Book of Steel

Corus Automotive
www.corusautomotive.com
Pocket book of steel
Care has been taken to ensure that this

information is accurate, but Corus Group plc,
and its subsidiaries, does not accept
responsibility or liability for errors or
information which is found to be misleading.
Your complete reference guide to

steel in the automotive industry
Copyright 2007
Corus UK Limited
Corus Automotive
IARC Building
University of Warwick
Coventry
CV4 7AL
t: +44 (0) 2476 241 200
Foreword
Contents
by Philippe Varin,
Chief Executive of Corus
I am delighted to welcome you to this
Pocket book of steel and hope that you
will nd it packed with useful information
on the role and importance of steel in the
automotive industry.
Since Corus was formed in 1999, we have
been providing customers and others
across the industry with knowledge and
information about our products, services
and technologies. This pocket book is the
latest step in presenting steels credentials
to a challenging market sector. It describes
the issues that drive Corus to develop
purpose-designed automotive steels for
lightweight, durable, high-quality and
cost-effective automotive body structures,
power-train components, chassis frames
and many other vehicle applications. It
also provides background on how steel is
processed for its wide range of applications
and the steel technologies that are essential
for modern car making.
Our hope in producing this book is that it
will not just inform, but provide a basis for
deeper and more sustainable dialogue and
understanding between us. With around
16 per cent of our total turnover coming
from the automotive sector more than
2bn we are committed to our automotive
customers, who trust us to deliver Value in
steel.
Corus in automotive
4-7
Steel: the basics

Steel in cars
The multi-materials car
Steelmaking
Chemical compositions
Characteristics
Steel types
From steelworks to assembly line
8-23
10-11
12-13
14-15
16
17
18-19
20-23
Automotive industry issues

Drivers for change
The history of the car
Safety
Environment
Weight and cost reduction
Quality and service
24-41
24-25
26-27
28-31
32-35
36-39
40-41
Corus in action: Case studies
42-47
Steel R&D technologies
48-53
Looking to the future
54-57
About Corus
58-59
Glossary
60-63
Corus in Automotive: Working in partnership
Corus in automotive
Working in partnership making a

difference
With 16 per cent of our business in the automotive sector,
Corus is committed to this industry. Corus combines its
materials knowledge, automotive engineering expertise and
manufacturing-process innovation to offer its customers unique
solutions. We help customers to produce cost-effective, lighter
weight, higher quality vehicles.
Corus works in partnership with
customers, offering advanced
technology and hands-on help
at pre-development, design
engineering and production stages.
This helps facilitate improvements
in the design, manufacture and
durability of cars, enhancing their
appearance, performance and endof-life recyclability.
We understand the industry
challenges
Be it changes in emissions,
safety performance legislation,
the contemporary needs of car
designers, or pushing the boundaries
of material performance, we share
knowledge and respond to the
challenges of our automotive
customers. Our aim is to help
customers get the best value from
every gram of steel they buy from us.
By listening to customers, attending
key European automotive forums
and through focused market
analysis, our specialists keep
abreast of industry trends and look
for opportunities to bring a new
competitiveness or performance
edge to automotive manufacturing
through the specication and
application of steel.
6
When Ford was looking for ways to

improve the crash performance and
lightness of its latest Galaxy model,
Corus was ready with its High
Strength Steels and the advanced
automotive engineering services
needed to implement them in body
structures.
Just as the automotive industry
was moving to eliminate hexavalent
chromium commonly used in the
production of adhesive coated
metals, Corus was ready with
Envirobond an alternative
adhesive coating process for metal
trim parts.
When Mitsubishi wanted help to
improve press-shop performance
on its ve-door Colt model, Corus
was ready with a unique portable
measurement and analysis system,
PHAST and In-Form, which
helped NedCar to improve capability
in its bodyside stamping process.
We listen, and we respond

Sometimes, specic adjustments to
material specications are needed
to enhance the manufacturability
and performance of specialised
components. Corus supports new
and ongoing vehicle and product
development programmes, working
with customers to develop tailored
specications for their needs, and
giving advice on the selection of
steel t for task.
When Corus was asked for steels

with better machinability by Wigpool
a supplier of machined parts to
motorcycle manufacturer Triumph
Corus worked with the company
to select Hitenspeed 65, a material
that delivered machinability
improvements to a factor of
three, but with no loss of strength
performance.
When Xtrac approached Corus

asking for gear steels with better
impact resistance, machinability and
carburising qualities, Corus offered
to adjust the standard chemistry
of its Hy-Tuf product, improving its
chemical tolerances and cleanness.
The resulting XMO materials enabled
Xtrac to make narrower gears that
can run at higher temperatures,
requiring smaller oil-coolers and
thereby improving the aerodynamics
of the vehicle.
Find out more: www.corusautomotive.com

7
Corus in Automotive: Making a difference
Making a difference
Our customers get
value from every
gram of steel they
buy from us
We innovate
Our customers dont just buy our
metal, they buy the thinking and
innovation that have gone into
the development, distribution and
technology needed to deploy that
metal for its most effective use
intelligent metal.
in this process permits engineers

to develop parts by computer
simulation long before hardware
prototypes are made, beneting
original equipment manufacturers
(OEMs) and their Tier suppliers. The
model is easy to download from the
Corus automotive website.
We deliver
To make cars efciently it is vital
that supplies of parts and materials
are delivered to OEMs and their Tier
suppliers on time. Consistent quality,
integrated supply chains and timely
supply are all critical factors that
need to be satised.
One example of this is the CorusVegter materials model, for which

data is made freely available on
the internet for engineers studying
how to form complex 3D parts
from 2D blanks. This advanced
data model bridges the gap in
knowledge between how traditional
steels stretch as they are pressed
in a press shop, and how the
particular properties of Advanced
High Strength Steels modify this
behaviour.
We make a difference
Corus realises that building longterm relationships with customers is
key to our success. Our customers
know that by involving Corus early
in their new product development
cycles, substantial savings can be
made when their product eventually
goes into production.
To meet these needs, Corus

has its own distribution network,
including numerous pre-production
capabilities at service centres around
the world for de-coiling and blanking
sheet steel.
Years of research and development

have resulted in a model that is
used directly inside the industry
standard PAM-STAMP forming
analysis software package. It is
an innovation that improves the
accuracy of simulated virtual
prototypes. Improved condence
Find out more: www.corusautomotive.com/vegter

8
When BMW wanted to use extrathick sheet steel bodysides for its
new Mini Cabriolet (compensating
for the lack of roof), Corus was ready
with a large-bed press blanking line,
capable of pressing out blanks up
to the required 3mm thickness. The
Wedneseld Automotive Service
Centre that supplied these blanks
boasts a comprehensive line-up of
dedicated automotive processing
facilities. A range of automotive
customers, including Land Rover,
benet from the full-bodysidecapable 400 and 600-tonne blanking
lines, and a Tailor Welded Blank

facility to create blanks for door and
body-structure parts.
With all Corus service centres
accredited to TS16949 quality
standards, automotive component
makers are enjoying the benets of
signicant Corus investment. Corus
distribution and service centres
are sited throughout Europe. More
recently, Corus Distribution has
been responding to the gradual
eastward migration of automotive
manufacturing, setting up a service
centre near Gyor in Hungary at the
end of 2006.
Did you know?

In the UK alone, Corus
makes over 21,000
strip steel deliveries
a year to automotive
customers, most of it
via the rail network.

9
Steel - the basics
Steel the basics

Steel is a very special material. With the addition of tiny
amounts of other elements, iron can be transformed into a
versatile engineering metal capable of withstanding extreme
gearbox pressures or the immense forces in a car crash.
Did you know?

Steel is the most
widely recycled
engineering material
in the world. It can
be recycled over and
over again without
loss of properties.
In this section
The following pages illustrate some of the basic facts about carbon steel and
how its versatility enables it to be used throughout automotive manufacturing
and endlessly recycled into new products.
Steel in cars
Illustrating the versatility of steel and the types of
components and applications it is used for in cars.
Page 10-11

Comparing steels physical properties with those
of other materials used in the manufacture of a
passenger car.
Page 12-13
Steelmaking
Describing how steel is made using one of two
main production methods, outlining the benets
of each.
Page 14-15
Explaining how the chemical composition of steel
affects its strength and other properties.
Page 16
Characteristics
Describing how the different characteristics of
steel are used to best advantage in automotive
manufacturing.
Page 17
Steel types
Explaining the differences between types
of steel and what they mean for automotive
manufacturing.
Page 18-19
From steelworks to car plant

Outlining the processes that transform steel into
myriad automotive components.
Page 20-23
10
11
Steel - the basics: Steel in cars
Steel in cars
Steel accounts for more than 50 per cent of the weight of an
average passenger car. The major applications are shown here.
Electrical steels for

starter motors and
alternators
Electroplated strip for

brake and fuel lines,
and electrical parts
Thick section strip and tube

for structural reinforcements
and seat structures
Deep drawing quality

steels for complex
shapes
Deep drawing quality
for surface appearance
Gear steels tuned

for machinability and
hardenability
High Strength
Steels for crash
performance
High-grade
wire rod
drawn into
tyre cord
Bake-hardenable steel
for door skins and
bonnets
Engineering services
to prove out materials
Ultra High Strength
selection and
Steels for B pillars
engineering solutions.
Steel for chassis bolts
Services to make and
and rivets
weld blanks for vehicle
Alloy steel rod for

high-temperature
applications, eg.
engine valves
Ultra-clean steels for
precision parts, eg.
diesel injectors
Steel tubes for hydroformed
subframes and other
chassis parts
12
Aluminium-coated strip
for exhausts
Spring steels
for suspension
components
Billets for suspension

and engine part
forgings
Advanced High
Strength Steels
for lighter vehicle
structures
structural parts.
R&D services to assist
selection of materials
for formability and
weldability.
Find out more: www.corusautomotive.com/en/products

13
Steel - the basics: The multi-materials car

A car is built from many different
materials, although the main
structure known as the Body In
White (BIW) is usually made of
steel pressings welded together
to form a strong and stiff frame.
This method of construction
accounts for 99.9 per cent of all the
cars produced in the world. The
remaining 0.1 per cent are mostly
constructed with an aluminium BIW,
while a very small number (less than
0.01 per cent) are constructed from
carbon-bre composite (see Fig. 2
opposite).
Fig. 1
Fig. 1
6%
4% 3%
8%
11%
56%
12%
steel 56%
plastics 11%
aluminium 6%
glass 3%
iron 12%
others 8%
rubber 4%
Source: SMMT 2001 report
Did you know?

