Modernism

For other uses of the word, see Modernism (disambiguation). For the period in sociology beginning with industrialization, see Modernity.
Related terms are modern, modernist, contemporary, and
postmodern.
Modernism is a philosophical movement that, along

also rejected the certainty of Enlightenment thinking, and

many modernists rejected religious belief.[2][3]
Modernism, in general, includes the activities and creations of those who felt the traditional forms of art, architecture, literature, religious faith, philosophy, social
organization, activities of daily life, and even the sciences,
were becoming ill-tted to their tasks and outdated in
the new economic, social, and political environment of
an emerging fully industrialized world. The poet Ezra
Pound's 1934 injunction to Make it new!" was the touchstone of the movements approach towards what it saw as
the now obsolete culture of the past. In this spirit, its innovations, like the stream-of-consciousness novel, atonal
(or pantonal) and twelve-tone music, divisionist painting
and abstract art, all had precursors in the 19th century.
A notable characteristic of modernism is selfconsciousness and irony concerning literary and social
traditions, which often led to experiments with form,
along with the use of techniques that drew attention to
the processes and materials used in creating a painting,
poem, building, etc.[4] Modernism explicitly rejected the
ideology of realism[5][6][7] and makes use of the works
of the past by the employment of reprise, incorporation,
rewriting, recapitulation, revision and parody.[8][9][10]

Some commentators dene modernism as a mode of

thinkingone or more philosophically dened characteristics, like self-consciousness or self-reference, that run
across all the novelties in the arts and the disciplines.[11]
More common, especially in the West, are those who see
it as a socially progressive trend of thought that arms the
power of human beings to create, improve and reshape
their environment with the aid of practical experimentation, scientic knowledge, or technology.[12] From this
perspective, modernism encouraged the re-examination
Hans Hofmann, The Gate, 195960, collection: Solomon R. of every aspect of existence, from commerce to philosGuggenheim Museum. Hofmann was renowned not only as an ophy, with the goal of nding that which was 'holding
artist but also as a teacher of art, and a modernist theorist both back' progress, and replacing it with new ways of reachin his native Germany and later in the U.S. During the 1930s in ing the same end. Others focus on modernism as an aesNew York and California he introduced Modernism and mod- thetic introspection. This facilitates consideration of speernist theories to a new generation of American artists. Through cic reactions to the use of technology in the First World
his teaching and his lectures at his art schools in Greenwich VilWar, and anti-technological and nihilistic aspects of the
lage and Provincetown, Massachusetts, he widened the scope of
works of diverse thinkers and artists spanning the period
[1]
Modernism in the United States.
from Friedrich Nietzsche (18441900) to Samuel Beck[13]
with cultural trends and changes, arose from wide-scale ett (19061989).
and far-reaching transformations in Western society in
the late 19th and early 20th centuries. Among the factors
that shaped modernism were the development of modern industrial societies and the rapid growth of cities, fol- 1 History
lowed then by the horror of World War I. Modernism
1

1.1

HISTORY

Beginnings: the 19th century

Eugne Delacroix's Liberty Leading the People, 1830, a

Romantic work of art

According to one critic, modernism developed out of

Romanticism's revolt against the eects of the Industrial
Revolution and bourgeois values: The ground motive of modernism, Gra asserts, was criticism of
the nineteenth-century bourgeois social order and its
world view [...] the modernists, carrying the torch of
romanticism.[5][6][7] While J. M. W. Turner (1775
1851), one of the greatest landscape painters of the 19th
century, was a member of the Romantic movement, as
a pioneer in the study of light, colour, and atmosphere,
he anticipated the French Impressionists" and therefore
modernism in breaking down conventional formulas of
representation; [though] unlike them, he believed that
his works should always express signicant historical,
mythological, literary, or other narrative themes.[14]
The dominant trends of industrial Victorian England,
were also opposed, from about 1850, by the English poets
and painters that constituted the Pre-Raphaelite Brotherhood, because of their opposition to technical skill
without inspiration.[15] They were inuenced by the writings of the art critic John Ruskin (18191900), who had
strong feelings about the role of art in helping to improve
the lives of the urban working classes, in the rapidly expanding industrial cities of Britain.[16] Art critic Clement
Greenberg describes the Pre-Raphaelite Brotherhood as
proto-Modernists: There the proto-Modernists were, of
all people, the pre-Raphaelites (and even before them,
as proto-proto-Modernists, the German Nazarenes. The
Pre-Raphaelites actually foreshadowed Manet (1832
83), with whom Modernist painting most denitely begins. They acted on a dissatisfaction with painting as
practiced in their time, holding that its realism wasn't
truthful enough.[17] Rationalism has also had opponents
in the philosophers Sren Kierkegaard (181355)[18] and
later Friedrich Nietzsche (18441900), both of whom
had signicant inuence on existentialism.[19]
However, the Industrial Revolution continued.

A Realist portrait of Otto von Bismarck

ential innovations included steam-powered industrialization, and especially the development of railways, starting in Britain in the 1830s,[20] and the subsequent advancements in physics, engineering, and architecture associated with this. A major 19th-century engineering
achievement was The Crystal Palace, the huge cast-iron
and plate glass exhibition hall built for The Great Exhibition of 1851 in London. Glass and iron were used
in a similar monumental style in the construction of major railway terminals in London, such as Paddington Station (1854)[21] and Kings Cross Station (1852).[22] These
technological advances led to the building of later structures like the Brooklyn Bridge (1883) and the Eiel
Tower (1889). The latter broke all previous limitations
on how tall man-made objects could be. These engineering marvels radically altered the 19th-century urban environment and the daily lives of people. The human experience of time itself was altered, with the development
of electric telegraph from 1837,[23] and the adoption of
standard time by British railway companies from 1845,
and in the rest of the world over the next fty years.[24]

But despite continuing technological advances, from the

1870s onward, the idea that history and civilization
were inherently progressive, and that progress was always
good, came under increasing attack. Arguments arose
that the values of the artist and those of society were
not merely dierent, but that Society was antithetical to
Progress, and could not move forward in its present form.
The philosopher Schopenhauer (17881860) (The World
as Will and Idea, 1819) called into question the previous
optimism, and his ideas had an important inuence on
later thinkers, including Nietzsche.[18] Two of the most
Inu- signicant thinkers of the period were biologist Charles

1.1

Beginnings: the 19th century

Darwin (180982), author of On the Origin of Species by

Means of Natural Selection (1859), and political scientist Karl Marx (181883), author of Das Kapital (1867).
Darwins theory of evolution by natural selection undermined religious certainty and the idea of human uniqueness. In particular, the notion that human beings were
driven by the same impulses as lower animals proved
to be dicult to reconcile with the idea of an ennobling
spirituality.[25] Karl Marx argued that there were fundamental contradictions within the capitalist system, and
that the workers were anything but free.[26]

Odilon Redon, Guardian Spirit of the Waters, 1878, charcoal on

paper, Art Institute of Chicago

1.1.1

3
ernism appeared in music and architecture).[29] The poet
Baudelaires Les Fleurs du mal (The Flowers of Evil), and
Flauberts novel Madame Bovary were both published in
1857.
In the arts and letters, two important approaches developed separately in France. The rst was Impressionism,
a school of painting that initially focused on work done,
not in studios, but outdoors (en plein air). Impressionist
paintings demonstrated that human beings do not see objects, but instead see light itself. The school gathered adherents despite internal divisions among its leading practitioners, and became increasingly inuential. Initially rejected from the most important commercial show of the
time, the government-sponsored Paris Salon, the Impressionists organized yearly group exhibitions in commercial
venues during the 1870s and 1880s, timing them to coincide with the ocial Salon. A signicant event of 1863
was the Salon des Refuss, created by Emperor Napoleon
III to display all of the paintings rejected by the Paris Salon. While most were in standard styles, but by inferior
artists, the work of Manet attracted tremendous attention,
and opened commercial doors to the movement. The second French school was Symbolism, which literary historians see beginning with Charles Baudelaire (182167),
and including the later poets, Arthur Rimbaud (1854
91) Une Saison en Enfer (A Season in Hell, 1873), Paul
Verlaine (184496), Stphane Mallarm (184298), and
Paul Valry (18711945). The symbolists stressed the
priority of suggestion and evocation over direct description and explicit analogy, and were especially interested in the musical properties of language.[30] Cabaret,
which gave birth to so many of the arts of modernism, including the immediate precursors of lm, may be said to
have begun in France in 1881 with the opening of the
Black Cat in Montmartre, the beginning of the ironic
monologue, and the founding of the Society of Incoherent Arts.[31]

The beginnings of modernism in France

Historians, and writers in dierent disciplines, have suggested various dates as starting points for modernism.
Historian William Everdell, for example, has argued
that modernism began in the 1870s, when metaphorical (or ontological) continuity began to yield to the discrete with mathematician Richard Dedekind's (1831
1916) Dedekind cut, and Ludwig Boltzmann's (1844
1906) statistical thermodynamics.[27] Everdell also thinks
modernism in painting began in 188586 with Seurat's
Divisionism, the dots used to paint A Sunday Afternoon
on the Island of La Grande Jatte. On the other hand, visual art critic Clement Greenberg called Immanuel Kant
(17241804) the rst real Modernist,[28] though he also
wrote, What can be safely called Modernism emerged
in the middle of the last centuryand rather locally,
in France, with Baudelaire in literature and Manet in
painting, and perhaps with Flaubert, too, in prose ction. (It was a while later, and not so locally, that Mod-

Henri Matisse, Le bonheur de vivre, 1905-6, Barnes Foundation,

Merion, Pennsylvania. An early Fauvist masterpiece.

Inuential in the early days of modernism were the theories of Sigmund Freud (18561939). Freuds rst major
work was Studies on Hysteria (with Josef Breuer) (1895).
Central to Freuds thinking is the idea of the primacy of

HISTORY

in a work as early as Portrait of a Lady (1881).[40]

Out of the collision of ideals derived from Romanticism,
and an attempt to nd a way for knowledge to explain that
which was as yet unknown, came the rst wave of works
in the rst decade of the 20th century, which, while their
authors considered them extensions of existing trends in
art, broke the implicit contract with the general public
that artists were the interpreters and representatives of
bourgeois culture and ideas. These Modernist landmarks include the atonal ending of Arnold Schoenberg's
Second String Quartet in 1908, the expressionist paintings of Wassily Kandinsky starting in 1903, and culminating with his rst abstract painting and the founding of
the Blue Rider group in Munich in 1911, and the rise of
fauvism and the inventions of cubism from the studios of
Henri Matisse, Pablo Picasso, Georges Braque, and others, in the years between 1900 and 1910.
Pablo Picasso, Les Demoiselles d'Avignon (1907). Picasso is
considered to have re-invented the art of painting. Many of his
friends and colleagues, even fellow painters Henri Matisse and
Georges Braque, were upset when they saw this painting.

