Combining Electronic Detonators

with Stem Charges and Air Decks

by
R. Frank Chiappetta, MSc. P.Eng.
Explosives Applications Engineer

Blasting Analysis International, Inc.

Allentown, Pennsylvania, U.S.A.

Drill and Blast 2010

Perth, Australia
October 12 - 14 , 2010
c 2010, Blasting Analysis International, Inc.
All Rights Reserved.

What are the 3 most important

things in blasting?

1 ) Drilling Controls
2 ) Drilling Controls
3 ) Drilling Controls

Mine

Mill

Explosive energy
Energy distribution in rock mass
Timed and controlled release of energy

Major Sources
of Oversize

Bench top

6
9

11
12
Stemming

Explosive
column

3
2
4

8
10

1 Collar / Top Stemming

2 Free Face
3 Toe & Subgrade

4 Corners & Irregular Bench

5 Intact Massive Seams
6 Imbedded Conglomerate

Boulders

Stemming volume
can be 20 50%
of blast volume
Pit floor

Subgrade

For illustrative
purposes only

Shot Muck Pile

Original collar
or top stemming

Excellent
Fragmentation

Oversize and Poor

Fragmentation

Oversize from collar (top stemming zone)

Shot Muck Pile

Boulders require
secondary drilling and
blasting

Oversize from collar (top stemming zone)

Shot Muck Pile

Purposely Masked
Multiple dozers skim oversize and push it over bench face for
shovels to dig Tremendous re-handling of oversize!

Shot Muck Pile

Purposely masked
Shovels re-handle oversize for loading into haulage trucks!

Shot Muck Pile

Oversize Galore!

Decreasing stemming is often

used to increase fragmentation in
the collar zone (top stemming).

Normal
Stemming

Explosive
column

Decreased
Stemming

Decreased
Stemming

But, there are

definite limits
as to how
much the top
stemming can
be reduced!

Uncontrolled Shot - Severe Flyrock & Airblast

Top stemming too small

Unintentional Flyrock Damage

Secondary Breakage
Drilling & Blasting

Impact Hammer

Shaped Charge

Drop Weight

Special Drop Weight

Special Drop Weight

Special Drop Weight

Secondary Blasting

Extreme Secondary Blasting

SD - Scaled Depth of Burial Calculations

Surface

Stemming

L
Length of W

D
W
D = Distance from
surface to center of W
W = Weight of explosive
occupied in top of
explosive column,
equivalent to the length of
10 borehole or explosive
diameters

If borehole diameter is less than

4-in (102 mm), use 8 explosive
diameters to calculate W.

SD = D/W1/3
D = SD * W1/3
W = ( D/SD)3
SD = Selected Scaled
Depth of Burial.
D = Distance from surface to
center of stem charge.
W = Mass of explosives equivalent
to 10 explosive diameters.

Imperial Units

SD =

D/W1/3

Metric Units

Explosive density = 1.27 g/cc

Explosive density = 1.27 g/cc

Explosive diameter = 10.625 in

Explosive diameter = 270 mm

Stemming = 6.0 m

Stemming = 19.7 ft
Surface

Stemming
6.0 m (19.6 ft)

Length of 10 borehole diameters Length of 10 borehole diameters

= (270 mm/1000 mm) x 10
= (10.625 in/12 in) x 10
= 2.7 m
= 8.9 ft

L = 2.70 m (8.9 ft)

Length of W

W
D = Distance from
surface to center of W
W = Weight of explosive
occupied in top of
explosive column,
equivalent to the length of
10 borehole or explosive
diameters

One linear foot of explosives at

a density of 1.27 g/cc in a
10.625 in hole weighs 50.3 lbs.

One linear meter of explosives

at a density of 1.27 g/cc in a
270 mm hole weighs 72.5 Kg.