The human body contains
4.2g of iron, enough to
make a piece of car door
27mm x 27mm.
14
The material properties of steel

(with its wide range of yield strength
combined with high modulus)
together with ease of manufacture
and low cost, mean that steelintensive vehicles have by far the
largest share of the market. The high
cost of alternative materials such as
aluminium or composites mean that
steels position as the rst-choice
material is secure.
The BIW of a vehicle accounts for
20 per cent of the vehicle mass.
The weight of the closures (doors,
bonnet and boot/rear hatch), chassis
(suspension parts) and driveline
bring the total amount of steel and
other ferrous metals to more than 60
per cent (see Fig. 1).
In recent years, the amount of
ferrous metal has declined, mostly
driven by manufacturers replacing
iron with aluminium for engine
castings. The percentage of sheet
steel per car has also dropped,
mainly due to:
Higher levels of equipment, trim
and soundproong.
More aluminium used in wheels
and suspension parts.
More moulded plastics, especially
under the bonnet.
The environmental and economic
requirements for reduced fuel
consumption have also led to an
increase in the use of lightweight
materials for components that bolt
on to a conventional steel vehicle,
but at a cost: see Table 1 opposite.
Fig. 2 Vehicle production vs vehicle price vs market share
Carbon bre
Aluminium
Steel
Vehicle price Euro (x1000)
A brief guide to the materials that make up the cars of today.
<0.01%
<0.1%
>99.9%
Annual production (x 1000 units)

Source of Fig. 2 and Table 1: Corus
Table 1: Alternative materials - potential weight saving vs cost
steel
(kg)
aluminium magnesium
(kg)
(kg)
% weight reduction
(part)
285
218
N/A
23.5
Bonnet
(assembly)
14.8
8.3
N/A
44
Door
15.7
9.5
N/A
39
11.4
N/A
6.3
45
Body in
white
(BIW)
(instrument
panel
support)
3.90
250
0.48
300
example
vehicle mass
of 1700kg
example
vehicle mass
of 1350kg
(assembly)
IP Beam
(vehicle)
% cost
increase
(part)
0.40
275
0.33
350
example
vehicle mass
of 1550kg
example
vehicle mass
of 1550kg
15
Steel - the basics: Steelmaking
Steelmaking
Here we explain the principal commercial methods for making
steel: Basic Oxygen Steelmaking (BOS) and the Electric Arc
Furnace (EAF).
Since BOS relies on a supply of
liquid iron from a blast furnace, we
must rst describe iron making.
Iron ore (iron oxides), coke and
limestone are fed into a blast furnace
where they are heated to around
15000 C. At this temperature carbon
monoxide is formed by the reactions
of coke and limestone with furnace
gases. The lime now acts as a
uxing agent, removing impurities
in the form of a slag which oats on
Blast furnace
top of the iron. Carbon monoxide

reacts with iron ore to give molton
iron, which collects at the bottom of
the furnace. The resulting carbonrich pig iron is then poured off and
transported to the BOS plant.
Basic Oxygen Steelmaking
In the BOS process, steel is made
by blowing oxygen into liquid
iron using a water-cooled lance.
Oxygen reacts with excess carbon
and other impurities, which are
released as gases. This exothermic
reaction takes place under alkaline
conditions (i.e. basic), with the rise
in temperature controlled to some
extent by the addition of scrap steel.
A steelworks that makes steel by this
route and shares a site with a blast
furnace for the provision of liquid
iron is known as an integrated
steelworks.
The BOS process is used where
large volumes of similar steel types
are required. It is the most common
route for making formable strip
steels for car bodyshells and ultraclean steels with low residuals for
products such as tyre cord and valve
springs.
These steels have low levels of trace
elements, which make them ideal for
forming into body panels and other
thin-section, deep-drawn parts.
16
Electric Arc Furnace steelmaking

The Electric Arc Furnace (EAF)
process is simpler and more exible.
The process uses electric current
to produce a high-temperature arc
inside a furnace containing scrap
steel. One furnace can be used to
produce smaller batches of a wider
variety of steel types than the BOS
process.
While the feedstock for the BOS
process is molten pig iron, for the
EAF process it is almost 100 per
cent steel scrap resulting in steel
being the most recycled engineering
material in the world.
The EAF process is preferred for
making specialist steels such as
heat-treatable forging billets, hightemperature alloys and stainless
steels.
Secondary steelmaking
The steel from either BOS or EAF
then goes through a series of
operations while still liquid, which
can include vacuum degassing,
argon stirring and the addition of
other metallic alloying elements by
powder injection. Fine tuning of the
steel chemistry in this way allows the
steelmaker to produce thousands
of grades of steel from the same
basic composition. The steel is then
poured by a continuous-casting
process to form a range of thickness
known as slabs, blooms or billets.
Further processing
Billets may be supplied directly to
forgers for hot forging components
such as crankshafts, camshafts and
connecting rods, or hot rolled into
sections for reinforcement brackets
and door hinges.
However, most steel for automotive
use is supplied in the form of sheet,
ranging in thickness from 0.5mm to
4mm, in widths up to two metres.
This sheet is produced by hot
rolling a slab, with the resultant
oxide surface being removed
by pickling in an acid bath. For
optimum mechanical properties
and control of surface nish, most
automotive sheet steel is cold rolled.
A corrosion-preventing metallic
coating, usually zinc based, is
then applied by electro or hot-dip
galvanizing. Cold-rolled sheet
requires heat treatment (annealing)
that is often carried out within the
coating process, before a nal cold
roll (temper rolling).
Sheet steel is rolled into coils
weighing up to 20 tonnes for
shipment by road or rail.
Electric arc furnace
Find out more: www.corusgroup.com/en/responsibility

17
Steel - the basics: Characteristics
Steel - the basics: Chemical compositions
Characteristics
Alloying elements are added to steel to create the desired

strength and formability properties for specic automotive
components.
Steel offers an impressive range of properties to meet the

demands of every automotive application.
Iron atoms
Interstitial atoms
(carbon, nitrogen)
Substitutional atom
(eg. phosphorous, vanadium)
Source of diagrams above and
below: Corus
Steel grade DP600 through

microscope at x1000 magnication
Steel for automotive purposes is

made up of iron (generally more
than 99 per cent) and a range of
other alloying elements, the most
important of which is carbon.
Under a microscope, at x1000
magnication it can be seen that
steel is actually made up of tiny
crystals known as grains. These
grains of steel are formed when
liquid steel cools to a solid, the
atoms of iron within each grain,
aligning in a precise crystalline array.
The size, shape and composition of
these grains has a major effect on
the strength and formability of the
steel.
A carbon atom is smaller than
an iron atom, and provides a
strengthening mechanism by sitting
between the iron atoms, preventing
the rows of atoms sliding over one
another. At carbon levels below
0.001 per cent, the steel is known as
interstitial free (IF) and therefore has
a low yield strength.
Other alloying elements, such as
phosphorous or vanadium, have
larger atoms that strengthen by
substitution for an iron atom.
This is known as solid-solution
strengthening. Steel manufacturers
combine this with other techniques
to produce steel with an optimum
balance of properties.
18
Steel for use in automotive

applications ranges from the most
formable grades with a low yield
strength of 140 N/mm to ultrahigh-strength tyre-cord steel with a
strength of 2,500 N/mm.
Some grades have specialised
processing for a specic end use,
such as super-clean steels for use
in fuel injection systems and forging
grades for crankshafts, camshafts
and connecting rods. Grades
specic to connecting rods, for
example, can be deliberately fracture
split as part of the manufacturing
process.
A key requirement for sheet steel
intended for use in automotive
pressings is that it is formable, so
that it can be stretched without
undue thinning in a press to form
complex shapes. Softer grades of
steel, having low yield strength, tend
to be highly formable but lack the
strength needed for the main loadbearing members of a vehicle.
Higher-strength steel parts may be
more difcult to form, since they
do not stretch so readily, but offer
potential for weight reduction.
Above: Automotive crankshaft

hot forged from a steel billet.
Component shown is from an in-line
six-cylinder engine.
Below: A tailgate inner pressing
Find out more: www.corusgroup.com/en/responsibility

19
Steel - the basics: Steel types
Steel types
Steel grades fall into a number of general types, each suitable
for different categories of component in a car.
Each ellipse below represents the
grades available within each steel
type or family. The name for each
family see Table 2 reects the
method by which the steel achieves
its formability or strength.
As well as solid-solution
strengthening, steel manufacturers
can use a range of techniques
to make higher-performance
steels. These techniques include
grain renement, work hardening,
precipitation hardening and heat
treatment.
Fig. 4 below illustrates the properties

of three different grades of sheet
steel, and identies where in a
vehicle structure they are most likely
to be found.
The highest strength steel shown

here has a yield strength (at
point X) of 800N/mm roughly
equal to eight tonnes per square
centimetre.
Source of diagrams Fig. 3 and Fig. 4: Corus

Fig. 4
Application of types of sheet steel
Table 2: Steel types
For example, Fig. 3 below

demonstrates the range of
formability (elongation) and yield
strength for a wide range of
automotive sheet steel types.
Description
IF
Interstitial Free
BH
Bake Hardening
HSLA
High Strength - Low Alloy
CMn
Carbon Manganese
DP
Dual Phase
Boron
Boron steel
TRIP
Transformation Induced
Plasticity
(Yield strength is dened as the

point at which the steel begins to
permanently stretch or deform.)
MART
Martensitic
TWIP
Twinning Induced Plasticity
Fig. 3 Types of sheet steel
Strength
range
Yield strength N/mm2
Ultra High
Strength
Steel
Ultra High Strength Steels, for

safety-critical parts, especially
for maintaining a passenger
survival space in crash events
(X)
Stress N/mm2
Using these techniques, sheet

steels can be developed with the
ideal combination of formability and
strength for specic automotive
applications.
Type
High Strength Steels

with a good balance of
strength, formability, energy
absorption and durability
600
Steels with excellent formability,

eg. for deep drawing
High
Strength
Steel
Formable
steel
10
20
20
30
40
50
Elongation %
Elongation %
21
Steel - the basics: From steelworks to assembly line
A range of secondary processes is used to give a steel

component its nal properties and shape.
Heat treatment
Heat treatment alters the mechanical
properties of metal, improving
ductility or strength or a combination
of both.
Annealing at around 6000 C is used
to remove the work hardening that
results from cold rolling creating a
softer, more formable steel.
metal coatings can enhance wear

resistance and electrical conductivity
or promote adhesion.
It is now possible for a vehicle
manufacturer to offer 30-year
anti-perforation warranties due to
the combined performance of coilapplied metallic coatings and paintshop applied organic coatings.
Quenching (rapid cooling) of steel

from a temperature of around 7500 C
results in the formation of (very hard)
martensite.
Bake-hardening (BH) steels gain
additional strength as the pressed
components (such as outer panels
and closures) go through the paint
oven after painting.
Coatings
Coil-applied coatings (i.e. applied at
the steelworks) for automotive use
are generally metallic and based
on zinc, aluminium, copper and tin.
Zinc coatings are used to enhance
corrosion resistance, while other
22
Did you know?