1.2 Explosion, early 20th century to 1930

the unconscious mind in mental life, so that all subjective

reality was based on the play of basic drives and instincts,
through which the outside world was perceived. Freuds
description of subjective states involved an unconscious
mind full of primal impulses, and counterbalancing selfimposed restrictions derived from social values.[32]
Friedrich Nietzsche (18441900) was another major precursor of modernism,[33] with a philosophy in which psychological drives, specically the "will to power" (Wille
zur Macht), was of central importance: Nietzsche often
identied life itself with 'will to power', that is, with an
instinct for growth and durability.[34][35] Henri Bergson
(18591941), on the other hand, emphasized the dierence between scientic, clock time and the direct, subjective, human experience of time.[36] His work on time
and consciousness had a great inuence on twentiethcentury novelists, especially those Modernists who used
the stream of consciousness technique, such as Dorothy
Richardson, James Joyce, and Virginia Woolf (1882
1941).[37] Also important in Bergsons philosophy was the
idea of lan vital, the life force, which brings about the
creative evolution of everything.[38] His philosophy also
placed a high value on intuition, though without rejecting Pablo Picasso, Portrait of Daniel-Henry Kahnweiler, 1910, Art
Institute of Chicago
the importance of the intellect.[38]
Important literary precursors of modernism were:
Fyodor Dostoyevsky (182181), who wrote the novels
Crime and Punishment (1866) and The Brothers Karamazov (1880);[39] Walt Whitman (181992), who published the poetry collection Leaves of Grass (185591);
and August Strindberg (18491912), especially his later
plays, including the trilogy To Damascus 18981901, A
Dream Play (1902) and The Ghost Sonata (1907). Henry
James has also been suggested as a signicant precursor,

An important aspect of modernism is how it relates to

tradition through its adoption of techniques like reprise,
incorporation, rewriting, recapitulation, revision and parody in new forms.[8][9]
T. S. Eliot made signicant comments on the relation of
the artist to tradition, including:
"[W]e shall often nd that not only

1.2

Explosion, early 20th century to 1930

5
There were paradoxical if not opposed trends towards revolutionary
and reactionary positions, fear of
the new and delight at the disappearance of the old, nihilism and
fanatical enthusiasm, creativity and
despair.[10]

An example of how Modernist art can be both revolutionary and yet be related to past tradition, is the music
of the composer Arnold Schoenberg. On the one hand
Schoenberg rejected traditional tonal harmony, the hierarchical system of organizing works of music that had
Piet Mondrian, View from the Dunes with Beach and Piers, guided music making for at least a century and a half.
Domburg, 1909, oil and pencil on cardboard, Museum of Mod- He believed he had discovered a wholly new way of organizing sound, based in the use of twelve-note rows.
ern Art, New York City
Yet while this was indeed wholly new, its origins can be
traced back in the work of earlier composers, such as
Franz Liszt,[42] Richard Wagner, Gustav Mahler, Richard
Strauss and Max Reger.[43] Furthermore, it must be noted
that Schoenberg also wrote tonal music throughout his career.
In the world of art, in the rst decade of the 20th century,
young painters such as Pablo Picasso and Henri Matisse
were causing a shock with their rejection of traditional
perspective as the means of structuring paintings,[44][45]
though the impressionist Monet had already been innovative in his use of perspective.[46] In 1907, as Picasso was
painting Les Demoiselles d'Avignon, Oskar Kokoschka
was writing Mrder, Honung der Frauen (Murderer,
Hope of Women), the rst Expressionist play (produced
with scandal in 1909), and Arnold Schoenberg was composing his String Quartet No.2 in F sharp minor (1908),
his rst composition without a tonal centre.
A primary inuence that led to Cubism was the representation of three-dimensional form in the late works of
Paul Czanne, which were displayed in a retrospective
at the 1907 Salon d'Automne.[47] In Cubist artwork, objects are analyzed, broken up and reassembled in an abstracted form and instead of depicting objects from one
viewpoint, the artist depicts the subject from a multiThe Museo Nacional Centro de Arte Reina Sofa (MNCARS) is
tude of viewpoints to represent the subject in a greater
the ocial name of Spains national museum of 20th-century
context.[48] Cubism was brought to the attention of the
art, located in Madrid (informally shortened to the Museo Reina
Sofa, Queen Soa Museum). The photo shows the old building general public for the rst time in 1911 at the Salon des
with the addition of one of the contemporary glass towers to the Indpendants in Paris (held 21 April 13 June). Jean
exterior by Ian Ritchie Architects with the close up of the modern Metzinger, Albert Gleizes, Henri Le Fauconnier, Robert
Delaunay, Fernand Lger and Roger de La Fresnaye were
art tower
shown together in Room 41, provoking a 'scandal' out of
which Cubism emerged and spread throughout Paris and
the best, but the most individual
beyond. Also in 1911, Kandinsky painted Bild mit Kreis
parts of [a poets] work, may be
(Picture With a Circle) which he later called the rst abthose in which the dead poets, his
stract painting.[49] In 1912, Jean Metzinger and Albert
ancestors, assert their immortality
Gleizes wrote the rst (and only) major Cubist manimost vigorously.[41]
festo, Du Cubisme, published in time for the Salon de
la Section d'Or, the largest Cubist exhibition to date. In
However, relationship of Modernism with tradition was 1912 Metzinger painted and exhibited his enchanting La
complex, as literary scholar Peter Childs indicates:
Femme au Cheval (Woman with a horse) and Danseuse

HISTORY

au caf (Dancer in a caf). Albert Gleizes painted and

exhibited his Les Baigneuses (The Bathers) and his monumental Le Dpiquage des Moissons (Harvest Threshing).
This work, along with La Ville de Paris (City of Paris) by
Robert Delaunay, is the largest and most ambitious Cubist
painting undertaken during the pre-War Cubist period.[50]

action to the dehumanizing eect of industrialization and

the growth of cities, and that one of the central means
by which expressionism identies itself as an avant-garde
movement, and by which it marks its distance to traditions and the cultural institution as a whole is through its
relationship to realism and the dominant conventions of
[55]
More explicitly: that the expressionIn 1905, a group of four German artists, led by Ernst representation.
ists
rejected
the
ideology
of realism.[56]
Ludwig Kirchner, formed Die Brcke (the Bridge) in the
city of Dresden. This was arguably the founding organization for the German Expressionist movement, though
they did not use the word itself. A few years later, in
1911, a like-minded group of young artists formed Der
Blaue Reiter (The Blue Rider) in Munich. The name
came from Wassily Kandinsky's Der Blaue Reiter painting of 1903. Among their members were Kandinsky,
Franz Marc, Paul Klee, and Auguste Macke. However,
the term Expressionism did not rmly establish itself
until 1913.[51] Though initially mainly a German artistic movement,[52] most predominant in painting, poetry
and the theatre between 1910 and 1930, most precursors
of the movement were not German. Furthermore, there
have been expressionist writers of prose ction, as well
as non-German speaking expressionist writers, and, while
the movement had declined in Germany with the rise of
Adolf Hitler in the 1930s, there were subsequent expressionist works.

Ludwig Mies van der Rohes Seagram Building in New York City

Portrait of Eduard Kosmack by Egon Schiele

There was a concentrated Expressionist movement in

early 20th century German theatre of which Georg
Kaiser and Ernst Toller were the most famous playwrights. Other notable Expressionist dramatists included
Reinhard Sorge, Walter Hasenclever, Hans Henny Jahnn,
and Arnolt Bronnen. They looked back to Swedish playwright August Strindberg and German actor and dramatist Frank Wedekind as precursors of their dramaturgical
experiments. Oskar Kokoschka's Murderer, the Hope of
Women was the rst fully Expressionist work for the theatre, which opened on 4 July 1909 in Vienna.[57] The extreme simplication of characters to mythic types, choral
eects, declamatory dialogue and heightened intensity
would become characteristic of later Expressionist plays.
The rst full-length Expressionist play was The Son by
Walter Hasenclever, which was published in 1914 and
rst performed in 1916.[58]

Expressionism is notoriously dicult to dene, in part

because it overlapped with other major 'isms of the
modernist period: with Futurism, Vorticism, Cubism,
Surrealism and Dada.[53] Richard Murphy also comments: the search for an all-inclusive denition is problematic to the extent that the most challenging expressionists such as the novelist Franz Kafka, poet Gottfried
Benn, and novelist Alfred Dblin were simultaneously
the most vociferous anti-expressionists.[54] What, however, can be said, is that it was a movement that devel- Futurism is yet another modernist movement and in
oped in the early 20th-century mainly in Germany in re- 1909, the Parisian newspaper Le Figaro published F.

1.2

Explosion, early 20th century to 1930

T. Marinetti's rst manifesto. Soon afterwards a group

of painters (Giacomo Balla, Umberto Boccioni, Carlo
Carr, Luigi Russolo, and Gino Severini) co-signed the
Futurist Manifesto. Modeled on Marx and Engels' famous "Communist Manifesto" (1848), such manifestoes
put forward ideas that were meant to provoke and to
gather followers. However, arguments in favor of geometric or purely abstract painting were, at this time,
largely conned to little magazines which had only tiny
circulations. Modernist primitivism and pessimism were
controversial, and the mainstream in the rst decade of
the 20th century was still inclined towards a faith in
progress and liberal optimism.

7
artists drew their theoretical arguments were diverse,
and reected the social and intellectual preoccupations
in all areas of Western culture at that time.[61] Wassily
Kandinsky, Piet Mondrian, and Kazimir Malevich all
believed in redening art as the arrangement of pure
color. The use of photography, which had rendered
much of the representational function of visual art
obsolete, strongly aected this aspect of modernism.[62]
Modernist architects and designers, such as Frank Lloyd
Wright and Le Corbusier, believed that new technology
rendered old styles of building obsolete. Le Corbusier thought that buildings should function as machines
for living in, analogous to cars, which he saw as machines for traveling in.[63] Just as cars had replaced the
horse, so modernist design should reject the old styles
and structures inherited from Ancient Greece or from the
Middle Ages. Following this machine aesthetic, modernist designers typically rejected decorative motifs in design, preferring to emphasize the materials used and pure
geometrical forms.[64] The skyscraper is the archetypal
modernist building and the Wainwright Building, a 10story oce building built 1890-91, in St. Louis, Missouri, US, is among the rst skyscrapers in the world.[65]
Ludwig Mies van der Rohe's Seagram Building in New
York (19561958) is often regarded as the pinnacle of
this modernist high-rise architecture.[66] Many aspects of
modernist design still persist within the mainstream of
contemporary architecture, though previous dogmatism
has given way to a more playful use of decoration, historical quotation, and spatial drama.

Jean Metzinger, 1913, En Canot (Im Boot), oil on canvas, 146 x

114 cm (57.5 in 44.9 in), exhibited at Moderni Umeni, S.V.U.
Mnes, Prague, 1914, acquired in 1916 by Georg Muche at the
Galerie Der Sturm, conscated by the Nazis circa 193637, displayed at the Degenerate Art show in Munich, and missing ever
since.[59]

Abstract artists, taking as their examples the

impressionists, as well as Paul Czanne (18391906) and
Edvard Munch (18631944), began with the assumption
that color and shape, not the depiction of the natural
world, formed the essential characteristics of art.[60]
Western art had been, from the Renaissance up to the
middle of the 19th century, underpinned by the logic
of perspective and an attempt to reproduce an illusion
of visible reality. The arts of cultures other than the
European had become accessible and showed alternative
ways of describing visual experience to the artist. By
the end of the 19th century many artists felt a need to
create a new kind of art which would encompass the
fundamental changes taking place in technology, science
and philosophy. The sources from which individual

Andr Masson, Pedestal Table in the Studio 1922, early example

of Surrealism

In 1913which was the year of philosopher Edmund

Husserl's Ideas, physicist Niels Bohr's quantized atom,
Ezra Pound's founding of imagism, the Armory Show
in New York, and in Saint Petersburg the rst futurist opera, Mikhail Matyushin's Victory Over the Sun
another Russian composer, Igor Stravinsky, composed
The Rite of Spring, a ballet that depicts human sacrice,
and has a musical score full of dissonance and primitive rhythm. This caused uproar on its rst performance

8
in Paris. At this time though modernism was still progressive, increasingly it saw traditional forms and traditional social arrangements as hindering progress, and was
recasting the artist as a revolutionary, engaged in overthrowing rather than enlightening society. Also in 1913 a
less violent event occurred in France with the publication
of the rst volume of Marcel Proust's important novel sequence la recherche du temps perdu (19131927) (In
Search of Lost Time). This often presented as an early
example of a writer using the stream-of-consciousness
technique, but Robert Humphrey comments that Proust
is concerned only with the reminiscent aspect of consciousness and that he was deliberately recapturing the
past for the purpose of communicating; hence he did not
write a stream-of-consciousness novel.[67]