Thus, W = 8.9 x 50.3 = 445 lbs

Thus, W = 6.0 x 72.5 = 201 Kg

W1/3 = 4451/3 = 7.62 lbs1/3

= 19.6 + (8.9) = 24.2

Explosive density = 1.27 g/cc

1990,Blasting Analysis International, Inc.
All Rights Reserved

D
W1/3

24.2
7.6

W1/3 =

2011/3 = 5.84 Kg1/3

D = Stemming + (L)

D = Stemming + (L)

SD =
Borehole diameter = 270 mm (10 5/8 in)

and

and

= 6.0 + (2.70) = 7.35

= 3.18 SD =

D
W1/3

7.35
5.84

= 1.26

Alternatively, D = SD x W1/3 and W = (D/SD)3

Significance of SD value is illustrated in next slide.

Uncontrolled Energy
Violent flyrock, airblast,
noise and dust.

Controlled Energy
Good fragmentation.

Very fine fragmentation.

Maximum volume of broken

rock in collar zone.

Good craters.

Acceptable vibration/airblast.
Good heave and muck pile
mound.

Very Controlled Energy

Larger fragmentation.
Reduced volume of broken
rock in collar zone.
Acceptable vibration/airblast.
Reduced heave and muck
pile mound.
No flyrock.

Minimal Surface Effects

Small surface
disturbance
No
fallback

Insignificant
surface effects

Some
fallback

No
breakage
zone

SD = 0 0.60
Metric Units

0.64 0.88

(m/Kg1/3)
0.92 1.40
SD = 0 1.5
Imperial Units

1.6 2.2
2.3 3.5

(ft/lb1/3)

1.44 1.80
3.6 4.5

Significance of SD (Scaled Depth of Burial)

1990, 2008 Blasting Analysis International, Inc.
All Rights Reserved

1.84 2.40
4.6 6.0

2.40 +
6.0 +

SD - Scaled Depth of Burial equations

can be used to calculate:
Top stemming
Stab charge quantity
Stem charge quantity

Metric Units
Top Stemming = (SD x ( 3 x /127500)1/3) ( /200)
Where: SD = Scaled depth of burial (Kg/m1/3)
= Explosive diameter (mm)
= Explosive density (g/cc)
Example Calculation
Top Stemming when SD is selected as 1.2
Top
stemming

= (SD x (3 x /127500)1/3) ( /200)

= (1.2 x (2293 x 1.25/127500)1/3) (229/200)
= (1.2 x (12008989 x 1.25/127500)1/3) (1.15)
= (1.2 x (117.74)1/3) (1.15)
= (1.2 x 4.89) (1.15)

SD = 0.92 1.40 m/Kg1/3

Hole diameter = 229 mm
Explosive density = 1.25 g/cc

= (5.87) (1.15)
= 4.72 5 m

Imperial Units
Top Stemming = (SD x (3 x x 0.284)1/3) (0.417 x )
Where: SD = Scaled depth of burial (lb/ft1/3)
= Explosive diameter (in)
= Explosive density (g/cc)
Example Calculation
Top
stemming

Top Stemming when SD is selected as 3.0

= (SD x (3 x x 0.284)1/3) (0.417 x )
= (3.0 x (93 x 1.25 x 0.284)1/3) (0.417 x 9)
= (3.0 x (729 x 1.25 x 0.284)1/3) (3.75)
= (3.0 x (258.80)1/3) (3.75)

SD = 2.3 3.5 ft/lb1/3

Hole diameter = 9 in
Explosive density = 1.25 g/cc

= (3.0 x 6.36) (3.75)

= (19.08) (3.75)
= 15.3 ft

Bench top

Distributing More Energy

in Collar Zone
1 Cartridge or Decoupled

Charge in Stemming
2 Stab or Pilot Hole
3 Stem Charge

3
2
Stemming

Explosive
column

Pit floor
Subgrade

For illustrative
purposes only

Method 1

Cartridge or decoupled
explosives placed
within the top
stemming

Method 1

Cartridge or
Decoupled
Explosives
Cartridge or decoupled
explosives in top stemming
introduce too much risk as a top
load in creating severe
blowouts, flyrock and airblast.
Laser Profiler

Method 2
Stab or Pilot Hole Placed In Between Production Holes
Production
Holes

Stab
Hole

Stab holes are

generally not popular
because

* Requires additional holes & drilling.

