.
Presently, the available efciency for overall water-splitting
systems for the simultaneous production of hydrogen and oxygen under visible-light irradiation is still low because of the
fast charge recombination and backward reactions. To achieve
enhanced and sustainable hydrogen production, the continuous
addition of electron donors is required to make up half of the
water-splitting reaction to reduce H2 O to H2 . These sacricial
electron donors can irreversibly consume photogenerated holes
and thus prohibit undesirable charge recombination. Taking into
account the decreasing cost of solar-to-H2 energy conversion, polluting byproducts from industries and the low-cost renewable
biomass from animals or plants are preferential sacricial electron
donors in water-splitting systems. At little or no cost, they could
be exploited to simultaneously accomplish the task of hydrogen
production and that of waste treatment and biomass reforming.
Nevertheless, such an admirable goal for the practical application of water-splitting systems is especially interesting considering
worldwide energy and environmental concerns, but is still in its
infancy.
The current lack of industrial applications of the semiconductorbased photocatalytic hydrogen generation is largely due to two
reasons: the low photocatalytic efciency and the lack of extensive studies for a successful scale-up of the laboratory setup to an
industrially relevant scale.
In addition to TiO2 , heterogeneous photocatalysts such as ZrO3 ,
NaTaO3 , BaTa2 O6 , SrTa2 O6 , K4 Nb6 O17 , and K3 TaSi2 O13 can decompose water to evolve O2 and H2 without loading any co-catalysts
under UV irradiation [282]. The activities of the majority of these
photocatalysts are augmented by the loading of a co-catalyst, such
as NiOx, as a proton-reduction site. In this regard, high-donordoped layered perovskites loaded with NiO have demonstrated
photocatalytic ability for water splitting under UV irradiation.
These layered structures with a basic composition Am Bm O3m+2 ,
where m 4 or 5, A Ca or Sr, and B Nb or Ti, showed elevated
quantum yields and a stoichiometric evolution of H2 and O2 . However, SrTiO3 , KTaO3 , Ta2 O5 , Rb4 Nb6 O17 , K2 La2 Ti3 O10 , Rb2 La2 Ti3 O10 ,
Cs2 La2 Ti3 O10 , CsLa2 Ti2 NbO10 , Na2 Ti6 O13 , and BaTi4 O9 can also
evolve O2 and H2 with the aid of co-catalysts, such as Pt, Rh, and
RuO2 [282].
17
18
low deactivation by coke fouling, but it may lead to total oxidation and CO2 formation and, thus, to a lower selectivity to alkenes.
A third way is oxidizing/ammoxidizing the alkanes to the corresponding oxygenates or oxynitriles such as aceto or acrylo-nitriles,
aldehydes, ketones or acids. Two processes have been developed
industrially, oxidation of butane to maleic anhydride on a vanadyl
pyrophosphate based VPO catalyst or ammoxidation of propane to
acrylonitrile on MoVTeNb mixed oxide catalysts. Maleic anhydride
is a raw monomer for resin and for THF an industrial solvent produced by Reppe process of maleic ahydride reduction pn Pd catalsyt
as well as a monomer for segmented polyurethanes (Lycra) and
copolyester elastomers (Hytrel). Vanadium-based catalysts [374]
and in particular, vanadium phosphates (VPOs) are very well known
as the only catalysts for industrial process of n-butane oxidation
to maleic anhydride [375378], which is a precursor of polyester
resins [379]. In general, VPO catalysts are inexpensive and attractive in selective oxidation processes since they are environmentally
friendly [380]. The reaction follows Mars van Krevelen mechanism
where the adsorbed organic molecule is oxidized by lattice oxygen
from the catalyst, which is subsequently restored by oxygen reaction feed. Acrylonitrile was produced in ammoxidation reaction of
propylene using FeBiMoO and FeSbO systems as catalysts
but this process would be replaced in a near future by ammoxidation of propane due to the lower cost and abundance of propane.