HISTORY

pounded this theory of modernism in his essay AvantGarde and Kitsch.[71] Greenberg labeled the products of
consumer culture "kitsch", because their design aimed
simply to have maximum appeal, with any dicult features removed. For Greenberg, modernism thus formed
a reaction against the development of such examples of
modern consumer culture as commercial popular music,
Hollywood, and advertising. Greenberg associated this
with the revolutionary rejection of capitalism.
Some Modernists saw themselves as part of a revolutionary culture that included political revolution. In Russia
after the 1917 Revolution there was indeed initially a burgeoning of avant-garde cultural activity, which included
Russian futurism. However others rejected conventional
politics as well as artistic conventions, believing that a
revolution of political consciousness had greater importance than a change in political structures. But many
modernists saw themselves as apolitical. Others, such as
T. S. Eliot, rejected mass popular culture from a conservative position. Some even argue that modernism in literature and art functioned to sustain an elite culture which
excluded the majority of the population.[71]

Stream of consciousness was an important modernist literary innovationas, and it has been suggested that Arthur
Schnitzler (18621931), was the rst to make full use
it in his short story Leutnant Gustl (None but the
Brave) (1900).[68] Dorothy Richardson was the rst English writer to use it, in the early volumes of her novel
sequence Pilgrimage (191567).[69] The other modernist
novelists that are associated with the use of this narra- Surrealism, which originated in the early 1920s, came
tive technique include James Joyce in Ulysses (1922), and to be regarded by the public as the most extreme form
Italo Svevo in La coscienza di Zeno (1923).[70]
of modernism, or the avant-garde of Modernism.[72]
However, with the coming of Great War of 1914-18, and The word surrealist was coined by Guillaume Apollithe Russian Revolution of 1917, the world was drasti- naire and rst appeared in the preface to his play Les
cally changed and doubt cast on the beliefs and institu- Mamelles de Tirsias, which was written in 1903 and rst
tions of the past. The failure of the previous status quo performed in 1917. Major surrealists include Paul luseemed self-evident to a generation that had seen mil- ard, Robert Desnos,[73] Max Ernst, Hans Arp, Antonin
lions die ghting over scraps of earth: prior to 1914 it Artaud, Raymond Queneau, Joan Mir, and Marcel
had been argued that no one would ght such a war, since Duchamp.[74]
the cost was too high. The birth of a machine age which By 1930, Modernism won a place in the establishment,
had made major changes in the conditions of daily life including the political and artistic establishment, although
in the 19th century now had radically changed the nature by this time Modernism itself had changed.
of warfare. The traumatic nature of recent experience
altered basic assumptions, and realistic depiction of life
in the arts seemed inadequate when faced with the fantastically surreal nature of trench warfare. The view that 1.3 Modernism continues: 19301945
mankind was making steady moral progress now seemed
ridiculous in the face of the senseless slaughter, that was Modernism continued to evolve during the 1930s. Bedescribed in works such as Erich Maria Remarque's novel tween 1930 and 1932 composer Arnold Schoenberg
rst operas to
All Quiet on the Western Front (1929). Therefore, mod- worked on Moses und Aaron one of the
[75]
make
use
of
the
twelfth
note
technique,
Pablo Picasso
ernisms view of reality, which had been a minority taste
painted
in
1937
Guernica,
his
cubist
condemnation
of
before the war, became to more generally accepted in the
James
Joyce
pushed
the
boundfascism,
while
in
1939
1920s.
aries of the modern novel further with Finnegans Wake.
In literature and visual art some Modernists sought to Also by 1930 Modernism began to inuence mainstream
defy expectations mainly in order to make their art more culture, so that, for example, The New Yorker magazine
vivid, or to force the audience to take the trouble to began publishing work, which was inuenced by Modquestion their own preconceptions. This aspect of mod- ernism, by young writers and humorists like Dorothy
ernism has often seemed a reaction to consumer cul- Parker,[76] Robert Benchley, E. B. White, S. J. Perelture, which developed in Europe and North America in man, and James Thurber, amongst others.[77] Perelman
the late 19th century. Whereas most manufacturers try is highly regarded for his humorous short stories that he
to make products that will be marketable by appealing published in magazines in the 1930s and 1940s, most ofto preferences and prejudices, high modernists rejected ten in The New Yorker, which are considered to be the
such consumerist attitudes in order to undermine conven- rst examples of surrealist humor in America.[78] Modtional thinking. The art critic Clement Greenberg ex- ern ideas in art also began to appear more frequently in

1.3

Modernism continues: 19301945

commercials and logos, an early example of which, from ing in the 1920s and 1930s were Bertolt Brecht and
1919, is the famous London Underground logo designed Federico Garca Lorca. D. H. Lawrence's Lady Chatby Edward Johnston.
terleys Lover was privately published in 1928, while anOne of the most visible changes of this period was the other important landmark for the history of the modern
adoption of new technologies into daily life of ordinary novel came with the publication of William Faulkner's
people in Western Europe and North America. Elec- The Sound and the Fury in 1929. In the 1930s, in additricity, the telephone, the radio, the automobileand the tion to further major works by Faulkner, Samuel Beckneed to work with them, repair them and live with them ett's published his rst major work, the novel Murphy
(1938). Then in 1939 James Joyces Finnegans Wake
created social change. The kind of disruptive moment
that only a few knew in the 1880s became a common appeared. This is written in a largely idiosyncratic language, consisting of a mixture of standard English lexical
occurrence. For example, the speed of communication
reserved for the stock brokers of 1890 became part of items and neologistic multilingual puns and portmanteau
words, which attempts to recreate the experience of sleep
family life, at least in middle class North America. Asso[80]
In poetry T. S. Eliot, E. E. Cummings,
ciated with urbanization and changing social mores also and dreams.
Wallace Stevens were writing from the 1920s until
and
came smaller families and changed relationships between
the 1950s. While Modernist poetry in English is often
parents and their children.
viewed as an American phenomenon, with leading exponents including Ezra Pound, T. S. Eliot, Marianne Moore,
William Carlos Williams, H.D., and Louis Zukofsky,
there were important British Modernist poets, including
David Jones, Hugh MacDiarmid, Basil Bunting, and W.
H. Auden. European Modernist poets include Federico
Garca Lorca, Anna Akhmatova, Constantine Cavafy,
and Paul Valry.

London Underground logo designed by Edward Johnston

Another strong inuence at this time was Marxism. After the generally primitivistic/irrationalist aspect of preWorld War I Modernism, which for many Modernists
precluded any attachment to merely political solutions,
and the neoclassicism of the 1920s, as represented most
famously by T. S. Eliot and Igor Stravinskywhich rejected popular solutions to modern problemsthe rise
of Fascism, the Great Depression, and the march to war
helped to radicalise a generation. Bertolt Brecht, W. H.
Auden, Andr Breton, Louis Aragon and the philosophers Antonio Gramsci and Walter Benjamin are perhaps the most famous exemplars of this Modernist form
of Marxism. There were, however, also Modernists explicitly of 'the right', including Salvador Dal, Wyndham
Lewis, T. S. Eliot, Ezra Pound, the Dutch author Menno
ter Braak and others.[79]
Signicant Modernist literary works continued to be created in the 1920s and 1930s, including further novels
by Marcel Proust, Virginia Woolf, Robert Musil, and
Dorothy Richardson. The American Modernist dramatist Eugene O'Neill's career began in 1914, but his major works appeared in the 1920s and 1930s and early
1940s. Two other signicant Modernist dramatists writ-

The Modernist movement continued during this period in Soviet Russia and in 1930 composer Dimitri
Shostakovich's (190675) opera The Nose was premiered, in which he uses a montage of dierent
styles, including folk music, popular song and atonality.
Amongst his inuences was Alban Berg's (19851935)
opera Wozzeck (1925), which had made a tremendous impression on Shostakovich when it was staged in
Leningrad.[81] However, from 1932 Socialist realism began to oust Modernism in the Soviet Union,[82] and in
1936 Shostakovich was attacked and forced to withdraw
his 4th Symphony.[83] Alban Berg wrote another significant, though incomplete, Modernist opera, Lulu, which
premiered in 1937. Bergs violin concerto was rst performed in 1935. Like Shostakovich other composers
faced diculties in this period. In Germany Arnold
Schoenberg (18741951) was forced to ee to the U.S.
when Hitler came to power in 1933, because of his Modernist atonal style as well as his Jewish ancestry.[84] His
major works from this period are a Violin Concerto, Op.
36 (1934/36), Piano Concerto, Op. 42 (1942). Schoenberg also wrote tonal music in this period with the Suite
for Strings in G major (1935), and the Chamber Symphony No. 2 in E minor, Op. 38 (begun in 1906, completed in 1939).[84] During this time Hungarian Modernist Bla Bartk (18811945) produced a number of
major works, including Music for Strings, Percussion and
Celesta (1936) and Divertimento for String Orchestra BB
118 (1939), String Quartet No. 5 (1934), and No. 6 (his
last, 1939). But he too left for the US in 1940, because of
the rise of fascism in Hungary.[84] Igor Stravinsky (1882
1971) continued writing in his neoclassical style during
the 1930s and 1940s, writing works like Symphony of
Psalms (1930), Symphony in C (1940) and Symphony in

10

HISTORY

he composed his famous Quatuor pour la n du temps

(Quartet for the End of Time). The Quartet was rst
performed in January 1941 to an audience of prisoners
and prison guards.[85]
In painting, during the 1920s and the 1930s and the
Great Depression, modernism is dened by Surrealism,
late Cubism, the Bauhaus, De Stijl, Dada, German
Expressionism, Expressionism, and Modernist and masterful color painters like Henri Matisse and Pierre Bonnard as well as the abstractions of artists like Piet Mondrian and Wassily Kandinsky which characterized the European art scene. In Germany, Max Beckmann, Otto Dix,
George Grosz and others politicized their paintings, foreshadowing the coming of World War II, while in America, modernism is seen in the form of American Scene
painting and the social realism and regionalism movements that contained both political and social commentary dominated the art world. Artists like Ben Shahn,
Thomas Hart Benton, Grant Wood, George Tooker,
John Steuart Curry, Reginald Marsh, and others became
prominent. Modernism is dened in Latin America by
painters Joaqun Torres Garca from Uruguay and Runo
Tamayo from Mexico, while the muralist movement with
Diego Rivera, David Siqueiros, Jos Orozco, Pedro Nel
Gmez and Santiago Martinez Delgado, and Symbolist
paintings by Frida Kahlo, began a renaissance of the arts
for the region, characterized by a freer use of color and
an emphasis on political messages.
Diego Rivera is perhaps best known by the public world
for his 1933 mural, Man at the Crossroads, in the lobby
of the RCA Building at Rockefeller Center. When his
patron Nelson Rockefeller discovered that the mural included a portrait of Vladimir Lenin and other communist
imagery, he red Rivera, and the unnished work was
eventually destroyed by Rockefellers sta. Frida Kahlo
(Riveras wifes) works are often characterized by their
stark portrayals of pain. Kahlo was deeply inuenced
by indigenous Mexican culture, which is apparent in her
paintings bright colors and dramatic symbolism. Christian and Jewish themes are often depicted in her work
as well; she combined elements of the classic religious
Mexican traditionwhich were often bloody and violent.
Frida Kahlos Symbolist works relate strongly to Surrealism and to the Magic Realism movement in literature.

James Joyce. statue on North Earl Street, Dublin, by Marjorie

FitzGibbon

Political activism was an important piece of David

Siqueiros' life, and frequently inspired him to set aside his
artistic career. His art was deeply rooted in the Mexican
Revolution. The period from the 1920s to the 1950s is
known as the Mexican Renaissance, and Siqueiros was
active in the attempt to create an art that was at once Mexican and universal. The young Jackson Pollock attended
the workshop and helped build oats for the parade.

During the 1930s radical leftist politics characterized

Three Movements (1945). He also emigrated to the US many of the artists connected to Surrealism, including
because of World War II. Olivier Messiaen (19081992), Pablo Picasso.[86] On 26 April 1937, during the Spanish
however, served in the French army during the war and Civil War, the Basque town of Gernika was the scene of
was imprisoned at Stalag VIII-A by the Germans, where

11
the "Bombing of Gernika" by the Nazi Germanys Luftwae. The Germans were attacking to support the efforts of Francisco Franco to overthrow the Basque Government and the Spanish Republican government. Pablo
Picasso painted his mural sized Guernica to commemorate the horrors of the bombing.