* Restricts vehicle traffic on blast block.
* Unsafe to drive over loaded/unloaded holes.
Could be illegal in some countries.
Subgrade

Method 3
Stem Charge Placed Inside Stemming Column
Production
Holes

Good distribution of energy

in the collar zone.

D
Stemming

D = 50 65%
of Stemming

Stem
Charge

Stab hole depth is generally drilled

50 65% of the normal stemming
column.
Stem charge must be calculated precisely
with SD = 1.0 1.6. A good starting point
is 1.3 for typical applications.
If using electronic detonators, the stem and
main charges should be fired instantaneously.
If using Nonel, it is critical that the stem charge
is always fired before the main charge.

Subgrade

Method 3
Increase Stemming When Using a Stem Charge

Normal
Stemming

Increased
Stemming

Stem Charge

Explosive
column

Uses less explosives per hole.

Much better fragmentation in collar zone.
Controlled flyrock, airblast and dust.

Uncontrolled Energy
Violent flyrock, airblast,
noise and dust.

Controlled Energy
Good fragmentation.

Very fine fragmentation.

Maximum volume of broken

rock in collar zone.

Good craters.

Acceptable vibration/airblast.
Good heave and muck pile
mound.

Very Controlled Energy

Larger fragmentation.
Reduced volume of broken
rock in collar zone.
Acceptable vibration/airblast.
Reduced heave and muck
pile mound.
No flyrock.

Minimal Surface Effects

Small surface
disturbance
No
fallback

Insignificant
surface effects

Some
fallback

No
breakage
zone

SD = 0 0.60
Metric Units

0.64 0.88

(m/Kg1/3)
0.92 1.40
SD = 0 1.5
Imperial Units

1.6 2.2
2.3 3.5

(ft/lb1/3)

1.44 1.80
3.6 4.5

Significance of SD (Scaled Depth of Burial)

1990, 2008 Blasting Analysis International, Inc.
All Rights Reserved

1.84 2.40
4.6 6.0

2.40 +
6.0 +

Example Stem Charge Calculation

SD = D/W1/3
D = SD * W1/3
Surface

Stemming
6m

D = 65% Stemming = 3.9 m

W = Stem Charge

W = (D/SD)3
= (3.9/1.2)3
= (3.25)3

SD is chosen as 1.2

= 34 Kg

Important Stem Charge Cautions

D = 3.9 m
6m

34 Kg

Stem charge quantity and placement

must be fairly exact!
With electronic detonators, fire stem
charge and main charge instantaneously.
With pyrotechnic detonators, always fire
the stem charge first, before main charge.

The same in-hole pyrotechnic delays in the stem and

main charges have too much scatter. If the main
charge fires first, there is a risk that the stem charge
could be ejected out with the top stemming.

Advantages of Using a Stem Charge

Decreased explosives per hole, but

Improves fragmentation
5 -10 fold or more in the
stemming zone.
Doubling only the normal powder factor
(without the use of a stem charge) will have no
significant effect on the fragmentation in the
collar zone. This was demonstrated with full
scale test blasts in Chile to convince mine
operators.

Effects of a mid-column air deck

versus a full column load

Stemming
Primers in each explosive
deck must be placed
equidistant from center of
mid-column air deck.

Mid column air deck results in

a longer lasting pressure pulse
on the surrounding rock.

Explosive
deck

Air Deck - Rapidly

expanding gasses
collide in center of
air deck
Pressure

Explosive
deck

Pressure pulse from a continuous

explosive column load.

Time

Stemming
Air Deck

A single air deck placed

anywhere in the explosive
column will:

Explosive
deck

Air Deck
Explosive
deck

Reduce ground
vibrations and fines.

End Charge Effects and Subgrade Drilling

Bench Top

Floor
Subgrade

Unbroken
Rock

Effect of Bottom Hole Air Deck

Surface

Reduces explosives, vibrations and fines.

Stemming

Reduces/eliminates subgrade drilling.