The highest strength steel
in everyday use is the
cold-drawn wire used for
piano wire and tyre cord
a 12mm diameter cable
made from this wire is
strong enough to lift a 30tonne truck.
Blanking
Steel strip leaves the steelworks in
the form of coils. The process of
de-coiling and cutting the strip into
shapes ready for pressing into threedimensional components is known
as blanking.
Blanks of different thicknesses,
grades or coatings can be welded
together. These Tailor Welded Blanks
(TWBs) are typically used for parts
that need additional strength and
stiffness in applications such as door
inners, reinforcing the areas where
hinges and locks are attached.
Did you know?

A 283mm x 230mm bloom
measuring four metres
long can be rolled into
a coil of rod measuring
up to 11 km long (for
5.5mm diameter rod) and
weighing 2.2 tonnes.
Forming
Press forming converts at sheet
steel into the three-dimensional
shapes used to generate complex
parts and box sections in a cars
body in white (BIW). Sheet steel
blanks are inserted into a press, the
outer edge of the sheet is clamped
and the sheet stamped between a
male and a female die. To obtain a
deep section requires extra metal,
which is pulled from the clamped
region; the part is then described as
drawn. Very deep shapes, such as
door inners or spare-wheel wells,
are deep drawn and require the
most formable grades of steel. The
higher-strength steel used in modern
cars requires presses with higher
press forces.
Press Hardening, also known as
die-quenching, is similar to press
forming, but in the press-hardening
process the steel is rst heated to
9500 C and simultaneously pressed
and quenched in the die to produce
a very strong martensitic steel.
Roll forming is a process where
sheet metal is progressively folded
to shape through a series of rollers.
23
Steel - the basics: From steelworks to assembly line
The resulting proles are used for

seat rails and chassis rails for trucks.
Hydroforming can be used to
form tube or sheet steel. In tube
hydroforming, a tube is lled with
uid and pressurised. The tube
then expands to match the shape
of an external die. Chassis frames,
subframes and instrument panel
support beams are examples of
hydroformable parts.
Forging
Engine parts such as camshafts,
crankshafts and piston connecting
rods are examples of parts made
by forging. In the forging process, a
steel billet is rst heated in a furnace.
The red-hot billet is then transferred
to a press where it is progressively
stamped into shape between two
dies. The steel forging produced
is close to the nal part shape and
therefore requires little machining.
The ow of material in the forging
process results in a preferred grain
structure, enhancing both toughness
and fatigue performance.
Joining
Commonly used joining techniques
in automotive assembly include
spot welding, laser welding, hybrid
welding, arc welding, adhesive
bonding, mechanical joining and
brazing. Efcient and reliable
joining is a critical technology in the
assembly of automotive structures,
and the quality of joins can greatly
affect the durability of the nished
product. Joining of dissimilar
metals (eg. steel to aluminium) is an
emerging technology, as carmakers
tune weight distribution to enhance a
vehicles handling or stability.
Machining
As well as forgings, steel in the form
of rod, bar and tube is machined to
produce a wide range of powertrain
and suspension components, such
as gear shafts, stub axles and
constant-velocity joints. Typical
machining operations are cutting,
milling, boring and grinding. Grinding
provides the high surface nish
required for the longevity of plain
bearings and oil seals.
Find out more: www.corusautomotive.com/hydroforming

24
Free-cutting engineering steels are

designed to enable the rapid removal
of metal during machining, and to
prolong tool life.
Surface treatment
Wear resistance of bearing surfaces
or cylinder bores can be increased
by a number of chemical, thermal
and mechanical methods. One
popular method is nitriding where
a heated component is immersed
in nitrogen-rich uid. The atoms
of nitrogen that diffuse into the
surface of the steel increase
surface hardness without causing
embrittlement.
Fracture splitting
Connecting rod big ends are bolted
together to produce a strong and
stiff circular housing for the big end
bearing shells. These big ends can
be made by fracture splitting using
a grade of steel that, under the right
conditions, breaks cleanly to provide
precision-matching surfaces. This
method reduces the number of
further machining operations and is
a good example of material choice
enabling lean manufacturing.
A mechanical method, such as shot

peening (hammering with metal
beads), leaves residual compressive
stresses in the surface of the
component, which considerably
improves fatigue performance.
Find out more: www.corusautomotive.com/publications

25
Automotive industry issues: Drivers for change
Automotive industry issues

Drivers for change
2006
26
2007
2008
2009
2010
Marketing & brand management for product differentiation and

image
Cost reduction - improving
development & production
processes and introducing new
technology.
Legislation - the need to meet
rising safety, emissions and
environmental challenges
Feature content - to satisfy
increasing consumer expectations
Carmakers are acutely aware

that good and early selection of
materials is essential to the integrity
of a vehicles structure and the
effectiveness of manufacturing
processes. The combination of these
demands and the constant pressure
to bring cars to market faster,
means that steelmakers like Corus
are taking an increasingly active
role in recommending the optimum
steels for particular engineering
applications.
2011
2012
All participants in the vehicle design

process now accept that the cost of
developing new platforms is mostly
committed before designs are
xed and any tooling metal is cut.
This increases the reliance on ever
more accurate computer simulation
methods.
2015 95% per vehicle mass reused/

recovered, 85% per vehicle mass
reused/recycled
For steelmakers, satisfying the

demands created by these drivers
means developing new materials
and more efcient processes. It
also means building a good working
knowledge of the industries that
their materials are supplied into.
The natural consequence is that
steelmakers must maintain constant
2013 Computer simulation to

supplement testing for legislative
assessment?
2013 Legislation changes due to
harmonisation?
The diagram below shows the

timetable for some of the anticipated
global legislation that is driving
change in the industry. This
legislation covers:
Occupant safety making cars
safer for their passengers.
Pedestrian safety increasing
the chances of survival for
pedestrians hit by cars.
Emissions meeting legislative
targets.
End of Life Vehicle Directive
(ELVD) reducing landll by
recovery and reuse of vehicle
mass (85 per cent by 2006, 95
per cent by 2015).
dialogue with carmakers, and work

collaboratively with them.
2012 New vehicle target 120g/km CO2

(new cycle)
2006 Car manufacturers will achieve

waste recovery target of 85%
2006 Granulated tyres banned from
landll
2007 Cost free take-back, all vehicles
01/2007 85% reuse/recycle
2007 Upgrade FMVSS208 increased
impact speed (mid-sized dummy)
2008 New vehicle target 140g/km CO2
(new cycle)
2008 FMVSS202 rear impact head
restraint
2009 Revised FMVSS214 (side impact)
- new dummies, pole test
Dates and targets below are subject

to continual revision.
Legislative changes
2010 Pedestrian Protection Directive

2003/102/EC: Phase II
2010 Upgrade to FMVSS216 increased
roof crush load
2010 Euro 5 emissions: diesel
particulates 80% reduction, petrol
NOx & HC 25% reduction
2010 NCAP to begin testing active
safety systems for collision
avoidance
In this section
This section explains how materials
suppliers like Corus are changing
to help carmakers through the
development of new products
helping them to meet the challenges
they face in the areas of:
Safety
Environment
Quality and service
The main drivers of change in the

global automotive industry are:
2011 Publication of European crash

compatibility legislation?
Steelmakers need to work closely with carmakers to develop

advanced materials that respond to the issues that drive the
automotive industry.
2013
2014
2015
27
Automotive industry issues: History of the car
The history of the car

This timeline demonstrates how changes in legislation,
technology and the market in the automotive industry have
driven material development and application.
Steel became the material of

choice as soon as mass production
and moving production lines
dramatically lowered the cost of
vehicle manufacture in the early
Start of transportation
for the masses
Morris
Minor
1920
Chevrolet
Corvair
Mini
Jaguar
E-Type
Range
Rover
VW Golf
1930
Toyota
Prius
1960
1960
1970
1980
Renault
Laguna
1996 First bonded structure

1997 Start of European New Car Assessment
Programme.
Public awareness of safety issues
2001 First car to achieve 5 star NCAP
2003 First aluminium/steel hybrid body
Lotus
Elise
1980s Start of use of Finite Element

Analysis & Computer Aided Design
1974 First air bags tted
1973 Static side crush test (US)
1965 Compulsory tting of front seat belts (EU)

1968 Compulsory tting of front seat belts (US)
1958 First European crash regulation
1954 First mass-produced aluminium

monocoque
1950
BMW 5/6
series
Porsche
911
Panhard
Dyna Z
1940
Renault
Espace
Fiat
Ritmo/Strada
1940 First four wheel drive multi-purpose

vehicle
1933 First mass-produced monocoque
Citroen
Traction Avant
1923 First monocoque body structure
Lancia
Lambda
1920 Hydraulic braking was introduced.
1914 First mass-produced all-steel body
1910 Start of mass production
Citroen
DS
Increased use of higher strength steels &

improvements in design optimisation techniques
Willys Jeep
Ford
model
T
28
Citroen
2 CV
Fiat 500
Topolino
Dodge
1910
Oil
shortages
1975 First fully galvanised steel body

1978 Start of US NCAP
1978 First fully robotised body assembly
Austin
7
Green issues
Safety/product liability issues
Advancements in steel
quality & pressing
techniques
Volkswagen
Beetle
20th century. The challenge for

steelmakers has been to keep pace
with the ever increasing rate of
technological change in this dynamic
industry.
1990
2000
2010
29
Automotive industry issues: Safety
Safety for vehicle occupants
Safety for side impact
Most new cars now achieve a ve-star rating for Euro-NCAP