Pablo Picasso's Guernica, 1937, protest against Fascism

sanctions. These included being dismissed from teaching positions, being forbidden to exhibit or to sell their
art, and in some cases being forbidden to produce art entirely. Degenerate Art was also the title of an exhibition,
mounted by the Nazis in Munich in 1937. The climate
became so hostile for artists and art associated with modernism and abstraction that many left for the Americas.
German artist Max Beckmann and scores of others ed
Europe for New York. In New York City a new generation of young and exciting Modernist painters led by
Arshile Gorky, Willem de Kooning, and others were just
beginning to come of age.
Arshile Gorkys portrait of someone who might be
Willem de Kooning is an example of the evolution of
abstract expressionism from the context of gure painting, cubism and surrealism. Along with his friends de
Kooning and John D. Graham Gorky created biomorphically shaped and abstracted gurative compositions
that by the 1940s evolved into totally abstract paintings.
Gorkys work seems to be a careful analysis of memory,
emotion and shape, using line and color to express feeling
and nature.

During the Great Depression of the 1930s, through the

years of World War II American art was characterized by
Social Realism and American Scene Painting, in the work
of Grant Wood, Edward Hopper, Ben Shahn, Thomas
Hart Benton, and several others. Nighthawks (1942) is
a painting by Edward Hopper that portrays people sitting
in a downtown diner late at night. It is not only Hoppers
most famous painting, but one of the most recognizable 2 After World War II (mainly the
in American art. The scene was inspired by a diner in
visual and performing arts)
Greenwich Village. Hopper began painting it immediately after the attack on Pearl Harbor. After this event
there was a large feeling of gloominess over the country, See also: Late modernism
a feeling that is portrayed in the painting. The urban street
is empty outside the diner, and inside none of the three
patrons is apparently looking or talking to the others but
instead is lost in their own thoughts. This portrayal of 2.1 Introduction
modern urban life as empty or lonely is a common theme
Though The Oxford Encyclopedia of British Literature
throughout Hoppers work.
sees modernism ending by c. 1939,[88] with regard to
American Gothic is a painting by Grant Wood from 1930. British and American literature, When (if) Modernism
Portraying a pitchfork-holding farmer and a younger petered out and postmodernism began has been conwoman in front of a house of Carpenter Gothic style, tested almost as hotly as when the transition from Vicit is one of the most familiar images in 20th-century torianism to Modernism occurred.[89] Clement GreenAmerican art. Art critics had favorable opinions about berg sees modernism ending in the 1930s, with the exthe painting; like Gertrude Stein and Christopher Mor- ception of the visual and performing arts,[90] but with
ley, they assumed the painting was meant to be a satire of regard to music, Paul Griths notes that, while Modrural small-town life. It was thus seen as part of the trend ernism seemed to be a spent force by the late 1920s,
towards increasingly critical depictions of rural America, after World War II, a new generation of composers
along the lines of Sherwood Anderson's 1919 Winesburg, Boulez, Barraqu, Babbitt, Nono, Stockhausen, Xenakis"
Ohio, Sinclair Lewis's 1920 Main Street, and Carl Van revived modernism.[91] In fact many literary Modernists
Vechten's The Tattooed Countess in literature.[87] How- lived into the 1950s and 1960s, though generally they
ever, with the onset of the Great Depression, the painting were no longer producing major works. The term "late
came to be seen as a depiction of steadfast American pi- modernism" is also sometimes applied to Modernist
oneer spirit.
works published after 1930.[92] Among Modernists (or
The situation for artists in Europe during the 1930s de- late Modernists) still publishing after 1945 were Wallace
teriorated rapidly as the Nazis power in Germany and Stevens, Gottfried Benn, T. S. Eliot, Anna Akhmatova,
across Eastern Europe increased. Degenerate art was a William Faulkner, Dorothy Richardson, John Cowper
term adopted by the Nazi regime in Germany for virtu- Powys, and Ezra Pound. Basil Bunting, born in 1901,
ally all modern art. Such art was banned on the grounds published his most important Modernist poem Briggatts
that it was un-German or Jewish Bolshevist in nature, and in 1965. In addition Hermann Broch's The Death of Virthose identied as degenerate artists were subjected to gil was published in 1945 and Thomas Mann's Doctor

12

2 AFTER WORLD WAR II (MAINLY THE VISUAL AND PERFORMING ARTS)

phus.[98] The Absurd in these plays takes the form of

mans reaction to a world apparently without meaning,
and/or man as a puppet controlled or menaced by invisible outside forces. Though the term is applied to a wide
range of plays, some characteristics coincide in many of
the plays: broad comedy, often similar to Vaudeville,
mixed with horric or tragic images; characters caught
in hopeless situations forced to do repetitive or meaningless actions; dialogue full of clichs, wordplay, and nonsense; plots that are cyclical or absurdly expansive; either
a parody or dismissal of realism and the concept of the
More recently the term late modernism has been rede- "well-made play".
ned by at least one critic and used to refer to works writ- Playwrights commonly associated with the Theatre of the
ten after 1945, rather than 1930. With this usage goes Absurd include Samuel Beckett (19061989), Eugne
the idea that the ideology of modernism was signicantly Ionesco (190994), Jean Genet (191086), Harold Pinter
re-shaped by the events of World War II, especially the (19302008), Tom Stoppard (born 1937), Friedrich DrHolocaust and the dropping of the atom bomb.[96]
renmatt (192190), Alejandro Jodorowsky (born 1929),
The postwar period left the capitals of Europe in upheaval Fernando Arrabal (born 1932), Vclav Havel (1936
with an urgency to economically and physically rebuild 2011) and Edward Albee (born 1928).
Faustus in 1947. Samuel Beckett, who died in 1989,
has been described as a later Modernist.[93] Beckett
is a writer with roots in the expressionist tradition of
Modernism, who produced works from the 1930s until
the 1980s, including Molloy (1951), En attendant Godot
(1953), Happy Days (1961), Rockaby (1981). The terms
"minimalist" and "post-Modernist" have also been applied to his later works.[94] The poets Charles Olson
(19101970) and J. H. Prynne (born 1936) are among
the writers in the second half of the 20th century who
have been described as late Modernists.[95]

and to politically regroup. In Paris (the former center of

European culture and the former capital of the art world)
the climate for art was a disaster. Important collectors,
dealers, and Modernist artists, writers, and poets had ed
Europe for New York and America. The surrealists and
modern artists from every cultural center of Europe had
ed the onslaught of the Nazis for safe haven in the United
States. Many of those who didn't ee perished. A few
artists, notably Pablo Picasso, Henri Matisse, and Pierre
Jackson Pollock, Blue Poles, 1952, National Gallery of Australia
Bonnard, remained in France and survived.
The 1940s in New York City heralded the triumph of
American abstract expressionism, a Modernist movement
that combined lessons learned from Henri Matisse, Pablo
Picasso, surrealism, Joan Mir, cubism, Fauvism, and
early modernism via great teachers in America like Hans
Hofmann and John D. Graham. American artists beneted from the presence of Piet Mondrian, Fernand Lger,
Max Ernst and the Andr Breton group, Pierre Matisse's
gallery, and Peggy Guggenheim's gallery The Art of This
Century, as well as other factors.

2.3 Pollock and abstract inuences

The term "Theatre of the Absurd" is applied to plays written by primarily European playwrights, that express the
belief that human existence has no meaning or purpose
and therefore all communication breaks down. Logical
construction and argument gives way to irrational and illogical speech and to its ultimate conclusion, silence.[97]
While there are signicant precursors, including Alfred
Jarry (18731907), the Theatre of the Absurd is generally
seen as beginning in the 1950s with the plays of Samuel
Beckett.

During the late 1940s Jackson Pollock's radical approach to painting revolutionized the potential for all
contemporary art that followed him. To some extent
Pollock realized that the journey toward making a work
of art was as important as the work of art itself. Like
Pablo Picasso's innovative reinventions of painting and
sculpture in the early 20th century via Cubism and constructed sculpture, Pollock redened the way art gets
made. His move away from easel painting and conventionality was a liberating signal to the artists of his era
and to all who came after. Artists realized that Jackson
Pollocks processplacing unstretched raw canvas on the
oor where it could be attacked from all four sides using artistic and industrial materials; dripping and throwing linear skeins of paint; drawing, staining, and brushing; using imagery and nonimageryessentially blasted
artmaking beyond any prior boundary. Abstract expressionism generally expanded and developed the denitions
and possibilities available to artists for the creation of new
works of art.

Critic Martin Esslin coined the term in his 1960 essay

Theatre of the Absurd. He related these plays based on
a broad theme of the Absurd, similar to the way Albert
Camus uses the term in his 1942 essay, The Myth of Sisy-

The other abstract expressionists followed Pollocks

breakthrough with new breakthroughs of their own. In
a sense the innovations of Jackson Pollock, Willem de
Kooning, Franz Kline, Mark Rothko, Philip Guston,

2.2

Theatre of the Absurd

2.4

International gures from British art

13

Henry Moore, Reclining Figure (1957).

Kunsthaus Zrich, Zrich, Switzerland.

Barnett Newman, Whos Afraid of Red, Yellow and Blue?,

1966. Typical of Newmans later work, with the use of pure
and vibrant color

Hans Hofmann, Clyord Still, Barnett Newman, Ad

Reinhardt, Robert Motherwell, Peter Voulkos and others opened the oodgates to the diversity and scope of
all the art that followed them. Rereadings into abstract
art by art historians such as Linda Nochlin,[99] Griselda
Pollock[100] and Catherine de Zegher[101] critically show,
however, that pioneering women artists who produced
major innovations in modern art had been ignored by ofcial accounts of its history.

2.4

International gures from British art

Henry Moore (18981986) emerged after World War II

as Britains leading sculptor. He was best known for his
semi-abstract monumental bronze sculptures which are
located around the world as public works of art. His
forms are usually abstractions of the human gure, typically depicting mother-and-child or reclining gures, usually suggestive of the female body, apart from a phase in
the 1950s when he sculpted family groups. His forms are
generally pierced or contain hollow spaces.
In the 1950s, Moore began to receive increasingly signicant commissions, including a reclining gure for the
UNESCO building in Paris in 1958.[102] With many more

In front of the

public works of art, the scale of Moores sculptures grew

signicantly. The last three decades of Moores life continued in a similar vein with several major retrospectives
took place around the world, notably a very prominent
exhibition in the summer of 1972 in the grounds of the
Forte di Belvedere overlooking Florence. By the end of
the 1970s, there were some 40 exhibitions a year featuring his work. On the campus of the University of
Chicago in December 1967, 25 years to the minute after the team of physicists led by Enrico Fermi achieved
the rst controlled, self-sustaining nuclear chain reaction, Moores Nuclear Energy was unveiled.[103] Also in
Chicago Moore also commemorated science with a large
bronze sundial, locally named Man Enters the Cosmos
(1980), which was commissioned to recognise the space
exploration program.[104]
The London School of gurative painters, including Francis Bacon (19091992), Lucian Freud (1922
2011), Frank Auerbach (born 1931), Leon Kosso (born
1926), and Michael Andrews (19281995), have received widespread international recognition.[105]
Francis Bacon was an Irish-born British gurative painter
known for his bold, graphic and emotionally raw
imagery.[106] His painterly but abstracted gures typically appear isolated in glass or steel geometrical cages
set against at, nondescript backgrounds. Bacon began
painting during his early 20s but worked only sporadically until his mid-30s. His breakthrough came with the
1944 triptych Three Studies for Figures at the Base of
a Crucixion which sealed his reputation as a uniquely
bleak chronicler of the human condition.[107] His output
can be crudely described as consisting of sequences or
variations on a single motif; beginning with the 1940s
male heads isolated in rooms, the early 1950s screaming popes, and mid to late 1950s animals and lone gures suspended in geometric structures. These were followed by his early 1960s modern variations of the crucixion in the triptych format. From the mid-1960s to
early 1970s, Bacon mainly produced strikingly compassionate portraits of friends. Following the suicide of his
lover George Dyer in 1971, his art became more personal,

