What Is meant by Fermi level in semiconductor?

Derive the
expression for it.
Ans. Fermi level in semiconductor can be defined as the maximum
energy that an

in a semiconductor have at zero degree absolute.

Assumption is the width. of energy bands are small in comparison to

forbidden energy gap between them, all levels in a band have the
same energy, energies of all levels in valence band are and energies
of all levels in conduction band are
Now no. of
in conduction band,
where P ( ) represents probability of an e having energy .
determined by Fermi-Dirac probability distribution function

where P(E) is probability of finding an

So

Now no. of

may be

..(1)
having energy E.

in valence band,

The probability P(0) of an

being found in the valence band with zero
energy can be determined by putting E = 0 in (1).

So

Or

i.e. in an intrinsic semiconductor, the Fermi level lies midway between

the conduction and valence bands.
Q. 15. What do you mean by Fermi level ? Derive the
expression for Fermi level and sketch the position of intrinsic,
P-type and N-type semiconductor.
Ans. Fermi level can be defined as the maximum energy that an
semiconductor have at zero degree absolute.
Fermi Dirac probability function

in a

where K is boltzmann constant and is the Fermi level in eV.

Concentration of free
(it) and of holes (P) are given as

where
is the no. of
in conduction band,
is the no. of
in the
valence band, is the lowest energy in conduction band in eV and is
the maximum energy of valence band in eV.
The only parameter that changes with the addition of impurity is fermi
level .
In an intrinsic semiconductor it lies in the middle of the energy gap,
indicating equal concentrations of free
and holes.

When donor type impurity is added to the crystal, then at a given

temperature and assuming all donor atoms, the first
states in the
conduction band be filled. Hence it is difficult for
from valence band
to bridge the energy gap by the thermal generation. No. of hole pairs
thermally generated are reduced. EF must be more closer to
conduction band to indicate that many of energy states in that band
are filled by donor
and fewer holes exist in valence band. This is the
position for fermi level in N-type semiconductor.
Similarly must move down from the centre of the forbidden gap
closer to the valence band for a P-type extrinsic semiconductor.
Explain drift and diffusion of charge carriers in semiconductors.
Derive an expression for the e current due to drift and
diffusion.
Ans. When a steady electric field E volt/metre is applied to a metal,
the
move to the positive terminal of The applied voltage In their
way, they continuously collide with the atoms and rebound in random
fashion After the collision,
are accelerated and gain certain
component of velocity in the direction opposite to that of applied
electric field and lose their energy at the next collision. Thus the
applied electric field does not stop collisions and random motion but
makes the drift towards the positive terminal. The
gain average
drift velocity v in the direction opposite to that of applied electric field.
Where,
= drift velocity,
mobility (av. particle drift velocity per unit electric field)
and
E is expressed in

This steady flow of

in one direction caused by the applied electric
field constitutes an electric current called drift current.
Current density,
Where
as

is the conductivity of the medium in

and is given

:. The conductivity of
of the semiconductor due to
in conductidn
band is given by
where n is the no. of
per unit volume of the
conductor, e is the charge and is the electron mobility. Similarly,
the conductivity , due to holes.
where p is the number of holes per unit volume and , is
hole mobility.
Since in semiconductors, the conduction is by free
and holes, so
total conductivity is given as

In intrinsic semiconductor n = p =
conductivity

, so intrinsic semiconductor

E is applied electric field,

V is applied potential difference across the two ends of the conductor
and
a is cross-sectional area of the conductor.
In case of N-type semiconductor hole concentration is negligible
and e concentration
So conductivity of N-type semiconductor

similarly for P-type semiconductor

Total current density due to drift of
and holes on application of
electric field E,
J = Current density due to hole + Current density due to

The carrier currents are also due to concentration gradients in the

doped material which leads to diffusion of carriers from high
concentration to low concentration region. When a concentration
gradient of carriers exists in a material, the charge carriers tend to
move from tile region of higher concentration to the region of lower
concentration. The process is called diffusion and the current due to
this process is called diffusion current.
The current density due to diffusion of holes is given as

where
= diffusion constant
=
is mean free path at a reference plane x and
between collisions.
Similarly current density due to diffusion of
is

is mean free-time

Total current in semiconductor in the sum of drift and diffusion current

due to potential gradient and due to charge carrier concentration
gradient respectively.

