Binaural beats

Venturi (1746 - 1822), an Italian physicist, savant, man of

letters, diplomat, and historian of science, conducted and
described a series of experiments intended to elucidate
the nature of binaural hearing.[9][10][11][12] It was in an
appendix to a monograph on color that Venturi described
experiments on auditory localization using one or two
ears, concluding that the inequality of the two impressions, which are perceived at the same time by both ears,
determines the correct direction of the sound.[13][14]

Binaural beats

A binaural beat is an auditory illusion perceived when

two dierent pure-tone sine waves, both with frequencies
lower than 1500 Hz, with less than a 40 Hz dierence between them, are presented to a listener dichotically, that
is one through each ear.[1] For example, if a 530 Hz pure
tone is presented to a subjects right ear, while a 520 Hz
pure tone is presented to the subjects left ear, the listener
will perceive the auditory illusion of a third tone, in addition to the two pure-tones presented to each ear. The
third sound is called a binaural beat, and in this example
would have a perceived pitch correlating to a frequency
of 10 Hz, that being the dierence between the 530 Hz
and 520 Hz pure tones presented to each ear.[2]

However, none of Venturis contemporaries at the end

of the eighteenth and beginning of the nineteenth centuries considered his original work worthy of citation or
attention, with the exception of Ernst Florens Friedrich
Chladni (17561827), a German physicist and musician,
who is widely cited as the father of acoustics. After investigating the behavior of vibrating strings and plates,
and examining the way in which sound appeared to be
perceived, Chladni acknowledged Venturis work, agreeing with him that the ability to determine the location,
and direction of sound depended upon detected dierences in a sound between both ears, including amplitude
and frequency, subsequently denoted by the term 'interaural dierences.[15][16][17]

History

Other signicant historic investigations into binaural

hearing include those of Charles Wheatstone (1802
1875), an English scientist, whose many inventions included the concertina and the stereoscope, Ernst Heinrich
Weber (17951878), a German physician cited as one
of the founders of experimental psychology; and August
Seebeck (18051849), a scientist at the Technische Universitt, Dresden, remembered for his work on sound
and hearing. Like Wells, these researchers attempted
to compare and contrast what would become known as
binaural hearing with the principles of binocular integration generally, and binocular color mixing specically.
They found that binocular vision did not follow the laws
of combination of colors from dierent bands of the
spectrum. Rather, it was found that when presenting a
dierent color to each eye, they did not combine, but often competed for perceptual attention.[18][19][20][21]

The term 'binaural' literally signies 'to hear with two

ears, and was introduced in 1859 to signify the practice of listening to the same sound through both ears,
or to two discrete sounds, one through each ear. It
was not until 1916 that Carl Stumpf (1848-1936), a
German philosopher and psychologist, distinguished between dichotic listening, which refers to the stimulation
of each ear with a dierent stimulus, and diotic listening,
the simultaneous stimulation of both ears with the same
stimulus.[3][4]
Later, it would be become apparent that binaural hearing, whether dichotic or diotic, is the means by which the
geolocation and direction of a sound is determined.[5][6]

Scientic consideration of binaural hearing began before the phenomenon was so named, with the ideas Meanwhile, of Wheatstone conducted experiments in
articulated in 1792 by William Charles Wells (1757 which he presented a dierent tuning fork to each ear,
1817), a Scottish-American printer, and physician at stating:
Saint Thomas Hospital, London. Wells sought to theoretically examine and explain aspects of human hearing,
It is well known, that when two consoincluding the way in which listening with two ears rather
nant sounds are heard together, a third sound
than one might aect the perception of sound, which proresults from the coincidences of their vibraceeded from his research into binocular vision.[7][8]
tions; and that this third sound, which is called
Subsequently, between 1796 and 1802, Giovanni Battista
the grave harmonic, is always equal to unity,
1

2
when the two primitive sounds are represented
by the lowest integral numbers. This being
premised, select two tuning-forks the sounds of
which dier by any consonant interval excepting the octave; place the broad sides of their
branches, while in vibration, close to one ear,
in such a manner that they shall nearly touch
at the acoustic axis; the resulting grave harmonic will then be strongly audible, combined
with the two other sounds; place afterwards
one fork to each ear, and the consonance will
be heard much richer in volume, but no audible
indications whatever of the third sound will be
perceived.[22]

NEUROPHYSIOLOGY

an instrument consisting of two hearingtubes, or trumpets, or stethoscopes, provided

with collecting-cups and ear-knobs, one for
each ear respectively. The two tubes are, for
convenience, mechanically combined, but may
be said to be acoustically separate, as care is
taken that the sound, once admitted into one
tube, is not communicated to the other.[36][37]