14

2 AFTER WORLD WAR II (MAINLY THE VISUAL AND PERFORMING ARTS)

inward looking and preoccupied with themes and motifs Colin McCahon, Bruce Nauman, Richard Tuttle, Alan
of death. During his lifetime, Bacon was equally reviled Saret, Walter Darby Bannard, Lynda Benglis, Dan Chrisand acclaimed.[108]
tensen, Larry Zox, Ronnie Landeld, Eva Hesse, Keith
Sonnier, Richard Serra, Sam Gilliam, Mario Merz and
According to William Grimes of the New York Times,
Peter Reginato were some of the younger artists who
emerged during the era of late modernism that spawned
Lucien Freud and his contempothe heyday of the art of the late 1960s.[115]
raries transformed gure painting
in the 20th century. In paintings like Girl With a White Dog
2.6 Pop art
(1951-52),[109] Freud put the pictorial language of traditional European painting in the service of an
anti-romantic, confrontational style
of portraiture that stripped bare
the sitters social facade. Ordinary peoplemany of them his
friendsstared wide-eyed from the
canvas, vulnerable to the artists
ruthless inspection.[110]
Lucian Freud was a German-born British painter, known
chiey for his thickly impastoed portrait and gure paintings, who was widely considered the pre-eminent British
artist of his time.[111] His works are noted for their psychological penetration, and for their often discomforting examination of the relationship between artist and
model.[112]

2.5

In the 1960s after abstract expressionism

Main articles: Post-painterly Abstraction, Color Field,

Lyrical Abstraction, Arte Povera, Process art, and
Western painting
In abstract painting during the 1950s and 1960s several
new directions like hard-edge painting and other forms
of geometric abstraction began to appear in artist studios
and in radical avant-garde circles as a reaction against the
subjectivism of abstract expressionism. Clement Greenberg became the voice of post-painterly Abstraction when
he curated an inuential exhibition of new painting that
toured important art museums throughout the United
States in 1964. Color Field painting, hard-edge painting and Lyrical Abstraction[113] emerged as radical new
directions.
By the late 1960s however, postminimalism, process art
and Arte Povera[114] also emerged as revolutionary concepts and movements that encompassed both painting and
sculpture, via lyrical abstraction and the postminimalist movement, and in early conceptual art.[114] Process
art as inspired by Pollock enabled artists to experiment
with and make use of a diverse encyclopedia of style,
content, material, placement, sense of time, and plastic
and real space. Nancy Graves, Ronald Davis, Howard
Hodgkin, Larry Poons, Jannis Kounellis, Brice Marden,

Eduardo Paolozzi. I was a Rich Mans Plaything (1947) is considered the initial standard bearer of pop art and rst to display
the word pop.

Main articles: Pop art and Western painting

In 1962 the Sidney Janis Gallery mounted The New Realists, the rst major pop art group exhibition in an uptown art gallery in New York City. Janis mounted the
exhibition in a 57th Street storefront near his gallery at
15 E. 57th Street. The show sent shockwaves through
the New York School and reverberated worldwide. Earlier in England in 1958 the term Pop Art was used by
Lawrence Alloway to describe paintings that celebrated
consumerism of the post World War II era. This movement rejected abstract expressionism and its focus on the
hermeneutic and psychological interior in favor of art that
depicted and often celebrated material consumer culture,
advertising, and iconography of the mass production age.
The early works of David Hockney and the works of

2.7

Minimalism

Richard Hamilton and Eduardo Paolozzi (who created the

groundbreaking I was a Rich Mans Plaything, 1947) are
considered seminal examples in the movement. Meanwhile, in the downtown scene in New Yorks East Village
10th Street galleries, artists were formulating an American version of pop art. Claes Oldenburg had his storefront, and the Green Gallery on 57th Street began to show
the works of Tom Wesselmann and James Rosenquist.
Later Leo Castelli exhibited the works of other American artists, including those of Andy Warhol and Roy
Lichtenstein for most of their careers. There is a connection between the radical works of Marcel Duchamp and
Man Ray, the rebellious Dadaists with a sense of humor,
and pop artists like Claes Oldenburg, Andy Warhol, and
Roy Lichtenstein, whose paintings reproduce the look of
Benday dots, a technique used in commercial reproduction.

2.7

15
Judd and Robert Morris both acknowledge and exceed
Greenbergian Modernism in their published denitions
of minimalism.[118] He argues that minimalism is not
a dead end of Modernism, but a paradigm shift toward postmodern practices that continue to be elaborated
today.[118]
The terms have expanded to encompass a movement in
music that features such repetition and iteration as those
of the compositions of La Monte Young, Terry Riley,
Steve Reich, Philip Glass, and John Adams. Minimalist compositions are sometimes known as systems music. The term minimalist often colloquially refers to
anything that is spare or stripped to its essentials. It
has also been used to describe the plays and novels of
Samuel Beckett, the lms of Robert Bresson, the stories
of Raymond Carver, and the automobile designs of Colin
Chapman.

Minimalism

Main articles: Minimalism, Minimal music, Literary

minimalism, Postminimalism, and 20th-century Western
painting

2.7.1 Postminimalism

Minimalism describes movements in various forms of

art and design, especially visual art and music, wherein
artists intend to expose the essence or identity of a subject through eliminating all nonessential forms, features,
or concepts. Minimalism is any design or style wherein
the simplest and fewest elements are used to create the
maximum eect.
As a specic movement in the arts it is identied with
developments in postWorld War II Western Art, most
strongly with American visual arts in the 1960s and early
1970s. Prominent artists associated with this movement
include Donald Judd, John McCracken, Agnes Martin,
Dan Flavin, Robert Morris, Ronald Bladen, Anne Truitt, and Frank Stella.[116] It derives from the reductive
aspects of modernism and is often interpreted as a reaction against Abstract expressionism and a bridge to
Postminimal art practices. By the early 1960s minimalism emerged as an abstract movement in art (with
roots in geometric abstraction of Kazimir Malevich,[117]
the Bauhaus and Piet Mondrian) that rejected the idea
of relational and subjective painting, the complexity
of abstract expressionist surfaces, and the emotional
zeitgeist and polemics present in the arena of action
painting. Minimalism argued that extreme simplicity
could capture all of the sublime representation needed
in art. Minimalism is variously construed either as a
precursor to Postmodernism, or as a Postmodern movement itself. In the latter perspective, early minimalism
yielded advanced Modernist works, but the movement
partially abandoned this direction when some artists like
Robert Morris changed direction in favor of the antiform movement. Hal Foster, in his essay The Crux of
Minimalism,[118] examines the extent to which Donald

Smithsons Spiral Jetty from atop Rozel Point, Utah, US, in midApril 2005. Created in 1970, it still exists although it has often
been submerged by the uctuating lake level. It consists of some
6500 tons of basalt, earth and salt.

In the late 1960s Robert Pincus-Witten[114] coined the

term postminimalism to describe minimalist-derived art
which had content and contextual overtones that minimalism rejected. The term was applied by Pincus-Whitten
to the work of Eva Hesse, Keith Sonnier, Richard Serra
and new work by former minimalists Robert Smithson,
Robert Morris, and Sol LeWitt, and Barry Le Va, and
others. Other minimalists including Donald Judd, Dan
Flavin, Carl Andre, Agnes Martin, John McCracken and
others continued to produce late Modernist paintings and
sculpture for the remainders of their careers.
In the 1960s the work of the avant-garde minimalist composers La Monte Young, Philip Glass, Steve Reich, and
Terry Riley also achieved prominence in the New York
art world.
Since then, many artists have embraced minimal or postminimal styles and the label Postmodern has been attached to them.

16
2.7.2

2 AFTER WORLD WAR II (MAINLY THE VISUAL AND PERFORMING ARTS)

Collage, assemblage, installations

2.7.3 Neo-Dada

Main articles: Collage, Assemblage (art), and Installation Main article: Neo-Dada
art
Related to abstract expressionism was the emergence In the early 20th century Marcel Duchamp submitted for
exhibition a urinal as a sculpture.[119] He professed his
intent that people look at the urinal as if it were a work of
art because he said it was a work of art. He referred to his
work as "readymades". Fountain was a urinal signed with
the pseudonym R. Mutt, the exhibition of which shocked
the art world in 1917. This and Duchamps other works
are generally labelled as Dada. Duchamp can be seen as a
precursor to conceptual art, other famous examples being
John Cage's 4'33, which is four minutes and thirty three
seconds of silence, and Rauschenbergs Erased de Kooning Drawing. Many conceptual works take the position
that art is the result of the viewer viewing an object or
act as art, not of the intrinsic qualities of the work itself.
In choosing an ordinary article of life and creating a
new thought for that object Duchamp invited onlookers
to view Fountain as a sculpture.[120]
Marcel Duchamp famously gave up art in favor of
chess. Avant-garde composer David Tudor created a
piece, Reunion (1968), written jointly with Lowell Cross,
that features a chess game in which each move triggers a
lighting eect or projection. Duchamp and Cage played
the game at the works premier.[121]
Steven Best and Douglas Kellner identify Rauschenberg
and Jasper Johns as part of the transitional phase, inuenced by Duchamp, between Modernism and Postmodernism. Both used images of ordinary objects, or the objects themselves, in their work, while retaining the abstraction and painterly gestures of high Modernism.[122]
Another trend in art associated with neo-Dada is the use
of a number of dierent media together. Intermedia, a
term coined by Dick Higgins and meant to convey new art
forms along the lines of Fluxus, concrete poetry, found
objects, performance art, and computer art. Higgins was
Robert Rauschenberg, Untitled Combine, 1963
publisher of the Something Else Press, a concrete poet,
husband of artist Alison Knowles and an admirer of Marof combining manufactured items with artist materials, cel Duchamp.
moving away from previous conventions of painting and
sculpture. The work of Robert Rauschenberg exemplies this trend. His combines of the 1950s were fore- 2.7.4 Performance and happenings
runners of pop art and installation art, and used assemblages of large physical objects, including stued ani- Main articles: Performance art, Happenings, and Fluxus
mals, birds and commercial photographs. Rauschenberg, During the late 1950s and 1960s artists with a wide
Jasper Johns, Larry Rivers, John Chamberlain, Claes range of interests began to push the boundaries of conOldenburg, George Segal, Jim Dine, and Edward Kien- temporary art. Yves Klein in France, and in New York
holz were among important pioneers of both abstraction City, Carolee Schneemann, Yayoi Kusama, Charlotte
and pop art. Creating new conventions of art-making, Moorman and Yoko Ono and in Germany Joseph Beuys,
they made acceptable in serious contemporary art cir- Wolf Vostell and Nam June Paik were pioneers of
cles the radical inclusion in their works of unlikely ma- performance-based works of art. Groups like The Livterials. Another pioneer of collage was Joseph Cornell, ing Theater with Julian Beck and Judith Malina collabowhose more intimately scaled works were seen as radical rated with sculptors and painters creating environments,
because of both his personal iconography and his use of radically changing the relationship between audience and
found objects.
performer especially in their piece Paradise Now. The

2.7

Minimalism

17
other media, whether by image, video, narrative or otherwise, select certain points of view in space or time or otherwise involve the inherent limitations of each medium,
and which therefore cannot truly illustrate the medium of
performance as art.
During the same period, various avant-garde artists created Happenings. Happenings were mysterious and often spontaneous and unscripted gatherings of artists and
their friends and relatives in various specied locations,
often incorporating exercises in absurdity, physicality,
costuming, spontaneous nudity, and various random or
seemingly disconnected acts. Notable creators of happenings included Allan Kaprowwho rst used the term
in 1958,[124] Claes Oldenburg, Jim Dine, Red Grooms,
and Robert Whitman.[125]
2.7.5 Intermedia, multi-media
Main article: Intermedia

Yves Klein in France, and Carolee Schneemann (pictured), Yayoi

Kusama, Charlotte Moorman, and Yoko Ono in New York City
were pioneers of performance based works of art, that often entailed nudity.[123]