Acrylonitrile is the main raw material for production of synthetic
bers, plastics, elastomers and polymers as styreneacrylonitrile
and acrylonitrilebutadienestyrene. By polymerization of acrylonitrile with butadiene synthetic rubber is produced. This process
includes multifunctional molybdates and antimonates as catalysts.
However, propane conversion is about ten times lower than that
of propylene in the same conditions since the activation energy
of C H bond is higher. The more performing catalyst developed
recently by Japanese industrialists [381,382] is a mixed MoVNbTe
oxide active for the (amm)oxidation of propane to (acrylonitrile)
acrylic acid [381384]. A process, designated AlkyClean using a
solid acid catalyst (HY-zeolite based) and claimed to be competitive with other two processes, was proposed [355] by Akzo Nobel,
ABB Lummus Global and Fortum with a demonstration unit constructed at Fortum facilities in Porvoo, Finland. The reaction is
carried out in liquid phase at 5090 C with isobutane to olen ratio
(i/o) of 8 to 10 against 410 C and i/o = 810 for H2 SO4 and 3238 C
and i/o = 1215/1 for HF respectively. Regeneration was realized at
250 C under hydrogen. For this research part see special issue of
Appl Catal A, Ed. G.S. Patience, J.M. Lpez-Nieto [385].
19
20
9. Photocatalysis
In the 1930s, the term photocatalysis was introduced as new
branch of catalysis. Photocatalysis is dened as a change in the rate
of a chemical reaction under the action of light in the presence
of photocatalysts that absorb light quanta and are involved in the
chemical transformations of the reaction participants [418,419].
The photocatalyst is dened as a solid that functions by photoinduced electron transfer at moleculesemiconductor interfaces
[282,420423].
Among photocatalytic applications, photocatalytic oxidation
and the reduction of organic compounds in water have become
important and have received considerable attention during the last
few years [282,424427]. These applications involve the oxidation
or reduction of an organic compound to an intermediate that contains oxygen or to carbon dioxide, water, and a mineral acid if a
heteroatom such as nitrogen or chlorine is present. The mechanism of the photocatalytic decomposition of organic compounds is
supposed to follow these steps: under UV-light illumination, the
absorption of photons creates an electronhole pair if the photon
energy is greater than that of the band gap; thereafter, the pairs
migrate to the surface and are trapped by OH surface groups and
other surface sites, thereby forming hydroxyl (OH ), hydrosuperoxide (H2 O) and superoxide (O2 ) radicals; these free radicals
nally cause the oxidation of the organic compounds [425428].
This process can be used in various areas such as the elimination of odor from drinking water, the degradation of oil spills in
surface-water systems, and the degradation of harmful organic
contaminants, such as herbicides, pesticides, and refractive dyes.
One of the most widely studied metal oxides is semiconducting
TiO2 [423]. Three common TiO2 polymorphs exist in nature, which,
in the order of abundance, are rutile, anatase, and brookite. An
additional synthetic phase, called TiO2 (B), and some high-pressure
polymorphs are also known [428]. The rutile and anatase polymorphs are primarily used in photocatalysis. Both the rutile and
anatase crystal structures comprise distorted octahedra. In rutile,
a slight distortion from orthorhombic geometry occurs, where the
unit cell is stretched beyond a cubic shape. In anatase, the distortion
of the cubic lattice is more signicant, and thus, the resulting symmetry is less orthorhombic [429]. Titania, in anatase form, exhibits
a strong photocatalytic effect, which generates electronhole pairs.
As a result, the material can harvest photons in the near-UV region
(<410 nm) to provide its surface strong oxidizing power to decompose organic molecules. Photocatalysis is a rapidly growing eld of
study that has attracted intense attention of chemical and materials
researchers in recent years.