2 Neurophysiology
2.1 Cortical Oscillation and Electroencephalography (EEG)

The activity of neurons generate electric currents; and

the synchronous action of neural ensembles in the cerebral cortex, comprising large numbers of neurons, produce macroscopic oscillations, which can be monitored
and graphically documented by an electroencephalogram
(EEG). The electroencephalographic representations of
those oscillations are typically denoted by the term 'brainVenturis experiments were repeated and conrmed by
waves in common parlance.[38][39]
Lord Rayleigh (18421919), almost seventy-ve years
Neural oscillations are rhythmic or repetitive electrolater.[23][24][25][26][27][28][29][30]
chemical activity in the brain and central nervous system.
Other investigators of the late eighteenth and early nineSuch oscillations can be characterized by their frequency,
teenth centuries, who were contemporaries of Lord
amplitude and phase. Neural tissue can generate osRayleigh, also investigated the signicance of binaucillatory activity driven by mechanisms within individral hearing. These included Louis Trenchard More
ual neurons, as well as by interactions between them.
(1870-1944), a professor of physics, and Harry ShipThey may also adjust frequency to synchronize with the
ley Fry (1878-1949), a lecturer in chemistry, both at
periodicity of an external acoustic or visual stimuli.[40]
the University of Cincinnati; H. A. Wilson and Charles
Samuel Myers, both professors of science at Kings Col- The technique of recording neural electrical activity
lege London; and Alfred M. Mayer (1836 - 1897), an within the brain from electrochemical readings taken
American physicist, each of whom conducted experi- from the scalp originated with the experiments of Richard
mental investigations with intent to discover the means Caton in 1875, whose ndings were developed into
by which human subjects ascertain the location, origin, electroencephalography (EEG) by Hans Berger in the late
and direction of sound, believing this to be in some way 1920s.
dependent on dichotic hearing, that is listening to sound
through both ears.[31][32][33][34]
Wheatstones reference to the perceptual fusion of harmonically related tones were directly related to the principles examined by Wells. However, both their observations were ignored and remained uncited by contemporaraneous and subsequent German researchers of the
following decades.

Understanding of how the dierence in sound signal between two ears contributes to auditory processing in such
a way as to enable the location and direction of sound
to be determined was considerably advanced after the
invention of the dierential stethophone by Somerville
Scott Alison in 1859, who coined the term 'binaural'.
Alison based his stethophone on the stethoscope, a previous invention of Ren Thophile Hyacinthe Laennec
(17811826).[35]
Unlike the stethoscope, which had only a single soundsource piece placed upon the chest, Alisons stethophone
had two separate ones, allowing the user to hear and compare sounds derived from two discreet locations. This
allowed a physician to identify the source of a sound
through the process of binaural hearing. Subsequently,
Alison referred to his invention as a 'binaural stethoscope', describing it as:

2.2 Frequency bands of cortical neural ensembles

The uctuating frequency of oscillations generated by the

synchronous activity of cortical neurons, measurable with
an electroencephalogram (EEG), via electrodes attached
to the scalp, are conveniently categorized into general
bands, in order of decreasing frequency, measured in
Hertz (HZ) as follows:[41][42]
Gamma, 30 to 50 Hz
Beta, 14 to 30 Hz
Alpha, 8 to 14 Hz
Theta, 4 to 8 Hz
Delta, 0.1 to 4 Hz

4.1

Meaning and Origin of the Term 'Entrainment'

In addition, three further wave forms are often delineated 4.1

in electroencephalographic studies:

Meaning and Origin of the Term 'Entrainment'

Entrainment is a term originally derived from complex

systems theory, and denotes the way that two or
more independent, autonomous oscillators with diering
Sigma (sleep spindle), 12 to 14 Hz
rhythms or frequencies, when situated in a context and
[43]
at a proximity where they can interact for long enough,
SMR (Sensory motor rhythm), 12.5 to 15.5 Hz
inuence each other mutually, to a degree dependent
on coupling force, such that they adjust until both osIt was Berger who rst described the frequency bands cillate with the same frequency. Examples include the
Delta, Theta, Alpha, and Beta.
mechanical entrainment or cyclic synchronization of two
electric clothes dryers placed in close proximity, and the
biological entrainment evident in the synchronized illu2.3 Neurophysiological origin of binaural mination of reies.[62]
Mu, 8 to 12 Hz

beat perception

Entrainment is a concept rst identied by the Dutch

physicist Christiaan Huygens in 1665 who discovered
the phenomenon during an experiment with pendulum
clocks: He set them each in motion and found that when
he returned the next day, the sway of their pendulums had
all synchronized.[63]