Differentiate between transition and diffusion capacitance of a

p-n junction diode.
Ans. Transition and Diffusion Capacitance: In reverse biased
condition, due to change with respect to voltage there exists a
capacitive effect called as transition capacitance denoted as CT.
It is given by
where, W = width of the carrier.
W is related to barrier potential VB by the relation,
barrier potential,

0 and r are the permittivity and relative permittivity respectively.

Hence,
,while

On the other hand, in forward biased condition also there exists a

capacitive effect called as diffusion capacitance denoted as CD.
Electronic devices are inherently sensitive to very high
frequencies.
in p-n diode, there are two capacitive effects present. Both types
of capacitances are present in forward bias and reverse bias
regions but in reverse region transition or depletion region
capacitance

and

in

forward

bias

region

diffusion

capacitance
is considered.
Transition or space-charge capacitance :
When p-n junction is in reverse bias, depletion region acts like an
insulator or dielectric material while the p and n-type regions on
either side have low resistance and act as a plates.
Thus p-n junction is considered a parallel plate capacitor. The
junction capacitance or transition capacitance or depletion region
capacitance and is denoted by

.
where ,
= increase in charge due to increase in voltage dv.

Since depletion region increases with the increase in reverse bias

potential the resulting transition capacitance decreases.

Diffusion (or storage) capacitance :

When a p-n junction is forward biased, capacitance, which is
much larger than transition capacitance, is evident. This is
diffusion capacitance
.
For a forward bias region, the depletion region reduced and
hence potential barrier reduces.
Now
from n-side enter p-side and holes from p-side enter nside. These charge carriers diffuse away from the junction and
progressively recombine. The density of charge carriers is higher
near the junction when forward biased. Thus charge is stored on
both sides of the junction and decays exponentially with distance
i.e. Diffusion Capacitance

, which is observed that the

amount of stored charge varies with the applied voltage as for a

capacitor.

z is mean life time carrier, then a flow of charge 9 yields a diode

current I given as:

Diffusion capacitance is directly proportion to forward current through

the diode.

What is meant by voltage regulation of a dc power supply?

Ans. In an unregulated power supply consisting of transformer,
rectifier and filter, output voltage does not remain constant and may
vary considerably. The change in voltage from no load to full load
condition is known as voltage regulation.

When
and
are no load output voltage and full load output
voltage respectively.
The output voltage may vary due to either change in supply voltage,
change in load resistance or change in temperature.
A voltage regulator is connected between the filter and the load in
order to provide an almost constant dc voltage at the output terminals
of the regulator. With this in power supply, it is known as regulated
power supply.
What is a zener diode? Explain its working and draw its
characteristics.
Ans.
Zener diode, also known as breakdown diode is a p-n junction
diode specially designed for operation in the breakdown region in
reverse bias condition.
The diode may use either breakdown mechanism or avalanche
breakdown mechanism.
Si is preferred for breakdown diode because of higher operating
temperature and current capability.
The knee point is more sharp for Si diodes.
The symbol of zener diode and its watt-ampere characteristics are
given.

 When the reverse bias on a diode is increased, a point is reached

when the junction breakdown and a reverse current increases
abruptly.
The breakdown region is the knee of the reverse characteristics,
so, the breakdown voltage is called zener voltage and zener
current
.
Breakdown diode is operated over breakdown region and current
is limited by an external resistance.
Zener voltage,
depends upon the amount of doping. A heavily
doped diode will have very thin depletion layer, so
will be very
low. By controlling the thickness of depletion layer and doping
concentration,
it is possible to make the zener diode to breakdown at specified
voltage.
The forward characteristics of zener are same as that of ordinary
p-n junction diode.
In reverse bias, it does not burn out immediately. As long as
current through the diode is limited by external circuit with
permissible values, it does not burn out.
Zener impedance (or dynamic resistance of a zener diode) is most
important parameter i.e.
.
It is defined as the reciprocal of the slope of the zener curve.

where ,
are small variations in current and voltage respectively.
It is usually measured just above the knee in zener region. It
decrease with increase in zener current.
Zener voltage may be affected by change in ambient
temperature. Effect of temperature on
is given in term of
temperature coefficient which is defined as percentage change in
nominal zener voltage for each degree centigrade of change in
junction temperature i.e.

