Birla Sunlife

May 07, 2012
M/s Birla Sun life Insurance Co. Ltd.

J.K. Millennium Centre
46D, J.L. Nehru Road, 2A Floor
Kolkata 700071
Sub: Replace Gaskets, servicing Handles & fixing Silicon to all the Glass Windows
Dear Sir,
With reference to the above, we wish to inform you that according to our Engineers
the water seepage during rain due to the Gaskets & Silicon sealing have become decrepit
of all the glass windows. It is necessary to change all the Gaskets, servicing Handles and
properly seal with Silicon compound to all the above said Windows.
Therefore, under the circumstances you are requested to get those above said widows
repaired before Monsoon.
Further, you will understand that we are only a non profit making maintenance
organization and have limited power and scope of work. Thus, we can only deal with
those works, which is related to common areas. Any kind of work in your office premises
would be the responsibility of yours.
Please note that, the Window repairman will be appointed by our company for above
mentioned job, for that the expenditure will be paid by the Occupiers of J.K Millennium
Centre. Your kind cooperation in this regard will be expected.
Thanking you
Yours truly,
August 13, 2012

J.K. Millennium Centre, 2A Floor
46D, J.L. Nehru Road
Kolkata 700071
Sub: Payment of Maintenance & Electricity Chrges after 7 days & 3 days
respectively of receiving the Bills.
Dear Sir,
With reference to the above we wish to remind you, in spite of several requests the
Maintenance & Electricity bills are not being paid in schedule dates.
You will understand that we are only a non profit making maintenance organization.
Therefore, you are requested to make the above said payments in time to provide
you smooth services.
Thanking you
Yours truly,
For Excel Services Pvt. Ltd.
Biswajoy Majumdar
(Deputy Manager)
c.c. M/s Bengal & Assam Co. Ltd.
April 24, 2013

The Branch Manager
J.K. Millennium Centre, Floor-2A
Kolkata 700071
Kind Attn: Mr. Saket Agarwal
Sub: Payment of Maintenance & Electricity Charges on Schedule Dates
Dear Sir,
With reference to the above we wish to inform you, in spite of several requests the
Maintenance & Electricity bills are not being paid in schedule dates. As per the Standing
instruction of our Company, the Maintenance charge is supposed to be paid within
7days of receiving the bill and Electricity charge within 3 days of receiving the bill.
You will understand that we are only a non profit making maintenance organization and
we do not have any other source of income.
Therefore, you are requested to regularize the above said payments within schedules
dates, so that we can able to render you smooth services.
Your co-operation in this regard is highly solicited.
Thanking you
Yours truly,
Biswajoy Majumdar
Deputy Manager
c.c. M/s Bengal & Assam Co. Ltd.
July 10, 2013

The Branch Manager
Kolkata 700071
Sub: Prior intimation should be conveyed for working late night/whole night inside
the office premises due to security reason.
Dear Sir,
With reference to the above we wish to inform you that the Building of J.K.Millennium Centre is
a high security zone, in this regard it is very much essential to maintain proper security system
into the Building premises.
It has been observed that on 08 July, 2013 through out the night your office was kept open
without any prior intimation to us. It hampers our security system.
Please note that, for the sake of security reason of the Building, you are requested to send us the
prior intimation to avoid any unnecessary harassment.
Thanking you
Yours truly,
October 28, 2013

The Branch Manager
Kolkata 700071
Kind Attn: Mr. Zoha
Sub: Less payment of Electricity bill for the month of September, 2013
Dear Sir,
With reference to the above we wish to inform you that, the Electricity bill no. ESPL/E/226 dated
07.10.13 for an amount of Rs.57, 838 has been sent to you.
As per your payment voucher CITI NEFT /CITIN 13369722029 dated 09.10.13 the credited
amount into our Bank A/c is Rs.57, 238/-, which is short payment of Rs.600/-.
Therefore under the circumstances, you are requested to issue a cheque of Rs. 600/- immediately
in favour of Excel Services Pvt. Ltd. to settle the above discrepancy at the earliest.
Thanking you
Yours sincerely
Accountant
June 27, 2014

Kolkata 700071
Sub: Enhancement of Maintenance charges w.e.f. May, 2014

Dear Sir,
As agreed in the General Body Meeting of owners/occupiers held on 26th June, 2014 at the
conference room of M/s Bhushan Power & Steel Ltd. towards the enhancement of Maintenance
charges by @Rs.2.50 per sft.
In this regard the Maintenance bills for the month of May, 2014(difference of amount) & June,
2014 have been sent. It is our earnest request, kindly arrange the payment at the earliest, as the
salary has to be paid to the staffs by 1st or 2nd of July, 2014.
Please note that after the necessary amendments if any in the revised budget for the year 2014-15,
will be intimated in due course.
Thanking you
Yours truly,
July 23, 2014

Kolkata 700071
Sub: Revised Maintenance charges w.e.f. May, 2014
Dear Sir,
Please be informed that the Maintenance charges have been enhanced @ Rs.2.00 per sft, w.e.f.
May, 2014. In this regard we are enclosing herewith the Maintenance bills from May, 2014 to
July, 2014 as under:
Amount to be paid
1) Bill no. ESPL/M/430 dated 08.07.2014
Rs. 37,333.00
2) Less excess amount paid as per

Bill no. ESPL/M/442 & ESPL/M/443
both dated 08.07.2014 @Rs.2,004/- each
Actual amount to be paid
Rs. 4,008.00
Rs. 33,325.00
(Rupees Thirty three thousand three hundred &twenty five only)

Kindly arrange payment for the above bills at the earliest.
Thanking you
Yours sincerely,
Encl: Three bills.
January 01, 2015

Kolkata 700071
Sub: Unattended Car no OR-14P-0708
This is to inform you that no one is supposed to leave their car inside the building premises
after office hour without any prior written intimation. Your car has been parked inside the
building premises since last night, it is totally unruly gesture.
Thanking you
Yours truly,
April 1, 2016
The Officer In charge
Tollygunj Police Station
Kolkata
Dear Sir,
I, Biswajoy Majumdar S/o Prof. Sisir Ranjan Majumdar residing at 2C, Bowali Mondal
Road, Kolkata 700026 as a tenant for more than 45 years. My father is a dignified
retired Professor with well reputation in our neighborhood. He is now about 79 years old
and his health condition is not too well.
Our present Landlady Arunima Chakrabortys husband, Asit Chakraborty, threats and
says we will be thrown out of the house by hiring goons. He also abuses my elderly father
and my wife very often when I am away to office. Arunima Chakraborty, who comes
occasionally, also does the same. For this reason, I had to return to Kolkata leaving my
job in Delhi few years back.
On 14.03.2016, Asit Chakraborty called Police at our premises at around 11 a.m. with
false allegation saying that we have locked the entrance gate, though the key is with him
and his daughter as well.He also encouraged his two maid-servants to abuse my father &
my wife in front of him.
Please note that, for last so many years the main gate remains under lock & key and the
duplicate keys are with Asit Chakrabotys family members and with us as well. Presently
Asit Chakraborty purposely is not allowing to lock the said gate causing theft of our
valuable households.
On 13.03.2016 one brass made pitcher has been theft from our ground floors water
reservoir & washing room which is under our tenancy from the beginning.
Asit Chakrabortys younger daughter generally returns home at late night hours
between 11:30 to 12:45 opening the entrance gate lock with her key and locks it back.
On 30.03.2016 at around 11:30 p.m. Asit Chakrabortys younger daughter suddenly
started to ring our door bell vigorously in spite of having the key. Everyone at my house
awake including my elderly father, then my wife gave her the key to open the lock. After
that Asit Chakraborty started abusing us with top of his voice at that late night hours
saying that entrance gate cannot be locked even at night hours.
I also inform you that our Landlady Arunima Chakraborty has already filed 2 suits, one
for Eviction of my father and other one is Permanent Injunction and my father has been
defending both the suits accordance with law. The Landlady realised that it would no
more possible for her to get a decree as she expects, thus her entire family members
started creating nuisance of and on systematically. Presently almost regularly giving out
threats using abusive language to compel my elderly father to be evicted, than in due
process of law.
P.T.O
Therefore, under the circumstances, it is not at all secured to leave the main gate
unlocked for the whole day, while I am away to office leaving my elderly father, wife &
my growing daughter at home, so you are requested to make arrangement for locking the
main gate to avoid any kind of trouble.
Thanking you
Yours sincerely
Biswajoy Majumdar
Mobile no. 9062082754
North Bengal Tourism

Address : Nazrul Sarani, Ashram Para, Siliguri - 734001, West Bengal, India
Contact : +91 81455 84286, +91 973311 8441
Email ID : help@northbengaltourism.com
Facebook
twitter
Google+
M/S SUKLA COLOUR PAINTS

Material & Labour Contractor Narendrapur, Srikhanda, P.S.-Sonarpur, 24 Pgs.
Prop. Jatan Halder
Mob: 9874139178/8697189348
PAN CARD NO. AMPPH8551A
-----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
Bill no. R/786

Date: 16.5.2016
M/s Excel Services Pvt. Ltd.
J.K.Millennium Centre
46D, Jawaharlal Nehru Road
Kolkata - 700071
05/03/2016: Charges for refixing of 08 Pieces broken slabs with fixing materialscement, sand, stone cheaps & chemicals in ground floor west side passage
parking area.
Cost including materials & labour charges.
Rs.500 X 08= Rs. 4,000/-
26/03/2016: Charges for replacing 5 Pit covers with strong steel sheet (1/1ft.)
Rs.750 X 05= Rs. 3,750/-
14/05/2016: Charges for refixing of 11 Pieces broken slabs with fixing materialscement, sand, stone cheaps & chemicals at ground floor west and north side
passage area.
Rs. 500 X 11= Rs. 5,500/Total cost Rs. 13,250/-
INTRODUCTION
A novel is a long narrative, normally in prose, which describes fictional characters and
events, usually in the form of a sequential story.
The genre has also been described as possessing "a continuous and comprehensive
history of about two thousand years. This view sees the novel's origins in Classical
Greece and Rome, medieval, early modern romance, and the tradition of the novella. The
latter, an Italian word used to describe short stories, supplied the present generic English
term in the 18th century. Ian Watt, however, in The Rise of the Novel (1957) suggests that
the novel first came into being in the early 18th century,
Miguel de Cervantes, author of Don Quixote, is frequently cited as the first significant
European novelist of the modern era; the first part of Don Quixote was published in 1605.
The romance is a closely related long prose narrative. Walter Scott defined it as "a
fictitious narrative in prose or verse; the interest of which turns upon marvellous and
uncommon incidents", whereas in the novel "the events are accommodated to the
ordinary train of human events and the modern state of society. However, many
romances, including the historical romances of Scott, Emily Bront's Wuthering Heights
and Herman Melville's Moby-Dick, are also frequently called novels, and Scott describes
romance as a "kindred term". Romance, as defined here, should not be confused with
the genre fiction love romance or romance novel. Other European languages do not
distinguish between romance and novel: "a novel is le roman, der Roman, il romanzo.
The English novel is an important part of English literature. This article focuses on
novels, written in English, by novelists who were born or have spent a significant part of
their lives in England, or Scotland, or Wales, or Northern Ireland (or Ireland before
1922). However, given the nature of the subject, this guideline has been applied with
common sense, and reference is made to novels in other languages or novelists who are
not primarily British where appropriate.
Madame de Pompadourspending her afternoon with a book, 1756.
A novel is a long, fictional narrative which describes intimate human experiences. The
novel in the modern era usually makes use of a literary prose style, and the development
of the prose novel at this time was encouraged by innovations inprinting, and the
introduction of cheap paper, in the 15th century.
The present English (and Spanish) word for a long work of prose fiction derives from
the Italian novella for "new", "news", or "short story of something new", itself from
theLatin novella, a singular noun use of the neuter plural of novellus, diminutive
of novus, meaning "new". Most European languages have preserved the term "romance"
(as in French, Dutch, Russian, Serbo-Croatian, Romanian, Danish, Swedish and
Norwegian "roman"; German "Roman"; Portuguese "romance" and Italian "romanzo")
for extended narratives.
Ancient Greek novel and the Byzantine novel
Paper as the essential carrier:Murasaki Shikibu writing her The Tale of Genji in the early
11th century, 17th-century depiction
Although early forms of the novel are to be found in a number of places,
including classical Rome, 10th and 11th-century Japan, and Elizabethan England, the
European novel is often said to have begun with Don Quixote in 1605.
Early works of extended fictional prose, or novels, include works in Latin like
the Satyricon by Petronius (c. 50 AD), and The Golden Ass by Apuleius (c. 150 AD),
works in Sanskrit such as the 6th or 7th-century Daakumracaritaby Dan d in, and in
the 7th-century Kadambari by Banabhatta, the 11th-century Japanese Tale of
Genji by Murasaki Shikibu, the 12th-century Hayy ibn Yaqdhan (or Philosophus
Autodidactus, the 17th-century Latin title) by Ibn Tufail, who wrote in Arabic, the 13thcentury Theologus Autodidactus by Ibn al-Nafis, another Arabic novelist, and in Chinese
in the 14th-century Romance of the Three Kingdoms by Luo Guanzhong.
Murasaki Shikibu's Tale of Genji (1010) has been described as the world's first novel[12]
[13]
and shows essentially all the qualities for which Marie de La Fayette's novel La
Princesse de Clves (1678) has been praised: individuality of perception, an interest in
character development, and psychological observation. Urbanization and the spread of

printed books in Song Dynasty (960-1279 AD) China led to the evolution of oral
storytelling into consciously fictional novels by the Ming dynasty (13681644 AD).
Parallel European developments did not occur for centuries, and awaited the time when
the availability of paper allowed for similar opportunities.
By contrast, Ibn Tufail's Hayy ibn Yaqdhan and Ibn al-Nafis' Theologus Autodidactus are
works of didactic philosophy and theology. In this sense, Hayy ibn Yaqdhan would be
considered an early example of a philosophical novel, while Theologus
Autodidactus would be considered an early theological novel. Hayy ibn Yaqdhan, with its
story of a human outcast surviving on an island, is also likely to have influenced Daniel
Defoe's Robinson Crusoe (1719), because the work was available in an English edition in
1711.
Epic poetry exhibits some similarities with the novel, and the Western tradition of the
novel reaches back into the field of verse epics, though again not in an unbroken
tradition. The epics of Asia, such as the Sumerian Epic of Gilgamesh(13001000 BC),
and Indian epics such as the Ramayana (400 BCE and 200 CE), and Mahabharata (4th
century BC) were as unknown in early modern Europe as was the Anglo-Saxon epic
of Beowulf (c.7501000 AD), which was rediscovered in the late 18th century and early
19th century. Other non-European works, such as the Torah, theKoran, and the Bible, are
full of stories, and thus have also had a significant influence on the development of prose
narratives, and therefore the novel. Then at the beginning of the 18th century, French
prose translations brought Homer's works to a wider public, who accepted them as
forerunners of the novel.
Classical Greek and Roman prose narratives included a didactic strand, with the
philosopher Plato's (c.425-c.348 BC) dialogues; a satirical dimension
with Petronius' Satyricon; the incredible stories of Lucian of Samosata; andLucius
Apuleius' proto-picaresque The Golden Ass, as well as the heroic romances of the
Greeks Heliodorus andLongus. Longus is the author of the famous Greek novel, Daphnis
and Chloe (2nd century A.D.).
Medieval period 11001500