Binaural-beat perception originates in the inferior colliculus of the midbrain and the superior olivary complex
of the brainstem, where auditory signals from each ear
are integrated and precipitate electrical impulses along
neural pathways through the reticular formation up the
midbrain to the thalamus, auditory cortex, and other cor- Such entrainment occurs because small amounts of
energy are transferred between the two systems when they
tical regions.[44][45][46][47]
are out of phase in such a way as to produce negative
feedback. As they assume a more stable phase relationship, the amount of energy gradually reduces to zero, with
3 Neural oscillations and mental system of greater frequency slowing down, and the other
speeding up.[64]
state
Following the technique of measuring such brainwaves by
Berger, there has remained a ubiquitous consensus that
electroencephalogram (EEG) readings depict brainwave
wave form patterns that alter over time, and correlate
with the aspects of the subjects mental and emotional
state, mental status, and degree of consciousness and
vigilance.[48][49][50] It is therefore now established and accepted that discreet electroencephalogram (EEG) measurements, including frequency and amplitude of neural oscillations, correlate with dierent perceptual, motor
and cognitive states.[51][52][53][54][55][56][57][58][59][60][61]
Furthermore, brainwaves alter in response to changes in
environmental stimuli, including sound and music; and
while the degree and nature of alteration is partially dependent on individual perception, such that the same
stimulus may precipitate diering changes in neural oscillations and correlating electroencephalogram (EEG)
readings in dierent subjects, the frequency of cortical
neural oscillations, as measured by the EEG, has also
been shown to synchronize with or entrain to that of an
external acoustic or photic stimulus, with accompanying
alterations in cognitive and emotional state. This process
is called neuronal entrainment or brainwave entrainment.

Entrainment

Subsequently, the term 'entrainment' has been used to describe a shared tendency of many physical and biological
systems to synchronize their periodicity and rhythm
through interaction. This tendency has been identied as specically pertinent to the study of sound and
music generally, and acoustic rhythms specically. The
most ubiquitous and familiar examples of neuromotor
entrainment to acoustic stimuli is observable in spontaneous foot or nger tapping to the rhythmic beat of a
song.

4.2 Exogenous entrainment

Exogenous rhythmic entrainment, which occurs outside
the body, has been identied and documented for a variety of human activities, which include the way people
adjust the rhythm of their speech patterns to those of the
subject with whom they communicate, and the rhythmic
unison of an audience clapping.[65]
Even among groups of strangers, the rate of breathing,
locomotive and subtle expressive motor movements,
and rhythmic speech patterns have been observed to
synchronize and entrain, in response to an auditory
stimuli, such as a piece of music with a consistent
rhythm.[66][67][68][69][70][71][72] Furthermore, motor synchronization to repetitive tactile stimuli occurs in animals, including cats and monkeys as well as humans, with
accompanying shifts in electroencephalogram (EEG)

5 BINAURAL BEATS AND MUSIC

readings.[73][74][75][76][77]

4.6 Binaural beats and neural entrainment

One of the problems inherent in any scientic investigation conducted in order to ascertain whether brainwaves
4.3 Endogenous entrainment
can entrain to the frequency of an acoustic stimulus is
that human subjects rarely hear frequencies below 20 Hz,
Examples of endogenous entrainment, which occurs which is exactly the range of Delta, Theta, Alpha, and
within the body, include the synchronizing of human low to mid Beta brainwaves.[86][87] Among the methods
circadian sleep-wake cycles to the 24-hour cycle of light by which some investigations have sought to overand dark.[78] and the synchronization of a heartbeat to a come this problem is to measure electroencephalogram
cardiac pacemaker.[79]
(EEG) readings of a subject while he or she listens
to binaural beats. Subsequent to such investigations,
there is signicant evidence to show that such listening
precipitates auditory driving by which ensembles of
4.4 Brainwave entrainment
cortical neurons entrain their frequencies to that of the
binaural beat, with associated changes in self-reported
Main article: Brainwave entrainment
subjective experience of emotional and cognitive
state.[88][89][90][91][92][93][94][95][96][97][98][99][100][101][102][103]
Brainwaves, or neural oscillations, share the fundamental
constituents with acoustic and optical wave forms, including frequency, amplitude, and periodicity. Consequently,
Huygens discovery precipitated inquiry into whether or 5 Binaural beats and music
not the synchronous electrical activity of cortical neural
ensembles might not only alter in response to external
Many of the aforementioned reports are based on the
acoustic or optical stimuli but also entrain or synchronize
use of auditory stimuli that combines binaural beats with
[80][81][82][83]
their frequency to that of a specic stimulus.
other sounds, including music and verbal guidance. This
Brainwave entrainment is a colloquialism for such 'neu- consequently precludes the attribution of any inuence
ral entrainment', which is a term used to denote the on or positive outcome for the listener specically to the
way in which the aggregate frequency of oscillations pro- perception of the binaural beats.[104] Very few studies
duced by the synchronous electrical activity in ensem- have sought to isolate the eect of binaural beats on lisbles of cortical neurons can adjust to synchronize with teners. However, initial ndings in one experiment sugthe periodicity of an external stimuli, such as a sustained gest that listening to binaural beats may exert an inuacoustic frequency perceived as pitch, a regularly repeat- ence on both Low Frequency and High Frequency coming pattern of intermittent sounds, perceived as rhythm, ponents of heart rate variability, and may increase subor a regularly rhythmically intermittent ashing light.
jective feelings of relaxation.[105]

