BIOLOGY FORM 4 NOTES CHAPTER 7: RESPIRATION

7.1 THE RESPIRATORY PROCESS

1.

Living organisms require energy to carry out all living processes such as:
(a) Movement
(b) Growth
(c) Reproduction
(d) Response
(e) Breathing
(f) Digestion
(g) Excretion

2.

Energy is required for the various processes in the cell such as:
(a) Cell division
(b) Formation of gamete for reproduction
(c) Transmission of nerve impulses
(d) Contraction of muscles
(e) Synthesis of protein, hormones, lipid and enzymes

3. Respiration is the oxidation of food substances in mitochondria of

cells to release energy.
4. Glucose is the main substrate for energy production. Glucose is obtained
from:
(a) The digestion of carbohydrate in humans and animals
(b) The process of photosynthesis in plants

7.1.1
1.

Types of respiration

There are two type of respiration:

(a) Aerobic respiration

Aerobic respiration is the breaking
down of glucose in the presence of oxygen to release
chemical energy
Takes place in all living cells of plants, animals and in certain
microorganisms
Occurs in the mitochondria and cytoplasm
Occurs slowly and in stages controlled by enzymes
The glucose is completely oxidized to release all the chemical
energy
Some of the energy released is changed into body heat while the rest
is stored in the
form of adenosine triphosphate (ATP)

When body cells need energy, ATP molecules will be hydrolysed to

yield energy, a
molecule of ADP and an inorganic phosphate
ATP ---------> ADP + P + energy
During aerobic respiration, 38 molecule of ATP or 2898 kJ of
energy is released.
Aerobic respiration can be represented by the following equation:
Glucose

+ Oxygen

C6H12O6 + 6O2

---------> Carbon dioxide + Water +

Energy

---------> 6CO2 + 6H20 + 38ATP (2898 kJ)

(b) Anaerobic respiration

Anaerobic respiration is the breakdown of glucose to produce energy in
the absence of
oxygen
Glucose is not completely broken down, only small amount of
energy is released
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 Occurs only in the cytoplasm

Occurs both in animal cells and plant cells

(i) Anaerobic respiration in human muscles

Occurs in human muscles during vigorous exercise or activities
During vigorous exercise,
The breathing rate and heart beat are increased to supply oxygen to
the muscle for rapid muscular contraction
However, the supply of oxygen to the muscles is still insufficient to
provide the sudden
energy demand
Hence, anaerobic respiration takes place to produce the required
energy for muscular
contraction in the absence of oxygen
Glucose

----------> Lactic acid + energy (150kJ)

C6H12O6 ----------> 2C3H6O3+ 2ATP (150 kJ or two molecules of ATP)

Lactic acid accumulates in the muscles causing muscular ache,
fatigue and cramps
An oxygen debt occurs because the maximum rate of oxygen used is
more than the oxygen supplied
Oxygen is required to pay off the oxygen debt by rapid breathing after
the vigorous exercise
Oxygen oxidizes the lactic acid to carbon dioxide, water and energy
(i) Anaerobic respiration in yeast
Anaerobic respiration in yeast is called fermentation
During fermentation, yeast secretes the enzyme zymase which
hydrolyses glucose in the absence of oxygen to form ethanol,
carbon dioxide and energy
Glucose ---------> ethanol + carbon dioxide + energy (150kJ)
C6H12O6 ---------> 2C2H5OH+ 2CO2 + energy (150 kJ or two molecules
of ATP)
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 In the fermentation, only small amount of energy is released. A large

amount of energy is still stored in the ethanol as chemical energy. This is
because glucose is not completely broken down in anaerobic respiration