(European New Car Assessment Programme) performance in
protecting vehicle occupants from collisions. In future, further
stars may be awarded for other test cases, such as rear impact,
roll over or crash compatibility.
Safety in side impact is a key automotive design requirement,

covered by extensive legislation and consumer testing in
each of the major world markets.
The increasing array of crashtest scenarios will require more

sophisticated crash structures that
take account of a wider range of
potential accidents.
The basic principles of side-impact

design require the control of
vehicle intrusion, intrusion prole
and intrusion rate. This is typically
achieved using a strong B-pillar
structure which pivots around the
connection with the roof and deects
more at the base, while avoiding
collapse in the middle.
To meet the changing requirements

placed upon a vehicle to protect its
occupants, there have been many
innovations in passive safety devices
such as air-bags, knee-bolsters and
anti-submarining seats. Together
these life-saving devices work
to protect occupants if they are
unfortunate enough to be involved in
an accident.
The body structure of modern
vehicles has developed from the
simple crumple-zone approach of
the 1980s to become a sophisticated
load and energy management
device, providing not only for dayto-day in-service performance, but
also for the extreme conditions of a
crash event.
As well as contributing to the
manufacture of these components,
Corus assists vehicle manufacturers
and their suppliers in developing
materials and application
technologies that reduce cost while
meeting the increasing demands for
safety in ever-shorter development
times.
30
Image courtesy of Essex County Fire

& Rescue Service
By using its computer simulation

expertise to predict the effects
of these changing requirements
upon the vehicle structure, Corus
is able to dene the best materials,
manufacturing and assembly
methods.
It is anticipated that the increased
condence in virtual testing as
engineering analysis models become
more sophisticated will lead to
crash testing of only the worst-case
scenarios.
Manufacturers employ a number of

strategies for achieving the desired
performance, ranging from using
High Strength Steels and fewer parts
to using lower strength grades but
with more parts and thicker gauges.
A good illustration is the extent to
which press-hardened boron steel is
used in B-pillar structures.
Boron steel parts offer very high
strength and are hot-formed, which
enables complex shapes to be
made, facilitating a reduction in
the number of parts required. The
disadvantages are high forming
costs, slow process times and more
complex joining and coating.
High Strength Steel parts offer an
alternative to boron steel. These
steel grades also provide good
performance and are cold pressed,
giving faster production times.
Forming and joining are more
demanding than with conventional
steel, and there is little scope for

reducing the number of parts.
Lower-strength steel structures can
also be used but are more difcult
to engineer to achieve the desired
performance. Thicker gauges and
more parts are required, leading to
heavier vehicles with less internal
packaging space.
The ideal material for side-impact
protection would be a low-cost,
high-strength grade that can be
formed, joined and coated easily.
Corus continues to develop their
products towards this goal. In
the meantime, vehicle designers
are using their expertise to nd
solutions that still give the desired
performance.
31
Automotive industry issues: Safety
Safety for pedestrians
Safety at the roadside
In the European Union, around 8,000 pedestrians and cyclists

are killed and around 300,000 are injured each year in road
trafc accidents. In October 2005, the European Union enforced
Phase I legislation (2003/102/EC) aiming to minimise pedestrian
injuries.
Vehicles now have to be more
compliant to pedestrians and meet
legislative impact criteria, protecting
leg and head in simulated collisions.
Phase I of the legislation is already
posing major challenges for vehicle
manufacturers. Pedestrian safety
has a signicant inuence on
styling, under-bonnet packaging
and structure crushability. Vehicle
bonnets, fronts and bumpers
must now deform at lower loads
over longer distances, requiring
additional package space and
revised components. Achieving this
space and stiffness at the same time
as making the vehicle aesthetically
pleasing and considering all other
design requirements, is extremely

challenging.
Advanced computer simulation
capabilities and detailed materials
knowledge have enabled Corus
to work with OEMs and their
Tier suppliers to develop new
concepts for vehicle bonnets, wings
and bumpers that satisfy these
requirements
Phase II legislation is being discussed
at the European Commission and
should be conrmed in the near
future. Initial texts are suggesting
more stringent safety targets with
an enforcement date of 2010.
It is expected that pedestrian
safety design will continue to be
a signicant requirement, being
incorporated into new model types
very early in the vehicle programme.
Corus is investigating the
technological requirements to meet
this more demanding legislation.
An innovative Corus bumper solution

that protects pedestrians legs
32
In addition to the demands of vehicle safety, Corus is keen to

help improve safety on the roadside by developing ever-more
advanced vehicle-restraint systems.
The rst of a new set of six parts of
standard EN1317 was released in
2004 by the European Commission.
This consolidated the previously
disparate standards for roadside
safety fences and bridge parapets,
also known as vehicle restraints. The
other parts of the standard will come
into force by 2010. Corus is a key
contributor to the technical debate
that will ensure the new standards
address the safety issues on our
roads.
of this work is a series of products

that are already contributing to safer
roads.
The Corus portfolio includes
products ranging from motorway
safety barriers to high-containment
bridge parapets.
Corus has been a vehicle-restraint

system manufacturer for more than
40 years, testing and producing the
safety fences and bridge parapets
that have become a familiar sight
on our major road networks. Corus
applies its computer-simulation
technology to solve the complex
problems of redirecting errant
vehicles from high-energy collisions
with roadside obstructions. The fruit
Find out more: www.corusconstruction.com/saferoads
33
Automotive industry issues: Environment
End of Life Vehicle Directive (ELVD)
Table 3: Evaluation of a clutch pedal

Design
The use of steel for an increasing range of components is

helping carmakers to improve vehicle recyclability and meet the
demands of legislation.
Carmakers have a real challenge on
their hands. In an effort to reduce
landll, the End of Life Vehicle
Directive (ELVD) legislation states
that from early 2007, 85 per cent of
the mass of any new car sold in the
EU must be recycled or reused. By
the end of 2015 this target rises to
95 per cent.
Corus is working to maximise the
benet of recycling steel, using its
materials and engineering expertise.
Advances in steel technology over
recent years mean that components
like fuel tanks, pedals, engine
covers, uid reservoirs and front-end
structures can now revert costeffectively from plastics back to steel
to improve recyclability. Research
shows that if just 25 components
in a modern car were to revert from

plastic to steel, it could increase the
vehicles recyclability by ve per
cent.
When it comes to car components,
sustainability involves nding
more cost-effective ways of
using recyclable steel. A recent
vehicle engineering study by
Corus on designs for a clutch
pedal in aluminium, plastic
and steel demonstrates that
improving recyclability need not
have an adverse effect on cost or
performance (see Table 3 opposite).
Carmakers will increasingly need
this type of support from materials
suppliers as the ELVD legislation
comes into force.
Advantages
Disadvantages
Piece
Mass
cost (euro) (kg)
Steel
Recyclable,
fabrication low parts
cost, stiff,
robust
High mass,
moderate
tooling cost,
poor NVH
2.81
0.58
Plastic
injection
moulding
Low mass,
good for
complex
shapes, good
NVH
Poor recycling, 3.51

high parts cost,
low stiffness,
not robust
0.30
Steel
pressing
Recyclable,
low parts cost,
robust, stiff
High mass,
2.20
high tooling
cost, not suited
to complex
shapes
0.39
High parts
4.20
cost, poor NVH
(noise, vibration
and harshness)
0.36
Aluminium Recyclable,
alloy
low mass, low
tooling cost,
robust, good for
complex shapes
Source of Table 3: Corus
Wonder material
More than 400 million tonnes of steel
is recycled globally every year. It is
the most widely recycled engineering
material in the world. Around 40
per cent of the worlds production
of new steel is made from steel
recyclate. Like water, steel can be
recycled over and over again without
performance degradation.
Did you know?

Analysis shows that if
just 25 key components
were converted back
to steel from plastics, it
would increase vehicle
recyclability by ve per
cent.
Find our more: http://ec.europa.eu/environment/waste/elv_index.htm

34
35
Automotive industry issues: Environment
Sustainable solutions
Ultra Low CO2 Steelmaking (ULCOS)
ELVD legislation demands that carmakers remove harmful

substances from vehicles, including hexavalent chromium, lead,
mercury and cadmium.
Hexavalent chromium is commonly
used in the production of adhesivecoated metals. Corus has developed
a unique hexavalent chromiumfree adhesive-coated metal called
Envirobond, for use in a wide
range of automotive applications.
Envirobond provides an alternative

for components where pre-applied
reactivatable adhesives are required,
such as weather strips for door
linings, sunroofs, bonnets, boots,
body side mouldings, brake shims
and interior trims. Envirobond is
capable of meeting the stringent
quality requirements demanded by
the industry, without any loss of
corrosion or adhesion performance.
It can be used on a full range
of metal substrates for bonding
to plastics and rubbers in many
automotive applications.
Going the extra mile

In recent years, improvements in
the selection of raw materials and
better process controls mean that
primary steelmaking by-products
now meet strict quality standards.
As a result, these by-products are
being used as secondary materials
in sectors such as cement and
chemicals manufacture. This results
in non-renewable primary raw
materials being conserved.
A good example is blast-furnace
slag, a by-product from the
production of pig iron in a blast
furnace. For years this was
considered as waste and ended
up in landll. Corus has optimised
its iron-making processes and
invested in granulation facilities
to generate tightly specied slag
products, which are now used as a
valuable secondary raw material in
the cement industry. This approach
helps to conserve non-renewable
resources such as limestone, and
signicantly reduces emissions of
CO2.
Find our more: www.corusgroup.com/en/responsibility/environment/

36
The steel industry accounts for six per cent of all man-made
CO2 emissions and is therefore in the frontline of efforts to
combat global warming.
Although typical CO2 emissions per
tonne of steel are now around 50 per
cent lower than 40 years ago, more
needs to be done. This requires both
a short-term effort on incremental
reduction and a long-term strategy
to nd innovative ways to reduce
carbon gas emissions.
This effort is being spearheaded
by the European steelmakers who
have launched the Ultra-Low Carbon
Steelmaking programme (ULCOS),
which is examining a range of radical
technologies to reduce the steel
industrys emissions. In addition
to the European steel companies,
consortium members include
other industries, universities and
research institutes who bring a fresh
perspective to the issues faced by
steelmakers.
Corus is a major partner in ULCOS

whose short to medium term
emphasis is on reducing emissions
incrementally, wherever this can be
achieved in a cost-effective way.
Although more than 80 per cent of
emissions from Coruss integrated
steelworks are irreducible process
emissions, the combustion-related
CO2 emissions are closely linked
with energy use. In recent years,
Corus has been successful in
signicantly reducing the amount
of energy used to make each
tonne of steel. The restructuring
of UK operations, which involved
rationalising steelmaking activities
from six sites in 2001 to four at
the end of 2005, has played a
substantial part in this.
Find our more: www.corusgroup.com/en/responsibility/environment/

37
Automotive industry issues: Weight and cost reduction
Fewer parts mean lower cost
More than 25 per cent of all European emissions of CO2 result

from the use of transport. One of the ways to reduce fuel
consumption and CO2 emissions is to reduce the weight of
vehicles.
By combining their knowledge of Advanced High Strength

Steels (AHSS) and automotive engineering, Corus engineers are
constantly looking for new applications that will reduce cost
and weight for automotive customers.
Corus Automotive has developed a

proven approach for reducing cost
and weight of both existing and new
prototype vehicles, called VA/VE
(Value Analysis/ Value Engineering).
The value analysis part of this
approach systematically evaluates
the gauge, grade and coatings
of vehicle body and chassis
components, to identify materialsbased cost and weight reduction
opportunities.
The value engineering part of the
process identies design change
opportunities to reduce tooling and

other manufacturing costs, while
maintaining or enhancing structural
performance.
Using this approach, customers are
assured of the optimum deployment
of materials to achieve required
performances at the lowest practical
cost. Some examples of the output
from previous VA/VE studies are
shown in Table 4 below.
Table 4: Output from previous VA/VE studies

Vehicle
Corus task Saving potential
14m
4x4 chassis VA
30/vehicle
3.6m
B segment
VA/VE
20/vehicle
3m
C segment
VA
10/vehicle
2.5m
D segment
VA/VE
10/vehicle & 10kg
1.5m
C segment
VA
30/vehicle & 16kg
22.5m
MPV
VA
150kg
N/A
C segment
VA
50/vehicle & 9kg
7.5m
38
VA/VE
Corus recognises the need for costeffective, lightweight solutions that

Integrated DP800 do not compromise performance.
reinforcement
For this reason, the company
strives to use its extensive materials
knowledge to develop ideas for
extracting the maximum benet out
of the steel used.
Door outer
Did you know?