Judson Dance Theater, located at the Judson Memorial

Church, New York; and the Judson dancers, notably
Yvonne Rainer, Trisha Brown, Elaine Summers, Sally
Gross, Simonne Forti, Deborah Hay, Lucinda Childs,
Steve Paxton and others; collaborated with artists Robert
Morris, Robert Whitman, John Cage, Robert Rauschenberg, and engineers like Billy Klver. Park Place Gallery
was a center for musical performances by electronic composers Steve Reich, Philip Glass and other notable performance artists including Joan Jonas.
These performances were intended as works of a new art
form combining sculpture, dance, and music or sound,
often with audience participation. They were characterized by the reductive philosophies of minimalism and the
spontaneous improvisation and expressivity of abstract
expressionism. Images of Schneemans performances of
pieces meant to shock are occasionally used to illustrate
these kinds of art, and she is often seen photographed
while performing her piece Interior Scroll. However, the
images of her performing this piece are illustrating precisely what performance art is not. In performance art,
the performance itself is the medium. Other media cannot illustrate performance art. Performance art is performed, not captured. By its nature performance is momentary and evanescent, which is part of the point of the
medium as art. Representations of performance art in

Another trend in art which has been associated with the

term postmodern is the use of a number of dierent media together. Intermedia, a term coined by Dick Higgins and meant to convey new art forms along the lines
of Fluxus, concrete poetry, found objects, performance
art, and computer art. Higgins was the publisher of the
Something Else Press, a concrete poet married to artist
Alison Knowles and an admirer of Marcel Duchamp.
Ihab Hassan includes, Intermedia, the fusion of forms,
the confusion of realms, in his list of the characteristics
of postmodern art.[126] One of the most common forms
of multi-media art is the use of video-tape and CRT
monitors, termed video art. While the theory of combining multiple arts into one art is quite old, and has been revived periodically, the postmodern manifestation is often
in combination with performance art, where the dramatic
subtext is removed, and what is left is the specic statements of the artist in question or the conceptual statement
of their action.
2.7.6 Fluxus
Main article: Fluxus
Fluxus was named and loosely organized in 1962 by
George Maciunas (193178), a Lithuanian-born American artist. Fluxus traces its beginnings to John Cage's
1957 to 1959 Experimental Composition classes at the
New School for Social Research in New York City. Many
of his students were artists working in other media with
little or no background in music. Cages students included
Fluxus founding members Jackson Mac Low, Al Hansen,
George Brecht and Dick Higgins.
Fluxus encouraged a do-it-yourself aesthetic and valued
simplicity over complexity. Like Dada before it, Fluxus

18

2 AFTER WORLD WAR II (MAINLY THE VISUAL AND PERFORMING ARTS)

included a strong current of anti-commercialism and an

anti-art sensibility, disparaging the conventional marketdriven art world in favor of an artist-centered creative
practice. Fluxus artists preferred to work with whatever materials were at hand, and either created their own
work or collaborated in the creation process with their
colleagues.

Chuck Close, Sam Gilliam, Isaac Witkin, Sean Scully,

Mahirwan Mamtani, Joseph Nechvatal, Elizabeth Murray, Larry Poons, Richard Serra, Walter Darby Bannard,
Larry Zox, Ronnie Landeld, Ronald Davis, Dan Christensen, Joel Shapiro, Tom Otterness, Joan Snyder, Ross
Bleckner, Archie Rand, Susan Crile, and others continued to produce vital and inuential paintings and sculpAndreas Huyssen criticises attempts to claim Fluxus for ture.
Postmodernism as either the master-code of postmodernism or the ultimately unrepresentable art movement
2.9 Dierences between modernism and
as it were, postmodernisms sublime.[127] Instead he
postmodernism
sees Fluxus as a major Neo-Dadaist phenomena within
the avant-garde tradition. It did not represent a major advance in the development of artistic strategies, though it By the early 1980s the Postmodern movement in art
did express a rebellion against the administered culture and architecture began to establish its position through
of the 1950s, in which a moderate, domesticated mod- various conceptual and intermedia formats. Postmodernism served as ideological prop to the Cold War.[127] ernism in music and literature began to take hold earlier. In music, postmodernism is described in one reference work, as a term introduced in the 1970s.[131]
while in British literature, The Oxford Encyclopedia of
2.8 Late period
British Literature sees modernism ceding its predominance to postmodernism as early as 1939.[88] However
Main article: Late modernism
dates are highly debatable, especially as according to AnThe continuation of abstract expressionism, color
dreas Huyssen: one critics postmodernism is another
critics modernism.[132] This includes those who are critical of the division between the two and see them as two
aspects of the same movement, and believe that late Modernism continues.[132]
Modernism is an encompassing label for a wide variety
of cultural movements. Postmodernism is essentially a
centralized movement that named itself, based on sociopolitical theory, although the term is now used in a
wider sense to refer to activities from the 20th century
onwards which exhibit awareness of and reinterpret the
modern.[133][134][135]
Postmodern theory asserts that the attempt to canonise Modernism after the fact is doomed to undisambiguable contradictions.[136]

Brice Marden, Vine, 199293, oil on linen, 240 by 260 cm (8 by

8 1 2 ft), Museum of Modern Art, New York

eld painting, lyrical abstraction, geometric abstraction, minimalism, abstract illusionism, process art, pop
art, postminimalism, and other late 20th-century Modernist movements in both painting and sculpture continue
through the rst decade of the 21st century and constitute
radical new directions in those mediums.[128][129][130]

In a narrower sense, what was Modernist was not necessarily also postmodern. Those elements of Modernism
which accentuated the benets of rationality and sociotechnological progress were only Modernist.[137]

2.10 Criticism and hostility to modernism

Modernisms stress on freedom of expression, experimentation, radicalism, and Primitivism disregards conventional expectations. In many art forms this often
meant startling and alienating audiences with bizarre and
unpredictable eects, as in the strange and disturbing
combinations of motifs in Surrealism or the use of extreme dissonance and atonality in Modernist music. In
literature this often involved the rejection of intelligible
plots or characterization in novels, or the creation of poetry that deed clear interpretation.

At the turn of the 21st century, well-established artists

such as Sir Anthony Caro, Lucian Freud, Cy Twombly,
Robert Rauschenberg, Jasper Johns, Agnes Martin,
Al Held, Ellsworth Kelly, Helen Frankenthaler, Frank
Stella, Kenneth Noland, Jules Olitski, Claes Oldenburg, Jim Dine, James Rosenquist, Alex Katz, Philip
Pearlstein, and younger artists including Brice Marden, After the rise of Joseph Stalin, the Soviet govern-

19

Franz Marc, The fate of the animals, 1913, oil on canvas. The
work was displayed at the exhibition of Entartete Kunst in
Munich, Nazi Germany, 1937.

ment rejected modernism on the grounds of alleged

elitism, although it had previously endorsed Futurism
and Constructivism. The Nazi government of Germany
deemed modernism narcissistic and nonsensical, as well
as Jewish (see Antisemitism) and Negro.[138] The
Nazis exhibited Modernist paintings alongside works by
the mentally ill in an exhibition entitled Degenerate Art.
Accusations of formalism could lead to the end of a career, or worse. For this reason many Modernists of the
postwar generation felt that they were the most important
bulwark against totalitarianism, the "canary in the coal
mine", whose repression by a government or other group
with supposed authority represented a warning that individual liberties were being threatened. Louis A. Sass
compared madness, specically schizophrenia, and modernism in a less fascist manner by noting their shared disjunctive narratives, surreal images, and incoherence.[139]
In fact, modernism ourished mainly in consumer/capitalist societies, despite the fact that its
proponents often rejected consumerism itself. However, high modernism began to merge with consumer
culture after World War II, especially during the 1960s.
In Britain, a youth subculture emerged calling itself
Modernist (usually shortened to Mod), following such
representative music groups as the Who and the Kinks.
The likes of Bob Dylan, Serge Gainsbourg and the
Rolling Stones combined popular musical traditions with
Modernist verse, adopting literary devices derived from
James Joyce, Samuel Beckett, James Thurber, T. S. Eliot,
Guillaume Apollinaire, Allen Ginsberg, and others. The
Beatles developed along similar lines, creating various
Modernist musical eects on several albums, while
musicians such as Frank Zappa, Syd Barrett and Captain
Beefheart proved even more experimental. Modernist
devices also started to appear in popular cinema, and
later on in music videos. Modernist design also began to
enter the mainstream of popular culture, as simplied
and stylized forms became popular, often associated
with dreams of a space age high-tech future.

This merging of consumer and high versions of Modernist culture led to a radical transformation of the meaning of Modernism. First, it implied that a movement
based on the rejection of tradition had become a tradition
of its own. Second, it demonstrated that the distinction
between elite Modernist and mass consumerist culture
had lost its precision. Some writers declared that modernism had become so institutionalized that it was now
post avant-garde, indicating that it had lost its power as
a revolutionary movement. Many have interpreted this
transformation as the beginning of the phase that became
known as postmodernism. For others, such as art critic
Robert Hughes, postmodernism represents an extension
of modernism.
Anti-modern or counter-modern movements seek to
emphasize holism, connection and spirituality as remedies or antidotes to modernism. Such movements see
modernism as reductionist, and therefore subject to an
inability to see systemic and emergent eects. Many
Modernists came to this viewpoint, for example Paul Hindemith in his late turn towards mysticism. Writers such
as Paul H. Ray and Sherry Ruth Anderson, in The Cultural Creatives: How 50 Million People Are Changing the
World (2000), Fredrick Turner in A Culture of Hope and
Lester Brown in Plan B, have articulated a critique of the
basic idea of modernism itself that individual creative
expression should conform to the realities of technology.
Instead, they argue, individual creativity should make everyday life more emotionally acceptable.
Some traditionalist artists like Alexander Stoddart reject
modernism generally as the product of an epoch of false
money allied with false culture.[140]
In some elds, the eects of modernism have remained
stronger and more persistent than in others. Visual art has
made the most complete break with its past. Most major
capital cities have museums devoted to Modern Art as
distinct from post-Renaissance art (c. 1400 to c. 1900).
Examples include the Museum of Modern Art in New
York, the Tate Modern in London, and the Centre Pompidou in Paris. These galleries make no distinction between modernist and Postmodernist phases, seeing both
as developments within Modern Art.

3 See also
American modernism
Anti-art
Avant-garde
Contemporary architecture
Contemporary art
Contemporary classical music
Contemporary French literature

20

4 NOTES

Contemporary literature
Experimental lm
Experimental literature
Experimental music
History of theatre
History of classical music traditions 20th century
music
Late modernism
Modern architecture

The ground motive of modernism, Gra

asserts, was criticism of the nineteenthcentury bourgeois social order and its world
view. Its artistic strategy was the selfconscious overturning of the conventions of
bourgeois realism [...] the antirationalist,
antirealist, antibourgeois program of modernism [...] the modernists, carrying the
torch of romanticism, taught us that linearity,
rationality, consciousness, cause and eect,
nave illusionism, transparent language, innocent anecdote, and middle-class moral conventions are not the whole story

Modern art

[6] Gra (1973)

Modernist literature

[7] Gra (1975)

List of modernist writers

List of modernist women writers
Twentieth-century English literature
Modernism (music)
Modernist poetry
Modernist poetry in English
Modernismo
Postmodern art
Remodernism
Russian avant-garde
Santiniketan: The Making of a Contextual Modernism
Sculpture
Theatre of the Absurd
20th-century classical music
Twentieth-Century English literature

[5] Barth (1979) quotation:

Notes

[1] Hans Hofmann biography. Retrieved 30 January 2009

[2] Pericles Lewis, Modernism, Nationalism, and the Novel
(Cambridge University Press, 2000). pp 3839.
[3] "[James] Joyce's Ulysses is a comedy not divine, ending,
like Dantes, in the vision of a God whose will is our peace,
but human all-too-human.... Peter Faulkner, Modernism
(Taylor & Francis, 1990). p 60.
[4] Gardner, Helen, Horst De la Croix, Richard G. Tansey,
and Diane Kirkpatrick. Gardners Art Through the Ages
(San Diego: Harcourt Brace Jovanovich, 1991). ISBN 015-503770-6. p. 953.