1. Comparison between aerobic respiration and anaerobic

respiration
SIMILARITIES

DIFFERENCES
Aerobic respiration
Anaerobic respiration

7.1 RESPIRATORY TRUCTURES AND BREATHING MECHANISMS IN

HUMANS AND ANIMALS
1. Breathing:
Is the exchange of gases between the organism and the environment
Involves the process of taking oxygen and removing carbon dioxide
2. The common characteristics of respiratory surface for gaseous
exchange:
(a) Large total surface area
To enhance the efficiency of gaseous exchange
Respiratory surfaces are normally branched, folded or numerous in
quantity to increase the total surface area
Respiratory surface has large total surface area to volume (TSA / V)
ratio to increase the rate of diffusion for gaseous exchange
(b) Moist respiratory surfaces
The respiratory surfaces has a layer of moisture to facilitate the
diffusion of oxygen and carbon dioxide
(c) Thin wall of respiratory surface
The wall of respiratory surface is only one cell thick to facilitate the
diffusion of gases across the surface
(d) Has a network of blood capillaries
A network of blood capillaries beneath the respiratory surface (except
for protozoa and insects)
7.1.1
Protozoa
No special respiratory structure
Gases exchange by simple diffusion occurs rapidly across the thin
plasma membrane
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 gases diffuse in or out over its entire Plasma membrane due to a

large SA : V ratio.

7.1.2

Fish

i. Respiratory structure: Gills. Gaseous exchange occurs at the gill

filaments.
ii. The adaptation of gill filaments for gaseous exchange:
(a) Many lamella at the gill filaments
To increase the TSA / V ratio for the absorption of dissolved
oxygen in the water
(b) Thin epithelial walls of the gill filaments

To allow the oxygen to diffuse easily into the blood capillaries

of the gill filaments
(c) A network of capillaries in the gill filaments

To increase the rate of gaseous exchange by diffusion

iii. The breathing mechanism

 Dissolves oxygen diffuses through the gill epithelium into the blood
capillaries at the gill filaments.
Carbon dioxide diffuses from the blood capillaries into the surrounding
water.
The direction of water flow over the gill lamella is opposite to the flow of
blood in order to maximise the rate of diffusion from the water into the
blood capillaries
7.1.1

Insects

1. The respiratory system of insects is called the tracheal system. The

Tracheal system of an
insect consists of the trachea, tracheole, and Spiracle
2. For insects, gases are not transported by blood.

3.

Spiracles:
Air enters the body through spiracles
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 Spiracles are located on the both sides of thorax and abdomen.

4.

Tracheae and tracheoles:

The spiracles lead into a system of large tubes called tracheae, which
are kept open by chitin.
The tracheae branch into a network of smaller tracheoles.
The tracheoles end on the plasma membrane of every body cell in the
body cells of insects.

5.

Gases exchange at the respiratory surface:

Oxygen enters through the spiracles to tracheae and tracheoles,
then diffuses into muscle cells.
Carbon dioxide diffuses from the cells into tracheoles and tracheae,
and eliminated through spiracles.
The tracheoles have moist, thin permeable walls and are in intimate
contact with the body cells. Oxygen dissolves in the moist found in the
tracheoles and passes directly to the body of cells through diffusion.

7.1.2
1.

Amphibians

An amphibian exchanges gases in three different ways:

(a) Cutaneous respiration
(b) Buccal respiration
(c) Pulmonary respiration

A. Cutaneous respiration
The amphibians skin is thin, moist and is well supplied with blood
capillaries.
Atmospheric oxygen dissolves into the moist surface of the skin to the
blood capillaries.
B. Buccal respiration
The buccal carvity and the pharynx are covered with a thin epithelium,
which has an underlying network of blood capillaries.
Ventilation of the buccal cavity:
The mouth closes, the buccal floor lower to reduce air pressure.
Low buccal cavity pressure sucks in the atmospheric air through the
nostrils.
Oxygen from the buccal air dissolves in the epithelial moisture, and
diffuses across the thin epithelium into the underlying blood capillaries.
Carbon dioxide from the blood capillaries diffuses into the buccal air.
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 The buccal floor rises, with the glottis closed, increases air pressure in the
buccal cavity forces the used air out through the nostrils.

C. Pulmonary respiration
Pulmonary respiration is carried out only when the need of oxygen is
great, like when a food is jumping or swimming.
The frog has a pair lungs connected to a short bronchus. Each lung is
moist and has several hundreds of tiny alveoli. Each alveolus has a
network of blood capillaries.
Ventilation of the lungs
The nostrils close, the glottis opens, the floor of the mouth rises to force
air into the lungs.
In the lungs, oxygen dissolves in the moisture on the epithelium and
diffuses through the thin epithelium into the blood capillaries.
Carbon dioxide diffuses out from the blood capillaries into the lungs.
The glottis open, air flow out of the lungs. The nostrils open, the used air
is eliminated through the nostrils

7.1.3

Human

1. The human respiratory

system
consists of:
(a) Nose and nasal
cavity
(b) Pharynx
(c) Larynx
(d) Trachea
(e) Bronchi and
bronchioles
(f) Lungs

2.