A Smart Fortwo weighs
more than a 1974 Mark
I Golf.
Approx saving/year
70/vehicle
Light van
Door inner
As part of its efforts, Corus has

developed a one-piece AHSS door
concept. The design integrates
the intrusion beam, waist rail, lock
and hinge reinforcements into a
one-piece panel manufactured from
DP800-grade steel. The reduced
gauge gives a weight saving of
0.65kg/door, while maintaining the
equivalent side-impact performance
of the conventional design.
Corus Automotive engineers working

on a VA/VE subframe study
39
Automotive industry issues: Weight and cost reduction
Vehicle weight in decline at last?

For an average-sized car driven 14,000 miles (22,000 km) in a
year, four tonnes of CO2 are emitted. Lighter vehicles mean
lower fuel consumption and trends nally seem to be moving
in the right direction.
Vehicle weight has been increasing
steadily over the last 40 years, as
typied by the average C segment
car (see Fig. 5). Cars in this segment
have been getting heavier by ve to
ten per cent at every model change,
mostly driven by safety, stiffness and
increased equipment levels. Table 5
shows how this weight increase (of
700kg) breaks down.
The weight increase by segment
is compounded by fashion trends
people carriers, 4x4s and
performance expectations. The
popularity of these larger vehicles
has slowed the rate of reduction of
CO2 levels.
Fig. 5
Vehicle weight the good news

Social and economic pressures
are now reversing the trend toward
large vehicles.
Most cars are now achieving 5
stars in the Euro-NCAP tests.
Larger cars (especially in the
luxury E segment) are levelling
out on size and weight.
In the C and D segments the rate
of increase of vehicle weight is
slowing and looks likely to reverse
in the next ve to ten years
The European Commission plan
to ensure a new car average of
120g CO2/km by 2012 will result
in strong competition and weight
reduction in the high-volume B and
C segments.
Weight increase year by year

C segment car
Table 5: Breakdown of 40 years of weight increases (700kg)

Outcome
Contribution
to weight
increase (%)
Comments
Vehicle size
Latest Polo is the

Longer, wider and taller same size as the 1974
Golf
Vehicle
strength
Safer and more

durable
EuroNCAP has raised

consumer awareness
Vehicle
stiffness
Improved Noise,
Vibration, Harshness
(NVH) and handling
Vehicle stiffness
contributes to the
quality feel
Comfort/
renement
Air Conditioning, NVH,

seats
The biggest
recognisable change in
vehicle quality
15
Features/
equipment
In car entertainment,
electrical
The average car now

contains more than 20
electric motors
13
Occupant
safety
Safety cell improveAirbags, pre-tensioners ment is included in

vehicle strength
Performance
Acceleration, handling
and brakes
Emissions
Noxious emissions
reduced by two orders
of magnitude
Includes fuel systems,

powertrain and
driveline.
Bigger, thicker,
exhausts now include
catalysts
Use of
plastics
Plastics and rubber

now account for 15%
of a vehicle mass
Many materials
(aluminium, zinc,
wood, steel) have been
replaced by plastic
(-) 5
Use of HSS/
AHSS
Rapidly increasing over Now accounts for

over 50% of BIW and
the past ve years
closures
(-)5

Cost effective lightweighting
by the use of Advanced High
Strength Steels (AHSS) will allow
vehicle manufacturers to reverse
model on model weight increases
without recourse to expensive
or environmentally unsound
solutions.
Diagram courtesy of Thatcham
Total
30
25
17
5
100
The successful introduction of

AHSS by European steelmakers,
demonstrating material performance
and supplier support through
Early Vendor Involvement (EVI)
and innovation, will ensure steel
remains the rst choice material
for automotive structures for the
foreseeable future.
Find out more: www.acea.be/node

40
41
Automotive industry issues: Quality and service
Quality and service

Every automotive component made from steel is designed and
built to deliver a reliable and predictable service life. Steels
mechanical properties of strength, cleanness and surface nish
must be reliable if carmakers are to create their products cost
effectively.
Manufacturing quality
As soon as decisions are made
about which steel grades to
produce, product quality becomes
a priority. Careful selection of raw
materials, steelmaking process and
renement and nishing processes
all improve the quality of Corus steel
products. Corus mills take great
care to ensure that the dimensional,
surface nish, strength and
mechanical properties of every steel
product that leaves its plants are
within required tolerances.
Distribution quality
Once steel products have been
made, it is essential that their hardwon quality is not compromised
during the delivery process. One
example of the way Corus controls
the delivery quality of its steel is in

its wire rod mill. Wire rod is used to
manufacture an incredible range of
automotive components including
tyre reinforcement cord, valve
springs, headrest supports, air bag
and seatbelt wire and windscreenwiper components. Scratches on
the surface of the rod can cause
it to break during wire drawing,
creating unacceptable production
downtimes. As part of a 14m
investment in its rod mill, Corus
has introduced a state-of-the-art
automated warehouse. Here, coils
are protected from damage by
storage in individual compartments,
and manual handling is virtually
eliminated. The results have been
instant, with incidences of damaged
rod dramatically reduced.
Services to support engineering,

design and production quality
Carmakers are increasingly seeking
access to in-depth materials
knowledge to assist in the selection
of cost-effective materials, and to
ensure a smooth transition from the
design and development stages of
carmaking into full production.
Thats why the Corus team of design
and engineering specialists (mostly
recruited from the automotive
industry) work with their carmaker
customers to select materials and
nd ways to efciently manufacture
vehicle structures and components
at the lowest weight and cost.
High-technology engineering
analysis capabilities are used to, for
example, review fatigue performance
of proposed parts, including
advanced methods to assure fatigue
performance in critical seam and
spot-welded joints. Technical help
services like this, when applied early
in the concept and design stages of
car development, can demonstrate
the business case for a wide range
of components, including body
Image courtesy of Xtrac

42
structures, chassis and suspension

parts, hydroformed sub-frame parts
and driveline components.
Corus Technical Services also
offer press shop support bringing
many years of experience to bear in
helping to troubleshoot and ensure
that mass-production presses turn
out components of acceptable and
consistent quality.
Corus Automotive Service Centres
offer a range of pre-production
services to make 1D and 2D tailorwelded blanks, using CO2 laser
welding cells. Corus also uses
specialised lasers which deliver
intense light via bre-optic cables,
meaning that complex curved welds
are possible.
Find out more: www.corusautomotive.com/en/products/engineering_services/

43
Corus in action
The case studies in this section illustrate how Corus combines
its materials knowledge, automotive-engineering expertise
and manufacturing innovation to offer its customers unique
solutions to their specic needs.
Consistent delivery of high-quality

material and service
Expertise optimises con-rod

manufacture
Carmakers are increasingly turning to companies like Corus
to develop innovative solutions that help designers to reduce
component weight, improve service life and cut manufacturing
costs
Smethwick Drop Forge (SDF), the
UKs leading forger of connecting
rods for passenger and commercial
vehicles, approached Corus for
help in developing its con-rods.
The company needed to satisfy the
ongoing demand from customers
for lighter-weight components,
improved fatigue performance and
reduced machining taking costs
out of the manufacturing process on
current production components.
Corus has extensive expertise in

computer modelling techniques
and in-depth knowledge of the
application of different steel grades,
which it used to reduce the weight of
SDFs con-rods by up to 15 per cent.
This lighter component design in
turn improves engine efciency
and contributes towards meeting
stringent environmental legislation.
The improved machining responses
were delivered without sacricing the
strength or durability of the part.
Commenting on the collaboration,

Mark Adams, Managing Director
SDF, said: By partnering with Corus
and utilising their material knowledge
and expertise in computer simulation
techniques, we have been able to
carry out many iterations in a short
space of time to determine optimum
con-rod design for our customers.
Find out more: www.corusautomotive.com/sdf
44
Corus materials and vehicle engineering expertise have helped

to deliver weight and cost benets to UK-based manufacturer
LDV.
LDV approached Corus to undertake
a number of studies to help identify
weight-reduction and vehicleassembly improvements prior to
the launch of its new MAXUS range
of light commercial vehicles. Corus
was able to offer the support of its
Automotive Engineering Group,
based in Coventry, which specialises
in developing innovative vehicleengineering solutions using the
latest thinking in materials and
manufacturing technologies.
Corus carried out gauge optimisation
studies to help identify weight-saving
opportunities, while maintaining
the vehicles body stiffness and
performance characteristics. The
studies resulted in a 15kg per vehicle
weight saving, without detriment
to the robust body and chassis
structural targets for MAXUS. This
was no easy task, as MAXUS is 20
per cent stiffer than the companys
existing range.
Clearly, the ideal time to employ

this unique approach is before
vehicle launch, so that savings
can be introduced before capital
expenditure for production tooling
has begun.
Did you know?