Explosive
Column

Primer must be placed directly

on top of air-deck to succeed
in breaking to bottom of hole.
This is critical.

Power Deck
P1

1 m Air Deck

P2
Coal

P2
No coal damage

Coal

On reflection at bottom of hole,

Pressure P2 = (2 7) x P1 due to combined effects of
shock wave reflection at hole bottom and the immediate
gas pressure buildup.

Effect of Raising Primer Over Bottom Hole Air Deck

Surface

Stemming

Initial energy from primer and

explosives migrating into the rock
mass negates the bottom hole air
deck.

Explosive
Column

1 m Air Deck

P1
Poor fragmentation

Coal

P2

P2

Solid, unbroken rock

Coal

Shock wave has disappeared before reaching bottom of hole.

P2 is now less than P1, and also less than the compressive strength of the rock.

Targeted Floor

Conventional Hole
Load With Subgrade
Coaxial cable
to TDR VOD
instrument

Bottom Hole Air Deck

Measurements.

Power Deck Plug at Bottom of

Hole With No Subgrade

Coaxial cable
to TDR VOD
instrument

Surface

Surface

Stemming

Stemming
Top
backup
primer
525 ms

Top
backup
primer
525 ms

Production
Holes = 6-in.
(165 mm)

Bottom
primer
500 ms

Explosive
Explosive
Power Deck
Plug
Bottom
primer
500 ms

Coaxial cable
to TDR VOD
instrument

Subgrade

(c)

3.3-ft (1 m)
Air Deck
No Subgrade

3-In (76 mm) diameter hole

drilled from bench face to
intersect bottom of hole.

(a)

Coaxial cable
to TDR VOD
instrument

(b)
3-In (76 mm) diameter hole
drilled from bench face to
intersect bottom of hole.

Power Deck Plug at Bottom

of Hole With No Subgrade
Coaxial cable
to TDR VOD
instrument

Typical Bottom Hole Air Deck

Results from VODR System.
Courtesy of International Technologies and BAI.

D (m)
5.73

Surface

Stemming

4.59
Top
backup
primer
525 ms

3.44

Explosive

Power Deck
Plug

(c)

(a)
(c)

3.3-ft (1 m)
Air Deck
No Subgrade

2.29

Bottom
primer
500 ms

Coaxial cable
to TDR VOD
instrument

1.15 (b)

0.00 (a)

(b)

1.12

3-In (76 mm) diameter hole

drilled from bench face to
intersect bottom of hole.

Gas front velocity

through 3-in (76 mm)
hole = 1,500 ft/sec
(457 m/s)
Bottom of hole
Shock wave velocity = 11,000 ft/sec (3354 m/s)
Primer
2.29

4.86

6.72
Time (ms)

8.59

10.46

Hole Delay = 17 42 ms
Row Delay = 65 109 ms

Typical Delays with Conventional Non-Electric (Nonel) System

Hole Delay = 1 3 ms
Row Delay = 100 300 ms

New Delays with Precise Electronic Detonators

Delay Timing

Vs

Vp

Conventional
No interaction of
shock/stress
waves

0 ms

Vp
Vs

25 ms

50 ms

Vp
Vs

Electronic
Maximum
interaction of
shock/stress
waves

0 ms

2 ms

4 ms

Hole Delay Timing

= fn (Shock Wave, Vp, Vs, Gas pressure & crack velocity)

Vp
Vs

0 ms

Vp
Vs

2 ms

4 ms

Vp = Compressional Wave (Sonic velocity of the rock)

Vs = Shear Wave Velocity.

Calculating Electronic Delay Time Between Holes

T = 0.6 (D/Vp) x 1000

Where:

T = Delay time between holes in a row (ms)

D = Distance between holes in a row (m)
Vp = Compression or sonic wave velocity (m/s)

Example Calculation
Assume hole spacing S = 7 m and Vp = 2800 m/s.

T = 0.6 (S/Vp) x 1000

T = 0.6 (7 m/2800 m/s) x 1000

T = 1.5 ms
Future electronic detonator precision must be increased
to 0.1 ms (100 us), because current electronic detonator
timing can only be selected in increments of 1 ms. In
this example, the choice is either 1 or 2 ms.