Breathing mechanism
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Inhalation
1. The external intercostal
muscles ___________, internal
intercostal muscles __________,
raising the ribs __________ and
__________.
2. At the same time, the
diaphragm muscles _________
and ___________.
3. These ____________ the
volume of thoracic cavity,
causing the pressure to
___________.
4. Since atmospheric
pressure is ___________, air is
_____________ the lungs.

1.

Expiration
1. The external intercostal
muscles ___________, internal
intercostal muscles
__________, lowering the ribs
__________ and __________.
2. At the same time, the
diaphragm muscles
_________ and ___________.
3. These ____________ the
volume of thoracic cavity,
causing the pressure to
___________.
4. Since atmospheric
pressure is ____________, air
is _____________ the lungs.

Comparison between inspiration and expiration

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Type of external
environment

Source of oxygen

PROTOZOA

INSECT

FISH

Aquatic

Dry land

Aquatic

Oxygen
dissolved in
water

Atmospheric Oxygen

AMFIBIAN

Aquatic and l

Oxygen
dissolved i
water and
atmospheri
Oxygen

Oxygen
dissolved in
water

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Main respiratory
structure

Air sac

High SA : V ratio
achieved by

Respiratory surface
(for gaseous
exchange)

Respiratory
mechanism

No special
structure

trachea

gills

Skin, bucca
cavity, lung

None

In certain types of
insects

None

Alveolus

Being
unicellular

Extensive network of
tracheoles supplying
oxygen to every
body cell

Gill filament dan

gill lamellae

Numerous alv
in lungs, sk
surface area
buccal cavi

Entire thin and

moist plasma
membrane

Thin tracheoles with

fluid at the ends

Gill lamellae

Thin and mo
skin and alveo

none

In larger or more
active insects,
abdominal muscles
compress and relax
to ventilate the
tracheal system

Movement of
buccul floor and
operculum

Inspiration a
expiration

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7.1 GASEOUS EXCHANGE ACROSS THE RESPIRATORY SURFACE AND

TRANSPORT OF GASES IN HUMANS
7.1.1
Exchange of oxygen and carbon dioxide between the blood and the
alveolus.
1. In human lungs, there are about 700 million alveoli, giving a total
respiratory surface area of 70 80m3.
2. The characteristics of respiratory surface in the alveoli.
(a) A large surface area for gaseous exchange
(b) A thin one-cell thick epithelial surface which is moist and permeable to
gas.
(c) An underlying capillary network, which is also one-cell thick, that carries
oxygen away and bring carbon dioxide to be eliminated.
3. The exchange of gases at the respiratory surface is by diffusion from a
place of high partial pressure to a place of low partial pressure down its
partial pressure gradient.
In the alveoli:
GAS

PASRIAL PRESSURE IN
Alveolar Air
Blood
Capillaries

EFFECTS

OXYGEN

CARBON
DIOXIDE

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In the body cells:

GAS

PASRIAL PRESSURE IN
Alveolar Air
Blood
Capillaries

EFFECTS

OXYGEN

CARBON
DIOXIDE

7.1.1
The transport of respiratory gases and the process of
gaseous exchange
7.1.1.1 Transport of Oxygen from the lungs to the body cells and gaseous
exchange
1. Oxygen is transported from the lungs to the body cells in two ways:
(a) 99% of oxygen is transported as oxyhaemoglobin in the red blood cells
(b) 1% of oxygen is transported as dissolved gas molecules in the plasma.
2. Oxygen diffuses into the blood capillaries will combine with haemoglobin
to form oxyhaemoglobin.
3. Red blood cells transport oxygen as oxyhaemoglobin to respiring body
cells where partial pressure of oxygen is low.
4. At low partial pressure of oxygen, the oxyhaemoglobin dissociates itself
to release oxygen molecules.

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7.1.1.2 Transport of Carbon dioxide from the body cells to the lungs and
gaseous exchange
1.