4.5

The frequency following response and

auditory driving

Main article: Frequency following response

Notwithstanding this problem, a review of research

ndings suggest that listening to music and sound
can modulate autonomic arousal through entrainment
of neural oscillations.
Furthermore, music generally, and rhythmic patterns, such as those produced
by percussive performance including drumming specifically, have been shown to inuence arousal ergotropically and trophotropically, increasing and decreasing
arousal respectively.[106] Such auditory stimulation has
been demonstrated to improve immune function, facilitate relaxation, improve mood, and contribute to the alleviation of stress.[107][108][109][110][111][112][113][114]

The hypothesized entrainment of neural oscillations to

the frequency of an acoustic stimulus occurs by way of the
Frequency following response (FFR), also referred to as
Frequency Following Potential (FFP). The use of sound
with intent to inuence brainwave cortical brainwave fre- Meanwhile, the therapeutic benets of listening to sound
quency is called auditory driving.[84][85]
and music, whether or not the outcome can be attributed
Auditory driving refers to the hypothesized ability for to neural entrainment, is a well-established principle upon
repetitive rhythmic auditory stimuli to 'drive' neural which the practice of receptive music therapy is founded.
electric activity to entrain with it. By the principles of The term 'receptive music therapy' denotes a process by
such hypotheses, it is proposed that, for example, a sub- which patients or participants listen to music with specic
ject who hears drum rhythms at 8 beats per second, will intent to therapeutically benet; and is a term used by
be inuenced such that an electroencephalogram (EEG) therapists to distinguish it from 'active music therapy' by
reading will show an increase brainwave activity at 8 Hz which patients or participants engage in producing vocal
or instrumental music.[115]
range, in the upper theta, lower alpha band.

5
Receptive music therapy is an eective adjunctive
intervention suitable for treating a range of physical and
mental conditions.[116]
Meanwhile, the evident changes in neural oscillations precipitated by listening to music, which are
demonstrable through electroencephalogram (EEG)
measurements,[117][118][119][120][121][122] have contributed
to the development of neurologic music therapy, which
uses music and song as an active and receptive intervention, to contribute to the treatment and management
of disorders characterized by impairment to parts of
the brain and central nervous system, including stroke,
traumatic brain injury, Parkinsons disease, Huntingtons
disease, cerebral palsy, Alzheimers disease, and
autism.[123][124][125]

Non ordinary states of consciousness

Main article: Altered state of consciousness

Historically, music generally, and percussive performance specically was and remains integral to ritual
ceremony and spiritual practice among early and indigenous peoples and their descendants, where it is often used
to induce the non ordinary state of consciousness (NOSC)
believed by participants to be a requisite for communication with spiritual energies and entities.[126][127]

8 References
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J. C., & Sforzo, G. A., Auditory driving of the autonomic nervous system: Listening to theta-frequency binaural beats post-exercise increases parasympathetic activation and sympathetic withdrawal. Frontiers in Psychology, Vol. 5, p2014.
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See also
Brainwave entrainment
Frequency following response
Electroencephalography
Neural oscillation

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Further reading
Thaut, M. H., Rhythm, Music, and the Brain: Scientic Foundations and Clinical Applications (Studies
on New Music Research). New York, NY: Routledge, 2005.
Berger, J. and Turow, G. (Eds.), Music, Science, and
the Rhythmic Brain : Cultural and Clinical Implications. New York, NY: Routledge, 2011.

10

External links

Binaural Beats at the Library for Auditory Neuroscience in Music and Medicine

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