Chivalric Romances
Main article: Chivalric romance
Chaucer reciting Troilus and Criseyde: early-15th-century manuscript of the work

at Corpus Christi College, Cambridge
Romance or chivalric romance is a type of narrative in prose or verse popular in the
aristocratic circles of High Medieval and Early Modern Europe. They were marvelfilledadventures, often of a knight-errant with heroic qualities, who undertakes a quest,
yet it is "the emphasis on heterosexual love and courtly manners distinguishes it from
thechanson de geste and other kinds of epic, which involve heroism." In later romances,
particularly those of French origin, there is a marked tendency to emphasize themes
of courtly love.
Originally, romance literature was written in Old French, Anglo-Norman and Occitan,
later, in English, in Italian and German. During the early 13th century, romances were
increasingly written as prose.
The shift from verse to prose dates from the early 13th century. The Prose
Lancelot orVulgate Cycle includes passages from that period. This collection indirectly
led toThomas Malory's Le Morte d'Arthur of the early 1470s. Prose became increasingly
attractive, because It enabled writers to associate popular stories with serious histories
traditionally composed in prose, and could also be more easily translated.
Popular literature also drew on themes of romance, but
with ironic, satiric or burlesqueintent. Romances reworked legends, fairy tales, and
history, but by about 1600 they were out of fashion, and Miguel de
Cervantes famously burlesqued them in Don Quixote (1605). Still, the modern image of
medieval is more influenced by the romance than by any other medieval genre, and the
word "medieval" evokes knights, distressed damsels, dragons, and such tropes.
Around 1800, the connotations of "romance" was modified with the development Gothic
fiction.
The novella
Main article: Novella
The term novel refers back to the production of short stories that remained part of a
European oral culture of storytelling into the late 19th century. Fairy tales, jokes, and
humorous stories designed to make a point in a conversation, and the exemplum a priest
would insert in a sermon belong into this tradition. Written collections of such stories
circulated in a wide range of products from practical compilations of examples designed
for the use of clerics to compilations of various stories such
as Boccaccio's Decameron (1354) and Geoffrey Chaucer's Canterbury Tales(13861400).
The Decameron (1354) one hundred novelle told by ten people, seven women and three
men, fleeing the Black Death by escaping from Florence to the Fiesole hills, in 1348.
Renaissance period: 1500-1700
1474: The customer in the copyist's shop with a book he wants to have copied. This
illustration of the first printed German Melusine looked back to the market of
manuscripts.
The modern distinction between history and fiction did not exist at this time and the
grossest improbabilities pervade many historical accounts found in the early modern print
market. William Caxton's 1485 edition of Thomas Malory'sLe Morte d'Arthur (1471) was
sold as a true history, though the story unfolded in a series of magical incidents and
historical improbabilities. Sir John Mandeville's Voyages, written in the 14th century, but
circulated in printed editions throughout the 18th century, was filled with natural
wonders, which were accepted as fact, like the one-footed Ethiopians who use their
extremity as an umbrella against the desert sun. Both works eventually came to be
viewed as works of fiction.
In the 16th and 17th centuries two factors led to the separation of history and fiction. The
invention of printing immediately created a new market of comparatively cheap
entertainment and knowledge in the form of chapbooks. The more elegant production of
this genre by 17th- and 18th-century authors were belles lettres; that is a market that
would be neither low nor academic. The second major development was the first bestseller of modern fiction, the Spanish Amadis de Gaula, by Garca Montalvo. However, it
was not accepted as an example of belles lettres. The Amadis eventually became the
archetypical romance, in contrast with the modern novel which began to be developed in
the 17th century.
Chapbooks
Main article: Chapbook
A chapbook is an early type of popular literature printed in early modern Europe.
Produced cheaply, chapbooks were commonly small, paper-covered booklets, usually
printed on a single sheet folded into books of 8, 12, 16 and 24 pages. They were often
illustrated with crude woodcuts, which sometimes bore no relation to the text. When
illustrations were included in chapbooks, they were considered popular prints. The
tradition arose in the 16th century, as soon as printed books became affordable, and rose
to its height during the 17th and 18th centuries and Many different kinds of ephemera and
popular or folk literature were published as chapbooks, such as almanacs, children's
literature, folk tales, nursery rhymes, pamphlets, poetry, and political and religious tracts.
The term "chapbook" for this type of literature was coined in the 19th century. The
corresponding French and German terms are bibliothque bleue (blue book)
and Volksbuch, respectively. The principal historical subject matter of chapbooks was
abridgements of ancient historians, popular medieval histories of knights, stories of
comical heroes, religious legends, and collections of jests and fables. The new printed
books reached the households of urban citizens and country merchants who visited the
cities as traders. Cheap printed histories were, in the 17th and 18th centuries, especially
popular among apprentices and younger urban readers of both sexes.
The early modern market, from the 1530s and 1540s, divided into low chapbooks and
high market expensive, fashionable, elegant belles lettres.
The Amadis and Rabelais' Gargantua and Pantagruel were important publications with
respect to this divide. Both books specifically addressed the new customers of popular
histories, rather than readers of belles lettres. The Amadis was a multivolume fictional
history of style, that aroused a debate about style and elegance as it became the first bestseller of popular fiction. On the other hand, Gargantua and Pantagruel, while it adopted
the form of modern popular history, in fact satirized that genre's stylistic achievements.
The division, between low and high literature, became especially visible with books that
appeared on both the popular and belles lettres markets in the course of the 17th and 18th
centuries: low chapbooks included abridgments of books such asMiguel Cervantes' Don
Quixote (1605/1615)
The term "chapbook" is also in use for present-day publications, commonly short,
inexpensive booklets.
Heroic romances
Main articles: Heroic romances and 17th-century French literature
Heroic Romance is a genre of imaginative literature, which flourished in the 17th century,
principally in France.
The beginnings of modern fiction in France took a pseudo-bucolic form, and the
celebrated L'Astre, (1610) ofHonore d'Urfe (1568-1625), which is the earliest
French novel, is properly styled a pastoral. But this ingenious and diffuse
production, in which all is artificial, was the source of a vast literature, which took
many and diverse ms. Although its action was, in the main, languid and
sentimental, there was a side of the Astree which encouraged that extravagant
love of glory, that spirit of " panache," which was now rising to its height in
France. That spirit it was which animated Marin le Roy de Gomberville (16031674), who was the inventor of what have since been known as the Heroical
Romances. In these there was experienced a violent recrudescence of the old
medieval elements of romance, the impossible valour devoted to a pursuit of the
impossible beauty, but the whole clothed in the language and feeling and
atmosphere of the age in which the books were written. In order to give point to
thechivalrous actions of the heroes, it was always hinted that they were wellknown public characters of the day in a romantic disguise.
Chisholm, Hugh, ed. (1911). Encyclopdia Britannica (11th ed.). Cambridge
University Press. A publication now in the public domain.
Satirical romances
Richard Head, The English Rogue(1665)

Stories of witty cheats were an integral part of the European novella with its tradition
of fabliaux. Significant examples include Till Eulenspiegel (1510),Lazarillo de
Tormes (1554), Grimmelshausen's Simplicissimus Teutsch (16661668) and in
England Richard Head's The English Rogue (1665). The tradition that developed with
these titles focused on a hero and his life. The adventures led to satirical encounters
with the real world with the hero either becoming the pitiable victim or the rogue
who exploited the vices of those he met.
A second tradition of satirical romances can be traced back to Heinrich
Wittenwiler's Ring (c. 1410) and to Franois Rabelais' Gargantua and
Pantagruel (15321564), which parodied and satirized heroic romances, and did this
mostly by dragging them into the low realm of the burlesque. Cervantes' Don
Quixote (1606/1615) modified the satire of romances: its hero lost contact with
reality by reading too many romances in the Amadisian tradition.
Other important works of the tradition are Paul Scarron's Roman Comique (165157),
the anonymous French Rozelliwith its satire on Europe's religions, Alain-Ren
Lesage's Gil Blas (17151735), Henry Fielding's Joseph Andrews(1742) and Tom
Jones (1749), and Denis Diderot's Jacques the Fatalist (1773, printed posthumously
in 1796).
Histories
1719 newspaper reprint ofRobinson Crusoe
A market of literature in the modern sense of the word, that is a separate market for
fiction and poetry, did not exist until the late seventeenth century. All books were sold
under the rubric of "History and politicks" in the early 18th century,
including pamphlets, memoirs, travel literature, political analysis, serious histories,
romances, poetry, and novels.
That fictional histories shared the same space with academic histories and modern
journalism had been criticized by historians since the end of the Middle Ages:
fictions were "lies" and therefore hardly justifiable at all. The climate, however,
changed in the 1670s.
The romance format of the quasihistorical works of Madame d'Aulnoy, Csar
Vichard de Saint-Ral, Gatien de Courtilz de Sandras, and Anne-Marguerite Petit du
Noyer, allowed the publication of histories that dared not risk an unambiguous
assertion of their truth. The literary market-place of the late 17th and early 18th
century employed a simple pattern of options whereby fictions could reach out into
the sphere of true histories. This permitted its authors to claim they had published
fiction, not truth, if they ever faced allegations of libel.
Prefaces and title pages of 17th and early 18th-century fiction acknowledged this
pattern: histories could claim to be romances, but threaten to relate true events, as in
the Roman clef. Other works could, conversely, claim to be factual histories, yet
earn the suspicion that they were wholly invented. A further differentiation was made
between private and public history: Daniel Defoe's Robinson Crusoe was, within this
pattern, neither a "romance" nor a "novel". It smelled of romance, yet the preface
stated that it should most certainly be read as a true private history.
Cervantes and the modern novel

The rise of the novel as an alternative to the romance began with the publication
of Cervantes Novelas Exemplares(1613). It continued with Scarron's Roman
Comique (the first part of which appeared in 1651), whose heroes noted the rivalry
between French romances and the new Spanish genre.
Late 17th-century critics looked back on the history of prose fiction, proud of the
generic shift that had taken place, leading towards the modern novel/novella. The
first perfect works in French were those of Scarron and Madame de La Fayette's
"Spanish history" Zayde (1670). The development finally led to her Princesse de
Clves (1678), the first novel with what would become characteristic French subject
matter.
Europe witnessed the generic shift in the titles of works in French published in
Holland, which supplied the international market and English publishers exploited
the novel/romance controversy in the 1670s and 1680s. Contemporary critics listed
the advantages of the new genre: brevity, a lack of ambition to produce epic poetry in
prose; the style was fresh and plain; the focus was on modern life, and on heroes who
were neither good nor bad.The novel's potential to become the medium of urban
gossip and scandal fuelled the rise of the novel/novella. Stories were offered as
allegedly true recent histories, not for the sake of scandal but strictly for the moral
lessons they gave. To prove this, fictionalized names were used with the true names
in a separate key. The Mercure Gallant set the fashion in the 1670s. Collections of
letters and memoirs appeared, and were filled with the intriguing new subject matter
and the epistolary novel grew from this and led to the first full blown example of
scandalous fiction in Aphra Behn's Love-Letters Between a Nobleman and His
Sister (1684/ 1685/ 1687). Before the rise of the literary novel, reading novels had
only been a form of entertainment.
However, one of the earliest English novels, Daniel Defoe's Robinson Crusoe (1719),
has elements of the romance, unlike these novels, because of its exotic setting and
story of survival in isolation. Crusoe lacks almost all of the elements found in these
new novels: wit, a fast narration evolving around a group of young fashionable urban
heroes, along with their intrigues, a scandalous moral, gallant talk to be imitated, and
a brief, conciseness plot. The new developments did, however, lead to Eliza
Haywood's epic length novel, Love in Excess (1719/20) and toSamuel
Richardson's Pamela, or Virtue Rewarded (1741). Some literary historians date the
beginning of the English novel with Richardson's Pamela, rather than Crusoe
18th century novel

Augustan prose
The idea of the "rise of the novel" in the 18th century is especially associated
with Ian Watt's important study The Rise of the Novel (1957). Ian Watt puts forward
the idea that novel was a "new form" and associates this with the importance placed
on realism by novelists such as Daniel Defoe, Samuel Richardson, and Henry
Fielding. This theory about the novel in the 18th century led to the suggestion that the
earlier Romance forms of long prose narrative were either not novels or were at least
inferior. However, others including Margaret Anne Doody disagree that the novel
originated in the 18th century, arguing that the history of the novel is over two
thousands years old, and that in addition the romance tradition continued through the
18th and 19th centuries and still flourishes today. The idea of the rise of the novel in
the 18th century is especially associated with English literary criticism, and most
other European languages use the word "roman" (Portuguese "romance" and Italian
"romans") for an extended narratives. Novelist and critic Albert J. Guerard argues,
in The Triumph of the Novel (1976), on behalf of the anti-realist "other great
tradition" of the novel that includes Rabelais, Cervantes, Pynchon, Borges, Garca
Mrquez, the "Joyce of Finnegans Wake and the Nabakov of Ada", and sees Ian
Watt's The Rise of the Novel as contributing to a confusion between fiction and "real
life", "by its insistence on 'formal realism' as implicit in the novel form in
general". Guerard suggests that Watt's book is most useful "for a study of the
eighteenth-century novel", but that it "should not be applied to the genre as a whole".
Given these differences in opinion, what happened in the 18th century can best be
described, not as the rise of the novel, but the rise of realism in fiction. Indeed, this is
what Ian Watt sees as distinguishing the novel from earlier prose narratives.
Laurence Sterne, Tristram Shandy, vol.6, p.70-71 (1769)
Philosophical novel
Philosophical fiction
The new 18th-century status of the novel as an object of debate is manifested in the
development of philosophical and experimental novels.
Philosophical fiction was not exactly new. Plato's dialogues were embedded in
fictional narratives. Utopias had added to this production with works fromThomas
More's Utopia (1516) to Tommaso Campanella's City of the Sun(1602). Works such
as these had not been read as novels or romances but as philosophical texts. The
1740s saw new editions of More's work under the title that created the
tradition: Utopia: or the happy republic; a philosophical romance (1743).
Voltaire utilised the romance to write philosophy in Micromegas: a comic romance.
Being a severe satire upon the philosophy, ignorance, and self-conceit of
mankind (1752, English 1753). His Zadig (1747) and Candide (1759) became central
texts of the French Enlightenment and of the modern novel. Jean-Jacques
Rousseau bridged the genres with his less fictional Emile: or, On Education (1762).[
Laurence Sterne's The Life and Opinions of Tristram Shandy, Gentleman (1759
1767) is an experimental work which rejects continuous narration. In it the author not
only addresses the reader in his preface but speaks directly to him or her in his
fictional narrative. In addition to his narrative experiments, Sterne has visual
experiments, such as a marbled page, a black page to express sorrow, and a page of
lines to show the plot lines of the book. Jonathan Swift'sA Tale of a Tub (1704) was
an early precursor in this field.
The romance genre in the 18th century
Samuel Richardson's Pamela(1741)

The rise of the word novel at the cost of its rival, the romance, remained a Spanish
and English phenomenon, and though readers all over Western Europe had welcomed
the novel(la) or short history as an alternative in the second half of the 17th century,
only the English and the Spanish had, however, openly discredited the romance.
But the change of taste was brief and Fnelon's Telemachus (1699/1700) already
exploited a nostalgia for the old romances with their heroism and professed
virtue. Jane Barker explicitly advertised her Exilius as "A new Romance", "written
after the Manner of Telemachus", in 1715. Robinson Crusoe spoke of his own story
as a "romance", though in the preface to the third volume, published in 1720, Defoe
attacks all who said "that [...] the Story is feign'd, that the Names are borrow'd, and
that it is all a Romance; that there never were any such Man or Place".
The late 18th century brought an answer with the Romantic Movement's readiness to
reclaim the word romance, especially with the gothic romance, but the historical
novels of Walter Scott also have a strong romance element. Robinson Crusoe became
a "novel" in this period appearing now as a work of the new realistic fiction that the
18th century had created.
Throughout the 19th century, romances continued to be written in Britain by writers
like Emily Bront, and in America by the dark romantic novelists Nathaniel
Hawthorne, and Herman Melville.[47]
The sentimental novel

Sentimental novel
Sentimental novels relied on emotional responses, both from their readers and
characters. They feature scenes of distress and tenderness, and the plot is arranged to
advance emotions rather than action. The result is a valorization of "fine feeling,"
displaying the characters as a model for refined, sensitive emotional effect. The
ability to display feelings was thought to show character and experience, and to shape
social life and relations.
An example of this genre of fiction is Samuel Richardson's Pamela, or Virtue
Rewarded (1740), composed "to cultivate the Principles of Virtue and Religion in the
Minds of the Youth of Both Sexes" focuses on the potential victim, a heroine of all
the modern virtues vulnerable through her social status and her occupation as servant
of the libertine who falls in love with her. Eventually, she shows the power to reform
her antagonist.
Male heroes adopted the new sentimental character traits in the 1760s. Laurence
Sterne's Yorick, the hero of theSentimental Journey (1768) did so with an enormous
amount of humour. Oliver Goldsmith's Vicar of Wakefield (1766) and Henry
Mackenzie's Man of Feeling (1771) produced the far more serious role models.
The virtuous production inspired a sub- and counterculture of pornographic novels.
Greek and Latin authors in modern translations had provided
elegant transgressions on the market of the belles lettres for the last century. Satirical
novels like Richard Head's English Rogue (1665) had led their heroes through urban
brothels, women authors like Aphra Behn had offered their heroines alternative
careers as precursors of the 19th-century femmes fatales without creating a
subculture. The market for belles lettres had been openly transgressive as long as it
did not find any reflections in other media. The new production beginning with works
like John Cleland's Fanny Hill(1748) differed in that it offered almost exact reversals
of the plot lines the virtuous production demanded. Fanny Hill is introduced to a life
of prostitution, learns to enjoy her part and establishes herself as a free and
economically independent individual, in editions one could only expect to buy under
the counter.
Openly uncontrollable conflicts arrived in the 1770s with Johann Wolfgang von
Goethe's The Sorrows of Young Werther (1774). The titular hero realised how
impossible it had become for him to integrate into the new conformist society. Pierre
Choderlos de Laclos's Les Liaisons dangereuses (1782) shows the other extreme,
with a group of aristocrats playing games of intrigue and amorality]
The social context of the 18th century novel

Changing cultural status
By around 1700, fiction was no longer a predominantly aristocratic entertainment,

and printed books had soon gained the power to reach readers of almost all classes,
though the reading habits differed and to follow fashions remained a privilege. Spain
was a trendsetter into the 1630s but French authors superseded Cervantes, de
Quevedo, andAlemn in the 1640s. As Huet was to note in 1670, the change was one
of manners. The new French works taught a new, on the surface freer, gallant
exchange between the sexes as the essence of life at the French court.
The situation changed again from 1660s into the 1690s when works by French
authors were published in Holland out of the reach of French censors. Dutch
publishing houses pirated of fashionable books from France and created a new
market of political and scandalous fiction. This led to a market of European rather
than French fashions in the early 18th century.
Intimate short stories:The Court and City Vagaries (1711).
By the 1680s fashionable political European novels had inspired a second wave of
private scandalous publications and generated new productions of local importance.
Women authors reported on politics and on their private love affairs in The Hague
and in London. German students imitated them to boast of their private amours in
fiction. The London, the anonymous international market of the Netherlands,
publishers in Hamburg and Leipzig generated new public spheres. Once private
individuals, such as students in university towns and daughters of London's upper

class began write novels based on questionable reputations, the public began to call
for a reformation of manners.
Reform became the main goal of the second generation of 18th-century novelists
who, by the mid-century, openly welcomed the change of climate that had first been
promoted in journals such as The Spectator. The Spectator Number 10 had stated that
the aim was now "to enliven morality with wit, and to temper wit with morality to
bring philosophy out of the closets and libraries, schools and colleges, to dwell in
clubs and assemblies, at tea-tables and coffeehouses"). Constructive criticism of
novels had until then been rare. The first treatise on the history of the novel was a
preface to Marie de La Fayette's novel Zayde (1670).
New journals like The Spectator and The Tatler at the beginning of the century had
reviews of novels. New "literary journals" like Gotthold Ephraim Lessing's Briefe,
die neuste Literatur betreffend (1758) appeared in the middle of the century with
reviews of art and fiction. By the 1780s reviews played had an important role in
introducing new works of fiction to the public. A later development was the
introduction of novels into school curricula and later that of universities.
The acceptance of novels as literature