Respiring body cells produce carbon dioxide.

2. Carbon dioxide diffuses into the blood capillaries and is carried to the
lungs in three ways:
(a) 85% of carbon dioxide is carried as bicarbonate ions (HCO3-), dissolved in
blood plasma.

(b) 10% of carbon dioxide is combined with amino groups of haemoglobin in

red blood cells to form carbaminohaemoglobin.

(c) 5% of carbon dioxide is transported as dissolved gas molecules in the

plasma.

3.

When blood carrying carbon dioxide reaches the lungs:

(a) Hydrogen carbonate ions (HCO3-) convert back to carbon dioxide

molecule which diffuses into alveolar air.

(b) Carbaminohaemoglobin breaks down to release carbon dioxide molecule

which diffuses into alveolar air.
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(c) Dissolved carbon dioxide molecule in the plasma diffuses from the blood
capillaries into alveolar air.
7.1 THE REGULATORY MECHANISM IN RESPIRATION
7.4.1 During a vigorous exercise,
- muscle cells need more oxygen and glucose to release energy during
cellular respiration.

Hence
The rate of respiration increase
The O2 content decrease
The CO2 content increase

- As a result :
The breathing rate increase
- to supply more O2 to the muscles and discharge more CO2 from the lungs.

The heartbeat rate increase

to pump more blood into the blood circulation.
more CO2 and glucose can be supplied for cellular respiration.
more CO2 can be removed form the cells.

The ventilation rate increases

- the rate of gaseous exchange between alveoli and blood capillaries
becomes faster.

7.4.2 THE REGULAR MECHANISM OF O2 AND CO2 CONTENTS IN THE BODY

Respiratory centre
= a group of cells situated in the medulla ablongata to regulate the rhythm
of breathing by controlling the intensity and frequency of contracrion of the
intercostal muscles and diaphragm.
Chemoreceptors
= are sensory receptors in the body that responds to chemical stimuli.
- 2 sets of chemoreceptors
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(a) Central chemoreceptors

- located in the medulla oblongata
- detect the increase of CO2 in blood indirectly through the formation of
hydrogen ion (H+).
(b) Peripheral Chemoreceptors
- consist of the carotid bodies on the carotid arteries ,and the aortic bodies
on the aorta
- sensitive to pH levels and the very low level of O2 in the blood.
Regulation of Respiration by the central Chemoreceptor

7.4.2.2 Regulation of respiration by the peripheral chemoreceptor

.
Peripheral chemoreceptors are only activated when oxygen levels
drop real low, this can happen at high altitudes where atmosphere oxygen is
very thin.

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The O2 content in the blood usually has little effect on the respiratory
centre.
Usually, a rise in CO2 concentration is a better indication of a drop in
O2concentration, because both the CO2 and O2 concentrations are
affected by cellular respiration.

2.4.3 Human Respiration In Different Situations.

A) RELAXING
-The rate of breathing : 14 - 20 times/minute
-The rate of heartbeat : 60 70 beats/minute
- Normal, at optimal levels sufficient to maintain all normal body functions.
B) VIGOROUS EXERCISE
The rate of breathing : 30 times/minute
The rate of heartbeat : 120 beats/minute
Help to deliver more O2 and glucose to the respiring cells and remove
CO2from the cells at a faster rate.
C) FEAR
-The adrenal glands secrete the adrenaline hormone into the bloodstream.
-The effects of the adrenaline hormone:
The rate of breathing increases
-to increase the supply of O2
The rate of heartbeat increases
-to transport more O2 to the muscle cells
The rate of cellular respiration increases
-to produce sufficient energy for the body to react.
D) AT HIGH ALTITUDE
- The atmosphere pressure is low, this may lead to difficultly in breathing.
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- Above 10,00 feet , the decreased partial pressure of O2 cause a drop in the
O2level of the blood.
- A person will experience headaches, nausea and dizziness.

7.5 THE EFFECTS OF SMOKING

TAR
causes lung cancer .
deposit in the bronchioles.

Nicotine
is a stimulant which makes the heart beat faster and constrict the
blood vessels
causes heart disease and strokes
causes and addiction to smoking
restrict the movement of cilia, making it harder for the lungs to get rid
of tar.

