Introduction

The word erosion is derived from the Latin rodere meaning to gnaw,
the same root that gives us the word rodent. The main agents of erosion are
water, wind and gravity. Erosion is a natural process but is often intensified by
human land use practices. Erosion removes surface soil, which often has the
highest biological activity and greatest amount of soil organic matter. This
causes a loss in nutrients and often creates a less favourable environment for
plant growth. Nutrients removed by erosion are no longer available to support
plant growth onsite, but can accumulate in water where such problems as algal
blooms and lake eutrophication may occur.
Water erosion is a process by which soil aggregates and primary particles
are detached from the soil matrix, transported downslope by raindrops and
flowing water, and deposited under certain energy-limiting conditions (Meyer et
al. 1975). Four basic detachment and transport processes have been identified,
including detachment by raindrops, detachment by flowing water, transport by
raindrops, and transport by flowing water. Different types of erosion can occur
within a field depending on soil detachment method, transport method, and
detachment location (Nearing et al. 1994). The most common types of water
erosion observed in agricultural fields are splash, sheet, rill and interrill erosion
(Flanagan, 2002). When the falling raindrops hit the soil surface, they detach
soil particles and cause them to splash into the air. This detachment process
represents the formation of these soil splashes. Soil detachment rates by
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raindrop impact depend on several hydraulic flow characteristics, including

raindrop impact size and mass, drop velocity, kinetic energy and water drop
impact angle (Cruse et al., 2000). In addition, detachment rate is also strongly
influenced by soil properties, including soil type, soil strength, bulk density,
texture, cohesion, soil organic matter content, moisture content and infiltration
capacity (Nearing et al., 1988). Raindrops falling on the surface of the soil
break the soil masses into pieces and make them convenient for transportation
with the help of runoff. The capacity of rainfall to transport soil by splash is a
function of slope steepness, amount of rain, soil properties, micro topography
and wind velocity (Meyer and Wischmeier, 1969).
Soil erosion is caused by the erosive forces of wind or water. In this
publication, we focus our attention on concepts surrounding water-induced soil
erosion. This type of erosion threatens our ability as humans to sustain our
global population with food and fiber, and is closely linked to economic vitality,
environmental quality, and human health concerns. Roughly 75 billion tons of
fertile topsoil is lost worldwide from agricultural systems every year. In the
United States, we lose an estimated 6.9 billion tons of soil each year (Pimentel,
2000). Losses at this scale are not sustainable and result in our increasing
dependence on costly inputs such as fertilizers and soil amendments that we use
in an attempt to make up for the beneficial qualities that were present in the lost
topsoil (Pimentel, 2000).

Erosion results in the degradation of a soils productivity in a number of

ways: it reduces the efficiency of plant nutrient use, damages seedlings,
decreases plants rooting depth, reduces the soils water-holding capacity,
decreases its permeability, increases runoff, and reduces its infiltration rate. The
loss of nutrients alone resulting from soil erosion has an estimated cost to the
United States of up to $20 billion a year (Troeh, Hobbs, and Donahue, 1991).
The sediment deposited by erosive water as it slows can bury seedlings and
cause the formation of surface crusts that impede seedling emergence, which
will decrease the years crop yields. The combined effects of soil degradation
and poor plant growth often result in even greater erosion later on.
All of these effects occur at or near the erosion site. Off-site impacts
relate to the transport of sediment, nutrients, and agricultural chemicals and can
be even more costly than on-site impacts. Severe economic and environmental
costs are associated with the removal of sediment deposits from roads and from
lakes and other surface water bodies. In the United States, more than 60 percent
of water-eroded soils (about 2.4 billion tons of soil a year) end up in
watercourses (Pimentel, 2000). This leads to the sedimentation of dams,
disruption of aquatic ecosystems, and contamination of drinking water supplies.
The information in this publication is intended to help you maintain the
productivity of agricultural land and reduce the enormous costs associated with
erosion by promoting a better understanding of the soil erosion process,

providing tools to help you recognize soil erosion, and introducing management
practices that you can use to help reduce this kind of erosion.
Splash erosion
Splash erosion is the first stage of the erosion process. It occurs when
raindrops hit bare soil. Splash erosion or rain drop impact represents the first
stage in the erosion process. Splash erosion results from the bombardment of
the soil surface by rain drops. According to Blanco-Canqui, Humberto and
Rattan, Lal (2008), Sheet erosion is the movement of soil from raindrop splash
and runoff water. It typically occurs evenly over a uniform slope and goes
unnoticed until most of the productive topsoil has been lost. Deposition of the
eroded soil occurs at the bottom of the slope or in low areas. Lighter-coloured
soils on knolls, changes in soil horizon thickness and low crop yields on
shoulder slopes and knolls are other indicators.
Rain drops behave as little bombs when falling on exposed or bare soil,
displacing soil particles and destroying soil structure. Studies in America have
shown that splashed particles may rise as high as 0.6 metres above the ground
and move up to 1.5 metres horizontally. Splash erosion results in the formation
of surface crusts which reduce infiltration resulting in the start of runoff. The
explosive impact breaks up soil aggregates so that individual soil particles are
splashed onto the soil surface. The splashed particles can rise as high 60cm
above the ground and move up to 1.5 metres from the point of impact. The

particles block the spaces between soil aggregates, so that the soil forms a crust
that reduces infiltration and increases runoff.
Eventually, the rills in a field will merge to form larger channels. These
may form even larger channels and can become deep enough to be labeled,
gullies. Channels are defined as gullies when they cannot be obliterated with
normal tillage operations. They are large, noticeable scars on the land. In many
areas of the Midwest, gully erosion has even divided fields into small parcels
that are inefficient to farm.