The French churchman and scholar Pierre Daniel Huet's Traitt de l'origine des
romans (1670) laid the ground for a greater acceptance of the novel as literature in
the early 18th century. The theologian had not only dared to praise fictions, but he
had also explained techniques of theological reading, for the interpretation of fiction,
which was a novelty: an individual could read novels and romances to gain insight
into foreign and distant cultures as well as into his or her own culture. He noted
that Christ had used parables to teach.
The decades around 1700 saw the appearance of new editions of Petronius, Lucian,
and Heliodorus of Emesa. The publishers equipped them with prefaces that referred
to Huet's treatise. and the canon it had established. Exotic fictions entered the market
that gave insight into the Islamic mind. Furthermore, The Book of One Thousand and
One Nights was first published in Europe from 1704 to 1715 in French, and then
translated immediately into English and German, and was seen as a contribution to
Huet's history of romances.
New classics were added to the market and the English, Select Collection of Novels
in six volumes (172022), is a milestone in this development. It included
Huet's Treatise, along with the European tradition of the modern novel of the day:
that is, novella from Machiavelli's to Marie de La Fayette's masterpieces. Aphra
Behn's prose fictions had appeared as "novels" in the 1680s but when reprinted in
collections, her works became classics. Fnelon'sTelemachus (1699/1700) became a
classic within three years after its publication. New authors now entered the market
ready to use their own personal names as authors of fiction. Eliza Haywood followed
the footsteps of Aphra Behn when, in 1719, she used her name with unprecedented
pride.
18th century reading habits
Total numbers of English titles, 16001799 according to ESTC data. Years of

political turmoil produced higher numbers of controversial short tracts.
London's book market 1700, distribution of titles according to Term Catalogue data. The
poetical and fictional production does not have a unified place yet
The yearly output of fiction in English 16001799.
The short "novel" supplanted the longer "romance" in the 1680s. It found a second
peak on title pages in the 1720s when it received its body of classics. The labeling of
fictions became only more interesting at the end of the century
19th century novel

Romanticism
Image from a Victorian edition of Walter Scott'sWaverley

The very word romanticism is connected to the idea of romance, and the romance
genre experienced a revival, at the end of the 18th century, with gothic fiction. The
origin of the gothic romance is attributed to English author Horace Walpole, with his
1764 novel The Castle of Otranto, subtitled (in its second edition) "A Gothic Story".
Other important works are Ann Radcliffe's The Mysteries of Udolpho (1794)
and 'Monk' Lewis's The Monk(1795).
The new romances challenged the idea that the novel involved a realistic depictions
of life, and destabilized the difference the critics had been trying to establish, between
serious classical art and popular fiction. Gothic romances exploited the grotesque,
[55]
and some critics thought that their subject matter deserved less credit than the
worst medieval tales of Arthurian knighthood, and that if the Amadis had
troubled Don Quixotewith curious fantasies, the new romantic tales were worse: they
described a nightmare world, and explored sexual fantasies.
The authors of this new type of fiction could be (and were) accused of exploiting all
available topics to thrill, arouse, or horrify their audience. These
new romantic novelists, at the same time, claimed to explore the entire realm of
fictionality. New, psychological interpreters, in the early 19th century, read these
works as encounters with the deeper hidden truth of the human imagination: this
included sexuality, anxieties, and insatiabledesires. Under such psychological
readings, novels were described as exploring deeper human motives, and it was
suggested that such artistic freedom would reveal what had not previously been
openly visible.
The romances of de Sade, Les 120 Journes de Sodome (1785), Poe's Tales of the
Grotesque and Arabesque(1840), Mary Shelley, Frankenstein (1818), and E. T. A.
Hoffmann, Die Elixiere des Teufels (1815), would later attract 20th-century
psychoanalysts and supply the images for 20th- and 21st-century horror films, love
romances, fantasynovels, role-playing computer games, and the surrealists.
The ancient romancers most commonly wrote fiction about the remote past with little
attention to historical reality.Walter Scott's historical novel Waverley (1814) broke
with this earlier tradition of historical romance, and he was "the inventor of the true
historical novel". At the same time he was a romantic and was influenced by gothic
romance. He had collaborated "with the most famous of the Gothic novelists 'Monk'
Lewis" on Tales of Wonder in 1801. With his Waverley novels Scott "hoped to do for
the Scottish border" what Goethe and other German poets "had done for the Middle
Ages, "and make its past live again in modern romance". Scott's novels "are in the
mode he himself defined as romance, 'the interest of which turns upon marvelous and
uncommon incidents'". He used his imagination to re-evaluate history by rendering
things, incidents and protagonists in the way only the novelist could do. His work
remained historical fiction, yet it questioned existing historical perceptions. The use
of historical research was an important tool: Scott, the novelist, resorted to
documentary sources as any historian would have done, but as a romantic artist he
gave his subject a deeper imaginative and emotional significance. By combining
research with "marvelous and uncommon incidents", Scott attracted a far wider
market than any historian could, and he became the most famous novelist of his
generation, throughout Europe.
The Victorian period: 1837-1901

French literature of the 19th century and Victorian literature
In the 19th century the relationship between authors, publishers, and readers,
changed. Most of the early 18th century fiction had published anonymously. Authors
had offered their manuscripts and received all the payment to be expected for the
manuscript. The new copyright laws introduced in the 18th and 19th
centuries promised royalties on all future editions. Another change in the 19th
century was that novelists began to read their works in theatres, halls, and book
shops.
Fiction was altered by these changes, including the creation of more difficult works.
New novels also openly addressed current political and social issues, which were
being discussed in newspapers and magazines. The idea of responsibility became a
key issue, whether of the citizen, or of the artist. The theoretical debate concentrated
on questions around the moral soundness of the modern novel, on the integrity of
individual artists, as well as the claims of aesthetes like as Oscar Wilde and Algernon
Charles Swinburne, who proposed the idea of "art for art's sake".
In this period the market for popular fiction grew, and competed with works of
literature. Also in the 19th-century new institutions like the circulating library create
a new market, and a new mass reading public developed.
Also during the 19th century major British writers such as Charles
Dickens and Thomas Hardy were influenced by the romance genre tradition of the
novel. The Bront sisters were notable mid-19th-century creators in this tradition,
with Anne Bront's The Tenant of Wildfell Hall, Charlotte Bront's Jane
Eyre and Emily Bront's Wuthering Heights. Publishing at the very end of the 19th
century, Joseph Conrad has been called, "a supreme 'romancer'". In America "the
romance ... proved to be a serious, flexible, and successful medium for the
exploration of philosophical ideas and attitudes", and notable examples
include Nathaniel Hawthorne's The Scarlet Letter, andHerman Melville's Moby-Dick.
A number of European novelists were influenced, during this period, by the
earlier Romantic Movement, includingVictor Hugo, with novels like The Hunchback
of Notre-Dame (1831) and Les Misrables (1862), and Mikhail Yuryevich
Lermontov's, A Hero of Our Time (1840).
Harriet Beecher Stowe's Uncle Tom's Cabin (1852)
Many 19th century authors dealt with significant social matters. mile Zola's novels
depicted the world of the working classes, which Marx and Engels's non-fictional
explores. In the United States slavery and racism became topics of far broader public
debate thanks to Harriet Beecher Stowe's Uncle Tom's Cabin (1852), which
dramatises topics that had previously been discussed mainly in the abstract. Charles
Dickens' novels led his readers into contemporary workhouses, and provided first
hand accounts of child labour. The treatment of the subject of war changed with Leo
Tolstoy's War and Peace(1868/69), where he questions the facts provided by
historians. Similarly the treatment of crime is very different in Fyodor
Dostoyevsky's Crime and Punishment (1866), where the point of view is that of a
criminal. Women authors had dominated fiction from the 1640s into the early 18th
century, but few before George Eliot so openly questioned the role, education, and
status of women in society, as she did.
As the novel became a platform of modern debate, national literatures were
developed, that link the present with the past in the form of the historical
novel. Alessandro Manzoni'sI Promessi Sposi (1827) did this for Italy, while novelists
in Russia and the surrounding Slavonic countries, as well as Scandinavia, did
likewise.
Along with this new appreciation of history, the future also became a topic for fiction.
This had been done earlier in works like Samuel Madden's Memoirs of the Twentieth
Century (1733) and Mary Shelley's The Last Man (1826), a work whose plot
culminated in the catastrophic last days of a mankind extinguished by the
plague. Edward Bellamy'sLooking Backward (1887) and H. G. Wells's The Time
Machine (1895) were concerned with technological and biological
developments. Industrialization, Darwin's theory of evolution and Marx's theory
of class divisions shaped these works and turned historical processes into a subject
matter of wide debate. Bellamy's Looking Backwardbecame the second best-selling
book of the 19th century after Harriet Beecher-Stowe's Uncle Tom's Cabin. Such
works led to the development of a whole genre of popular science fiction as the 20th
century approached.
The 20th century and later

Modernism and post-modernism
James Joyce's Ulysses (1922) had a major influence on modern novelists, in the way
that it replaced the 18th- and 19th-century narrator with a text that attempted to
record inner thoughts: a "stream of consciousness". This term was first used
by William James in1890 and is used (or the related interior monologue)
by modernists like Dorothy Richardson, Marcel Proust, as well as, later Virginia
Woolf and William Faulkner. Also in the 1920s expressionist Alfred Dblin went in a
different direction with Berlin Alexanderplatz (1929), where interspersed nonfictional text fragments exist alongside the fictional material to create another new
form of realism, which differs from that of stream-of-consciousness.
Later works like Samuel Beckett's trilogy Molloy (1951), Malone Dies (1951)
and The Unnamable (1953), as well asJulio Cortzar's Rayuela (1963) and Thomas
Pynchon's Gravity's Rainbow (1973) all make use of the stream-of-consciousness
technique. On the other hand, Robert Coover is an example of those authors, who the
1960s, fragmented their stories and challenged time and sequentiality as fundamental
structural concepts.
The 20th century novels deals with a wide range of subject matter. Erich Maria
Remarque's All Quiet on the Western Front (1928) focusses on young German's
experiences of World War I (and the more existentialist Thor Gootecreated as
a national socialist alternative). The Jazz Age is explored by American F. Scott
Fitzgerald, and the Great Depression by fellow American John Steinbeck. The rise
of totalitarian states is the subject of British writer George Orwell. France's
existentialism is the subject of French writers Jean-Paul Sartre's Nausea (1938)
and Albert Camus'The Stranger (1942). The counterculture of the 1960s led to
revived interest in Hermann Hesse's Steppenwolf (1927), and produced such iconic
works of its own like Ken Kesey's One Flew Over the Cuckoo's Nest and
Thomas Pynchon'sGravity's Rainbow. Chuck Palahniuk's Fight Club (1996) (with the
help of the film adaptation) is a male response to feminist politics. Virginia
Woolf, Simone de Beauvoir, Doris Lessing, Elfriede Jelinek were feminist voices
during this period. Novelist have also been interested in the subject of racial
and gender identity in recent decades.
Furthermore, the major political and military confrontations of the 20th and 21st
centuries have also influenced novelists. The events of World War II, from a German
perspective, are dealt with by Gnter Grass' The Tin Drum(1959) and an American
by Joseph Heller's Catch-22 (1961). The subsequent Cold War influenced popular spy
novels. Latin American self-awareness in the wake of the (failing) left revolutions of
the 1960s and 1970s resulted in a "Latin American Boom", linked to with the names
of novelists Julio Cortzar, Mario Vargas Llosa, Carlos Fuentes andGabriel Garca
Mrquez, along with the invention of a special brand of postmodern magic realism. .
Another major 20th-century social events, the so-called sexual revolution is reflected
in the modern novel. D. H. Lawrence's Lady Chatterley's Lover had to be published
in Italy in 1928; British censorship lifted its ban as late as 1960. Henry
Miller's Tropic of Cancer (1934) created the comparable US scandal. Transgressive
fiction from Vladimir Nabokov's Lolita (1955) to Michel Houellebecq's Les
Particules lmentaires (1998) entered a literary field that eventually led to more
pornographic works such as Anne Desclos' Story of O (1954) to Anas Nin's Delta of
Venus(1978).
In the second half of the 20th century, Postmodern authors subverted serious debate
with playfulness, claiming that art could never be original, that it always plays with
existing materials.[75] The idea that language is self-referential was already an
accepted truth in the world of pulp fiction. A postmodernist re-reads popular literature
as an essential cultural production. Novels from Thomas Pynchon's The Crying of
Lot 49 (1966), to Umberto Eco's The Name of the Rose (1980) and Foucault's
Pendulum (1989) made use of intertextual references.
Genre fiction
The historic advantage of genres is to allow the direct marketing of fiction. While the
reader of so-called elitist literature will follow public discussions of novels, the
popular production has to employ the traditionally more direct and short-term
marketing strategies with the open declarations of their content. The most popular
novels are based entirely on the expectations for the particular genre, and this
includes the creation of a series of novels with an identifiable brand name. i.e.
the Sherlock Holmes series by Arthur Conan Doyle
Popular literature holds the largest market share. Romance fiction had an estimated
$1.375 billion share in the US book market in 2007. Inspirational literature/religious
literature followed with $819 million, science fiction/fantasy with $700
million, mystery with $650 million and then classic literary fiction with $466 million.
Dan Brown
Popular literature might be seen as the successor of the early modern chapbook. Both
fields share a focus on readers who are in search of accessible reading satisfaction.
The 20th-century love romance is a successor of the novels Madeleine de
Scudry,Marie de La Fayette, Aphra Behn, and Eliza Haywood wrote from the 1640s
into the 1740s. The modern adventure novel goes back to Daniel Defoe's Robinson
Crusoe(1719) and its immediate successors. Modern pornography has no precedent
in the chapbook market but originates in libertine and hedonistic belles lettres, of
works likeJohn Cleland's Fanny Hill (1749) and similar eighteenth century
novels. Ian Fleming's James Bond is a descendant of the anonymous yet extremely
sophisticated and stylish narrator who mixed his love affairs with his political
missions in La Guerre d'Espagne (1707).Marion Zimmer Bradley's The Mists of
Avalon is influenced by Tolkien, as well asArthurian literature, including its 19th-
century successors. Modern horror fiction also has no precedent on the market of
chapbooks but goes back to the elitist market of early-19th-century Romantic
literature. Modern popular science fiction has an even shorter history, from the 1860s.
The authors of popular fiction tend to proclaim that they have exploited the
controversial topics and that is the essential difference between them and so-called
elitist literature. Dan Brown does this by discussing on his website the question
whether his Da Vinci Code is an anti-Christian novel.
The author of popular fiction has a fan community to serve, so that she or he can risk
rebuffing the literary critic. However, the artificial boundaries between popular and
serious literature have blurred in recent years, through the explorations
of postmodern and poststructuralist writers, as well as by adaptation of popular
literary classics by the film industry.
Crime became a major subject of 20th and 21st century genre novelists and Crime
fiction reflects the realities of modern industrialized societies. Crime is personal and
public subject: criminals each have their personal motivations; detectives, see their
moral codes challenged. Patricia Highsmith's thrillers became a medium of new
psychological explorations. Paul Auster's New York Trilogy (19851986) is an
example of experimental postmodernist literature.
Fantasy has become a major area of commercial fiction. A major example is J. R. R.
Tolkien's The Lord of the Rings(1954/55), a work that mutated from a book written
for young readers in search of openly fictionalised role models into a major cultural
artefact. Tolkien successfully revived European epic literature from Beowulf and the
North GermanicEdda as well as the Arthurian Cycles.
Science fiction has developed a variety of genres from the early, technological
adventure Jules Verne had made fashionable in the 1860s. Aldous Huxley's Brave
New World (1932) has become a focus for debate about Westernconsumerism and
technology. George Orwell's Nineteen Eighty-Four (1949) deals
with totalitarianism andsurveillance, among other matters. Stanisaw Lem, Isaac
Asimov and Arthur C. Clarke produced modern classics which focus on the
interaction between humans and machines. A new wave of authors explore postapocalyptic fantasies and virtual reality. William Gibson's Neuromancer (1984)
became a cult classic and founded cyberpunkscience fiction.
Chinua Achebe, Buffalo, 2008
J. K. Rowling, 2010
Henning Mankell lecturing at Parkteateret, Oslo 2007
Joyce Carol Oates, 2006
Doris Lessing, Cologne literature festival 2006, Germany
Stephen King, February 2007
Elfriede Jelinek, Munich, 2004
Paul Auster, Salman Rushdie andShimon Peres, New York City, 2008
Michel Houellebecq, Warsaw, 2008
Early novels in English

Main article: First novel in English
The English novel has generally been seen as beginning withDaniel Defoe's Robinson
Crusoe (1719) and Moll Flanders(1722), though John Bunyan's The Pilgrim's
Progress (1678) and Aphra Behn's Oroonoko (1688) are also contenders, while earlier
works such as Sir Thomas Malory's Morte d'Arthur, and even the "Prologue" to Geoffrey
Chaucer's Canterbury Tales have been suggested. Another important early novel
is Gulliver's Travels (1726, amended 1735), by Irish writer and clergyman Jonathan
Swift, which is both a satire of human nature, as well as aparody of travellers' tales
like Robinson Crusoe. The rise of the novel as an important literary genre is generally
associated with the growth of the middle class in England.
Other major 18th-century English novelists are Samuel Richardson (16891761), author
of the epistolary novelsPamela, or Virtue Rewarded (1740) and Clarissa (1747
48); Henry Fielding (17071754), who wrote Joseph Andrews(1742) and The History of
Tom Jones, a Foundling (1749); Laurence Sterne (17131768), who published Tristram
Shandy in parts between 1759 and 1767; Oliver Goldsmith (17281774), author of The
Vicar of Wakefield (1766);Tobias Smollett (17211771), a Scottish novelist best known
for his comic picaresque novels, such as The Adventures of Peregrine Pickle (1751)
and The Expedition of Humphry Clinker (1771), who influenced Charles
Dickens, andFanny Burney (17521840), whose novels "were enjoyed and admired by
Jane Austen," wrote Evelina (1778), Cecilia(1782) and Camilla (1796).
A noteworthy aspect of both the 18th- and 19th- century novel is the way the novelist
directly addressed the reader. For example, the author might interrupt his or her narrative
to pass judgment on a character, or pity or praise another, and inform or remind the reader
of some other relevant issue.
Romantic period
Sir Walter Scott