Carbon monoxide
competes with O2 to bind with haemoglobin to form
carboxyhaemoglobin.
reduces the supply of O2 to the cells and thus reduces aerobic
respiration.

3 , 4 benzo-pyrene
a carcinogenic chemical that can cause cancer.

Nitrogen dioxide
can dissolve in the mucus to form acific medium which erodes the lungs
tissue.
7.6 RESPIRATION IN PLANTS
7.6.1
Energy requirement in plants
Plants carry out cell respiration to produce energy.
7.6.2

The intake of Oxygen by Plants for Respiration

1. Gaseous exchange between plant cells and the environment occurs by

diffusion , mainly through
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(a) Stomata
- Each stoma consists of a pore surrounded by two guard cells.
- The guard cells contain a large number of chloroplast in which
photosynthesis takes place.
- Stomata allow the exchange of gases between atmospheric air and the
internal tissues of a leaf.
- The stomata open when there is light and the close in the dark.

(b) Lenticels
- Lenticels are raised pores found on the stems and the roots.
- The cells around the lenticels are arranged loosely to allow the diffusion of
gases into and out of the plant tissues.
(a) Roots
- Oxygen diffuses from the air spaces between the soil particles into the
root tissues by diffusion.

2. Intake of oxygen during the day

During day time, where there is sunlight, photosynthesis takes place.
Stomata open. Carbon dioxide diffuses into the leaves and is used in
photosynthesis. Oxygen is produced.
As the rate of photosynthesis exceeds the rate of respiration, more
oxygen is produced that can be used up by the respiring cells.
Some oxygen diffuses from the chloroplasts to the mitocondria for
cellular respiration the rest diffuses into the substomatal air spaces, and
intercellular air spaces.
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3. Intake of oxygen during the night

At night, photosynthesis does not occurs. Stomata are closed.
Oxygen cannot enter the leaf.
Respiration is carried out by using
(i) oxygen from the air trapped in the substomatal air spaces, and
intercellular air spaces.
(ii) Oxygen taken through the lenticels and root hairs of plants.

7.6.3

Aerobic And Anaerobic Respiration In Plants

Aerobic respiration
is usually carried out by plants throughout the day and night.

C6 H12 O6 +
Glucose

6O2

Oxygen

6CO2

6H2O

energy.

Anaerobic respiration
is carried out under certain conditions for short periods
example :- in a flood
- during the initial stages of seed germination.
C6 H12 O6
glucose

2C2H5OH +
ethanol

2CO2
carbon dioxide

7.6.1
Compare and contrast the processes of Photosynthesis and
Respiration
SIMILARITIES

21

DIFFERENCES
Photosynthesis

Respiration

7.6.1
The relationship between the percentage composition of carbon
dioxide in the air with photosynthesis and cell respiration
1.
-

Cell respiration
takes place all the time
using oxygen and producing carbon dioxide into the air

2.
-

Photosynthesis
takes place only in day light
using carbon dioxide and producing oxygen into the air
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3. Percentage composition of carbon dioxide in the air among plants

throughout the day

(a) From morning to noon

- The rate of photosynthesis increases.
- Concentration of carbon dioxide in the air drops because more carbon
dioxide is used for photosynthesis
(b) At noon
- The rate of photosynthesis is the highest.
- Percentage composition of carbon dioxide reaches the lowest level.
(c) From noon until sunset
- The rate of photosynthesis decreases gradually.
- Concentration of carbon dioxide in the air increases because less carbon
dioxide is used for photosynthesis
(d) At midnight
- No photosynthesis is carried out.
- Percentage composition of carbon dioxide reaches the peak, of which a
large portion of carbon dioxide is contributed by cell respiration.

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4. Compensation point
Compensation point is the point of light intensity where there is no
net exchange of carbon dioxide and oxygen.
This means it is a point where all the released oxygen (by
photosynthesis) is used up in the cell respiration and all the released carbon
dioxide (by cell respiration) is used up in the photosynthesis.

If the rate of photosynthesis and the rate of respiration is remained at

the compensation point:
(a) There will be no growth and development in green plants
Gradually, as the oxygen in the air is used up but not replenished by
photosynthesis, all oxygen breathing living organisms would die of
suffocation.

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