NUCLEAR PHYSICS

The nucleus is a positively charged core located at the centre of the atom. Almost the entire mass
of the atom is concentrated in its nucleus.
A nucleus consists mainly of two types of particles , protons and neutrons. Collectively these
two particles are sometimes called as nucleons .
(i) Atomic Number: It is the number of protons present in the nucleus. It is also equal to the
number of electrons in the neutral atom.
(ii) Mass Number : Total number of protons and neutrons is the mass number. If atomic
number of an atom is Z, number of neutrons present in the nucleus of the atom is N, then its mass
number can be given by the expression, A = Z + N, where A = mass number.
Depending on the number of protons and neutrons in the nucleus, nuclei may be related to each
other in three ways(i) Isotopes: Nuclei having same atomic number but different mass number are called isotopes
of each other.
Eg : 1H2, 1H3
(ii) Isobars: Nuclei having same mass number but different atomic number are called isobars.
Eg: 6C14 , 7N14
(iii) Isotones: Nuclei having same number of neutrons, but different atomic number and mass
number are called isotones.
Eg : 1H3 , 2He4
Size of the nucleus

The number density of nuclear matter is approximately constant. This implies that the number of
nucleons within a nucleus (mass number A) is proportional to its volume:
A = [(4/3)R3]0
The size of the nucleus depends on the number of nucleons present in it. The statistical radius of
a nucleus is therefore given by the expression:
R = R0A1/3
where, R0 = 1.1 x 10-15 m.
A = mass number of the nucleus

Mass defect :

The actual mass of a nucleus is experimentally observed to be smaller than the sum of the masses
of free nucleons constituting it.
The difference between the experimental mass , m(ZXA) , of a nucleus and the sum of the masses
of free nucleons (Z protons, and AZ neutrons) is known as the mass defect :
m = Zmp + (A-Z) mn m (ZXA)
Binding energy

The amount of energy needed to disintegrate a nucleus into its constituent nucleons is called the
binding energy. It is the energy equivalent to the mass defect.
B.E. = mc2 ,
where c = velocity of light.
If mass is measured in amu then B.E. = m x 931.5 MeV.
As 1 amu = 931.5 MeV.
Illustration 6: The binding energy of 17Cl35 nucleus is 298 MeV. Find its atomic mass. The mass
of hydrogen atom (1H1) is 1.008143 a.m.u. and that of a neutron is 1.008986 a.m.u.
Given 1 a.m.u. = 931 MeV.
Solution: The 17Cl35 atom has 17 protons and 18 neutrons in its nucleus.
Mass of 17 1H1 atom has 17 protons and 18 neutrons in its nucleus.
Mass of 17 protons = 17 x 1.008143 amu
= 17.138431 amu.
Mass of 18 neutrons = 18 x 1.008986
= 18.161748 a.m.u.
Total = 35.300179 a.m.u
Mass defect m = 298/931
= 0.320085 a.m.u.
The atomic mass of 17Cl35 would be the sum of equivalent of the binding energy of the nucleus.

Hence atomic mass of

35
17Cl = 35.300179 0.320085
= 34.980094 a.m.u
Nuclear Stability (Nuclear force)

In a nucleus, protons are held together in small volume, and hence they are acted upon by a large
electrostatic repulsive force.
The nucleons within a nucleus are held together due to an attractive nuclear force. It is an
attractive force irrespective of the nature of charges on the particles.
This force comes into play when distance between two nucleus is of the order of 10-14 m. At these
distances, the nuclear force is 50 to 60 times greater than electrostatic forces.
If the radii of nuclei are plotted as a function of their mass number, it is observed that the radius
increases
r = r0 A1/3 where r0 = 1.1 fm
Radius of a nucleus increases and hence the nuclear force decreases (As it is a very short range
force).
It is also observed that for stable nuclei, the neutron to proton ratio (N/Z) satisfies the empirical
relation:
1 N/Z < 1.6
Here, N = number of neutrons, Z = atomic number
If the number of neutrons is greater than the number of protons in a nucleus and also if N/Z > 1.6
, then the nucleus is usually unstable.
Nuclear reaction
Neutrons, in their free state are unstable particles. They decay to form a proton, an electron and
an antineutrino.

* The atomic number of a neutron is zero. (Since it is neutral).

* The atomic number of a proton is 1.

* The atomic number of a -particle is -1. (since it carries 1 unit or negative charge)
Q-Value

Energy may be released or absorbed in a nuclear reaction accordingly, nuclear reactions may
be classified as exoergic and endoergic.
Consider a nuclear reaction:
A + B C + D + Q (energy)
The energy released, Q is defined by
Q = (kc + kD) (kA + kB)
= difference between the K.E. of the products & reactions.
It is experimentally observed that there is a deficit in mass in an exoergic reaction;
m = (mA + mB) (mC + mD) and Q = m.c2
It is this mass deficit that is converted into energy according to Einsteins mass-energy
equivalence relation.
In the equation for neutron decay : Q = (mn mp) c2
Problem Solving technique (In nuclear physics)

* First of all, balance atomic number and mass number on both the sides.
* Calculate the total energy of the reactants and products individually and equate them.
* Equate the momenta of reactants and products.
Example : A deuterium reaction that occurs in a hypothetical experimental fusion reactor occurs
in two stages
(i) Two deuterium (1D2) nuclei fuse together to form a tritium nucleus, with a proton as a byproduct: D (D, p)T.

(ii) A tritium nucleus fuses with another deuterium nucleus to form a helium 2He4 nucleus with
neutron as a by-product T (D, n) 2He4.
Compute :
(a) the energy released in each of two the stages and the energy released in the combined
reaction.
(b) the energy released per deuterium nucleus.
Given 1D2 = 2.014102 a.m.u.,
T3 = 3.016049 a.m.u.,

He4 = 4.002603 a.m.u.,

H1 = 1.007825 a.m.u.,

n1 = 1.008665 a.m.u.,

Solution : (a) (i) The reaction is

D2 + 1D2 1T3 + 1P1 + E1

m = [2(2.014102) 3.016049 1.007825] = 0.00433 a.m.u.

Energy released
E1 =0.00433 x 931 MeV
= 4.031 MeV.
(ii) 1T3 + 1D2 2He4 + 0n1 + E2
m = [(3.016049 + 2.014102) (4.002603 + 1.008665)]
= 0.0188 a.m.u.
Energy released
E2 = 0.01888 x 931 MeV
= 17.580 MeV

Total energy released in both processes

= 17.580 + 4.031
= 21.611 MeV
(b) Energy released per 1D2 = 21.611/3 = 7.206 MeV