The phrase Romantic novel has several possible meanings. Here it refers to novels
written during the Romantic era in literary history, which runs from the late 18th century
until the beginning of the Victorian era in 1837. But to complicate matters there are
novels written in the romance tradition by novelists like Walter Scott,Nathaniel
Hawthorne, George Meredith. In addition the phrase today is mostly used to refer to the
popular pulp-fiction genre that focusses on romantic love. The Romantic period is
especially associated with the poets William Blake, William Wordsworth,Samuel Taylor
Coleridge, George Byron, Percy Shelley and John Keats, though two major
novelists, Jane Austen and Walter Scott, also published in the early 19th century.
Horace Walpole's 1764 novel, The Castle of Otranto, invented the Gothic fictiongenre.
The word gothic was originally used in the sense of medieval. This genre combines "the
macabre, fantastic, and supernatural" and usually involves haunted castles, graveyards
and various picturesque elements. Later novelist Ann Radcliffe introduced the brooding
figure of the Gothic villain which developed into the Byronic hero. Her most popular and
influential work, The Mysteries of Udolpho (1794), is frequently described as the
archetypal Gothic novel. Vathek (1786), by William Beckford, and The Monk (1796),
by Matthew Lewis, were further notable early works in both the Gothic and horror
genres.
Mary Shelley's novel Frankenstein (1818), as another important Gothic novel as well as
being an early example ofscience fiction. The vampire genre fiction began with John
William Polidori's The Vampyre (1819). This short story was inspired by the life of Lord
Byron and his poem The Giaour. An important later work is Varney the Vampire(1845),
where many standard vampire conventions originated: Varney has fangs, leaves two
puncture wounds on the neck of his victims, and has hypnotic powers and superhuman
strength. Varney was also the first example of the "sympathetic vampire", who loathes
his condition but is a slave to it.
Mary Shelley
Among more minor novelists in this period Maria Edgeworth (17681849) andThomas
Love Peacock (17851866) are worthy of comment. Edgeworth's novelCastle
Rackrent (1800) is "the first fully developed regional novel in English" as well as "the
first true historical novel in English" and an important influence on Walter Scott.
[12]
Peacock was primarily a satirist in novels such as Nightmare Abbey (1818) and The
Misfortunes of Elphin (1829).
Jane Austen's (17751817) works critique the novels of sensibility of the second half of
the 18th century and are part of the transition to 19th-century realism. Her plots, though
fundamentally comic, highlight the dependence of women on marriage to secure social
standing and economic security.[14] Austen brings to light the hardships women faced,
who usually did not inherit money, could not work and where their only chance in life
depended on the man they married. She reveals not only the difficulties women faced in
her day, but also what was expected of men and of the careers they had to follow. This
she does with wit and humour and with endings where all characters, good or bad,
receive exactly what they deserve. Her work brought her little personal fame and only a
few positive reviews during her lifetime, but the publication in 1869 of her nephew's A
Memoir of Jane Austen introduced her to a wider public, and by the 1940s she had
become accepted as a major writer. The second half of the 20th century saw a
proliferation of Austen scholarship and the emergence of aJaneite fan culture. Austen's
works include Pride and Prejudice (1813) Sense and Sensibility (1811), Mansfield
Park,Persuasion and Emma. The other major novelist at the beginning of the early 19th
century was Sir Walter Scott(17711832), who was not only a highly successful British
novelist but "the greatest single influence on fiction in the 19th century ... [and] a
European figure". Scott established the genre of the historical novel with his series
ofWaverley Novels, including Waverley (1814), The Antiquary(1816), and The Heart of
Midlothian (1818). However, Austen is today widely read and the source for films and
television series, while Scott is less often read.
Victorian novel
It was in the Victorian era (18371901) that the novel became the leading literary
genre in English. Another important fact is the number of women novelists who were
successful in the 19th century, even though they often had to use a masculine pseudonym.
The majority of readers were of course women. At the beginning of the 19th century most
novels were published in three volumes. However, monthly serialization was revived
with the publication of Charles Dickens' Pickwick Papers in twenty parts between April
1836 and November 1837. Demand was high for each episode to introduce some new
element, whether it was a plot twist or a new character, so as to maintain the readers'
interest. Both Dickens and Thackeray frequently published this way.
The 1830s and 1840s saw the rise of social novel, also known as social problem novel,
that "arose out of the social and political upheavals which followed the Reform Act of
1832". This was in many ways a reaction to rapid industrialization, and the social,
political and economic issues associated with it, and were a means of commenting on
abuses of government and industry and the suffering of the poor, who were not profiting
from England's economic prosperity. Stories of the working class poor were directed
toward middle class to help create sympathy and promote change. An early example
is Charles Dickens' Oliver Twist (183738).
Charles Dickens
Charles Dickens emerged on the literary scene in the 1830s with the two novels already
mentioned. Dickens wrote vividly about London life and struggles of the poor, but in a
good-humoured fashion, accessible to readers of all classes. One of his most popular
works to this day is A Christmas Carol (1843). In more recent years Dickens has been
most admired for his later novels, such as Dombey and Son(184648), Great
Expectations (186061), Bleak House (185253) and Little Dorrit(185557) and Our
Mutual Friend (186465). An early rival to Dickens was William Makepeace Thackeray,
who during the Victorian period ranked second only to him, but he is now much less read
and is known almost exclusively for Vanity Fair (1847). In that novel he satirizes whole
swaths of humanity while retaining a light touch. It features his most memorable
character, the engagingly roguish Becky Sharp. The Bront sisters were other significant
novelists in the 1840s and 1850s. Their novels caused a sensation when they were first
published but were subsequently accepted as classics. They had written compulsively
from early childhood and were first published, at their own expense in 1846 as poets
under the pseudonyms Currer, Ellis and Acton Bell. The sisters returned to prose,
producing a novel each the following year: Charlotte's Jane Eyre, Emily's Wuthering
Heights and Anne's Agnes Grey. Later, Anne's The Tenant of Wildfell Hall (1848) and
Charlotte's Villette (1853) were published. Elizabeth Gaskell was also a successful writer
and first novel, Mary Barton, was published anonymously in 1848. Gaskell's North and
South contrasts the lifestyle in the industrial north of England with the wealthier south.
Even though her writing conforms to Victorian conventions, Gaskell usually frames her
stories as critiques of contemporary attitudes: her early works focused on factory work in
the Midlands. She always emphasised the role of women, with complex narratives and
dynamic female characters. Anthony Trollope's (181582) was one of the most
successful, prolific and respected English novelists of the Victorian era. Some of his bestloved works are set in the imaginary county of Barsetshire, including The Warden (1855)
and Barchester Towers (1857). He also wrote perceptive novels on political, social, and
gender issues, and on other topical matters, including The Way with Live Now (1875).
Trollope's novels portrayed the lives of the landowning and professional classes of early
Victorian England. George Eliot's (Mary Ann Evans (181980) first novel Adam
Bede was published in 1859. Her works, especially Middlemarch187172), are important
examples of literary realism, and are admired for their combination of high Victorian
literarydetail combined with an intellectual breadth that removes them from the narrow
geographic confines they often depict.
H. G. Wells studying in London, taken c. 1890

An interest in rural matters and the changing social and economic situation of the
countryside is seen in the novels of Thomas Hardy (18401928). A Victorian realist, in
the tradition of George Eliot, he was also influenced both in his novels and poetry
by Romanticism, especially by William Wordsworth. Charles Darwin is another
important influence on Thomas Hardy. Like Charles Dickens he was also highly critical
of much in Victorian society, though Hardy focussed more on a declining rural society.
While Hardy wrote poetry throughout his life, and regarded himself primarily as a poet,
his first collection was not published until 1898, so that initially he gained fame as the
author of such novels as, Far from the Madding Crowd (1874), The Mayor of
Casterbridge (1886), Tess of the d'Urbervilles (1891), and Jude the Obscure(1895).
He ceased writing novels following adverse criticism of this last novel. In novels such as
The Mayor of Casterbridge and Tess of the d'Urbervilles Hardy attempts to create modern
works in the genre of tragedy, that are modelled on the Greek drama,
especially Aeschylus and Sophocles, though in prose, not poetry, a novel not drama, and
with characters of low social standing, not nobility. Another significant late 19th-century
novelist is George Gissing (18571903) who published 23 novels between 1880 and
1903. His best known novel is New Grub Street(1891).
Important developments occurred in genre fiction in this era. Although pre-dated by John
Ruskin's The King of the Golden River in 1841, the history of the modern fantasy genre is
generally said to begin with George MacDonald, the influential author of The Princess
and the Goblin and Phantastes (1858). William Morris was a popular English poet who
also wrote several fantasy novels during the latter part of the nineteenth century. Wilkie
Collins' novel. The (1868), is generally considered the first detective novel in the English
language, while The Woman in White is regarded as one of the finest sensation novels. H.
G. Wells's (18661946) writing career began in the 1890s with science fiction novels
like The Time Machine (1895), and The War of the Worlds (1898) which describes an
invasion of late Victorian England by Martians, and Wells is seen, along with
Frenchman Jules Verne (18281905), as a major figure in the development of the science
fiction genre. He also wrote realistic fiction about the lower middle class in novels
like Kipps (1905) and The History of Mr Polly (1910).
20th century
Thomas Hardy stopped writing fiction after Jude the Obscure (1895) was severely
criticized, so that the major novelists writing in Britain at the start of the 20th century
were an Irishman James Joyce (18821941) and two immigrants, American Henry
James (18431916) and Pole Joseph Conrad (18571924). The modernist tradition in the
novel, with its emphasis "towards the ever more minute and analytic exposition of mental
life", begins with James and Conrad, in novels such as The Ambassadors (1903), The
Golden Bowl (1907) and Lord Jim (1900).[24] Other important early modernists
were Dorothy Richardson (18731957), whose novel Pointed Roof (1915), is one of the
earliest example of the stream of consciousness technique and D. H. Lawrence (1885
1930), who wrote with understanding about the social life of the lower and middle
classes, and the personal life of those who could not adapt to the social norms of his
time. Sons and Lovers (1913), is widely regarded as his earliest masterpiece. There
followed The Rainbow (1915), though it was immediately seized by the police, and its
sequel Women in Lovepublished in 1920. Lawrence attempted to explore human emotions
more deeply than his contemporaries and challenged the boundaries of the acceptable
treatment of sexual issues, most notably in Lady Chatterley's Lover, which was privately
published in Florence in 1928. However, the unexpurgated version of this novel was not
published until 1959. Then in 1922 Irishman James Joyce's important modernist
novel Ulysses appeared. Ulysses has been called "a demonstration and summation of the
entire movement". Set during one day in Dublin in June 1904, in it Joyce creates parallels
with Homer's epic poem the Odyssey.
Another significant modernist in the 1920s was Virginia Woolf (18821941), who was an
influential feminist and a major stylistic innovator associated with the stream-ofconsciousness technique. Her novels include Mrs Dalloway(1925), To the
Lighthouse (1927), and The Waves (1931). Her essay collection A Room of One's
Own (1929) contains her famous dictum; "A woman must have money and a room of her
own if she is to write fiction".
Virginia Woolf
But while modernism was to become an important literary movement in the early decades
of the new century, there were also many fine novelists who were not modernists. This
include E.M. Forster ((18791970), John Galsworthy ((18671933) (Nobel Prize in
Literature, 1932), whose novels include The Forsyte Saga, Arnold Bennett (18671931)
author of The Old Wives' Tale, and H. G. Wells (18661946). Though Forster's work is
"frequently regarded as containing both modernist and Victorian elements".
E. M. Forster's A Passage to India (1924), reflected challenges to imperialism, while his
earlier works such as A Room with a View (1908) and Howards End (1910), examined the
restrictions and hypocrisy of Edwardian society in England. The most popular British
writer of the early years of the 20th century was arguablyRudyard Kipling ((18651936),
a highly versatile writer of novels, short stories and poems and to date the youngest ever
recipient of the Nobel Prize for Literature (1907).
A significant English writer in the 1930s and 1940s was George Orwell (190350), who
is especially remembered for his satires of totalitarianism, Nineteen Eighty-Four (1949)
and Animal Farm (1945).Evelyn Waugh (190366) satirised the "bright young things" of
the 1920s and 1930s, notably in A Handful of Dust(1934), and Decline and Fall (1928),
while Brideshead Revisited (1945) has a theological basis, setting out to examine the
effect of divine grace on its main characters. Aldous Huxley (18941963) published his
famous dystopia Brave New World in 1932, the same year as John Cowper Powys's
(18721963) A Glastonbury Romance. Samuel Beckett(190689) published his first
major work, the novel Murphy in 1938. This same year Graham Greene's (190491) first
major novel Brighton Rock was published. Then in 1939 James Joyce's
published Finnegans Wake. In this work Joyce creates a special language to express the
consciousness of a character who is dreaming.
D. H. Lawrence, 1906
Graham Greene was an important novelist whose works span the 1930s to the 1980s.
Greene was a convert to Catholicism and his novels explore the ambivalent moral and
political issues of the modern world. Notable for an ability to combine serious literary
acclaim with broad popularity, his novels include, The Heart of the Matter (1948),
A Burnt-Out Case (1961), and The Human Factor (1978). Evelyn Waugh's (190366)
career also continued after World War II, and in "1961 he completed his most
considerable work, a trilogy about the war entitled Sword of Honour.[33] In 1947 Malcolm
Lowry published Under the Volcano, while George Orwell's satire of
totalitarianism,1984, was published in 1949. One of the most influential novels of the
immediate post-war period was William Cooper's (19102002) naturalistic Scenes from
Provincial Life(1950), which was a conscious rejection of the modernist tradition.
[34]
Other novelists writing in the 1950s and later were: Anthony Powell (19052000)
whose twelve-volume cycle of novels A Dance to the Music of Time (195175), is a
comic examination of movements and manners, power and passivity in English political,
cultural and military life in the mid-20th century; comic novelist Kingsley Amis is best
known for his academic satire Lucky Jim (1954); Nobel Prize laureate William
Golding's allegorical novel Lord of the Flies (1954), explores how culture created by man
fails, using as an example a group of British schoolboys marooned on a deserted island;
philosopher Iris Murdoch was a prolific writer of novels that deal with such things as
sexual relationships, morality, and the power of the unconscious. Her works
including Under the Net (1954), The Black Prince (1973) and The Green Knight (1993).
Scottish writerMuriel Spark's also began publishing in the 1950s. She pushed the
boundaries of realism in her novels. Her first, The Comforters (1957), concerns a woman
who becomes aware that she is a character in a novel; The Prime of Miss Jean
Brodie (1961), at times takes the reader briefly into the distant future to see the various
fates that befall its characters. Anthony Burgess is especially remembered for
his dystopian novel A Clockwork Orange (1962), set in the not-too-distant future, which
was made into a film by Stanley Kubrick in 1971. In the entirely different genre
of Gothic fantasy Mervyn Peake (191168) published his highly successful Gormenghast
trilogy between 1946 and 1959.
Immigrant Doris Lessing (1919) from Southern Rhodesia (now Zimbabwe), published
her first novel The Grass is Singing in 1950, after immigrating to England. She initially
wrote about her African experiences. Lessing soon became a dominant presence in the
English literary scene, frequently publishing right through the century, and won the nobel
prize for literature in 2007. Salman Rushdie (born 1945) is another among a number of
post Second World War writers from the former British colonies who permanently settled
in Britain. Rushdie achieved fame with Midnight's Children 1981, which was awarded
both the James Tait Black Memorial Prize and Booker prize, and named Booker of
Bookers in 1993. His most controversial novel The Satanic Verses (1989), was inspired in
part by the life of Muhammad. V. S. Naipaul (born 1932), born in Trinidad, was another
immigrant, who wrote among other things A House for Mr Biswas (1961) and A Bend in
the River (1979). Naipaul won the Nobel Prize in Literature.[35] Also from the West
Indies George Lamming (born 1927) is best remembered for In the Castle of the
Skin (1953). Another important immigrant writer Kazuo Ishiguro (born 1954) was born
in Japan, but his parents immigrated to Britain when he was six.[36] His works
include, The Remains of the Day 1989, Never Let Me Go 2005.
Anthony Burgess
Scotland has in the late 20th-century produced several important novelists,

including James Kelman (born 1946), who like Samuel Beckett can create humour out of
the most grim situations. How Late it Was, How Late (1994), won the Booker Prize that
year; A. L. Kennedy (born 1965) whose 2007 novel Daywas named Book of the Year in
the Costa Book Awards. In 2007 she won theAustrian State Prize for European
Literature; Alasdair Gray (born 1934) whoseLanark: A Life in Four Books (1981) is
a dystopian fantasy set in his home townGlasgow. Another contemporary Scot is Irvine
Welsh, whose novel Trainspotting(1993), gives a brutal depiction of the lives of working
class Edinburgh drug users.
Angela Carter (19401992) was a novelist and journalist, known for her feminist,
magical realism, and picaresque works. Writing from the 1960s until the 1980s, her
novels include, The Infernal Desire Machines of Doctor Hoffman(1972) and Nights at the
Circus (1984). Margaret Drabble (born 1939) is a novelist, biographer and critic, who has
published from the 1960s until this century. Her older sister, A. S. Byatt (born 1936) is
best known for Possessionpublished in 1990.
Martin Amis (born 1949) is one of the most prominent of contemporary British novelists.
His best-known novels areMoney (1984) and London Fields (1989). Pat Barker (born
1943) has won many awards for her fiction. Novelist and screenwriter Ian McEwan (born
1948) is another of contemporary Britain's most highly regarded writers. His works
include The Cement Garden (1978) and Enduring Love (1997), which was made into a
film. In 1998 McEwan won theMan Booker Prize with Amsterdam,
while Atonement (2001) was made into an Oscar-winning film. McEwan was awarded
the Jerusalem Prize in 2011. Zadie Smith's (born 1975) Whitbread Book Award winning
novel White Teeth(2000), mixes pathos and humour, focusing on the later lives of two
Magnetic Resonance Imaging (MRI)

Magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) is a test that uses a magnetic field and pulses of radio
wave energy to make pictures of organs and structures inside the body. In many cases,
MRI gives different information about structures in the body than can be seen with an Xray, ultrasound, or computed tomography (CT) scan. MRI also may show problems that
cannot be seen with other imaging methods.
For an MRI test, the area of the body being studied is placed inside a special machine that
contains a strong magnet. Pictures from an MRI scan are digital images that can be saved
and stored on a computer for more study. The images also can be reviewed remotely, such
as in a clinic or an operating room. In some cases, contrast material may be used during
the MRI scan to show certain structures more clearly.
You may be able to have an MRI with an open machine that doesn't enclose your entire
body. But open MRI machines aren't available everywhere. The pictures from an open
MRI may not be as good as those from a standard MRI machine .
Why MRI It Is Done?

Magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) is done for many reasons. It is used to find problems
such as tumors, bleeding, injury, blood vessel diseases, or infection. MRI also may be
done to provide more information about a problem seen on an X-ray, ultrasound scan,
or CT scan. Contrast material may be used during MRI to show abnormal tissue more
clearly. An MRI scan can be done for the:
Head. MRI can look at the brain for tumors, an aneurysm, bleeding in the brain,
nerve injury, and other problems, such as damage caused by a stroke. MRI can also find
problems of the eyes and optic nerves , and the ears and auditory nerves.
Chest. MRI of the chest can look at the heart, the valves, andcoronary blood
vessels . It can show if the heart or lungs are damaged. MRI of the chest may also be used
to look for breast cancer.
Blood vessels. Using MRI to look at blood vessels and the flow of blood through
them is called magnetic resonance angiography (MRA). It can find problems of

the arteries and veins, such as an aneurysm, a blocked blood vessel, or the torn lining of a
blood vessel (dissection). Sometimes contrast material is used to see the blood vessels
more clearly.
Abdomen and pelvis. MRI can find problems in the organs and structures in the
belly, such as the liver, gallbladder, pancreas, kidneys, and bladder. It is used to find
tumors, bleeding, infection, and blockage. In women, it can look at the uterus and
ovaries. In men, it looks at the prostate.
Bones and joints. MRI can check for problems of the bones and joints, such
as arthritis, problems with the temporomandibular joint , bone marrow problems, bone
tumors, cartilage problems, torn ligaments or tendons, or infection. MRI may also be
used to tell if a bone is broken when X-ray results are not clear. MRI is done more
commonly than other tests to check for some bone and joint problems.
Spine. MRI can check the discs and nerves of the spine for conditions such
as spinal stenosis, disc bulges, and spinal tumors.
Procedure
Physics of magnetic resonance imaging
Medical MRI scanner

To perform a study, the person is positioned within an MRI scanner which forms a
strong magnetic field around the area to be imaged. In most medical
applications,protons (hydrogen atoms) in tissues containing water molecules are used to
create a signal that is processed to form an image of the body. First, energy from
anoscillating magnetic field is temporarily applied to the patient at the
appropriateresonance frequency. The excited hydrogen atoms emit a radio
frequency signal which is measured by a receiving coil. The radio signal can be made to
encode position information by varying the main magnetic field using gradient coils. As
these coils are rapidly switched on and off they create the characteristic repetitive noise
of an MRI scan. The contrast between different tissues is determined by the rate at which
excited atoms return to the equilibrium state. Exogenous contrast agents may be
given intravenously, orally or intra-articularly.
MRI requires a magnetic field that is both strong and uniform. The field strength of the
magnet is measured in teslas and while the majority of systems operate at 1.5T,
commercial systems are available between 0.2T7T. Most clinical magnets
are superconducting which requires liquid helium. Lower field strengths can be achieved
with permanent magnets, which are often used in "open" MRI scanners
for claustrophobic patients.
New open MRI machine

Claustrophobiapeople with even mild claustrophobia may find it difficult to tolerate
long scan times inside the machine. Familiarization with the machine and process, as well
as visualization techniques, sedation, and anesthesia provide patients with mechanisms to
overcome their discomfort. Additional coping mechanisms include listening to music or
watching a video or movie, closing or covering the eyes, and holding a panic button. The
open MRI is a machine that is open on the sides rather than a tube closed at one end, so it
does not fully surround the patient. It was developed to accommodate the needs of
patients who are uncomfortable with the narrow tunnel and noises of the traditional MRI
and for patients whose size or weight make the traditional MRI impractical. Newer open
MRI technology provides high quality images for many but not all types of examinations.
Para-sagittal MRI of the head, with aliasing artifacts (nose and

forehead appear at the back of the head)
ICD-9-CM
88.91
MeSH
D008279
MedlinePlus
003335
Magnetic resonance imaging (MRI), nuclear magnetic resonance imaging (NMRI),

or magnetic resonance tomography (MRT) is a medical imaging technique used
in radiology to image the anatomy and the physiological processes of the body in both
health and disease. MRI scanners use strong magnetic fields, radio waves, and field
gradients to form images of the body.
MRI is based upon the science of Nuclear Magnetic Resonance (NMR). Certain atomic
nuclei can absorb and emit radio frequency energy when placed in an external magnetic
field. In clinical and research MRI, hydrogen atoms are most-often used to generate a
detectable radio-frequency signal that is received by antennas in close proximity to the
anatomy being examined. Hydrogen atoms exist naturally in people and other biological
organisms in abundance, particularly in water and fat. For this reason, most MRI scans
essentially map the location of water and fat in the body. Pulses of radio waves are used
to excite the nuclear spin energy transition and magnetic field gradients localize the
signal in space. By varying the parameters of thepulse sequence, different contrasts can
be generated between tissues based on the relaxation properties of the hydrogen atoms
therein. Since its early development in the 1970s and 1980s, MRI has proven to be a
highly versatile imaging modality. While MRI is most prominently used in diagnostic
medicine and biomedical research, it can also be used to form images of non-living
objects. MRI scans are capable of producing a variety of chemical and physical data, in
addition to detailed spatial images.
MRI is widely used in hospitals and clinics for medical diagnosis, staging of disease and
follow-up without exposing the body to ionizing radiation.
Medical uses
MRI has a wide range of applications in medical diagnosis and over 25,000 scanners are
estimated to be in use worldwide. MRI affects diagnosis and treatment in many
specialties although the effect on improved health outcomes is uncertain. Since MRI does
not use any ionizing radiation, its use is generally favored in preference to CT when
either modality could yield the same information. (In certain cases, MRI is not preferred
as it can be more expensive, time-consuming, and claustrophobia-exacerbating).
MRI is in general a safe technique but the number of incidents causing patient harm has
risen. Contraindications to MRI include most cochlear implants and cardiac
pacemakers, shrapnel and metallic foreign bodies in the eyes. The safety of MRI during
the first trimester of pregnancy is uncertain, but it may be preferable to other options. The
sustained increase in demand for MRI within the healthcare industry has led to concerns
about cost effectiveness andoverdiagnosis.
Neuroimaging
MRI of brain and brain stem
MRI image of white matter tracts

MRI is the investigative tool of choice for neurological cancers, as it has better resolution
than CT and offers better visualization of the posterior fossa. The contrast provided
between grey and white matter makes it the best choice for many conditions of the central
nervous system, including demyelinating diseases,dementia, cerebrovascular
disease, infectious diseases and epilepsy. Since many images are taken milliseconds
apart, it shows how the brain responds to different stimuli; researchers can then study
both the functional and structural brain abnormalities in psychological disorders. MRI is
also used in mri-guidedstereotactic surgery and radiosurgery for treatment of intracranial
tumors, arteriovenous malformations and other surgically treatable conditions using a
device known as the N-localizer.
Cardiovascular
Cardiac magnetic resonance imaging
MR angiogram in congenital heart disease

Cardiac MRI is complementary to other imaging techniques, such
asechocardiography, cardiac CT and nuclear medicine. Its applications include
assessment of myocardial ischemia and viability, cardiomyopathies, myocarditis,iron
overload, vascular diseases and congenital heart disease.
Musculoskeletal
Applications in the musculoskeletal system includes spinal imaging, assessment of
joint disease and soft tissue tumors.
Liver and gastrointestinal imaging MRI

Hepatobiliary MRI is used to detect and characterize lesions of the liver, pancreas
and bile ducts. Focal or diffuse disorders of the liver may be evaluated using diffusionweighted, opposed-phase imaging and dynamic contrast enhancement sequences.
Extracellular contrast agents are widely used in liver MRI and newer hepatobiliary
contrast agents also provide the opportunity to perform functional biliary imaging.
Anatomical imaging of the bile ducts is achieved by using a heavily T2-weighted
sequence in magnetic resonance cholangiopancreatography (MRCP). Functional imaging
of the pancreas is performed following administration of secretin. MR enterography
provides non-invasive assessment of inflammatory bowel disease and small bowel
tumors. MR-colonography can play a role in the detection of large polyps in patients at
increased risk of colorectal cancer.
Functional MRI
Functional magnetic resonance imaging
Functional MRI (fMRI) is used to understand how different parts of the brain respond to
external stimuli or passive activity in a resting state. Blood oxygenation level
dependent (BOLD) fMRI measures the hemodynamic response to transient neural
activity resulting from a change in the ratio of oxyhemoglobin and deoxyhemoglobin.
Statistical methods are used to construct a 3D parametric map of the brain indicating
those regions of the cortex which demonstrate a significant change in activity in response
to the task. fMRI has applications in behavioral and cognitive research as well as in
planningneurosurgery of eloquent brain areas.
Oncology
MRI is the investigation of choice in the preoperative staging of rectal and prostate
cancer, and has a role in the diagnosis, staging, and follow-up of other tumors.[30]
How Does an MRI Work?

To obtain an MRI image, a patient is placed inside a large magnet and must remain very
still during the imaging process in order not to blur the image. Contrast agents (often
containing the element Gadolinium) may be given to a patient intravenously before or
during the MRI to increase the speed at which protons realign with the magnetic field.
The faster the protons realign, the brighter the image.
Contrast
Effects of TR and TE on MR signal
Examples of T1 weighted, T2 weighted and PD weighted MRI scans

Image contrast may be weighted to demonstrate different anatomical structures or
pathologies. Each tissue returns to its equilibrium state after excitation by the
independent processes of T1 (spin-lattice) and T2 (spin-spin) relaxation.
Main article: Spinlattice relaxation
To create a T1-weighted image magnetization is allowed to recover before measuring the
MR signal by changing the repetition time (TR). This image weighting is useful for
assessing the cerebral cortex, identifying fatty tissue, characterizing focal liver lesions
and in general for obtaining morphological information, as well as for postcontrast imaging.
Main article: Spin-spin relaxation time
To create a T2-weighted image magnetization is allowed to decay before measuring the
MR signal by changing the echo time (TE). This image weighting is useful for
detecting edema and inflammation, revealing white matter lesions and assessing zonal
anatomy in the prostate and uterus.

How To Prepare
Before your MRI test, tell your doctor and the MRI technologist if you:
Are allergic to any medicines. The contrast material used for MRI does not
contain iodine. If you know that you are allergic to the contrast material used for the
MRI, tell your doctor before having another test.
Have a health condition, such as diabetes, sickle cell anemia, orkidney problems.
You may need to change your medicine schedule. And some conditions may prevent you
from having an MRI using contrast material.
Are or might be pregnant.
Have any metal implanted in your body. This helps your doctor know if the test is
safe for you. Tell your doctor if you have:
Heart and blood vessel devices such as a coronary artery stent,

apacemaker, an ICD (implantable cardioverter-defibrillator), or a metal heart valve.
Metal pins, clips, or metal parts in your body, including artificial limbs
and dental work or braces.
Any other implanted medical device, such as a medicine infusion pump or

a cochlear implant.
Cosmetic metal implants, such as in your ears, or tattooed eyeliner.
Had recent surgery on a blood vessel. In some cases, you may not be able to have
the MRI test.

Have an intrauterine device (IUD) in place. An IUD may prevent you from having
the MRI test done.

Become very nervous in confined spaces. You need to lie very still inside the MRI
magnet, so you may need medicine to help you relax. Or you may be able to have the test
done with open MRI equipment. It is not as confining as standard MRI machines.
Wear any medicine patches. The MRI may cause a burn at the patch site.
You may need to arrange for someone to drive you home after the test, if you are given a
medicine (sedative) to help you relax.
For an MRI of the abdomen or pelvis, you may be asked to not eat or drink for several
hours before the test.
You may need to sign a consent form that says you understand the risks of the test and
agree to have it done.
Talk to your doctor about any concerns you have regarding the need for the test, its risks,
how it will be done, or what the results will mean. To help you understand the importance
of this test, fill out the medical test information form.

How It Is Done
A magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) test is usually done by an MRI technologist. The
pictures are usually interpreted by a radiologist. But some other types of doctors can also
interpret an MRI scan.
You will need to remove all metal objects (such as hearing aids, dentures, jewelry,
watches, and hairpins) from your body because these objects may be attracted to the
powerful magnet used for the test.
You will need to take off all or most of your clothes, depending on which area is
examined (you may be allowed to keep on your underwear if it is not in the way). You
will be given a gown to use during the test. If you are allowed to keep some of your
clothes on, you should empty your pockets of any coins and cards (such as credit cards or
ATM cards) with scanner strips on them because the MRI magnet may erase the
information on the cards.
During the test, you usually lie on your back on a table that is part of the MRI scanner.
Your head, chest, and arms may be held with straps to help you remain still. The table
will slide into the space that contains the magnet. A device called a coil may be placed
over or wrapped around the area to be scanned. A special belt strap may be used to sense
your breathing or heartbeat. This triggers the machine to take the scan at the right time.
Some people feel nervous (claustrophobic) inside the MRI magnet. If this keeps you from
lying still, you can be given a medicine (sedative) to help you relax. Some MRI machines
(called open MRI) are now made so that the magnet does not enclose your entire
body. Open MRI machines may be helpful if you are claustrophobic, but they are not
available everywhere. The pictures from an open MRI may not be as good as those from
a standard MRI machine .
Inside the scanner you will hear a fan and feel air moving. You may also hear tapping or
snapping noises as the MRI scans are taken. You may be given earplugs or headphones
with music to reduce the noise. It is very important to hold completely still while the scan
is being done. You may be asked to hold your breath for short periods of time.

How It Is Done continued...
During the test, you may be alone in the scanner room. But the technologist will watch
you through a window. You will be able to talk with the technologist through a two-way
intercom.
If contrast material is needed, the technologist will put it in an intravenous in your arm.
The material may be given over 1 to 2 minutes. Then more MRI scans are done.
An MRI test usually takes 30 to 60 minutes but can take as long as 2 hours.
How It Feels
You will not have pain from the magnetic field or radio waves used for the MRI test. The
table you lie on may feel hard, and the room may be cool. You may be tired or sore from
lying in one position for a long time.
If a contrast material is used, you may feel some coolness and flushing as it is put into
your IV.
In rare cases, you may feel:
A tingling feeling in the mouth if you have metal dental fillings.
Warmth in the area being examined. This is normal. Tell the technologist if you
have nausea, vomiting, headache, dizziness, pain, burning, or breathing problems.

Risks
There are no known harmful effects from the strong magnetic field used for MRI. But the
magnet is very powerful. The magnet may affectpacemakers, artificial limbs, and other
medical devices that contain iron. The magnet will stop a watch that is close to the
magnet. Any loose metal object has the risk of causing damage or injury if it gets pulled
toward the strong magnet.
Metal parts in the eyes can damage the retina . If you may have metal fragments in the
eye, an X-ray of the eyes may be done before the MRI. If metal is found, the MRI will
not be done.
Iron pigments in tattoos or tattooed eyeliner can cause skin or eye irritation.
An MRI can cause a burn with some medicine patches. Be sure to tell your health
professional if you are wearing a patch.
There is a slight risk of an allergic reaction if contrast material is used during the MRI.
But most reactions are mild and can be treated using medicine. There also is a slight risk
of an infection at the IV site.
Results
A magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) is a test that uses a magnetic field and pulses of
radio wave energy to make pictures of organs and structures inside the body.
The radiologist may discuss initial results of the MRI with you right after the test.
Complete results are usually ready for your doctor in 1 to 2 days.
An MRI can sometimes find a problem in a tissue or organ even when the size and
shape of the tissue or organ looks normal.
Magnetic resonance imaging (MRI)
Normal:
The organs, blood vessels, bones, and joints are normal in size, shape,
appearance, and location.
No abnormal growths, such as tumors, are present.
No bleeding, abnormal fluid, blockage in the flow of blood, or bulges in the
blood vessels (aneurysms) are present.
No signs of inflammation or infection are present.
Abnormal:
An organ is too large, too small, damaged, or absent.

Abnormal growths (such as tumors) are present.
Abnormal fluid from a cause such as bleeding or an infection is present.
Fluid is found around the lungs or heart. Fluid is found around the liver,
bowel, or other organ in the abdomen.
A blood vessel is narrowed or blocked. An aneurysm is present.
Blockage in the gallbladder bile ducts or in the tubes (ureters) that lead out
of the kidneys is present.
Damage to joints, ligaments, or cartilage is seen. Bones are broken or show
infection or disease.
Problems of the nervous system are present, such asmultiple sclerosis
(MS), dementia, Alzheimer's disease, orherniated disc .
What Affects the Test

Reasons you may not be able to have the test or why the results may not be helpful
include:
Pregnancy. An MRI test usually is not done during pregnancy. But MRI may be
done to get more information about a possible problem that cannot be seen clearly
with ultrasound.
Medical devices that use electronics, such as a pacemaker or medicine infusion
pump. The MRI magnet may cause problems with these devices, and that may keep you
from having an MRI.