Deep gullies with vertical sidewalls are a

phenomenon found in some deep river terrace soils along the Cimarron, and
North and South Canadian Rivers. Some can reach depths of 20 feet or more.
But gully erosion can be deceiving. Although it is the most obvious form
of erosion, it does not remove nearly as much soil in Oklahoma as the other,
more invisible forms of erosion. Splash, sheet, and rill erosion are the forces
behind the loss of an estimated 50 million tons of soil each year from
Oklahomas agricultural land. In comparison, gully erosion accounts for the
loss of only about 10 million tons of soil each year on all land in the state. The
reason for splash, sheet, and rill erosions impact is that they occur on all
unprotected surfaces, while gully erosion is a problem mainly on steep or long
slopes. Erosion does the most damage downslope where all forms of erosion
are at work. At the top of the slope, splash and sheet erosion are the major
forces doing harm.
Sheet erosion
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Sheet erosion is the removal of soil in thin layers by raindrop impact and
shallow surface flow. It results in loss of the finest soil particles that contain
most of the available nutrients and organic matter in the soil. Soil loss is so
gradual that the erosion usually goes unnoticed, but the cumulative impact
accounts for large soil losses.

Soils most vulnerable to sheet erosion are

overgrazed and cultivated soils where there is little vegetation to protect and
hold the soil.
Early signs of sheet erosion include bare areas, water puddling as soon as
rain falls, visible grass roots, exposed tree roots, and exposed subsoil or stony
soils. Soil deposits on the high side of obstructions such as fences may indicate
active sheet erosion. Vegetation cover is vital to prevent sheet erosion because it
protects the soil, impedes waterflow and encourages water to infiltrate into the
soil. The surface water flows that cause sheet erosion rarely flow for more than
a few metres before concentrating into rills.
Runoff
Runoff can be described as the part of the water cycle that flows over
land as surface water instead of being absorbed into groundwater or
evaporating. According to the U.S. Geological Survey (USGS), runoff is that
part of the precipitation, snow melt, or irrigation water that appears in
uncontrolled surface streams, rivers, drains, or sewers. There are a variety of
factors that affect runoff. Some of those include:
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Amount of Rainfall
The amount of rainfall directly affects the amount of runoff. As expected, if
more rainfall hits the ground, more rainfall will turn into runoff. The same can
be said about snowmelt. If a large amount of snow melts in a short time period,
there will be a large amount of runoff.
Permeability
The ability of the ground surface to absorb water will affect how much surface
runoff occurs. If you have ever poured water onto sand, you may have noticed it
sinks into the sand almost instantaneously. On the other hand, if you pour water
on the street, the water will not sink but runoff to the gutter or a ditch. The less
water the ground can absorb, the more runoff on the surface there will be. This
is called permeability.
A surface with high absorption ability has high permeability, and a surface with
low absorption ability has low permeability. This image shows permeability
rates for different types of surfaces (see video).
Vegetation
Vegetation needs water to survive, and a plant's root system is designed to
absorb water from the soil. There is less runoff in highly vegetated areas

because the water is used by the plants instead of flowing off the surface of the
ground.
Slope
The slope of a surface is also important to the amount of runoff there will be.
The steeper a surface is, the faster it will flow down the slope. A flat surface
will allow the water time to absorb.
Runoff Effects
While runoff is affected by various things like amount of rainfall and
vegetation, too much of it can have a bad effect on the environment as well.
Some examples include erosion and pollution.
Erosion
As runoff progresses, it can collect things that are in its way, transport them and
drop them off somewhere downstream when the water slows down. You may
have noticed things floating in rivers or streams. Moving water is a strong force
that is able to move these objects. Small runoff is able to move lightweight
items such as leaves and pebbles, whereas large runoff, like a flash flood, is able
to wash away cars and even houses.

Rill erosion
It is sometime known as micro channel erosion. It is the removal of soil
by running water with the formation of a areas of small branching channels.
There is no sharp time of demarcation where sheets erosion ends and more
readily visible than sheet erosion. It is regarded as a transition stage between
sheet erosion and gully. Rill of small depth can be ordinary form tillage. Rills
are shallow drainage lines less than 30cm deep. They develop when surface
water concentrates in depressions or low points through paddocks and erodes
the soil.