[8] Eco (1990) p. 95 quote:

Each of the types of repetition that we
have examined is not limited to the mass media but belongs by right to the entire history
of artistic creativity; plagiarism, quotation,
parody, the ironic retake are typical of the entire artistic-literary tradition.
Much art has been and is repetitive. The concept of absolute originality is a contemporary one, born with Romanticism; classical
art was in vast measure serial, and the modern avant-garde (at the beginning of this century) challenged the Romantic idea of creation from nothingness, with its techniques
of collage, mustachios on the Mona Lisa, art
about art, and so on.
[9] Steiner (1998) pp. 48990 quote:
(pp. 48990) The Modernist movement
which dominated art, music, letters during
the rst half of the century was, at critical points, a strategy of conservation, of
custodianship. Stravinskys genius developed through phases of recapitulation. He
took from Machaut, Gesualdo, Monteverdi.
He mimed Tchaikovsky and Gounod, the
Beethoven piano sonatas, the symphonies of
Haydn, the operas of Pergolesi and Glinks.
He incorporated Debussy and Webern into
his own idiom. In each instance the listener was meant to recognize the source, to
grasp the intent of a transformation which left
salient aspects of the original intact. The history of Picasso is marked by retrospection.
The explicit variations on classical pastoral
themes, the citations from and pastiches of
Rembrandt, Goya, Velzquez, Manet, are external products of a constant revision, a 'seeing again' in the light of technical and cultural shifts. Had we only Picassos sculptures, graphics, and paintings, we could reconstruct a fair portion of the development
of the arts from the Minoan to Czanne.

21

In 20th-century literature, the elements of

reprise have been obsessive, and they have
organized precisely those texts which at rst
seemed most revolutionary. The Waste Land,
Ulysses, Pounds Cantos are deliberate assemblages, in-gatherings of a cultural past felt
to be in danger of dissolution. The long
sequence of imitations, translations, masked
quotations, and explicit historical paintings
in Robert Lowells History has carried the
same technique into the 1970s. [...] In
Modernism collage has been the representative device. The new, even at its most
scandalous, has been set against an informing background and framework of tradition.
Stravinsky, Picasso, Braque, Eliot, Joyce,
Poundthe 'makers of the new'have been
neo-classics, often as observant of canonic
precedent as their 17th-century forbears.
[10] Childs, Peter Modernism (Routledge, 2000). ISBN 0415-19647-7. p. 17. Accessed on 8 February 2009.
[11] Everdell, William, The First Moderns: Proles in the Origin of Twentieth-Century Thought. Chicago: University
of Chicago Press, 1997, ISBN 0226224805.
[12] In the twentieth century, the social processes that bring
this maelstrom into being, and keep it in a state of perpetual becoming, have come to be called 'modernization'.
These world-historical processes have nourished an amazing variety of visions and ideas that aim to make men and
women the subjects as well as the objects of modernization, to give them the power to change the world that is
changing them, to make their way through the maelstrom
and make it their own. Over the past century, these visions
and values have come to be loosely grouped together under the name of 'modernism' " (Berman 1988, 16).
[13] Lee Oser, The Ethics of Modernism: Moral ideas in Yeats,
Eliot, Joyce, Woolf and Beckett (Cambridge University
Press, 2007); F.J. Marker & C.D. Innes, Modernism in
European Drama: Ibsen, Stringdberg, Pirandello, Beckett; Morag Shiach, Situating Samuel Beckett, pp. 234247 in The Cambridge Companion to the Modernist Novel
(Cambridge University Press, 2007); Kathryne V. Lindberg, Reading Pound Reading: Modernism After Nietzsche (Oxford University Press, 1987); Pericles Lewis,
The Cambridge Introduction to Modernism (Cambridge
University Press, 2007). pp. 21.

[20] Stuart Hylton (2007). The Grand Experiment: The Birth

of the Railway Age 18201845. Ian Allan Publishing.
[21] R.V.J. Butt (1995). The Directory of Railway Stations.
Yeovil: Patrick Stephens. p. 180.
[22] LNER Encyclopedia: The Great Northern Railway:
Kings Cross Station.
[23] Georey Hubbard. (1965), Cooke and Wheatstone and
the Invention of the Electric Telegraph, Routledge & Kegan
Paul, London p. 78
[24] Ian R. Bartky (January 1989). The adoption of standard
time. Technology and Culture 30 (1): 2556.
[25] The Norton Anthology of English Literature, vol. 2 (7th
edition). New York: Norton, 2000, pp. 1051-2.
[26] Craig J. Calhoun (2002). Classical Sociological Theory.
Oxford: Wiley-Blackwell, pp. 20-23.
[27] The First Moderns: Proles in the Origin of TwentiethCentury Thought. Chicago: University of Chicago Press,
1997, Chapters 3 & 4.
[28] Frascina and Harrison 1982, p. 5.
[29] Clement Greenberg: Modernism and Postmodernism,
seventh paragraph of the essay. Accessed on 15 June 2006
[30] The Oxford Companion to English Literature, ed. Margaret
Drabble, Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1996, p. 966.
[31] Phillip Dennis Cate and Mary Shaw, eds., The Spirit
of Montmartre: Cabarets, Humor, and the Avant-Garde,
18751905. New Brunswick, NJ: Rutgers University,
1996.
[32] Bloomsbury Guide to English Literature, ed Marion
Wynne-Davies. New York: Bloomsbury Publishing,
1990, p. 538.
[33] Robert Gooding-Williams, Nietzsches Pursuit of Modernism, New German Critique, No. 41, Special Issue on
the Critiques of the Enlightenment. (Spring Summer,
1987), pp. 95108.
[34] Bernd Magnus, Friedrich Nietzsche. Encyclopdia Britannica. Encyclopdia Britannica Online Academic Edition. Encyclopdia Britannica Inc., 2013. Web. 19
November 2013.

[14] J.M.W. Turner. Encyclopedia Britannica.

[35] Friedrich Nietzsche. Encyclopedia Britannica.

[15] The Bloomsbury Guide to English Literature, ed. Marion

Wynne-Davies. New York: Prentice Hall, 1990, p. 815.

[36] Dian Collinson, Fifty Major Philosophers: A Reference

Guide, p. 131.

[16] The Bloomsbury Guide, p. 816.

[37] The Bloomsbury Guides to English Literature: The Twentieth Century, ed. Linda R. Williams. London: Bloomsbury, 1992, pp. 1089.

[17] Clement Greenberg, Modern and Postmodern, William

Dobell Memorial Lecture, Sydney, Australia, Oct 31,
1979, Arts 54, No.6 (February 1980)"

[38] Collinson, 132.

[18] Sren Kierkegaard (Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy)".

[39] David Denby, New Yorker, 11 June 2012 Can Dostoevsky Still Kick You in the Gut?"

[19] Dian Collinson, Fifty Major Philosophers: A Reference

Guide. London: Routledge, 1987, p. 120.

[40] M. H. Abrams, A Glossary of Literary Terms. New York:

Harcourt Brace, 1999), p. 299.

22

4 NOTES

[41] T. S. Eliot Tradition and the individual talent (1919),

in Selected Essays. Paperback Edition. (Faber & Faber,
1999).

[62] Sontag, Susan (1977) On Photography, Penguin, London

[42] Searle, New Grove, 11:2829.

[64] Growth, Eciency, and Modernism (PDF). U.S. General Services Administration. 2006 [2003]. pp. 1415.
Retrieved March 2011.

[43]

Anon. 2000. "Expressionism". Microsoft

Encarta Online Encyclopedia 2000; Donald
Mitchell, Gustav Mahler: The Wunderhorn Years:
Chronicles and Commentaries. Rochester, NY:
Boydell Press, 2005.

[44] Biography of Henri Matisse.

[45] MoMA.
[46] Claude Monet (18401926)".

[63] Le Corbusier. Encyclopedia Britannica.

[65] skyscraper. The Columbia Encyclopedia. New York:

Columbia University Press, 2008. Credo Reference.
Web. 25 March 2011.
[66] Mies van der Rohe Dies at 83; Leader of Modern Architecture. The New York Times. 17 August 1969. Retrieved 21 July 2007. Mies van der Rohe, one of the great
gures of 20th-century architecture.

[47] The Collection.

[67] Stream of Consciousness in the Modern Novel (Berkeley &

Los Angeles: University of California, 1954), p. 4.

[48] Jean Metzinger, Note sur la peinture, Pan (Paris),

OctoberNovember 1910

[68] Encyclopdia Britannica Online, Stream of Consciousness

[49] Richard Sheppard, ModernismDadaPostmodernism.

Northwestern Univ. Press, 2000, p. 167.
[50] Robbins, Daniel, Albert Gleizes 18811953, A Retrospective Exhibition (exh. cat.). The Solomon R. Guggenheim
Museum, New York, 1964, pp. 1225
[51] Richard Sheppard, p. 274.
[52] Note the parallel French movement Fauvism and the English Vorticism: The Fauvist movement has been compared to German Expressionism, both projecting brilliant colors and spontaneous brushwork, and indebted to
the same late nineteenth-century sources, especially Van
Gogh. Sabine Rewald, Fauvism. In Heilbrunn Timeline
of Art History. New York: The Metropolitan Museum of
Art, 2000 (October 2004); and Vorticism can be thought
of as English Expressionism. Sherrill E. Grace, Regression and Apocalypse: Studies in North American Literary Expressionism. Toronto: University of Toronto Press,
1989, p. 26.
[53] Sherrill E. Grace, Regression and Apocalypse: Studies in
North American Literary Expressionism. Toronto: University of Toronto Press, 1989, p. 26.
[54] Richard Murphy, Theorizing the Avant-Garde: Modernism, Expressionism, and the Problem of Postmodernity.
Cambridge, Cambridge University Press,1999, p. 43.
[55] Richard Murphy, p. 43.
[56] Murphy, especially pp. 43-48; and Walter H. Sokel, The
Writer in Extremis. Stanford, California: Stanford University Press, 1959, especially Chapter One.
[57] Berghaus (2005, 55-57).
[58] Rorrison (1998, 475) and Schrer (1997b, ix, xiv).
[59] Degenerate Art Database (Beschlagnahme Inventar, Entartete Kunst)
[60] Rudolph Arnheim, Visual Thinking
[61] Mel Gooding, Abstract Art, Tate Publishing, London,
2000

[69] In a review of these novels, in The Egoist, April 1918, May

Sinclair rst applied the term stream of consciousness in
a literary context, in her discussion of Richardsons stylistic innovations.
[70] Beno Weiss, Italica, Vol. 67, No. 3 (Autumn, 1990), p.
395
[71] Clement Greenberg, Art and Culture, Beacon Press, 1961
[72] Guy Debord, 18 November 1958, as quoted in Supreme
Height of the Defenders of Surrealism in Paris and the Revelation of their Real Value, Situationist International #2
[73] Dal, Salvador, Diary of a Genius quoted in The Columbia
World of Quotations (1996) Archived 6 April 2009 at the
Wayback Machine.
[74] Dawn Ades, with Matthew Gale: Surrealism, The
Oxford Companion to Western Art. Ed. Hugh Brigstocke. Oxford University Press, 2001. Grove Art Online. Oxford University Press, 2007. Accessed 15 March
2007, GroveArt.com
[75] Memorial University Libraries - Proxy Login.
[76] Caren Irr, A Gendered Collision: Sentimentalism and
Modernism in Dorothy Parkers Poetry and Fiction (review). American Literature, Volume 73, Number 4, December 2001 pp. 880-881.
[77] Catherine Keyser, Robert Benchley and Dorothy Parker
'In Broadway Playhouses: Middlebrow Theatricality and
Sophisticated Humour. Modernist Cultures, Volume 6,
Page 121-154.
[78] Donald Barthelme 1982 interview in Partisan Review,
Volume 49, p. 185.
[79] Pericles Lewis, Modernist Writing and Reactionary Politics (review). Modernism/modernity, Volume 8, Number
4, November 2001, pp. 696-698.
[80] James Mercanton (1967). Les heures de James Joyce. Diffusion PUF.
[81] Note by Gerard McBurney on The Nose