Medical devices that have metal in them. The metal might make some of the
detailed MRI pictures blurry. This may prevent your doctor from seeing the organ that is
being looked at. For example, an intrauterine device (IUD) with metal may prevent your
doctor from seeing the uterus clearly.
Inability to remain still during the test.
Obesity. A person who is very overweight may not fit into standard MRI
machines.
Many modern medical devices that do not use electronics-such as heart valves, stents, or
clips-can be safely placed in most MRI machines. But some newer MRI machines have
stronger magnets. The safety of MRI scans with these stronger MRI magnets in people
with medical devices is not known.

What To Think About
Sometimes your MRI test results may be different from the results of CT,
ultrasound, or X-ray tests, because the MRI scan shows tissue differently.
MRI is a safe test for looking at structures and organs inside the body. It costs
more than other methods and may not be available in your area.
Open MRI machines are now made so that the magnet does not completely
surround you. But these machines may not be available in all medical centers. Open MRI
is useful for people who are claustrophobic or obese.
Magnetic resonance angiogram (MRA) is a special MRI method that studies
blood vessels and blood flow. To learn more, see the topicMagnetic Resonance
Angiogram (MRA).
MRI spectroscopy is a special MRI method that identifies certain medical
problems by looking for specific chemicals in body tissues.

Contrast material that contains gadolinium may cause a serious skin
problem (called nephrogenic fibrosing dermopathy) in people withkidney failure. Before
having an MRI scan, tell your doctor if you have serious kidney disease or if you have
had a kidney transplant.
MRI can be used to check different parts of the body, such as the head, belly, breast,
spine, shoulder, and knee.
MRI of the Head

MRI of the Abdomen
MRI of the Breast
MRI of the Spine
MRI of the Shoulder
MRI of the Knee
USES OF X-RAY FOR TREATMENT OF

DISEASES
The discovery of X-rays stimulated a veritable sensation. Rntgen's biographer Otto
Glasser estimated that, in 1896 alone, as many as 49 essays and 1044 articles about the
new rays were published. This was probably a conservative estimate, if one considers that
nearly every paper around the world extensively reported about the new discovery, with a
magazine such as Science dedicating as many as 23 articles to it in that year
alone. Sensationalist reactions to the new discovery included publications
X-ray
This article is about the nature, production, and uses of the radiation. For the method of
imaging, see Radiography. For imaging in a medical context, see Radiology. For other
meanings, see X-ray (disambiguation).
Not to be confused with X-wave or X-band.
X-rays are part of the electromagnetic spectrum, with wavelengths shorter than visible
light. Different applications use different parts of the X-ray spectrum.
X-radiation (composed of X-rays) is a form of electromagnetic. Most X-rays have
awavelength ranging from 0.01 to 10 nanometers, corresponding to frequencies in the
range 30 petahertzto 30 exahertz (31016 Hz to 31019 Hz) and energies in the range
100 eV to 100 keV. X-ray wavelengths are shorter than those of UV rays and typically
longer than those of gamma rays. In many languages, X-radiation is referred to with
terms meaning Rntgen radiation, after Wilhelm Rntgen,[1] who is usually credited as
its discoverer, and who had named it X-radiation to signify an unknown type of
radiation. Spelling of X-ray(s) in the English language includes the variants xray(s),xray(s), and X ray(s).
X-rays with photon energies above 510 keV (below 0.20.1 nm wavelength) are
called hard X-rays, while those with lower energy are called soft X-rays. Due to their
penetrating ability, hard X-rays are widely used to image the inside of objects, e.g.,
in medical radiography and airport security. As a result, the term Xray is metonymically used to refer to a radiographicimage produced using this method, in
addition to the method itself. Since the wavelengths of hard X-rays are similar to the size
of atoms they are also useful for determining crystal structures by X-ray crystallography.
By contrast, soft X-rays are easily absorbed in air; the attenuation length of 600 eV
(~2 nm) X-rays in water is less than 1 micrometer.
There is no consensus for a definition distinguishing between X-rays and gamma rays.
One common practice is to distinguish between the two types of radiation based on their
source: X-rays are emitted by electrons, while gamma rays are emitted by the atomic
nucleus. This definition has several problems: other processes also can generate these
high-energy photons, or sometimes the method of generation is not known. One common
alternative is to distinguish X- and gamma radiation on the basis of wavelength (or,
equivalently, frequency or photon energy), with radiation shorter than some arbitrary
wavelength, such as 1011 m (0.1 ), defined as gamma radiation. This criterion assigns a
photon to an unambiguous category, but is only possible if wavelength is known. (Some
measurement techniques do not distinguish between detected wavelengths.) However,
these two definitions often coincide since the electromagnetic radiation emitted by X-ray
tubes generally has a longer wavelength and lower photon energy than the radiation
emitted by radioactivenuclei. Occasionally, one term or the other is used in specific

contexts due to historical precedent, based on measurement (detection) technique, or
based on their intended use rather than their wavelength or source. Thus, gamma-rays
generated for medical and industrial uses, for example radiotherapy, in the ranges of 6
20 MeV, can in this context also be referred to as X-rays
Medical uses
X-ray.
Medical imaging
A chest radiograph of a female, demonstrating a hiatus hernia

Since Rntgen's discovery that X-rays can identify bone structures, X-rays have been
used for medical imaging. The first medical use was less than a month after his paper on
the subject. Up until 2010, 5 billion medical imaging studies have been conducted
worldwide. Radiation exposure from medical imaging in 2006 made up about 50% of
total ionizing radiation exposure in the United States.
Radiographs
Radiography
An arm radiograph, demonstrating broken ulna and radius with implantedinternal

fixation.
A radiograph is an X-ray image obtained by placing a part of the patient in front of an Xray detector and then illuminating it with a short X-ray pulse. Bones contain
much calcium, which due to its relatively high atomic number absorbs x-rays efficiently.
This reduces the amount of X-rays reaching the detector in the shadow of the bones,
making them clearly visible on the radiograph. The lungs and trapped gas also show up
clearly because of lower absorption compared to tissue, while differences between tissue
types are harder to see.
Radiographs are useful in the detection of pathology of the skeletal system as well as for
detecting some disease processes in soft tissue. Some notable examples are the very
common chest X-ray, which can be used to identify lung diseases such
aspneumonia, lung cancer, or pulmonary edema, and the abdominal x-ray, which can
detect bowel (or intestinal) obstruction, free air (from visceral perforations) and free fluid
(in ascites). X-rays may also be used to detect pathology such as gallstones(which are
rarely radiopaque) or kidney stones which are often (but not always) visible. Traditional
plain X-rays are less useful in the imaging of soft tissues such as the brain or muscle.
Dental radiography is commonly used in the diagnoses of common oral problems, such
as cavities.
In medical diagnostic applications, the low energy (soft) X-rays are unwanted, since they
are totally absorbed by the body, increasing the radiation dose without contributing to the
image. Hence, a thin metal sheet, often of aluminium, called anX-ray filter, is usually
placed over the window of the X-ray tube, absorbing the low energy part in the spectrum.
This is called hardening the beam since it shifts the center of the spectrum towards higher
energy (or harder) x-rays.
To generate an image of the cardiovascular system, including the arteries and veins
(angiography) an initial image is taken of the anatomical region of interest. A second
image is then taken of the same region after an iodinated contrast agent has been injected
into the blood vessels within this area. These two images are then digitally subtracted,
leaving an image of only the iodinated contrast outlining the blood vessels.
The radiologist or surgeon then compares the image obtained to normal anatomical
images to determine whether there is any damage or blockage of the vessel.
Computed tomography
Head CT scan (transverse plane) slice - a modern application of medical radiography

Computed tomography (CT scanning) is a medical imaging modality wheretomographic
images or slices of specific areas of the body are obtained from a large series of twodimensional X-ray images taken in different directions. These cross-sectional images can
be combined into a three-dimensional image of the inside of the body and used for
diagnostic and therapeutic purposes in various medical disciplines.
Fluoroscopy
Fluoroscopy is an imaging technique commonly used by physicians or radiation
therapists to obtain real-time moving images of the internal structures of a patient through
the use of a fluoroscope. In its simplest form, a fluoroscope consists of an X-ray source
and a fluorescent screen, between which a patient is placed. However, modern
fluoroscopes couple the screen to an X-ray image intensifier and CCDvideo
camera allowing the images to be recorded and played on a monitor. This method may
use a contrast material. Examples include cardiac catheterization (to examine
for coronary artery blockages) and barium swallow (to examine foresophageal disorders).
Radiotherapy
The use of X-rays as a treatment is known as radiation therapy and is largely used for the
management (includingpalliation) of cancer; it requires higher radiation doses than those
received for imaging alone. X-rays beams are used for treating skin cancers using lower
energy x-ray beams while higher energy beams are used for treating cancers within the
body such as brain, lung, prostate, and breast.
USES OF CT SCAN FOR TREATMENT

OF DISEASES
Computed tomography (CT) of the body uses special x-ray equipment to help detect a
variety of diseases and conditions. CT scanning is fast, painless, noninvasive and
accurate. In emergency cases, it can reveal internal injuries and bleeding quickly enough
to help save lives.
Tell your doctor if theres a possibility you are pregnant and discuss any recent illnesses,
medical conditions, medications youre taking, and allergies. You will be instructed not to
eat or drink anything for a few hours beforehand. If you have a known allergy to contrast
material, your doctor may prescribe medications to reduce the risk of an allergic reaction.
These medications must be taken 12 hours prior to your exam. Leave jewelry at home
and wear loose, comfortable clothing. You may be asked to wear a gown.
What is CT Scanning of the Body?

Computed tomography, more commonly known as a CT or CAT scan, is a diagnostic
medical test that, like traditional x-rays, produces multiple images or pictures of the
inside of the body.
The cross-sectional images generated during a CT scan can be reformatted in multiple
planes, and can even generate three-dimensional images. These images can be viewed on
a computer monitor, printed on film or transferred to a CD or DVD.
CT images of internal organs, bones, soft tissue and blood vessels typically provide
greater detail than traditional x-rays, particularly of soft tissues and blood vessels.
Using specialized equipment and expertise to create and interpret CT scans of the body,
radiologists can more easily diagnose problems such as cancer, cardiovascular disease,
infectious disease, appendicitis, trauma and musculoskeletal disorders.
What are some common uses of the procedure?NS

O T I MAGING
AND
C LINICNEFITS
Unlike other medical imaging techniques, such as conventional x-ray imaging

(radiography), CT enables direct imaging and differentiation of soft tissue structures,
such as liver, lung tissue, and fat. CT is especially useful in searching for large space
occupying lesions, tumors and metastasis and can not only reveal their presence, but
also the size, spatial location and extent of a tumor.
High resolution axial CT image of the chest showing the vessels of the heart
(center of image) and pneumonia in the both lungs.
CT imaging of the head and brain can detect tumors, show blood clots and blood
vessel defects, show enlarged ventricles (caused by a build up of cerebrospinal fluid)
and image other abnormalities such as those of the nerves or muscles of the eye.
Due to the short scan times of 500 milliseconds to a few seconds, CT can be used for
all anatomic regions, including those susceptible to patient motion and breathing. For
example, in the thorax CT can be used for visualization of nodular structures,
infiltrations of fluid, fibrosis (for example from asbestos fibers), and effusions
(filling of an air space with fluid).
CT has been the basis for interventional work like CT guided biopsy and minimally
invasive therapy. CT images are also used as basis for planning radiotherapycancer
treatment. CT is also often used to follow the course of cancer treatment to determine
how the tumor is responding to treatment.
CT imaging provides both good soft tissue resolution (contrast) as well as high
spatial resolution. This enables the use of CT in orthopedic medicine and imaging of
bony structures including prolapses (protrusion) of vertebral discs, imaging of
complex joints like the shoulder or hip as a functional unit and fractures, especially
those affecting the spine. The image postprocessing capabilities of CT - like
multiplanar reconstructions and 3-dimensional display (3D) - further enhance the
value of CT imaging for surgeons. For instance, 3-D CT is an invaluable tool for
surgical reconstruction following facial trauma.
Axial CT image of the lumbar spine showing a slight prolapse of the disk
impinging on the spinal cord.
CT is becoming the method of choice for imaging trauma patients. CT exams are fast
and simple and enable a quick overview of possibly life-threatening pathology and
rapidly enables a dedicated surgical treatment.
With the advent of spiral CT, the continuous acquisition of complete CT volumes can
be used for the diagnosis of blood vessels with CT Angiography. For instance,
abdominal aortic aneurysms, the renal arteries, the carotids vessels and the Circle of
Willis can all now be quickly imaged with CT with minimal intervention.
CT angiography image of the femoral arteries showing multiple calcifications

(bright white lumps) on the femoral branch on the right
3D Surface reconstruction of the same femoral arteries showing their position

relative to the pelvis and the femurs
Due to the short total acquisition time of spiral CT, imaging of the liver is now
possible in different contrast enhancement phases. These so-called "multi-phase"
studies offer a step towards differential diagnosis of lesions in the liver. In other
words, doctors can use differential diagnosis to determine "what kind of abnormality
is this?" For example, the three-phase liver study below shows tumor enhancement
on the arterial-phase and venous-phase images that is useful in diagnosing the
disease.
CT image of the liver and abdomen with no contrast enhancement
CT image of the liver and abdomen with arterial phase contrast enhancement
CT image of the liver and abdomen with venous phase contrast enhancement
CT imaging is:
one of the fastest and most accurate tools for examining the chest, abdomen and
pelvis because it provides detailed, cross-sectional views of all types of tissue.
used to examine patients with injuries from trauma such as a motor vehicle
accident.
performed on patients with acute symptoms such as chest or abdominal pain or
difficulty breathing.
often the best method for detecting many different cancers, such as lymphoma and
cancers of the lung, liver, kidney, ovary and pancreas since the image allows a physician
to confirm the presence of a tumor, measure its size, identify its precise location and
determine the extent of its involvement with other nearby tissue.
an examination that plays a significant role in the detection, diagnosis and
treatment of vascular diseases that can lead to stroke, kidney failure or even death. CT is
commonly used to assess for pulmonary embolism (a blood clot in the lung vessels) as
well as for aortic aneurysms.
invaluable in diagnosing and treating spinal problems and injuries to the hands,
feet and other skeletal structures because it can clearly show even very small bones as
well as surrounding tissues such as muscle and blood vessels.
In pediatric patients, CT imaging is often used to evaluate:
lymphoma
neuroblastoma
kidney tumors
congenital malformations of the heart, kidneys and blood vessels
cystic fibrosis
complications of acute appendicitis
complications of pneumonia
inflammatory bowel disease
severe injuries
Radiologists and radiation oncologists often use the CT examination to:
quickly identify injuries to the lungs, heart and vessels, liver, spleen, kidneys,
bowel or other internal organs in cases of trauma.
guide biopsies and other procedures such as abscess drainages and minimally
invasive tumor treatments.
plan for and assess the results of surgery, such as organ transplants or gastric
bypass.
stage, plan and properly administer radiation treatments for tumors as well as
monitor response to chemotherapy.
measure bone mineral density for the detection of osteoporosis.
What are the benefits of CT SCAN?
CT scanning is painless, noninvasive and accurate.