Rill erosion is common in bare agricultural land, particularly

overgrazed land, and in freshly cultivated soil where the soil structure has been
loosened. The rills can usually be removed with farm machinery.
Rill erosion can be reduced by reducing the volume and speed of surface
water with grassed waterways and filter strips, ripped mulch lines, and contour
drains. Rill erosion is often described as the intermediate stage between sheet
erosion and gully erosion.
Gully erosion
Gullies are channels deeper than 30cm that cannot be removed by normal
cultivation. They can be spectacular to look at but over time actually lose less
soil than sheet and rill erosion. Gullies occur when smaller water flows
concentrate and cut a channel through the soil. Most gullies extend upslope as a
result of the head of the gully being continually undercut and collapsing.

However, collapse and slumping of sidewalls usually contribute a greater

proportion of soil loss.
Gully erosion occurs when water is channelled across unprotected land
and washes away the soil along the drainage lines. Under natural conditions,
run-off is moderated by vegetation which generally holds the soil together,
protecting it from excessive run-off and direct rainfall. Excessive clearing,
inappropriate land use and compaction of the soil caused by grazing often
means the soil is left exposed and unable to absorb excess water. Surface run-off
then increases and concentrates in drainage lines, allowing gully erosion to
develop in susceptible areas.
Some of the problems caused by gully erosion include:
dissection of the property causing access and management difficulties
loss of productive land (gullies often occur in the most productive area of
the catchment)
reduced amenity and property values, including destruction of farm
improvements, such as fences or tracks
discolouration of water supply and sedimentation of waterways, dams
and lower paddocks
provides a harbour for vermin.

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Stabilising gullies
The object is to divert and modify the flow of water moving into and
through the gully so that scouring is reduced, sediment accumulates and
revegetation can proceed. Stabilising the gully head is important to prevent
damaging water flow and head ward erosion. A variety of options can be used to
get the water safely from the natural level to the gully floor. Improvements like
grass chutes, pipe structures, rock chutes or drop structures can be installed to
do this effectively.
Structures might also be required along gully floors since some grades
can be quite steep and allow water to rush down under peak flows, ripping away
soil and vegetation. These may take the form of rock barrages, wire netting or
logs across gullies. Sediments held in the water will then be deposited along the
flatter grades as a result of slower water flow, allowing vegetation to reestablish.
If erosion control and revegetation work is undertaken, then damaged
areas should be fenced off from stock, until restoration is complete. Further
advice on how to build simple erosion control structures is available from the
Department of Natural Resources and Environment (NRE) offices.Dams can
also be constructed to slow the flow of water into the gully head, but special
care needs to be taken to get the overflow water back into the gully floor safely.

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Preventing the problem

As with other forms of erosion, prevention is better than cure. In most
cases gullies can be prevented by good land management practices aimed at
maintaining even infiltration rates and a good plant cover.
Strategies for preventing gully erosion include:
maintaining remnant vegetation along drainage lines and eliminating
grazing from these areas
increasing water usage by planting deep-rooted perennial pastures, trees,
or an appropriate mixture of both thus maintaining healthy, vigorous
levels of vegetation
identifying drainage lines as a separate land class in which vegetation
needs to be protected
immediate stabilisation of sheet or rill erosion
vermin control
ensuring run-off from tracks is evenly distributed across paddocks ton
dissipate its energy
maintaining high levels of organic matter in the soil
Avoiding excessive cultivation.
Farm management techniques to prevent gully erosion
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1. Retain remnant vegetation along gullies and areas of recharge

2. Maintain tracks and culverts to minimise the erosive power of runoff
water
3. Dam gullies to control flow with due consideration to spillways
4. Ensure a suitable stocking rate so that pasture is not damaged
5. Establish and maintain vigorous deep rooted perennial pastures
6. Divert water away from erosion prone areas using diversion banks
7. Build gully structures to reduce the force of water
8. Fence and manage the land according to its capability.
Conclusion
Erosion (the weathering away of soil and rock) can happen by wind, water, or
gravity. It's natural, but sometimes people do things to speed up the process or
cause it to happen in places where it wouldn't normally. natural rates of erosion
are controlled by the action of geomorphic drivers, such as rainfall; bedrock
wear in rivers; coastal erosion by the sea and waves; glacial plucking, abrasion,
and scour; areal flooding; wind abrasion; groundwater processes; and mass
movement processes in steep landscapes like landslides and debris flows. The
rates at which such processes act control how fast a surface is eroded. Typically,
physical erosion proceeds fastest on steeply sloping surfaces, and rates may also
be sensitive to some climatically-controlled properties including amounts of
water supplied (e.g., by rain), storminess, wind speed, wave fetch, or
atmospheric temperature (especially for some ice-related processes).
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Reference

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Blanco-Canqui, Humberto and Rattan, Lal (2008). "Soil and water

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Toy, Terrence J.; Foster, George R.; Renard, Kenneth G. (2002). Soil erosion:
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Julien, Pierre Y. (2010). Erosion and Sedimentation. Cambridge University
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Zachar, Duan (1982). "Classification of soil erosion". Soil Erosion. Vol. 10.
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Encyclopedia of Soil