For zener diodes with breakdown voltage of less than 5V,

temperature coefficient is negative.
For voltages above 6V, it is positive. And between 5 to 6V,
it varies from negative to positive value.

Explain zener diode as a voltage regulator.

Ans. Voltage regulation is a measure of a circuits ability to maintain a
constant output voltage even when either input voltage or load current
varies. The figure shows a zener diodes application as voltage
regulator to provide a constant voltage from a source whose voltage
may vary appreciably.

A resistor
is necessary to limit the reverse current through the diode
to safer value. The voltage source
and the resistor
are so selected
that the diode operates in the breakdown region. The diode voltage in
this region, which is also the voltage across the load
is called zener
voltage
and the current is zener current
The series resistance,
absorbs the output voltage fluctuations so as to maintain voltage
across the load constant. Zener diode is reverse connected across the
input voltage whose variations are to be regulated.
As long as voltage across the load resistor
is less than , the zener
diode does not conduct. The resistors
and
constitute a potential
divider across . At an increased supply voltage , the voltage drop
across load resistor and becomes greater than the zener breakdown
voltage. It then operates in breakdown region.
limits
from
exceeding its rated maximum
because zener current is

The current from the power supply splits at the junction of zener diode
and the load resistor .
So
When zener diode operates in breakdown,
remains fairly constant
even though
flowing through it, may vary considerably.
When
increases; current through zener and
increases. At the
same time, zener diode resistance decreases and the current through
diode increases more than proportionately. As a result, greater voltage
drop will occur across the series resistor
and the output voltage
will become very close to the original value. The reverse is also true.
This a zener diode can maintain two output voltage,
within a
fraction of a volt when the supply or input voltage
may vary over a
range of several volts.

The advantage of zener voltage regulator over other voltage regulators

is that it is smaller, lighter, more rugged and have a longer life.
But zener regulation have some drawbacks also as their efficiency is
low, output voltage varies slightly due to zener impedance and
output voltage is dependent upon breakdown voltage of zener.
This regulation is employed when there are small variations in load
current and supply voltage.

Zener Diode
A Zener diode is a p-n junction operated in the reverse biased
mode to take advantage of its sharply defined breakdown
voltage.
The Zener voltage VZ is specified at some test value of current IZT,
at which the diode will exhibit some dynamic impedance

which depends upon the zener voltage of the diode and the level
of zener current.

Operation: A Zener diode may be used to regulate the load voltage at

the value VZ by acting as a bypass value to counteract line voltage or
load current variations. Diodes having a breakdown voltage below
about 6V rely on the true zener effect (high electric field moves
electrons from bonds), while the avalanche effect is responsible for
reverse current above 6 V. Zener diodes have a temperature
coefficient, Z which generally is negative for VZ below about 6 V but
positive above 6V, and is expressed in per cent of V Z per C, with the
change in Zener Voltage given by the equation.

Zener Regulator:
When zener diode is forward biased, it works as a diode and drop
across it is 0.7 V. When it works in breakdown region, the voltage
across it is constant (VZ) and the current through diode is decided by
the external resistance. Thus, zener diode can be used as a voltage
regulator in the configuration shown in figure.
The load line of the circuit is given by:
Vs = sRI + Vz

To operate the zener in breakdown region Vs should always be greater

than VZ. Rs is used to limit the current

The Zener on state resistance produces more IR drop as the current

increases. As the voltage varies from V1 to V2 the operating point shifts
from Q1 to Q2,
The voltage at Q1 is
V1= I1 RZ + VZ
and at Q2,
V2 = I2 RZ + VZ
Thus, change in voltage is
V2 V1 = (I2 I1)RZ; VZ = IZRZ

Reference zener diodes are available with z as low as O.0005

% C.
The admission of a small amount of mercury gas increases the
current capability of a hot cathode gas filled tube.
A cold cathode or glow discharge diode may be used as a DC
voltage regulator in a similar manner to a zener diode.