A steel body panel
begins life as a 250mmthick cast slab, which is
then hot rolled to reduce
it to a 3mm-thick strip
steel. This is then cold
rolled to 0.8mm or less.
Find out more: www.corusautomotive.com/maxus

45
Collaboration cuts cost and weight
Tubular hydroform components for

Discovery 3
Pre-production studies by Corus enabled Ford to reduce the

costs of manufacturing its new Ford Galaxy at the same time
as reducing the vehicles weight.
Precision tubes are delivering cost-effective hydroformed

components that improve strength and stiffness while reducing
weight.
increasingly being used by vehicle
manufacturers. Hydroforming can
be used by automotive engineers
to optimise future car designs with
fewer components, helping to
increase the strength and stiffness
of critical parts, while contributing to
reduced vehicle weight and therefore
lower fuel consumption and CO2
emissions.
With the growing use of high-tech

steels in todays automotive press
shops, it is increasingly important
for carmakers to fully understand
how a material will deform and ow
during the pressing process, in
order to ensure capability, quality
and performance in the nished
component.
Working closely with Ford
engineers at Merkenich, Germany, a
collaborative project was undertaken
by Corus on the new Ford Galaxy.
This included feasibility, partsintegration and cost and weight
reduction studies on the rear oor,
rear cross member and heel kick
panels.
The study on the rear-oor panel
looked at opportunities to reduce

the gauge, and therefore the weight
of the panel, while ensuring that the
complex panel shape was feasible
to press.
A detailed parts-integration study
of the rear-oor panel showed that
it was possible to use just one part
instead of the originally planned two,
allowing Ford to save on tooling,
process and manufacturing costs.
By utilising the superior properties
of dual-phase steel, it was also
possible to down-gauge the heel
board and rear cross members
from the traditionally specied High
Strength Low Alloy (HSLA) grades,
while retaining the same side-impact
performance.
Find out more: www.corusautomotive.com/galaxy

46
The Corus precision tubes facility

in Zwijndrecht, the Netherlands,
is supplying high-quality tubes to
specialist German hydroformer
Finow Automotive Eberswaldle,
based in Berlin. Finow Automotive
in turn supplies hydroformed
components to Chassis Systems
Ltd (CSL), based in Telford, UK,
the joint-venture business created
by DANA and GKN to produce the
chassis for Land Rovers highly
acclaimed Discovery 3.
The demand for lighter components
remains a primary driver in
the automotive industry. Tube
hydroforming is one of the new
enabling technologies that has the
capacity to deliver cost-effective
mass-produced solutions and is
The Corus Tubes Automotive

and Engineering business has
achieved registration to the new
ISO/TS 16949:2002 qualityapproval standard. Until recently,
car manufacturers had focused
on their own quality standards.
TS 16949:2002 is a breakthrough
because it represents a consensus
among most of the worlds largest
carmakers and is a starting point in
the harmonisation and globalisation
of designer-specied standards.
Aimed primarily at Tier One
suppliers, TS 16949:2002 is a
technical specication developed
and supported by vehicle
manufacturers in Europe, America
and Japan. It will help to dene
quality system requirements for the
global automotive supply chain.
Find out more: www.corusautomotive.com/hydroforming

47
Clean steels for critical engine

components
Gearing up for spring market
High-quality camshaft blanks from Corus save time and boost

productivity for Volvo Trucks.
Corus has developed a grade of wire rod suitable for

manufacturing the most demanding and quality-critical
automotive springs.
Corus has a contract to supply

Volvo Trucks with precisionmachined camshaft blanks for use
in the manufacture of critical engine
components.
the nal cam prole. This saves

a considerable amount of time
in setting up and processing the
camshafts.
Corus supplies the camshaft

blanks directly to Volvo Trucks
manufacturing facility in Skovde,
Sweden. The blanks, which have
been faced and centred, can be
placed directly onto Volvos CNC
machining cell, which produces
Lars Andersson, Corus product

manager, said: This contract
demonstrates Coruss commitment
to helping the supply chain enhance
productivity and improve component
performance.
Valve springs are in constant motion

when in use, making them one of
the most demanding applications
for any steel. Valve-spring steel
must be super-clean and meet very
strict quality criteria. Experience in
making other super-clean steels for
automotive applications has enabled
Corus to meet the signicant
challenge of manufacturing this
premium grade.
Manufacturing valve-spring steel
requires low levels of non-metallic
inclusions in the surface layers of
the steel and tight control over other
metallurgical parameters, such as
surface cracks and decarburisation.
A lengthy development process at
Corus, employing carefully controlled
casting and rolling techniques, has
resulted in the successful production
of an automotive spring-grade steel.
This steel is now undergoing
rigorous fatigue tests for valvespring applications. As these trials
continue, Corus is in a position to
supply material for other critical
automotive spring applications,
such as clutch, suspension and
transmission springs.
Find out more: www.corusautomotive.com/volvo

48
Find out more: www.corusautomotive.com/springs

49
Solutions for a technology-driven

marketplace
Carmaking has a high-technology image for good reason over
the past 100 years, almost every aspect of a cars function has
either been enhanced or newly introduced, in many cases as a
result of new materials technologies.
Todays carmakers and their
suppliers face signicant technical
challenges in proving out the
benets and implementation of the
higher performance grades of steel
that they have been seeking. R&D
expertise and supporting services
are essential to optimise the use
of the grades and gauges of steel
required for existing and new car
product lines.
These are all areas in which the
best steelmakers are involved, in
partnership with their carmaker
customers.
A technology commitment
Corus invests 75m every year
in research and development,
looking at materials science, steelmanufacturing technologies and
specic application technologies.
More than 900 researchers and

industry experts at facilities in the
UK and the Netherlands combine
world-class innovation, cutting-edge
technology and market knowledge,
to offer Corus customers a truly
unique combination of materials and
application solutions.
Corus collaborates with universities,
research institutes and its
customers, to deliver innovative
steel solutions and services for a
constantly changing world.
Optimum materials selection
Choosing the most cost-effective
materials and manufacturing
processes to make a new car
can mean the difference between
nancial success and failure. Added
to these challenges is the constant
pressure to reduce the time taken
to bring a new car to market.

Therefore, the ability to choose the
right materials for the task, based
upon reliable engineering analysis
and properties data, is critical to an
efcient development cycle.
Many aspects of a parts
performance must be considered:
How light can it be made? Will it
form correctly into an accurate
shape? Will it split or tear during
manufacture? Can it be joined with
other parts? Will it corrode? How
will it be dismantled at the end of
the cars life? Will it be durable
in service? Can one material be
substituted for another?
Corus Research, Development and
Technology operations offer the
in-depth knowledge, experience and
facilities needed to provide answers
for all of these questions.
Design and engineering
Corus Automotive offers advanced
technical services to help customers
select the right materials. Corus
services and expertise in structural
performance optimisation for
crashworthiness and durability, for
example, enable rapid evaluation
and characterisation of material
properties for proposed or in-service
components. Strength and stiffness,
fatigue strength, high-speed impact
properties, machinability and dent
resistance must all be considered.
We use our experimental facilities

to characterise materials and
performance and generate
specic experimental data for use
by customers. Extensive use of
computer-aided engineering design
and analysis methods is made by
Corus in areas such as ValueAnalysis, Value-Engineering and
other advanced methods to prove
out a designs durability, weight,
manufacturing feasibility and true
cost.
From these activities come new
methodologies, such as the
development of an integrated weld
optimisation tool to improve the
placement and length of seam welds
on chassis subframes.
Studies such as design for
dismantling are also carried out to
assess how easily materials can be
recovered and re-used once the car
has reached the end of its life.
Find out more: www.corusautomotive.com/automotive_applications

50
51
It is not just the applications for steel

sheet that are researched, new steel
chemistries for parts that must be
highly durable at high temperatures
such as engine valve-spring steels or
the steels used to make transmission
gears are also studied. New steels
that are dimensionally stable during
carburising (hardening) are just one
example of this work.
Technologies for manufacturability
Deep drawing, bending, roll forming,
hydroforming and warm/hotstamping, are all processes that
can change the physical properties
of a material. For components to
become truly production-feasible, it
is essential that carmakers have a
solid understanding of how steel will
behave as it are formed into shape
within the press and other tools.
Fig. 6 Material strength increase due to forming strain
True stress (MPa)
Applied research expertise

Researchers at Corus RD&T in
IJmuiden, the Netherlands, and
Rotherham, UK, offer advanced
material data models to engineers
in car companies who are charged
with proving out formability. Tools
like this are essential to simulate new
design ideas and support decisions
about which grades and thicknesses
of steel to use in which parts the
virtual prototype. Like every other
material, every gram of steel needs
to justify its use in the modern car
Enabling a smarter use of

materials
With growing use of high-tech steels
and greater part complexity, Corus
is increasingly called upon to help
optimise the production of stamped
parts on existing equipment. As
virtual-prototype simulation models
are now being used to produce
products with shorter development
times, it is essential to understand
the material properties for those
critical components that must
withstand, for example, in-service
crash and durability loads.
Corus has developed the unique
and advanced Corus-Vegter material
model. When combined with other
specialist analysis techniques,
including F2C (Forming to Crash),
F2F (Forming to Fatigue) and
F2S (Forming to Strength), much
more accurate crash and durability
simulation results can be achieved
enabling a smarter use of the
available material and design space.
(See Fig. 6 and Fig. 7 opposite).
Find out more: www.corusautomotive.com/technical_papers

52
Strength increase
Forming strain
True strain
Fig. 6 Simply using the standard

factory-coil material properties
can introduce inaccuracies in
the prediction of intrusion in the
subsequent crash analysis. F2C
improves accuracy by including in
the crash analysis the predicted
forming-induced strength and
thickness changes, introduced by
the manufacturing steps. This gives
more reliable simulation results and
provides opportunities to reduce
weight.
Fig. 7 This illustrates the differences
in predicted intrusion performance
of a vehicle front-end structure in
a crash, which resulted when the
formed properties were/were not
included in the crash analysis. These
subtle inaccuracies can easily mean
the difference between a pass and a
fail for the nished car design.
Fig. 7
Top - Standard crash analysis

Bottom - Crash analysis including
formed properties in subframe
extension
Source of Fig. 6 & Fig. 7: Corus
53
Technologies for pilot production

Corus has developed advanced
tools and techniques to validate and
troubleshoot formability (including
springback) in stamping, press-tool
geometry review and tube-forming
feasibility.
To speed this process, Corus
has co-developed a portable
troubleshooting tool for strain
assessment, called Phast.
This is used to understand and
visualise how a material ows as it
is stamped into physical parts. A
second, complementary technology,
called In-Form, uses a state-ofthe-art laser device to scan and
capture the 3D surface of a part or
stamping tool. This enables accurate
geometry data from the actual tools
that will be used to be fed into a
forming simulation model. Together,
these tools ensure accurate press
performance and low scrap rates
once full-scale production begins.
Technologies to enhance nish

quality
A great deal of the image projected
by a car depends upon the accuracy
of part dimensions, the quality of
joints and the corrosion-resistance
and adhesion properties of its
surfaces. New coatings and methods
for joining metals have been a key
area of Corus research for many
years.