Vp & Vs are an important dynamic

rock properties because they are a
direct function of:

Youngs modulus (elasticity)

Poissons ratio (brittleness)
Rock Density (mass/unit volume)
RQD (Integrity of rock mass due to frequency of
discontinuities, joints, voids, etc.)

Combining Electronic Detonators, Air Decks & Stem Charges

Increasing fragmentation with
lower overall mining system
costs
Top
stemming
0 ms

525 ms

Stem
charge

Stem
0 ms
charge

0 ms
0 ms

0 ms

0 ms

Explosive
column

1 m Air
Decks

1 m Air
Decks
500 ms

0 ms

0 ms

0 ms

0 ms

c 2009, Blasting Analysis International, Inc.

All Rights Reserved

Primary Objectives Were:

Improve fragmentation
Increase plant throughput
Required 87% of fragmentation @ 6 in.
Minimize vibrations on slopes

Case History
No. 1

Copper Mine in Chile using

9 7/8 & 10 5/8 in holes.

Normal energy distribution in a

hole load resulted in excessive
oversize in collar.
No explosives in collar.
Represents 40 50%
of blast block.

Stemming

18 m (60 ft)

Fragmentation
here is OK

Explosive

Subgrade

Copper Mine in Chile

Case History
No. 1

Mid-column air deck and stem

charge provide a much better
energy distribution in blast block.
Stem charge
30 Kg
Mid-column air
deck = 1 m
(3.3 ft)

Stemming

Explosive
deck

18 m (60 ft)

Explosive
deck

Subgrade

Copper Mine in Chile

Case History
No. 1

Eliminated 90 95%
of oversize in collar.

Nonelectric detonators.

Electronic detonators.

Normal top stemming.

Hole delays = 17 42 ms.
Row delays = Constant 42 or 67 ms.

Stem charge & mid-column air deck.

Hole delays = 2 ms.
Row delays = Increasing 125 250 ms.

Normal

Excessive
oversize

Modified

Dividing line between

normal and modified
blasts.

Very little
oversize

Normal shot design.

Case History
No. 1

Modified shot design.

Normal Blast
Design Results

Modified
shot

Case History
No. 1

Hole delay = 2 ms
Row delays = 125 - 250 ms
Mid-column air deck
Stem charge

Copper Mine in Chile

Digging rates increased 50 -100% due to oversize reduction.

Case History
No. 2

Hole delay = 1 ms
Row delays = 100 - 300 ms
Stem charge

Eliminated all
oversize in
collar

Normal shot design results

Oversize

Expl./delay increased 17-fold.

Peak vibrations - Unchanged

South Africa
Coal

Case History
No. 2

South Africa
Coal

Case History
No. 3

Quarry Maryland, USA

Improved fragmentation
in collar by 10-fold

Hole delay = 2 ms
Row delays = 125 -250 ms
Stem charge

Expl./delay increased 4-fold.

Peak vibrations - Reduced

Massive
granite

Case History
No. 4

Stemming
Stem charge alone
eliminated oversize in
collar for the dragline

Massive
sandstone
Main Charge

Shale

Coal

Coal Mine South Africa

Case History
No. 5

Oversize in collar
reduced 5-fold
Hole delay = 2 ms
Row delays = 100 -250 ms
Stem charge

Flyrock controls needed

because shot was directly
underneath power lines.

Expl./delay increased 4-fold.

Peak vibrations - Unchanged
Quarry Alabama, USA

Normal stemming.
Hole delay = Nonel 42 ms.
Row delays = 92 ms

Stem charge.
Hole delay = 2 ms.
Row delays = 100 - 300 ms

Oversize in collar
completely eliminated

Copper Mine in Chile Test Shots Done on Same

Bench and with Same Orientation.
Case History
No. 6

Electronic Detonators, 2 ms Hole Delay, Stem

Charges and 100 300 ms Row Delays

Copper Mine in Chile

Case History
No. 6

Quarry 1 Pennsylvania, USA

Good power
trough

Hole delay = 2 ms
Row delays = 150 - 250 ms
Bottom hole air deck

Expl./delay increased 4-fold.