A major advantage of CT is its ability to image bone, soft tissue and blood vessels
all at the same time.
Unlike conventional x-rays, CT scanning provides very detailed images of many
types of tissue as well as the lungs, bones, and blood vessels.
CT examinations are fast and simple; in emergency cases, they can reveal internal
injuries and bleeding quickly enough to help save lives.
CT has been shown to be a cost-effective imaging tool for a wide range of clinical
problems.
CT is less sensitive to patient movement than MRI.
CT can be performed if you have an implanted medical device of any kind, unlike
MRI.
CT imaging provides real-time imaging, making it a good tool for
guiding minimally invasive procedures such as needle biopsies and needle
aspirations of many areas of the body, particularly the lungs, abdomen, pelvis and
bones.
A diagnosis determined by CT scanning may eliminate the need for exploratory
surgery and surgical biopsy.
No radiation remains in a patient's body after a CT examination.
X-rays used in CT scans should have no immediate side effects.
FORCE OF ATTRACTION
Force of attraction is a force that draws an object close due to its attraction. There are
many attractive forces existing in nature. Some of them are electrostatic force,
gravitational force, electric force, magnetic force. Gravitational force is very well
known example for force of attraction as it attracts objects towards itself irrespective
of its distance. The Newton's universal law of gravitation explains a lot more about
how this force acts. It states that every mass that exist in the universe attracts some or
other mass in the universe. It justifies the fact that anybody thrown up comes down.
Intermolecular force
Intermolecular forces (IMFs) are forces of attraction or repulsion which act between
neighboring particles (atoms, molecules, or ions). They are weak compared to
the intramolecular forces, the forces which keep a molecule together. For example
the covalent bond, involving the sharing of electron pairs between atoms is much stronger
than the forces present between the neighboring molecules. They are an essential part
of force fields frequently used in molecular mechanics.
The investigation of intermolecular forces starts from macroscopic observations which
point out the existence and action of forces at a molecular level. These observations
include non-ideal-gas thermodynamic behavior reflected by virial coefficients, vapor
pressure, viscosity, superficial tension and absorption data. ' The first reference to the
nature of microscopic forces is found in Alexis Clairaut's work Theorie de la Figure de la
Terre. Other scientists who have contributed to the investigation of microscopic forces
include: Laplace, Gauss, Maxwell and Boltzmann.
Attractive intermolecular forces are considered by the following types:
Ion-induced dipole forces

Ion-dipole forces
van der Waals forces (Keesom force, Debye force, and London dispersion force)
Information on intermolecular force is obtained by macroscopic measurements of

properties like viscosity, PVT data. The link to microscopic aspects is given by virial
coefficients and Lennard-Jones potentials.
Influence of intermolecular forces

Intermolecular forces influence chemistry in many ways.
They are directly related to properties such as melting point, boiling point and the energy
required to convert the solid into a liquid or a liquid into vapor.
1. They are important in determining the solubility of gases, liquids, and solids in
various solvents.
2. They are crucial in determining the structures of biologically important molecules
such as DNA and proteins.
Collectively, forces between molecules are called van der walls forces and these include
the attractive and repulsive forces between
1. Molecules with permanent dipoles.(dipole-dipole forces)
2. Polar molecules and non-polar molecules.(dipole-induced dipole forces)
3. Non-polar molecules.(induced dipole-induced dipole forces also called as London
forces)
Intermolecular forces involve molecules that are in which polarity can be induced.
Furthermore, several types of intermolecular forces can be at work in a single type of
molecule. Each individual induced dipole/induced dipole force is usually quite small, the
sum of these forces over the entire structure of a molecule can actually be quite even in
polar molecules.
For example, the polar sulfur-dioxide molecule attracted one another in the following
manner. Molecules of SO2 are polar with the partially negative region of one molecule
For polar molecules intermolecular forces act

between the positive end of one polar molecule and the negative end of an adjacent polar
molecule.
Dipole-dipole interactions
Dipole-dipole interactions are electrostatic interactions between permanent dipoles in
molecules. These interactions tend to align the molecules to increase attraction
(reducing potential energy). An example of a dipole-dipole interaction can be seen
in hydrogen chloride (HCl): the positive end of a polar molecule will attract the negative
end of the other molecule and influence its position. Polar molecules have a net attraction
between them. Examples of polar molecules include hydrogen chloride (HCl)
and chloroform (CHCl3).
Often molecules contain dipolar groups, but have no overall dipole moment. This occurs
if there is symmetry within the molecule that causes the dipoles to cancel each other out.
This occurs in molecules such as tetrachloromethane andcarbon dioxide. Note that the
dipole-dipole interaction between two individual atoms is usually zero, since atoms rarely
carry a permanent dipole.
Ion-dipole and ion-induced dipole forces

Ion-dipole and ion-induced dipole forces are similar to dipole-dipole and induced-dipole
interactions but involve ions, instead of only polar and non-polar molecules. Ion-dipole
and ion-induced dipole forces are stronger than dipole-dipole interactions because the
charge of any ion is much greater than the charge of a dipole moment. Ion-dipole bonding
is stronger than hydrogen bonding.
An ion-dipole force consists of an ion and a polar molecule interacting. They align so that
the positive and negative groups are next to one another, allowing for maximum
attraction.
An ion-induced dipole force consists of an ion and a non-polar molecule interacting. Like
a dipole-induced dipole force, the charge of the ion causes distortion of the electron cloud
on the non-polar molecule.
Hydrogen bonding
Hydrogen bond
A hydrogen bond is the attraction between the lone pair of an electronegative atom
and a hydrogen atom that is bonded to either nitrogen, oxygen, or fluorine. The
hydrogen bond is often described as a strong electrostatic dipole-dipole interaction.
However, it also has some features of covalent bonding: it is directional, stronger
than a van der Waals interaction, produces interatomic distances shorter than the sum
of van der Waals radius, and usually involves a limited number of interaction
partners, which can be interpreted as a kind of valence.
Intermolecular hydrogen bonding is responsible for the high boiling point

of water (100 C) compared to the other group 16hydrides, which have no hydrogen
bonds. Intramolecular hydrogen oxygen bonding is partly responsible for
the secondary, tertiary, and quaternary structures of proteins and nucleic acids. It also
plays an important role in the structure of polymers, both synthetic and natural.
CHMISTRY PROJECT
ON
Study the Rate of
Evaporation of Different
Liquids
Objective of the Project

This project is of the rate of evaporation of different liquid, in which we also
discuss the factors which affect the rate of liquid.
Introduction
When liquid is placed in an open vessel. It slowly escapes into gaseous phase eventually
leaving the vessel empty. This phenomenon is known as vaporization or evaporation.
Evaporation of liquids can be explained in the terms of kinetic molecular model although
there are strong molecular attractive forces which hold molecules together. The molecules
having sufficient kinetic energy can escape into gaseous phase. If such molecules happen
to come near the surface in a sample of liquid all the molecules do not have same kinetic
energy. There is a small fraction of molecules which have enough kinetic energy to
overcome the attractive forces and escapes into gaseous phase.
Evaporation causes cooling. This is due to the reason that the molecules which undergo
evaporation have high kinetic energy therefore the kinetic energy of the molecules which
are left behind is less.
Since the remaining molecules which are left have lower average kinetic energy.
Therefore temperature is kept constant the remaining liquid will have same distribution of
the molecular kinetic energy and high molecular energy will kept one escaping from
liquid into gaseous phase of the liquid is taken in an open vessel evaporation will
continue until whole of the liquid evaporates.
Factors affecting the rate of evaporation

(1) Nature of Liquids : The magnitude of inter-molecular forces of attraction in liquid
determine the speed of evaporation. Weaker the inter-molecular forces of attraction larger
is the extent of evaporation. In diethyl ether rate of evaporation is greater than that of
ethyl alcohol.
(2) Temperature : The rate of evaporation of liquids varies directly with temperature.
With the increase in the temperature, fraction of molecules having sufficient kinetic
energy to escape out from the surface also increases. Thus with the increase in
temperature rate of evaporation also increases.
(3) Surface Area : Molecules that escape the surface of the liquids constitute the
evaporation. Therefore larger surface area contributes accelerating evaporation.
(4) Composition of Environment : The rate of evaporation of liquids depends upon the
flow of air currents above the surface of the liquid. Air current flowing over the surface
of the liquid took away the molecules of the substance in vapour state there by preventing
condensation.
Experiment no. 1
Aim : To compare the rates of evaporation of acetone, benzene and chloroform.
Requirement : Three same size Petri dishes of diameter 10 cm., 10 ml. pipettes, stop
watch, acetone benzene and chloroform.
Procedure :
1. Clean and dry all Petri dishes and identify them as A, B and C.
2. Pipette out of 10 ml. acetone in Petri dish "A" with stopper similarly pipette out of
10 ml. of benzene and chloroform in each of Petri "B" and "C".
3. Remove the cover plates from all Petri dishes and start the stop watch.
4. Let the Petri dishes remain exposed for 10 minute. Now cover each of the petri dish
and note the volume of remaining material in them.
Observation :
Time : 10 min. = 600 Sec.
Petri dishes
Liquid Taken
Marked
(V1) ml.
Volume
remaining (V2)
Vol. Evap.
ml.
V=V1V2
10
8/600=0.0133
10
7/600=0.0116
10
6/600=0.010
Results :
Rate of evaporation of Acetone is 0.0133 ml/s.
Rate of evaporation of Benzene is 0.0166 ml/s.
Rate of evaporation of Chloroform is 0.010 ml/s.
Rate (V/T) ml./s
Conclusion :
The intermolecular forces of acetone, benzene and chloroform are in order.
Chloroform > Benzene > Acetone.
Experiment no. 2
Aim : To study the effect of surface area on the rate of evaporation of diethylether.
Requirement : Three Petri dishes of diameter 2.5 cm., 5 cm., 7.5 cm. with cover, 10 ml.
of pipette and stop watch.
Procedure :
1. Clean and dry all Petri dishes and mark them as A, B and C.
2. Pipette out of 10 ml. diethylether in each of the Petri dishes A, B and C and cover them
immediately.
3. Uncover all three Petri dishes and start the stop watch.
4. Note the remaining volume after 10 min. vaporization of diethyl ether from each Petri
dish.
Observation :
Petri dishes
Diameter of
Volume Taken
Marked
P.T.Ds.
(ml.)
2.5
B
C
Remaining Vol.
Evaporated
(ml.)
volume
10
5.0
10
7.5
10
10
Results : The order of evaporation of acetone in three petri dishes as 7.5 > 5.0 > 2.5 cm.
Conclusion : Larger the surface area more is evaporation.
Experiment no. 3
Aim : To study the effect of temperature on the rate of evaporation of acetone.
Requirement : Two Petri dishes of 5 cm. diameter each stop watch, 10 ml. pipette,
thermometer, thermostat.
Procedure :
1. Wash and Clean, dry the Petri dishes and mark them as A, B.
2. Pipette out of 10 ml. of acetone to each of Petri dishes A and B and cover them.
3. Put one Petri dish at room temperature and to the other heat for same time.
4. Note the reading.
Observation :
Petri dishes
Marked
Time (Sec.)
Temperature
(0C)
Volume Taken
Evaporated
(ml.)
volume (ml.)
10
30
10
10
20
40
10
10
Results : The order of evaporation of acetone in two Petri dishes as given

Room Temperature < Heating.
Conclusion : Observation clearly shows that the evaporation increases with temperature.
Experiment no. 4
Aim : To study the effect of air current on the rate of evaporation of acetone.
Requirement : Two Petri dishes acetone.
Procedure :
1. Clean and dry the Petri dishes and mark them as A and B.
2. Keep one dish where no air current and other under a fast air current.
3. Note the reading.
Observation :
Initial Volume 10 ml. of Acetone.
Petri dishes
Marked
Conditions
Time (Sec.)
volume
Evaporated (ml.)
With fan
40
10
without fan
50
10
Results : The order of evaporation of acetone in two Petri dishes as given

With fan > Without Fan..
BIOLOGY PROJECT
ON
PROGERIA
INTRODUCTION
Progeria
Progeria
A young girl with progeria (left). A healthy cell nucleus

(right, top) and a progeric cell nucleus (right, bottom).
Classification and external resources
Specialty
Medical genetics
ICD-10
E34.8 (ILDS E34.840)
ICD-9-CM
259.8
OMIM
176670
DiseasesDB
10704
MedlinePlus
001657
eMedicine
derm/731
MeSH
D011371
GeneReviews
Hutchinson-Gilford Progeria Syndrome
Orphanet
740
Progeria (HutchinsonGilford progeria syndrome, HGPS, progeria syndrome) is an

extremely rare genetic disorder in which symptoms resembling aspects of agingare
manifested at a very early age. Progeria is one of several progeroid syndromes. The
word progeria comes from the Greek words "pro" meaning "before" or "premature", and
"gras", meaning "old age". The disorder has a very low incidence rate, occurring in an
estimated 1 per 8 million live births. Those born with progeria typically live to their mid
teens to early twenties. It is a genetic condition that occurs as a new mutation, and is
rarely inherited, as carriers usually do not live to reproduce. Although the term progeria
applies strictly speaking to all diseases characterized by premature aging symptoms, and
is often used as such, it is often applied specifically in reference to HutchinsonGilford
progeria syndrome (HGPS).
Scientists are particularly interested in progeria because it might reveal clues about the
normal process of aging. Progeria was first described in 1886 by Jonathan Hutchinson. It
was also described independently in 1897 by Hastings Gilford. The condition was later
named HutchinsonGilford progeria syndrome.
Signs and symptoms

Children with progeria usually develop the first symptoms during their first few months
of life. The earliest symptoms may include a failure to thrive and a localized sclerodermalike skin condition. As a child ages past infancy, additional conditions become apparent
usually around 1824 months. Limited growth, full-body alopecia (hair loss), and a
distinctive appearance (a small face with a shallow recessed jaw, and a pinched nose) are
all characteristics of progeria. Signs and symptoms of this progressive disease tend to
become more marked as the child ages. Later, the condition causes wrinkled
skin, atherosclerosis, kidney failure, loss of eyesight, and cardiovascular problems.
Scleroderma, a hardening and tightening of the skin on trunk and extremities of the body,
is prevalent. People diagnosed with this disorder usually have small, fragile bodies, like
those of elderly people. The face is usually wrinkled, with a larger head in relation to the
body, a narrow face and a beak nose. Prominent scalp veins are noticeable (made more
obvious by alopecia), as well as prominent eyes. Musculoskeletal degeneration causes
loss of body fat and muscle, stiff joints, hip dislocations, and other symptoms generally
absent in the non-elderly population. Individuals usually retain typical mental and motor
development.
Causes of Progeria
Steps in normal cell
Steps in cell with progeria
The gene LMNA encodes a protein called prelamin A.
Prelamin A has a farnesyl group attached to its end.
Farnesyl group is removed from prelamin

Farnesyl group remains attached to prelamin A.
A.
Normal form is called lamin A.
Abnormal form of prelamin A is

called progerin.
Lamin A is not anchored to the nuclear

rim.
Progerin is anchored to the nuclear rim.
Normal state of the nucleus.
Abnormally shaped nucleus.
In normal conditions, the LMNA gene codes for a structural protein called prelamin A
which undergoes a series of processing steps before becoming its final form, called lamin
A. In one of these steps, after prelamin A is made in the cytoplasm,
an enzyme called farnesyl transferase attaches a farnesyl functional group to its carboxylterminus. The farnesylated prelamin A is then transported through a nuclear pore to
the interior of the nucleus. The farnesyl group allows prelamin A to attach temporarily to
the nuclear rim. Once the protein is attached, it iscleaved by a protease, thereby removing
the farnesyl group along with a few adjacent amino acids. Failure to remove this farnesyl
group permanently affixes the protein to the nuclear rim. After cleavage by the protease,
prelamin A is referred to as lamin A. Lamin A, along with lamin B and lamin C, makes up
the nuclear lamina, which provides structural support to the nucleus.
Before the late 20th century, research on progeria yielded very little information about the
syndrome. In 2003, the cause of progeria was discovered to be a point mutation in
position 1824 of the LMNA gene, in which cytosine is replaced with thymine. This
mutation creates a 5' cryptic splice site within exon 11, resulting in an abnormally short
mature mRNA transcript. This mRNA strand, when translated, yields an abnormal variant
of the prelamin. A protein whose farnesyl group cannot be removed. Because its farnesyl
group cannot be removed, this abnormal protein, referred to as progerin, is permanently
affixed to the nuclear rim, and therefore does not become part of the nuclear lamina.
Without lamin A, the nuclear lamina is unable to provide the nuclear envelope with
adequate structural support, causing it to take on an abnormal shape, Since the support
that the nuclear lamina normally provides is necessary for the organizing
of chromatin during mitosis, weakening of the nuclear lamina limits the ability of the cell
to divide.
To date over 1,400 SNPs of LMNA gene are known. They can manifest in changes on
mRNA, splicing or protein
(e.g.Arg471Cys, Arg482Gln, Arg527Leu, Arg527Cys, Ala529Val) level.
Progerin may also play a role in normal human aging, since its production is activated in
typical senescent cells.
Unlike "accelerated aging diseases" (such as Werner syndrome, Cockayne
syndrome or xeroderma pigmentosum), progeria is not caused by defective DNA repair.
Because these diseases cause changes in different aspects of aging, but never in every
aspect, they are often called "segmental progerias.
Diagnosis
Diagnosis is suspected according to signs and symptoms, such as skin changes, abnormal
growth, and loss of hair. A genetic test for LMNA mutations can confirm the diagnosis of
progeria.
Treatment
No treatment has proven effective. Most treatment focuses on reducing complications
(such as cardiovascular disease) with coronary artery bypass surgery or lowdose aspirin. Children may also benefit from a high-energy diet.
Growth hormone treatment has been attempted. The use of Morpholinos has also been
attempted in order to reduce progerin production. Antisense Morpholino oligonucleotides
specifically directed against the mutated exon 11exon 12 junction in the mutated premRNAs were used.
Potential therapeutic targets for the inhibition of progerin farnesylation