54
Coating technologies
Knowledge and application of
surface technology has been used
by Corus to improve corrosion
resistance, enhance coating
performance and engineer the
surface appearance of metal parts
for many customers over the years.
This expertise enables Corus to
design the surface and substrate
of its products as an entire system,
delivering cost-effective performance
enhancement. The companys
knowledge of its customers coating
processes is a critical factor,
enabling Corus to support them
in optimising their own processes
to achieve the best end-product
properties. With the advent of
alternative fuels and fuel-cell power
generation, this is an area of metals
technology that is expected to
become increasingly important.
Welding and joining technologies

The ability to make reliable metal
joints is an essential technology
in the assembly of a vehicle Body
in White. Corus researches most
joining techniques used in car
manufacturing, from riv-bonding
and laser welding for steel to
uxless aluminium laser-brazing.
Our researchers also use niteelement modelling to study weld
optimisation and the effects of
different chemistries and coatings on
joinability and post-weld corrosion
proong. Corus can also help
its customers with weld-facility
implementation.
Did you know?

Steel sheet used on the
outer panels of a vehicle
is around 0.7mm thick
about as thick as a
ngernail.

55
Looking to the future: The next generation

The next generation
Looking to the future: Graduate opportunities
Graduate opportunities
As a major supplier to the European automotive industry, Corus

recognises the importance of supporting and inspiring the
automotive designers and engineers of the future.
Formula Student
Corus frequently sponsors student
engineering teams entering the
International Formula Student
programme.
Formula Student provides the
next generation of automotive
engineers with a valuable insight
into the engineering and projectmanagement processes of taking
a race car from design through
manufacture and, ultimately, to
competition. Students gain access
to the latest material, technology
and industry techniques. Such
engineering experience often proves
invaluable after graduation when
students enter the automotive and
other industries. Some of Europes
leading student race teams from
the universities of Birmingham, Delft
and Warwick have been supported
by Corus in recent years.
Design shows
To bridge the gap between the
disciplines of advanced metal
engineering and leading-edge
product design, Corus has
sponsored the Coventry University
Automotive MA Design Show and
automotive design projects at the
Royal College of Art.
These activities help to create
opportunities for future car
designers as they meet inuential
industry gures, potential mentors
among todays carmakers and
their contemporaries in the elds
of automotive manufacturing and
journalism. The possibilities that new
materials can offer to the designer
are discussed in an open forum with
leading industry gures such as
Patrick Le Quement of Renault or
Peter Horbury of Ford.
Find out more: www.corusautomotive.com/en/news/events/

56
Depending on performance, UK
graduates can enter a substantive
position at any time from six
months to two years after their
start date. All UK entrants are
encouraged to take part in a Corus
ve-year training plan, on-the-job
training, chartership/professional
qualications and to develop a
strong relationship with a mentor.
Recruitment
Corus is constantly looking for
passionate, dedicated staff to ensure
it continues to deliver a world-class
service to customers and maintains
its cutting-edge research. To this
end, Corus recruits personnel at all
levels, from engineers to account
coordinators and from logistics
professionals to graduates. The
scope and size of the company
allows it to offer interesting,
challenging and dynamic careers.
In 2006, 120 graduates in the
UK and more than 140 from the
Netherlands began their careers with
Corus. In the Netherlands, graduates
go straight into a permanent role, at
the same time taking part in a talentdevelopment programme which
offers wider training awareness and
career orientation.
Postgraduate sponsorship
Corus also sponsors approximately
100 postgraduate students per
year in a variety of technical and
engineering programmes, typically
in Engineering, Metallurgy and
the Environmental sciences. The
majority of these are supported by
grants from the Engineering and
Physical Sciences Research Council
(EPSRC). The two main routes to
postgraduate study are engineering
doctorate research and industrially
supported PhD projects.
Apprenticeships
Corus apprenticeship schemes
lead to vocational and academic
qualications, following study at
a local further-education college.
Recruits are provided with a
rst-class training programme
and receive an attractive salary or
bursary.
Apprentices have the opportunity
to achieve senior levels within the
company, as well as receiving
additional education and training
qualications.
Find out more: www.corusgroup.com/en/careers/recruitment

57
Looking to the future: Looking to the future

With new innovations, technology and steel grades constantly
being developed, steel looks set to retain its status as the
material of choice for carmakers worldwide.
History can teach us much about
what might happen in the future.
When the oil crisis struck in 1974 in
the early days of automotive industry
globalisation everyone agreed
that cars would have to get lighter.
Instead, cars have almost doubled
in weight since then, due mainly to
increases in size, added features and
better safety.
For automotive materials, the
introduction of the Audi A8 about
15 years ago was a seminal event
that single-handedly opened up the
materials debate. Since then, the
debate has been about aluminium
versus steel. At the time, many
viewed aluminium as the material
of the future, with steel playing a
decreasing role in vehicle design and
development. However, today steel
still dominates the vehicle structure
so what happened to change the
predicted course of events?
58
Collaboration
Firstly, the global steel industry
recognised the challenge. It
realised that steel was perceived
as traditional, rather than a material
for the 21st century, and embarked
on one of the most successful
collaborative development and
communications programmes of
modern times the UltraLight Steel
Auto Body programme (ULSAB).
This programme, initially launched in
1998, demonstrated and promoted
the benets of existing materials
and processes, showing that
intelligent use of steel could readily
provide cost-effective vehicle weight
savings. Subsequent work on
closures and suspension systems
proved just as positive, as did the
nal project, Advanced Vehicle
Concepts (ULSAB-AVC). This
heralded the availability of Advanced
High Strength steels and supporting
processes. Individual steel

companies then worked directly with
their customers to help implement
these materials and technologies to
deliver real benets.
Secondly, possibly because so
much of the modern world depends
on steel, the benets are easy
to underestimate. Formability,
strength and ease of joining
are signicant advantages over
competitor materials. The past 15
years have seen the development
of stronger steels with improved
formability, together with the
complementary technologies to
process and assemble them within
high-volume vehicle manufacturing
plants. Computer analysis tools
have been developed to model the
properties and application of these
new steels more accurately, which
has given vehicle manufacturers the
condence to implement them in
their new designs.
New vehicles
Above all else, the conicting
demands of consumers, legislators
and global competition require costeffective solutions. The sharpening
of emissions legislation will spark
a drive for more efcient vehicles.
This means that alongside the
complexity of powertrain solutions,
from hybrids to hydrogen, the search
is on for simplicity de-contenting,
integration of electronic systems,
miniaturisation of components to
increase occupant space while
making vehicles smaller and lighter.
New processes
Steel will play a major role in
this shift. We can expect the
development of even stronger
steels with improved formability to
enable more complex panel shapes
to be achieved. This will result in
parts integration, reducing cost and
increasing the value attractiveness
of steel. Computer analysis tools will
improve, helping to model changes
in the mechanical properties of
these new steels during panel
manufacturing which is essential
for the design process. Modelling
of joining processes will improve
too, leading to faster, more effective
joining technologies.
New materials
With any prediction of the future,
however, there is always the
possibility that technology may
be introduced that will completely
change the course of events. This
may enhance the cost-benet
analysis for aluminium, magnesium
or composites. However, the steel
industry is well advanced with its
own breakthrough material TWIP
(Twinning Induced Plasticity) steel.
This new breed of steel combines
ultra high strength with incredible
ductility. It is being developed in the
research departments of the steel
industry right now, and it will not
be long before engineers have the
opportunity to incorporate this new
steel into their designs. The future is
probably closer than we think.
59
About Corus: Sources of further information
About Corus: Company prole
About Corus
Company prole
Corus is one of the worlds largest steel producers. Its

operations are organised into three principal divisions: Strip
Products, Long Products and Distribution & Building Systems.
Corus employs approximately
41,000 people, with the majority
based in the UK, the Netherlands
and other Western European
locations.
Strategy
The companys strategy is focused
on developing a strong and
sustainable competitive position
for its carbon steel in its Western
European markets and improving
its exposure to lower-cost, highergrowth regions.
Steel
The Corus Group produces carbon
steel at three integrated steelworks
in the UK, at Port Talbot, Scunthorpe
and Teesside, and at IJmuiden in the
Netherlands. Engineering steels are
produced in the UK at Rotherham
using the electric arc furnace
method. Corus also has processing
facilities in North America and
Europe.
Sales
Corus has many sales ofces,
stockholders, service centres
and joint venture or associate
arrangements for the distribution
and further processing of its steel
products. These are supported by
various agency agreements. There
is an extensive network in the EU,
Find out more: www.corusgroup.com
60
Corus Automotive
Sources of further information
while outside Europe Corus has

sales ofces in around 30 countries,
supported by a worldwide trading
network.
Brand
Combining its global expertise with
local customer service, Corus offers
value, reliability and innovation. The
Corus brand represents a mark of
quality, loyalty and strength.
Manufacturing
In 2005 approximately 60 per cent
of Coruss steel production was
rolled into hot-rolled coil. Most of
the remainder was further processed
into sections, plates, engineering
steels or wire rod, or sold in seminished form.
Approximately 35 per cent of hotrolled coil was sold without further
processing to cold-rolling mills and
coating lines, with the remainder
transferred to Corus tube mills for
the manufacture of welded tubes.
Markets
Principal end markets for Corus
steel products are the construction,
automotive, packaging, mechanical
engineering, electrical engineering,
metal goods, and oil and gas
industries.
You can access more information about Corus and its

automotive products and expertise through a number of
sources.
In print
emotion magazine is focused on
Corus customers in the automotive
industry, reaching 15,000 managers
and technical specialists twice
a year. It includes guest articles
discussing trends in the industry
that affect the use of steel in car
design and engineering, technical
developments in materials and
manufacturing techniques, and
other articles of interest to anyone
selecting materials for automotive
applications. Back issues of
emotion magazine can be found at
www.corusautomotive.com/news/
emotion_magazine/
Online
At www.corusautomotive.com you
can nd more detailed information
about Corus products, services
and technology, as well as press
releases, data sheets, technical
information and further contact
details.
If you would like to receive future