23

[82] Sergei V. Ivanov, Unknown Socialist Realism. The [100] Pollock, Griselda, Encounters in the Virtual Feminist MuLeningrad School, p. 28 29. ISBN 5-901724-21-6,
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ISBN 978-5-901724-21-7
[101] De Zegher, Catherine, and Teicher, Hendel (eds.), 3 X
[83] Michael Steinberg, The Symphony: A Listeners Guide.
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Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1995, pp. 54145.
[102] "Moore, Henry". UNESCO. Retrieved on 16 August
[84] Home Page in Oxford Music Online.
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mission. University of Virginia, 1969. 199; Jane Beckett
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inburgh Press. A history of the uneasy relations between
Surrealists and Communists from the 1920s through the [104] Enscripted on the plaque at the base of the sculpture.
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[105] Walker, 219-225
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[110] Lucian Freud, Figurative Painter Who Redened Por[90] Clement Greenberg: Modernism and Postmodernism,
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[111] William Grimes. Lucian Freud, Figurative Painter Who
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[91] Paul Griths modernism The Oxford Companion to
Times. 21 July 2011; Rimanelli, David (January 2012),
Music. Ed. Alison Latham. Oxford University Press,
Damien Hirst, Artforum: With the recent death of
2002. Oxford Reference Online. Oxford University
Lucan Freud, some might argue that Hirst is now the
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greatest living British artist. Retrieved 28 October 2012.
Also see Kennedy, Maev (21 December 2001), Palace
[92] Cheryl Hindrichs, Late Modernism, 19281945: Critunveils Freuds gift to Queen, The Guardian, who calls
icism and Theory Literature Compass, Volume 8, IsFreud the artist regarded as the greatest living British
sue 11, pages 840855, November 2011; J. H. Dettmar
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Modernism in The Oxford Encyclopedia of British Lit(28 November 1999), The 1990s in Review: Visual
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Arts, The Independent, says Freud becomes the greatest
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[93] Morris Dickstein, An Outsider to His Own Life, Books,
The New York Times, 3 August 1997.
[112] Lucian Freud Stripped Bare. The New York Times. 14
December 2007. Retrieved 22 July 2011.
[94] The Cambridge Companion to Irish Literature, ed. John
Wilson Foster. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press,
[113] Aldrich, Larry. Young Lyrical Painters, Art in America,
2006.
v.57, n6, NovemberDecember 1969, pp. 104113.
[95] Late Modernist Poetics: From Pound to Prynne by Anthony
[114] Movers and Shakers, New York, Leaving C&M, by
Mellors; see also Prynnes publisher, Bloodaxe Books.
Sarah Douglas, Art+Auction, March 2007, V.XXXNo7.
[96] Late Modernist Poetics: From Pound to Prynne by Anthony
[115] Martin, Ann Ray, and Howard Junker. The New Art: Its
Mellors.
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[99] Nochlin, Linda, Ch.1 in: Women Artists at the Millennium [118] Hal Foster, The Return of the Real: The Avant-garde at the
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2006.

24

[119] "'Fountain', Marcel Duchamp: Summary - - Tate. Tate.

[120] Blindman No. 2.
[121] Craig Owens, Beyond Recognition: Representation, Power,
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[122] Steven Best, Douglas Kellner, The Postmodern Turn, Guilford Press, 1997, p. 174. ISBN 1-57230-221-6
[123] Carolee Schneemann, Biography: Selected Works, Recent and Forthcoming Events.
[124] Fluxus & Happening Allan Kaprow Chronology.
Retrieved 4 May 2010.
[125] Finkel, Jori (13 April 2008). Happenings Are Happening
Again. The New York Times. Retrieved 23 April 2010.
[126] Ihab Hassan in Lawrence E. Cahoone, From Modernism
to Postmodernism: An Anthology, Blackwell Publishing,
2003. p. 13. ISBN 0-631-23213-3
[127] Andreas Huyssen, Twilight Memories: Marking Time in
a Culture of Amnesia, Routledge, 1995. p. 192. ISBN
0-415-90934-1
[128] Ratcli, Carter. The New Informalists, Art News, v. 68,
n. 8, December 1969, p. 72.
[129] Barbara Rose. American Painting. Part Two: The Twentieth Century. Published by Skira Rizzoli, New York,
1969
[130] Walter Darby Bannard. Notes on American Painting of
the Sixties. Artforum, January 1970, vol. 8, no. 5, pp.
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[131] postmodernism, The Penguin Companion to Classical
Music, ed. Paul Griths. London: Penguin, 2004.
[132] Bokkilden. Postmodern Debates. Bokkilden.
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[134] Postmodern - Denition of postmodern by MerriamWebster.
[135] Ruth Reichl, Cooks November 1989; American Heritage
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[137] Wagner, British, Irish and American Literature, Trier
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[138] Khnel, Anita. Entartete Kunst, from Grove Art Online,
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[139] Sass, Louis A. (1992). Madness and Modernism: Insanity in the Light of Modern Art, Literature, and Thought.
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1-58046-143-3.
[140] Jack, Ian (6 June 2009). Set In Stone. The Guardian
(London).

6 FURTHER READING

5 References
John Barth (1979) The Literature of Replenishment,
later republished in The Friday Book (1984).
Eco, Umberto (1990) Interpreting Serials in The limits of interpretation, pp. 83100, excerpt
Gerald Gra (1973) The Myth of the Postmodernist
Breakthrough, TriQuarterly, 26 (Winter, 1973)
383417; rept in The Novel Today: Contemporary Writers on Modern Fiction Malcolm Bradbury,
ed. (London: Fontana, 1977); reprinted in Proza
Nowa Amerykanska, ed., Szice Krytyczne (Warsaw,
Poland, 1984); reprinted in Postmodernism in American Literature: A Critical Anthology, Manfred Putz
and Peter Freese, eds. (Darmstadt: Thesen Verlag,
1984), 5881.
Gerald Gra (1975) Babbitt at the Abyss: The
Social Context of Postmodern. American Fiction,
TriQuarterly, No. 33 (Spring 1975), pp. 30737;
reprinted in Putz and Freese, eds., Postmodernism
and American Literature.
Orton, Fred and Pollock, Griselda (1996) AvantGardes and Partisans Reviewed, Manchester University.
Steiner, George (1998) After Babel, ch.6 Topologies
of culture, 3rd revised edition
Art Berman (1994) Preface to Modernism, University of Illinois Press.

6 Further reading
Armstrong, Carol and de Zegher, Catherine (eds.),
Women Artists as the Millennium, Cambridge, MA:
October Books, MIT Press, 2006. ISBN 978-0262-01226-3.
Aspray, William & Philip Kitcher, eds., History
and Philosophy of Modern Mathematics, Minnesota
Studies in the Philosophy of Science vol XI, Minneapolis: University of Minnesota Press, 1988
Baker, Houston A., Jr., Modernism and the Harlem
Renaissance, Chicago: University of Chicago Press,
1987
Berman, Marshall, All That Is Solid Melts Into Air:
The Experience of Modernity. Second ed. London:
Penguin, 1988. ISBN 0-14-010962-5.
Bradbury, Malcolm, & James McFarlane (eds.),
Modernism: A Guide to European Literature 1890
1930 (Penguin Penguin Literary Criticism series,
1978, ISBN 0-14-013832-3).

25
Brush, Stephen G., The History of Modern Science:
A Guide to the Second Scientic Revolution, 1800
1950, Ames, IA: Iowa State University Press, 1988

The Sources of Modern Architecture and Design

(Thames & Hudson, "World of Art" series, 1985,
ISBN 0-500-20072-6).

Centre Georges Pompidou, Face a l'Histoire, 1933

1996. Flammarion, 1996. ISBN 2-85850-898-4.

Pollock, Griselda, Generations and Geographies in

the Visual Arts. (Routledge, London, 1996. ISBN
0-415-14128-1).

Crouch, Christopher, Modernism in art design and

architecture, New York: St. Martins Press, 2000
Everdell, William R., The First Moderns: Proles in
the Origins of Twentieth Century Thought, Chicago:
University of Chicago Press, 1997
Eysteinsson, Astradur, The Concept of Modernism,
Ithaca, NY: Cornell University Press, 1992
Friedman, Julia. Beyond Symbolism and Surrealism:
Alexei Remizovs Synthetic Art, Northwestern University Press, 2010. ISBN 0-8101-2617-6 (Trade
Cloth)
Frascina, Francis, and Charles Harrison (eds.).
Modern Art and Modernism: A Critical Anthology.
Published in association with The Open University.
London: Harper and Row, Ltd. Reprinted, London:
Paul Chapman Publishing, Ltd., 1982.
Gates, Henry Louis. The Norton Anthology of
African American Literature. W.W. Norton &
Company, Inc., 2004.
Hughes, Robert, The Shock of the New: Art and the
Century of Change (Gardners Books, 1991, ISBN
0-500-27582-3).
Kenner, Hugh, The Pound Era (1971), Berkeley,
CA: University of California Press, 1973
Kern, Stephen, The Culture of Time and Space,
Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 1983
Kolocotroni, Vassiliki et al., ed.,Modernism: An
Anthology of Sources and Documents (Edinburgh:
Edinburgh University Press, 1998).
Levenson, Michael (ed.), The Cambridge Companion to Modernism (Cambridge University Press,
Cambridge Companions to Literature series,
1999, ISBN 0-521-49866-X).
Lewis, Pericles. The Cambridge Introduction to
Modernism (Cambridge: Cambridge University
Press, 2007).
Nicholls, Peter, Modernisms: A Literary Guide
(Hampshire and London: Macmillan, 1995).
Pevsner, Nikolaus, Pioneers of Modern Design:
From William Morris to Walter Gropius (New
Haven, CT: Yale University Press, 2005, ISBN 0300-10571-1).

Pollock, Griselda, and Florence, Penny, Looking

Back to the Future: Essays by Griselda Pollock from
the 1990s. (New York: G&B New Arts Press, 2001.
ISBN 90-5701-132-8)
Potter, Rachael (January 2009). Obscene Modernism and the Trade in Salacious Books. Modernism/modernity (The Johns Hopkins University
Press) 16 (1). ISSN 1071-6068.
Sass, Louis A. (1992). Madness and Modernism:
Insanity in the Light of Modern Art, Literature, and
Thought. New York: Basic Books. Cited in Bauer,
Amy (2004). Cognition, Constraints, and Conceptual Blends in Modernist Music, in The Pleasure of
Modernist Music. ISBN 1-58046-143-3.
Schorske, Carl. Fin-de-Sicle Vienna: Politics and
Culture. Vintage, 1980. 978-0394744780.
Schwartz, Sanford, The Matrix of Modernism:
Pound, Eliot, and Early Twentieth Century Thought,
Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press, 1985
Van Loo, Soe (ed.), Gorge(l). Royal Museum of
Fine Arts, Antwerp, 2006. ISBN 90-76979-35-9;
ISBN 978-90-76979-35-9.
Weston, Richard, Modernism (Phaidon Press, 2001,
ISBN 0-7148-4099-8).
de Zegher, Catherine, Inside the Visible. (Cambridge, MA: MIT Press, 1996).

7 External links
Ballard, J.G., on Modernism.
Denzer, Anthony S., PhD, Masters of Modernism.
Hopp, E.O., photographer, Edwardian Modernists.
Malady of Writing. Modernism you can dance to An
online radio show that presents a humorous version
of Modernism
Modernism Lab @ Yale University
Modernism/Modernity, ocial publication of the
Modernist Studies Association
Modernism vs. Postmodernism
Pope St. Pius Xs encyclical Pascendi, in which he
denes Modernism as the synthesis of all heresies.

26
Gitta, Cosmas and South, David (2013). Southern
Innovator Magazine Issue 4: Cities and Urbanization: United Nations Oce for South-South Cooperation. ISSN 2222-9280, ISBN 9780992021702

EXTERNAL LINKS

27

Text and image sources, contributors, and licenses

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Modernism Source: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Modernism?oldid=726241371 Contributors: Stephen Gilbert, John Lynch, SimonP,

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28

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