A type of anticancer drug, the farnesyltransferase inhibitors (FTIs), has been proposed,
but their use has been mostly limited to animal models. A Phase II clinical trial using the
FTI lonafarnib began in May 2007. In studies on the cells another anti-cancer
drug, rapamycin, caused removal of progerin from the nuclear membrane
through autophagy. It has been proved thatpravastatin and zoledronate are effective drugs
when it comes to the blocking of farnesyl group production.
Farnesyltransferase inhibitors (FTIs) are drugs that inhibit the activity of an enzyme
needed in order to make a link between progerin proteins and farnesyl groups. This link
generates the permanent attachment of the progerin to the nuclear rim. In progeria,
cellular damage can be appreciated because that attachment takes place and the nucleus is
not in a normal state. Lonafarnib is an FTI, which means it can avoid this link, so
progerin can not remain attached to the nucleus rim and it now has a more normal state.
The delivery of Lonafarnib is not approved by the US Food and Drug
Administration (FDA). Therefore, it can only be used in certain clinical trials. Until the
treatment of FTIs is implemented in progeria children we will not know its effects
which are positive in mice.
Pravastatin, traded as Pravachol or Selektine, is included in the family of statins. As well
as zoledronate (also known as Zometa and Reclast, which is a bisphosphonate), its utility
in HGPS is the prevention of farnesyl group formation, which progerin needs to provoke
the disease. Some animal trials have been realized using FTIs or a combination
ofpravastatin and zoledronate so as to observe whether they are capable of reversing
abnormal nuclei.
The results, obtained by blinded electron microscopic analysis and immunofluorescence
microscopy, showed that nucleus abnormalities could be reversed in transgenic mice
expressing progerin. The reversion was also observed in vivocultured cells from
human subjects with progeriadue to the action of the pharmacs, which block protein
prenylation (transfer of a farnesyl polypeptide to C-terminal cysteine). The authors of that
trial add, when it comes to the results, that: They further suggest that skin biopsy may be
useful to determine if protein farnesylation inhibitors are exerting effects in subjects with
HGPS in clinical trials.
Unlike FTIs, pravastatin and zoledronate were approved by the U.S. FDA (in 2006 and
2001 respectively), although they are not sold as a treatment for progeria. Pravastatin is
used to decrease cholesterol levels and zoledronate to prevent hypercalcaemia.
Rapamycin, also known as Sirolimus, is a macrolide. There are recent studies concerning
rapamycin which conclude that it can minimize the phenotypic effects of progeria
fibroblasts. Other observed consequences of its use are: abolishment of nuclear blebbing,
degradation of progerin in affected cells and reduction of insoluble progerin aggregates
formation. All these results do not come from any clinical trial, although it is believed
that the treatment might benefit HGPS patients.
A 2012 clinical trial found that the cancer drug Lonafarnib can improve weight gain and
other symptoms of progeria.
Prognosis
As there is no known cure, few people with progeria exceed 13 years of age. At least
90% of patients die from complications of atherosclerosis, such as heart attack or stroke.
Mental development is not adversely affected; in fact, intelligence tends to be average to
above average. With respect to the features of aging that progeria appears to manifest, the
development of symptoms is comparable to aging at a rate eight to ten times faster than
normal. With respect to features of aging that progeria does not exhibit, patients show
no neurodegeneration or cancer predisposition. They also do not develop the so-called
"wear and tear" conditions commonly associated with aging, such as cataracts (caused by
UV exposure) and osteoarthritis (caused by mechanical wear).
Although there may not be any successful treatments for progeria itself, there are
treatments for the problems it causes, such as arthritic, respiratory, and cardiovascular
problems. Sufferers of progeria have normal reproductive development and there are
known cases of women with progeria who had delivered healthy offspring.
Epidemiology
A study from the Netherlands has shown an incidence of 1 in 4 million births. Currently,
there are 100 known cases in the world. Approximately 140 cases have been reported in
medical history. However, the Progeria Research Foundation believes there may be as
many as 150 undiagnosed cases worldwide.
Classical HutchinsonGilford progeria syndrome is usually caused by a sporadic
mutation taking place during the early stages of embryo development. It is almost never
passed on from affected parent to child, as affected children rarely live long enough to
have children themselves.
There have been only two cases in which a healthy person was known to carry the
LMNA mutation that causes progeria. These carriers were identified because they passed
it on to their children. One family from India has five children with progeria, though not
the classical HGPS type. This family was the subject of a 2005 Bodyshockdocumentary
entitled The 80 Year Old Children. The Vandeweert family of Belgium has two children,
Michiel and Amber, with classic HGPS.
Research
Several discoveries have been made that have led to greater understandings and perhaps
eventual treatment for this disease.
A 2003 report in Nature said that progeria may be a de novo dominant trait. It develops
during cell division in a newly conceived zygote or in the gametes of one of the parents.
It is caused by mutations in the LMNA (lamin Aprotein) gene on chromosome 1; the
mutated form of lamin A is commonly known as progerin. One of the authors, Leslie
Gordon, was a physician who did not know anything about progeria until her own
son, Sam, was diagnosed at 22 months. Gordon and her husband, pediatrician Scott
Berns, founded the Progeria Research Foundation.
Lamin A
Lamin A is a major component of a protein scaffold on the inner edge of
the nucleus called the nuclear lamina that helps organize nuclear processes such
as RNA and DNA synthesis.
Prelamin A contains a CAAX box at the C-terminus of the protein (where C is
a cysteine and A is any aliphatic amino acids). This ensures that the cysteine
is farnesylated and allows prelamin A to bind membranes, specifically the nuclear
membrane. After prelamin A has been localized to the cell nuclear membrane, the Cterminal amino acids, including the farnesylated cysteine, are cleaved off by a
specific protease. The resulting protein, now lamin A, is no longer membrane-bound, and
carries out functions inside the nucleus.
In HGPS, the recognition site that the enzyme requires for cleavage of prelamin A to
lamin A is mutated. Lamin A cannot be produced, and prelamin A builds up on the
nuclear membrane, causing a characteristic nuclearblebbing. This results in the symptoms
of progeria, although the relationship between the misshapen nucleus and the symptoms
is not known.
A study that compared HGPS patient cells with the skin cells from young and elderly
normal human subjects found similar defects in the HGPS and elderly cells,
including down-regulation of certain nuclear proteins, increased DNAdamage,
and demethylation of histone, leading to reduced heterochromatin. Nematodes over their
lifespan show progressive lamin changes comparable to HGPS in all cells
but neurons and gametes. These studies suggest that lamin A defects are associated with
normal aging.
How prevalent is Progeria?

At present there are 74 known cases of Progeria around the world (source). There is a
reported incidence of Progeria of approximately 1 in every 4 to 8 million newborns and
both boys and girls run an equal risk of having Progeria.
Progeria appears to affect children of all races equally. Over the last 15 years the following
countries have had reported cases - Algeria, Argentina, Australia, Austria, Canada, China,
Cuba, England, France, Germany, Israel, Italy, Mexico, the Netherlands, Poland, Puerto Rico,
South Africa, South America, South Korea, Switzerland, Turkey, the US, Venezuela, Vietnam
and Yugoslavia.
What are the characteristics of Progeria?

The Cell Nucleus and Aging: Tantalizing Clues and Hopeful Promises. Scaffidi P, Gordon
L, Misteli T. PLoS Biology Vol. 3/11/2005, e395
Children with Progeria are born looking healthy. When they are about 10 to 24 months
old, features of accelerated aging start to appear. Signs of Progeria may include:
Growth failure
Loss of body fat
Loss of hair
Skin starts to look aged
Stiffness in the joints
Hip dislocation
Generalized atherosclerosis (cardio and heart disease)

Stroke
Although they may come from varying ethnic backgrounds, children with Progeria have a
surprisingly similar appearance. Progeria patients generally die between the ages of 8 and
21 - with the average age being only 13.
Case Studies Of Progeria

Case Report 1
A six-year-old white girl was first seen at a hearing and speech clinic in rural Missouri.
The childs mother brought her to the clinic seeking recommendations for special
education facilities because
the child seemed quite fragile She was referred to a Medical Centre, Kansas City,
Missouri,for evaluation, and diagnosis because of her obviously abnormal appearance.
History
Pregnancy, labour and delivery were deemed normal by the mother except she received a
series of injections in the sixth gestational month for a poison ivy dermatitis. The
newborns birth weight was 7lb2oz. The mother was aged 25 and the father was aged 26.
She was the fourth of seven children. None of her siblings appear unusual.
Early growth and development seemed normal according to the mother. Sat up at 11
months and potty trained by 2 years old. Seldom sweats and her skin seems much drier
and darker than her siblings.
Physical Examination
In appearance, the child seemed poorly nourished and poorly developed but claimed no
distress during examination. Vital signs were normal, and her mental state was normal for
a 6yr old.
The skull appeared grossly abnormal with prominence of the frontal regions. The ears
were prominent and low set.
The lungs and heart and abdomen were normal on examination. The extremities seemed
very thin, with long thing muscles. The digits were short, with considerable scarring.
Neurologic examination was normal.
The cholesterol levels appeared elevated above the normal childhood value. Many similar
values in the adult are highly correlated with overt coronary sclerosis.
Our patient is somewhat unique that she has reached the age of 6years without medical
attention or intervention.
Patient one year old. Considered normal by parents and appears completely normal.
Patient 6 and a half years old. Note general wasting, frontal bossing, cranio
facial disproportion, sternal prominence etc.
Case Report 2
The patient, a girl, was the second child of healthy unrelated parents; her brother was also
healthy. She was born in 1958 by breech birth, her condition at birth was satisfactory and
she gave no cause for concern until she was 3 months, when puckering of the skin of the
legs was first noticed. At 5 months she was referred to hospital. Over the next 18 months
her weight gain slowed so that by the age of 2 she weighed only 7.2kg. Her appetite was
poor but developmental achievements were normal. The typical features of Progeria were
now obvious; atrophic changes in the skin and hands, the nails were short, and there was
limitation of joint movement.
patient at 2 years of age.

Biological tests all came back normal; hair, skin, muscles all came back normal for the
age.
During 1962 and 1963, though growth remained poor, she became increasingly active
and entered into the normal child activities in her home area. Her intelligence was normal
and she was accepted into the village school. Provision of a wig significantly helped her
social adjustment.
By the age of 7, she had limited movement in almost all joints and by 8 had developed
angina with effort. Was in and out of hospital daily, but her intelligence remained the
same, and she spent her spare time reading, writing and painting.
In April 1969 she developed congestive cardiac failure with gross oedema.
Her body was emaciated and she had conspicuous arthritis especially in her knees
and hands. Despite the intensification of her therapy, she died four days after
admission at the age of 10years and 9 months.
AINDRILA MAJUMDAR
CLASS
--
XII
SECTION
--
ROLL NO.
--
RISE OF
THE
NOVEL
VICTORIAN
SOCIETY
&
LITERATURE
BIRTHDAY DIRECTORY
NAME
1. USHA PAL
2. ARIJIT BOSE
3. AMAL MITRA (GONU)
4. TUMPA BOSE
5. SHUKLA DE SARKAR
6. GOURAV BISWAS
7. SUMITRA CHOWDHURY
8. GAYATRI GHOSH
9. NANDINI GHOSH
10. LOPAMUDRA GUPTA
11. RINA GHOSH
12. ILA DASGUPTA
13. ABHIJIT BOSE
14. PROSENJIT LAHIRI
15. MADHURI MAJUMDAR
16. SHUKLA CHATTERJEE
17. ONKAR MAJUMDAR
18. SWAPAN GHOSH
19. SOUMYA GHOSH
20. SATYAKI GHOSH
21. TAPASHREE GUPTA (Pinki)
22. EBHA MITRA
23. SUMITRA MUKHERJEE
24. BOBO
25. PRADIP MUKHERJEE(Babua)
26. JOYA BISWAS
27. SHYAMALI DUTTA
28. MALA ROY
29. NIRBED ROY
DATE OF BIRTH
CONTACT NO.
06th JANUARY
28th JANUARY
10th FEBRUARY
15th FEBRUARY
18th FEBRUARY
22nd FEBRUARY
24th FEBRUARY
17th MARCH
19th MARCH
14th APRIL
29th APRIL
29th APRIL
16th MAY
02nd JUNE
15th JUNE
30th JUNE
30th JUNE
26thJULY
15th AUGUST
20th AUGUST
05th SEPTEMBER
09th SEPTEMBER
12th SEPTEMBER
12th SEPTEMBER
18th SEPTEMBER
25th SEPTEMBER
29th SEPTEMBER
01st OCTOBER
04th OCTOBER
9830437030
9830743319
9433801603
9830143315
9007130666
9830728819
9830379498
9062081951
9830864706
9051233385
9051756870
033- 24665006
9874553805
9836108401
9831797441
9831886651
9062082754
9830222108
9830772454
9051834649
9830111475
9831733081
9874040719
9007953798
9836361739
9836412201
8420392644
9433097666
9831037631
30. PRADEEP MUKHERJEE(Ranell) 08th OCTOBER

31. SWAPNA CHATTERJEE(Bachi) 12th OCTOBER
32. MANAS PAL
16th OCTOBER
33. SHYAMALI DAS
22nd OCTOBER
34. GOPAL BOSE
29th OCTOBER
9883250673
--------9830037030
9433561504
9163335949
35. TINKU SAHA

36. DEEPA BOSE
37. DULAL BOSE

38. TAPAN GHOSH
39. ALOK DASGUPTA
40. MITHU DAS
41. SOUMYA GHOSH
42. ASHISH DE SARKAR
02nd NOVEMBER
9831939750
07th NOVEMBER
8013099020
22nd NOVEMBER
26th NOVEMBER
04th DECEMBER
06th DECEMBER
07th DECEMBER
16th DECEMBER
9831550080
9874459528
9830218846
--------9830224780
9007129777

Material & Labour Contractor
Narendrapur, Srikhanda, P.S.-Sonarpur, 24 Pgs.
Prop. Jatan Halder

Mob: 9874139178/8697189348
Bill no. JH/014

Date: 05/7/2016
Kolkata - 700071
23/06/2016 Charges for replacement of 2 Pit cover (1ft./1ft) at ground floor
Cost including material & labour
Rs. 1200 X 3 = Rs.3600/-
02/07/2016: Charges for repairing of 17 Pieces broken slabs with fixing materialscement, sand, stone cheaps & chemicals in ground floor passage car parking
area.
Cost including material & labour .
Total cost Rs. 12,100/-
Rs.500 X 17= Rs. 8,500/-
No.JH/287/2016
Date: 03/03/2016

Prop. Jatan Halder

Mob: 9874139178/8697189348
Received with thanks from.M/s.Excel Services Pvt. Ltd.
The sum of RupeesEighty nine thousand one hundred only.

By Cash/Cheque no181580Dated..01/03/2016.
Drawn on.AXIS BANK LTD..in advance/part/full payment.
Rs. 89,100/-
This receipt is valid only after realization of the cheque
June 27, 2016

The Officer In charge
Tollygunj Police Station
Kolkata
Sub: Theft of 1 Samsung mobile phone, 1 pair of gold ear-ring, 1 ladies purse
Dear Sir,
This is to inform you that, today at about 11:00 a.m the above mentioned articles have
been theft from our room at 1st floor. During that time my wife was out to market and my
elderly father was in the other room. Few months back 1 brass made pitcher was theft
from the washing room at ground floor during day time.
This has become very severe issue, as whole day my elderly father and my wife stay at
home while I am out to office and my daughter away to school and comes back at around
2:00 p.m.; we are really feeling in secured.
Since so many years there was a system for keeping the main door locked and the
multiple keys used to keep with every member of us as well the landlord. But all of a
sudden, our landlord is not allowing to keep the main gate locked until late night
purposely. So that we face problems. The Landlord stays at 2nd floor always locked with
collapsible gate from inside, so he does not have to face any problem.
Therefore, under the circumstances you are requested to arrange for keeping the main
gate locked like earlier. Presently, we lock the main gate at around 12 at night and the
duplicate key has been given to the landlord, which he denies. Most of the time after
locking the main gate at night, landlords younger daughter returns home after 12 at night
and unlocks the main gate using the duplicate key.
Thanking you
Yours sincerely
Biswajoy Majumdar
2C, Bowali Mondal Road(1st floor),
Kolkata 700026
Mobile no. 9038732141
July 18, 2016

The Branch Manager
Bank of Baroda
Tollygunj Branch
Kolkata
Dear Sir,
This is for your kind information that I shall be of 80 (Eighty) years age on the
08th August, 2016. I am thus entitled to receive an increased pension from that day on.
Please do the needful and oblige. For verification of my age I have attached photocopies
of the few pages of my Pension Payment Order Book.
My Pension Account number in your Bank is 00360100003288.
Thanking you
Yours truly
(SISIR RANJAN MAJUMDAR)

Prop. Jatan Halder

Mob: 9874139178/8697189348
Bill no. JH/034

Date: 30/8/2016
Kolkata - 700071
21/08/2016 Charges for replacement of 5 Pit cover (1ft./1ft) at ground floor

Cost including material & labour
Rs. 1200 X 5 = Rs.6,000/-
21/08/2016: Charges for repairing of 09 Pieces broken slabs with fixing materialscement, sand, stone cheep & chemicals in ground floor passage car parking
area.
Cost including material & labour .
Total cost Rs. 10,500/-
Rs.500 X 09= Rs. 4,500/-

Birla Sunlife

Uploaded by

Document Information

Original Title

Copyright

Available Formats

Share this document

Share or Embed Document

Sharing Options

Did you find this document useful?

Is this content inappropriate?

Copyright:

Available Formats

Birla Sunlife

Uploaded by

Copyright:

Available Formats

May 07, 2012

M/s Birla Sun life Insurance Co. Ltd.

August 13, 2012

M/s Birla Sun life Insurance Co. Ltd.

c.c. M/s Bengal & Assam Co. Ltd.

April 24, 2013

c.c. M/s Bengal & Assam Co. Ltd.

July 10, 2013

October 28, 2013

June 27, 2014

M/s Birla Sun life Insurance Co. Ltd.

Sub: Enhancement of Maintenance charges w.e.f. May, 2014

July 23, 2014

M/s Birla Sun life Insurance Co. Ltd.

2) Less excess amount paid as per

(Rupees Thirty three thousand three hundred &twenty five only)

Encl: Three bills.

January 01, 2015

North Bengal Tourism

M/S SUKLA COLOUR PAINTS

Prop. Jatan Halder

Bill no. R/786

Rs.500 X 08= Rs. 4,000/-

Rs.750 X 05= Rs. 3,750/-

Rs. 500 X 11= Rs. 5,500/Total cost Rs. 13,250/-

Madame de Pompadourspending her afternoon with a book, 1756.

Ancient Greek novel and the Byzantine novel

character development, and psychological observation. Urbanization and the spread of

Medieval period 11001500

Chaucer reciting Troilus and Criseyde: early-15th-century manuscript of the work

Renaissance period: 1500-1700

Richard Head, The English Rogue(1665)

1719 newspaper reprint ofRobinson Crusoe

Cervantes and the modern novel

18th century novel

Laurence Sterne, Tristram Shandy, vol.6, p.70-71 (1769)

The romance genre in the 18th century

Samuel Richardson's Pamela(1741)

The sentimental novel

The social context of the 18th century novel

By around 1700, fiction was no longer a predominantly aristocratic entertainment,

Intimate short stories:The Court and City Vagaries (1711).

individuals, such as students in university towns and daughters of London's upper

The acceptance of novels as literature

18th century reading habits

Total numbers of English titles, 16001799 according to ESTC data. Years of

The yearly output of fiction in English 16001799.

19th century novel

Image from a Victorian edition of Walter Scott'sWaverley

The Victorian period: 1837-1901

Harriet Beecher Stowe's Uncle Tom's Cabin (1852)

The 20th century and later

Chinua Achebe, Buffalo, 2008

Henning Mankell lecturing at Parkteateret, Oslo 2007

Joyce Carol Oates, 2006

Doris Lessing, Cologne literature festival 2006, Germany

Stephen King, February 2007

Elfriede Jelinek, Munich, 2004

Michel Houellebecq, Warsaw, 2008

Early novels in English

Sir Walter Scott

H. G. Wells studying in London, taken c. 1890

Scotland has in the late 20th-century produced several important novelists,