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Transfer Phenomena
Process
Pressure Difference
Heat Transfer.
Temperature Difference.
Rate of flow
Rate of flow
Equation
Rate of Flow
Area x speed.
Av
Rate of flow in
Example 1.
A water pipe has a diameter of 2cm and is connected at a branch to 3 pipes each with a
diameter of 6mm. If the water flowing through the large pipe moves at 5m/s, how fast will the
water be coming out of each of the smaller pipes ?
Liquids
Note that the streamlines are closest together on the top part of the wing section. Where
streamlines are close together this indicates low pressure, see work on the Bernoulli Effect.
Turbulent Flow ..
Factor
Pressure Difference
across the pipe
Pipe Diameter
Pipe length
Viscosity
Nature of flow
"streamline/turbulent"
Newtonian Fluids
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At this level we tend to consider a rather special kind of fluid known as a Newtonian fluid this is
a fluid that is (a) Non viscous (invsicid) (b) Incompressible, (c) Flow is streamline + irrotational.
The Bernoulli Effect
The effect links the speed of a fluid and its pressure. The faster a fluid is moving the lower
its pressure.
How can this be demonstrated ?
Consider a fluid flowing through a pipe with a constriction in it. When it is forced into the narrow
space A, the fluid must accelerate if the rate of flow throughout the pipe is to remain the same.
For there to be an acceleration there must be a net force producing it; this must come from the
difference in the pressure between the liquid in A and the liquid in B. Given that the fluid is
flowing from A to B there must be more pressure where the fluid is flowing slowest.
Applications of The Bernoulli Effect.
(a)
(b)
The Aerofoil (i.e. how a plane / jet foil) flies (possibly but not quite the whole story !).
An aerofoil is a shape which is more strongly curved over the top than the bottom.
The fluid flowing past the top section must flow more quickly than the fluid across the
bottom surface.
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Using the bernoulli effect, the fluid at the bottom must be at a greater pressure than
the fluid at the top, hence the force pushing up on the aerofoil must be greater than the
air pushing down hence it lifts !
The Carburettor
m
t
where
m/t
A
p
c
l
c ( A 2 / L ) p
Questions:
(1)
r4 p
8L
(2)
(b)
(c)
(d)
The pressure halved and length and the radius were both doubled.
the lattice to take part in conduction. The atom that is left is said to be ionised and is now
referred to as a positive lattice ion.
Neutral atoms
In the absence of a battery these free electrons would move randomly ( see work on
brownian motion). When a battery is connected across the material electrons are
accelerated towards the +ve terminal. However this flow is continually stopped as the
electrons collide with the positive lattice ions, and are then re-accelerated.
Q:
with the lattice ions. Since this effect is larger than the increase in the KE of the
electrons the flow of the electrons is reduced (current) hence the resistance increases.
After.
4.3.1
Derivation of I = nAve
Why if the value is small do we get flow of electricity as soon as a switch is turned on ?
Initially the electron is accelerated by field produced by cells / supply. The electron collides
with a lattice ion and stops. It then accelerates again till it hits another ion what we find here is
the average speed that it would travel with. The electrons are a little like a line of cars, if the car
in front moves the others move up to fill the gap, so at any point around the circuit an electron
is moving through it.
Questions
Metals
Insulators
In insulators the electrons are tightly bound to the atoms and thus there are little or no free
electrons to take part in conduction.
Fluids.
Semi Conductors.
Semiconductors is the name given to a group of materials between Metals and Insulators. They
only allow the conduction of electricity under certain conditions and are hence useful in
electronics where devices are required with resistances which vary under different light /
temperature conditions etc. Silicon and Germanium are two examples of semiconductors.
Comparison of Typical Resisitivities in ohm metres.
Insulators
Semiconductors
Metals
104
10-1
10-8
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At 0K Silicon has 4 outer electrons which are used in bonding between neighbouring atoms. At
this temperature no electrons are available to take part in conduction. As the temperature is
raised sufficient energy may be given to remove an electron from its bond. This electron may
then take part in conduction.
As the electron becomes detached it leaves behind a +ve charge vacancy or a positive hole.
Therefore in SC there are two types of charge carrier electrons and positive holes. The
electrons move one way and the positive holes the other.
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Equation
dQ
dt
ie
-kA
d
dx
If the rate if heat flow is constant then the equation may be written as
Q
t
kA
l
The material
the temperature difference between the ends of the material
the cross sectional area of the material
the thickness of the material
how the equation for heat flow may be used to predict the shape of these graphs
A well lagged bar
(1)
(2)
(3)
(4)
d
dx
(1)
(2)
(3)
(4)
d
dx
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