copies of emotion, please email your
details to:
emotion@corusgroup.com

61
Glossary
Glossary of terms
AHSS Advanced High Strength Steel: any steel with high levels of both
strength and formability.
Annealing Heating to and holding at a suitable temperature and then cooling
at a suitable rate to remove the effects of work hardening. This facilitates
further cold working.
Austenite See Phase.
Bainite See Phase.
Bake hardening Steel grades that exhibit an increase in hardness (and
therefore strength) when heated to a relatively low temperature, typically in an
automotive paint-bake oven. For the bake-hardening mechanism to work the
steel has to be work hardened.
BIW Body In White: the main structure of a vehicle, usually made of steel
pressings welded together to make a strong and stiff frame.
Boron steel See PHS.
BOS Basic Oxygen Steelmaking: process for converting liquid pig iron into
steel, excess carbon being removed by reaction with oxygen. Basic here
means that the reaction takes place under alkaline conditions.
Carburising Surface hardening by diffusion of carbon atoms.
CMn Carbon Manganese: steels with carbon and manganese as the principal
alloying elements. Mn is the chemical symbol for manganese, not to be
confused with Mg (magnesium).
Chassis Most cars built before the 1950s were constructed using a separate
chassis frame and body. Nowadays, chassis refers to the components
(subframes, suspension, etc) that connect the BIW to the engine, steering and
wheels.
Closure A panel attached to the Body In White, such as doors, bonnet and
boot. Closures are usually hinged, although some vehicle manufacturers
include bolted-on panels, such as front wings.
Cold rolling Reducing the thickness of strip steel by rolling at ambient
temperature, mostly used in thinner gauges for automotive applications.
Continuous casting Non-stop manufacture of steel by pouring liquid steel
into a mould, which is a water-cooled copper or ceramic jacket.
Drawing A method of forming steel into complex three-dimensional shapes
in a press, the metal being pulled (drawn) into the tool where it is stretched
into shape.
Dual Phase (DP) Steel composed of ferrite and martensite phases. (See
Phase).
EAF Electric Arc Furnace: uses electric current to melt scrap steel. The
molten steel formulation can then be modied, with alloying elements added
as required to produce a wide range of steel grades.
Elastic limit The maximum stress to which a material may be subjected and
yet return to its original shape and dimensions upon removal of the stress.
(See Yield strength).
62
Elongation The amount of permanent extension in a component under

stress, usually described as a percentage of the initial length.
ELVD End of Life Vehicle Directive: a European law that requires an increasing
percentage of a vehicle to be recyclable.
Euro-NCAP European New Car Assessment Program: the European
automobile safety organisation providing motoring consumers with an
independent assessment of vehicle safety performance. It awards stars for
front and side impact performance, as well as pedestrian safety.
Exothermic A chemical reaction that gives off heat. For example, the
conversion of iron to steel using oxygen generates a large amount of heat.
The resultant molten steel is three or four hundred Celsius hotter than molten
pig iron.
Fracture splitting A specialised manufacturing process in which the precision
fracturing of a machined component results in matching, self-locating, surfaces.
FEA Finite Element Analysis: a computational method of stress calculation
in which the component under load is considered as a large number of small
pieces (elements). The FEA software is then able to calculate the stress level
in each element, allowing a prediction of deection or failure.
Ferrite See Phase.
Galvanise Coat with zinc, either by electroplating, or (more commonly) by
dipping into molten zinc. Since the 1980s, most automotive strip steel has
been supplied galvanised for optimal corrosion protection.
Grain All steels are polycrystalline made up of minute crystals known as
grains. The size, shape and crystalline alignment of these grains are a key to
the performance of steel.
Hot rolling Reducing the thickness of strip steel by rolling at elevated
temperature, mostly used in thicker gauges for automotive applications.
HSLA High Strength Low Alloy: steels that generally contain small amounts
of highly effective alloying elements such as titanium, vanadium or niobium in
amounts of less than 0.1 per cent.
HSS High Strength Steel: steel with yield strength between 220 and 550MPa.
Hydroforming The use of pressurised uid to change the shape of a metal
sheet or tube.
IF Interstitial Free: steels without the strengthening effect of interstitial
elements such as carbon and nitrogen, making them very formable with low
strength. These are manufactured by the addition of titanium or niobium,
which form compounds with carbon and nitrogen.
Interstitial The spaces between atoms are known as interstices. Atoms of
carbon and nitrogen that are small enough to t into these spaces are known
as interstitial atoms. They strengthen the steel by preventing layers of atoms
sliding past one another.
IS Isotropic Steel: strip steel with both chemistry and manufacturing
processes specically designed to give the same mechanical properties in
any direction along the length or across the width of the strip.
Martensite See Phase.
63
Glossary
Glossary of terms
Mild steel Low-strength steels containing low levels of carbon and
insignicant amounts of alloying elements.
Modulus The stiffness of a material. Calculated by measuring the stress on
a test sample and dividing by the strain. Since strain is dimensionless, the
unit of modulus is therefore the same as stress (N/m or Pa). Some examples
of moduli:
GPa
Steel
207
Aluminium
69
Polyethylene
1
Diamond
1000
n-value A measurement of the work hardening (strengthening) of metal sheet
during a forming process.
OEM Original Equipment Manufacturer: in the automotive industry, this refers
to a manufacturer of vehicles that provides the original product design and
materials for its assembly and manufacture.
Pearlite See Phase.
Pig iron Iron direct from the blast furnace, containing high levels of carbon
and other impurities. Originally sand-cast into a row of blocks, having the
appearance of a sow feeding her piglets hence pig iron.
Phase Steel can exist in a number of crystalline forms and combinations of
crystalline forms. These are known as phases. Here are some of the most
common:
Austenite: A non-magnetic structure usually found in stainless
steels and TWIP steel.
Bainite: Ferrite containing needle shaped iron carbide (Fe3C) crystals
tough and hard.
Ferrite: Iron containing a small amount of carbon in solid solution. The
softest form of steel.
Martensite: Excess carbon (supersaturated) results in a distorted
crystalline structure and the hardest form of steel.
Pearlite: Alternating layers of ferrite and iron carbide. When viewed under a
microscope it has the appearance of mother-of-pearl, hence pearlite.
PHS Press Hardening Steels (also: hot-formed steel, die-quenched steel,
boron steel) a grade of steel that can be processed at high temperature by
heating in a furnace and pressing while still hot using a cooled tool. The rapid
cooling rate transforms the microstructure to 100 per cent martensite (see
Phase). PHS steels contain boron for optimum hardenability.
Pickling An acidic-dip process for removing oxide (scale) from the surface
of hot-rolled steel sheet.
Rephos Rephosphorised steel: steel that contains phosphor as the main
alloying element. Known as Rephos since the high levels of phosphor in
pig iron are removed along with other impurities in the BOS process, but
phosphor is then added during secondary steelmaking.
64
r-value A measurement of the resistance to thinning of sheet metal during

forming processes.
Roll forming A process for producing prismatic shapes in steel sheet, the
sheet being progressively bent and folded by passing through a series of
proled rollers.
Strain The amount a component stretches when a stress is applied. Strain is
dimensionless: 100 per cent elongation equals a strain of one.
Stress The applied force divided by the cross section of a component,
measured in N/m (= Pascal, Pa). Note: these units are the same as the units
for pressure. Indeed, stress may be considered as the pressure applied to a
component.
Substitutional Large alloying atoms (eg. phosphorus and manganese) take
the place of, or substitute, an iron atom unlike small alloying atoms, which
are positioned between the larger iron atoms (see Interstitial).
Tensile strength Also called the ultimate tensile strength (UTS). The stress at
which a material breaks.
Temper rolling After annealing, strip steel is given enough cold rolling to
take it beyond the yield point, resulting in more controllable stretching during
subsequent forming processes and a better surface nish.
TRB Tailor Rolled Blank: steel sheet cut to a size ready for pressing (i.e.
blanked) where the blank has been rolled to give varying thicknesses along
its length.
TRIP Transformation Induced Plasticity: steel that contains a small
percentage of phases (see Phase) that change to a harder phase (usually
austenite transforming to martensite) during the forming process. The formed
steel therefore has a much higher strength.
TWB Tailor Welded Blank: steel sheet cut to a size ready for pressing (i.e.
blanked) where the sheet has been welded together from smaller pieces of
steel of varying gauge and/or grade.
TWIP Twinning Induced Plasticity: steel that has high levels of manganese
is austenitic (see Phase) at ambient temperature. The crystalline structure
of austenite results in the occurrence of millions of pairs of crystalline faults
known as twins. These twins allow for unusual levels of formability in Ultra
High Strength Steel.
UHSS Ultra High Strength Steel: any steel grade with a yield strength of
550MPa or greater.
Work hardening The increase in the strength of a metal as it is stretched or
otherwise formed.
Yield strength The stress at which a material will permanently stretch or
deform. Below this stress the material will return to its original shape and size
once the stress is removed (see Elastic limit).
Yield point The start of yielding in steel may be accompanied by a sudden
drop in strength. This is known as the yield point and is undesirable in steel
for automotive pressings (see Temper rolling).
65

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Corus Automotive

Pocket book of steel

Care has been taken to ensure that this

Your complete reference guide to

Steel: the basics

Automotive industry issues

Corus in action: Case studies

Steel R&D technologies

Looking to the future

Corus in Automotive: Working in partnership

Working in partnership making a

When Ford was looking for ways to

We listen, and we respond

When Corus was asked for steels

When Xtrac approached Corus

Find out more: www.corusautomotive.com

Corus in Automotive: Making a difference

in this process permits engineers

One example of this is the CorusVegter materials model, for which

To meet these needs, Corus

Years of research and development

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lines, and a Tailor Welded Blank

Did you know?

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Steel - the basics

Steel the basics

Did you know?

The multi-materials car

From steelworks to car plant

Steel - the basics: Steel in cars

Electrical steels for

Electroplated strip for

Thick section strip and tube

Deep drawing quality

Gear steels tuned

Alloy steel rod for

Billets for suspension

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Steel - the basics: The multi-materials car

The multi-materials car

Source: SMMT 2001 report

Did you know?

The material properties of steel

Fig. 2 Vehicle production vs vehicle price vs market share

Vehicle price Euro (x1000)

A brief guide to the materials that make up the cars of today.

Annual production (x 1000 units)

Steel - the basics: Steelmaking

top of the iron. Carbon monoxide

Electric Arc Furnace steelmaking

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Steel - the basics: Characteristics

Steel - the basics: Chemical compositions

Alloying elements are added to steel to create the desired

Steel offers an impressive range of properties to meet the

Steel grade DP600 through

Steel for automotive purposes is

Steel for use in automotive

Above: Automotive crankshaft

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Steel - the basics: Steel types

Fig. 4 below illustrates the properties

The highest strength steel shown