Even though TiO2 exhibits excellent photocatalytic activities
in the decomposition of VOCs and other organic compounds, the
study new photocatalysts with different structures that exhibit
higher activity is desirable. In this regard, the novel photocatalysts made of highly donor-doped (110) layered perovskites, have
recently been developed and were found to be much more efcient than bulk-type TiO2 . This higher activity results from the
highly donor-doped electronic structure, which leads to a narrower depletion region and a more facile separation of the charge
carriers.
Selective photocatalysis can be achieved using proper molecular sieves, such as the titanosilicate ETS-10, which provides
an alternative approach. The photocatalytic activity of ETS-10 is
due to the presence of photoexcitable TiOTi chains and the
three-dimensional interconnected pore system of large 12membered ring channels in its structure, which endow the material
with excellent diffusion properties [430]. This regular channel system has a direct effect in determining the shape selectivity of the
degradation process [431]. Another approach is the introduction
of some transition metals, such as Cr, V, Fe, Cu, Mn, Co, Ni, Mo,
or La, into the synthesis mixture of the MCM-41 and MMS [432].
The authors then demonstrated that the presence of the transitionmetal salts in the gel during the hydrothermal synthesis process
hinders the action of the template, which results in MCM-41 pores
that are not well formed. These materials were then loaded with
TiO2 via the solgel method, and the activity of the TiO2 /TM-MCM41 catalysts toward the degradation of 4-chlorophenol was tested
in the presence of UV and/or visible light. The results showed that,
although some metals were deleterious, others improved the performance of the photocatalysts and even enabled them to utilize
visible light. A wide range of other semiconductors and materials
have been tested for photocatalytic activity. In general, they have
been found to be less active than titanium dioxide; signicant work
has been conducted with V2 O5 , Fe2 O3 , ZnO, ZnS, CdS, Pt/CdS, ZnTe,
ZrTiO4 , MoS2 , SnO2 , Sb2 O4 , Sn/SbO2 , CeO2 , WO3 , and Nb2 O5 .
21
22
Table 6
Major problems and challenges in automotive car industry.
Challenge
Drivers
Problem
13. Conclusions
As we have described in this review, our dependence on fossil fuels (coal, petroleum, and natural gas) is largely due to their
chemical energy being the most convenient and useful form of
transportable energy. However, the extensive use of fossil fuels
has dramatically inuenced the environment and peoples health,
while world reserves are diminishing inexorably, although new
elds are still being discovered and although methane hydrates
may provide a substitute for some time. This situation cannot last
for long, and substantial advances are urgently needed.
We have also shown that the solution to the challenge of clean
energy can arise from simple components: sunlight and water
[455]. Sunlight and water are innite resources and can provide the
required diversity of energy supplies. To store energy from sunlight,
water can be split to generate hydrogen, a clean and portable energy
carrier that can then be used to supply electricity when needed.
High-performance, light-weight batteries can be used to power
electric vehicles. However, such technological advances require
systems that are capable of producing electricity, breaking H2 O
bonds with the separation of H2 and O2 , and storing the energy
either in batteries or as molecular hydrogen. Currently, such systems pose formidable challenges in terms of the required materials,
efciency, cost, and design of practical devices.
The locus of activity in catalysis continues to move. In the
eighteenth and nineteenth centuries, major discoveries and developments were performed in Europe. In the twentieth century, both
Europe and the USA were the major contributors, although Japan
and Korea also provided important efforts and discoveries in the
second half of the century. For the twenty-rst century, China,
Korea, Japan and other Asian countries are expected to lead in the
eld of catalysis.
At the end of the last century, major large chemical industrial
companies have more or less abandoned large catalysis research
centres within their laboratories. They now rely on catalysts producers, institutes and/or academic researchers to discover new
catalysts or develop new technologies.
The development of surface, bulk and in situ characterisation
techniques [451], molecular modelling, and advanced synthesis
methods have transformed the preparation of solid catalysts and
the characterisation of their physical and chemical (catalytic) properties from an art into a science. Such a trend should and will
continue in the future with the new generations of scientists, engineers and researchers.
Acknowledgement
Support from CNRS France is gratefully acknowledged by I.
Fechete.
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