Case History
No. 7

Peak vibrations - Unchanged

No back spill

CAP ROCK PROBLEM

Case History
No. 8

Quarry 2 Pennsylvania, USA

Quarry 2 Pennsylvania, USA

BEFORE

Case History
No. 8

Hole delay = 2 ms
Row delays = 90 - 300 ms
Stem charge

Expl./delay increased 8-fold.

Peak vibrations Increased only 25%

After

Quarry 2 Pennsylvania, USA

Case History
No. 8

Before

Quarry 3 Pennsylvania, USA

Case History
No. 9

Quarry 3 Pennsylvania, USA

After

Case History
No. 9

Expl./delay increased 8-fold.

Peak vibrations Increased only 30%

This oversize
came from
corner

Hole delay = 2 ms
Row delays = 100 - 300 ms
Mid-column air deck
Stem charge

Quarry 3 Pennsylvania, USA

After

Case History
No. 9

Expl./delay increased 8-fold.

Peak vibrations Increased only 30%

Quarry 4 Pennsylvania, USA

Electronic detonators
Mid-column air deck = 2 m

Explosives reduced 12 18%. No change in fragmentation.

Case History
No. 10

Digging rates
increased 40 45%

Hole delay = 2 ms
Row delays 100 300 ms

Case History
No. 11

Australia
Iron Ore

No back break
or back spill

Power trough
in back of shot

Australia
Case History
No. 11

Iron Ore

Case History
No. 13
Section C

Section B
Holes intersecting 5 m coal

4
6
8

H11

H12

H13
Stab
hole
5.5 Kg

Stemming
5.0 m
Explosive
column

H15

H14

H18

H17

H19

1.5 Kg
5.5 Kg

44 Kg

44 Kg

4.0 m

Coal
se a m

10

H16

7.5 m

H10

7.5 m

H9

Holes intersecting 5 m and 2m coal

12
14
16
18
20

2.0 m
Subgrade

m
l sea
Coa

Powder factor = 0.60 Kg/m3 with stab holes.

17.5 m

Target
Elevation

2.0 m

8 10

Hole diameter = 229 mm (9-in).

Scale (Meters)

Drill pattern = square or staggered

Deck delays = 0 ms

Hole delay = 2 ms

Bottom hole air deck

Stem charges

Row delays = 100 - 300 ms

Stab holes

Quarry 5 Pennsylvania, USA

Testing multiple
point initiation
versus bottom hole
initiation

Objective was to
lower muck pile
height for safety

Single Row Blast

A Conventional
loading and timing

B New loading
and timing

Stemming
525 ms

0 ms
0 ms

Explosive
column

525 ms

0 ms

180 ft
(55m)

0 ms

500 ms

Nonelectric Detonator Timing

Hole Delay = 42 ms
Case History
No. 13

Bottom Hole Initiation

0 ms

Electronic Detonator Timing

Hole Delay = 10 ms
Multiple Point Initiation

Quarry 5 Pennsylvania, USA

Multiple point initiation and smaller hole

delay (with same powder factor), results in
greater cast and lower muck pile height.

Muckpile height of nonelectric blast.

B Muckpile height of electronic blast.

Case History
No. 13

In Conclusion Improved Blast

Results Depend on Combining:
Good drilling and field controls (Over 50%
of blasting problems).
Precise electronic detonators.
Stem Charges.
Very short delays between holes.
Long progressively increasing row delays.
Bottom & mid-column air decks.
Multiple point initiation within borehole.

Combining Electronic Detonators

with Stem Charges and Air Decks
by
R. Frank Chiappetta, MSc. P.Eng.
Explosives Applications Engineer

Blasting Analysis International, Inc.

Allentown, Pennsylvania, U.S.A.

Drill and Blast 2010

Perth, Australia
October 12 - 14 , 2010
c 2010, Blasting Analysis International, Inc.
All Rights Reserved.