Legal personality introduction

In any legal system, certain entities, whether they be individuals

or companies,
Will be regarded as possessing rights and duties enforceable at
law.1
Thus an individual may prosecute or be prosecuted for assault
and a company
Can sue for breach of contract. They are able to do this because
the
law recognizes them as legal persons possessing the capacity to
have and
to maintain certain rights, and being subject to perform specific
duties.
Just which persons will be entitled to what rights in what
circumstances?
Will depend upon the scope and character of the law. But it is the
function
of the law to apportion such rights and duties to such entities as it
Sees fit. Legal personality is crucial. Without it institutions and
groups
cannot operate, for they need to be able to maintain and enforce
claims.
Inmunicipal law individuals, limited companies and public
corporations
are recognised as each possessing a distinct legal personality, the
terms of
which are circumscribed by the relevant legislation.2 It is the law
which
will determine the scope and nature of personality. Personality
involves
the examination of certain concepts within the law such as status,
capacity,
competence, as well as the nature and extent of particular rights
and
duties. The status of a particular entity may well be determinative
of certain
powers and obligations, while capacity will link together the
status

of a person with particular rights and duties. The whole process

operates
within the confines of the relevant legal system, which
circumscribes personality,
its nature and definition. This is especially true in international
law. A particular view adopted of the system will invariably reflect
upon
the question of the identity and nature of international legal
persons.3
Personality in international law necessitates the consideration of
the
interrelationship between rights and duties afforded under the
international
system and capacity to enforce claims. One needs to have close
regard to the rules of international law in order to determine the
precise
nature of the capacity of the entity in question. Certain
preliminary issues
need to be faced. Does the personality of a particular claimant,
for
instance, depend upon its possession of the capacity to enforce
rights? Indeed,
is there any test of the nature of enforcement, or can even the
most
restrictive formof operation on the international scene be
sufficient? One
view suggests, for example, that while the quality of responsibility
for violation
of a rule usually co-exists with the quality of being able to enforce
a complaint against a breach in any legal person, it would be
useful to
consider those possessing one of these qualities as indeed having
juridical
personality.4 Other writers, on the other hand, emphasise the
crucial role
played by the element of enforceability of rights within the
international
system.5

However, a range of factors needs to be carefully examined

before it
can be determined whether an entity has international personality
and, if
so, what rights, duties and competences apply in the particular
case. Personality
is a relative phenomenon varying with the circumstances. One of
the distinguishing characteristics of contemporary international
law has
been the wide range of participants. These include states,
international
organisations, regional organisations, non-governmental
organisations,
public companies, private companies and individuals. To these
may be
added groups engaging in international terrorism. Not all such
entities
will constitute legal persons, although they may act with some
degree of
influence upon the international plane. International personality is
participation
plus some form of community acceptance. The latter element
will be dependent uponmany different factors, including the type
of personality
under question. It may be manifested in many forms and may in
certain cases be inferred frompractice. Itwill also reflect a need.
Particular
branches of international lawhere are playing a crucial
role.Human rights
law, the lawrelating to armed conflicts and international economic
laware
especially important in generating and reflecting increased
participation
and personality in international law.
States
Despite the increasing range of actors and participants in the
international

legal system, states remain by far the most important legal

persons and
despite the rise of globalisation and all that this entails, states
retain their
attraction as the primary focus for the social activity of
humankind and
thus for international law.
Lauterpacht observed that: the orthodox positivist doctrine has
been
explicit in the affirmation that only states are subjects of
international
law.6 However, it is less clear that in practice this position was
maintained.
TheHoly See (particularly from1871 to1929), insurgents
andbelligerents,
international organisations, chartered companies and various
territorial
entities such as the League of Cities were all at one time or
another treated
as possessing the capacity to become international persons.7
Creation of statehood 8
The relationship in this area between factual and legal criteria is a
crucial
shifting one. Whether the birth of a new state is primarily a
question of
fact or law and how the interaction between the criteria of
effectiveness
and other relevant legal principles may be reconciled are
questions of considerable
complexity and significance. Since terrae nullius are no longer
apparent,9 the creation of new states in the future, once the
decolonisation
process is at an end, can only be accomplished as a result of the
diminution or disappearance of existing states, and the need for
careful
regulation thus arises. Recent events such as the break-up of the
Soviet

Union, the Socialist Federal Republic of Yugoslavia and

Czechoslovakia
underline this. In addition, the decolonisation movement has
stimulated
a re-examination of the traditional criteria. Article 1 of the
Montevideo
Convention on Rights and Duties of States, 193310 lays down the
most
widely accepted formulation of the criteria of statehood in
international
law. It notes that the state as an international person should
possess the
following qualifications: (a) a permanent population; (b) a defined
territory;
(c) government; and (d) capacity to enter into relations with other
states.
the state is commonly
defined as a community which consists of a territory and a
population
subject to an organised political authority and that such a state
is characterised by sovereignty. It was also noted that the form of
internal
political organisation and constitutional provisions constituted
mere facts, although it was necessary to take them into account
in order
to determine the governments sway over the population and the
territory.12
Such provisions are neither exhaustive nor immutable. As will be
seen
below, other factors may be relevant, including self-determination
and
recognition, while the relative weight given to such criteria in
particular
situations may very well vary. What is clear, however, is that the
relevant
framework revolves essentially around territorial effectiveness.
The existence of a permanent population13 is naturally required
and

there is no specification of a minimum number of inhabitants, as

examples
such asNauru andTuvalu14 demonstrate.However, one of the
issues raised
by the Falkland Islands conflict does relate to the question of an
acceptable
minimum with regard to self-determination issues,15 and it may
be that
the matter needs further clarification as there exists a number of
small
islands awaiting decolonisation.16
The need for a defined territory focuses upon the requirement for
a
particular territorial base upon which to operate. However, there
is no
necessity in international law for defined and settled boundaries.
A state
may be recognised as a legal person even though it is involved in
a dispute
with its neighbours as to the precise demarcation of its frontiers,
so long
as there is a consistent band of territory which is undeniably
controlled by
the government of the alleged state. For this reason at least,
therefore, the
State of Palestine declared in November 1988 at a conference in
Algiers
cannot be regarded as a valid state. The Palestinian organisations
did not
control any part of the territory they claim.17
For a political society to function reasonably effectively it needs
some
form of government or central control. However, this is not a
precondition
for recognition as an independent country.20 It should be
regarded
more as an indication of some sort of coherent political structure

and society, than the necessity for a sophisticated apparatus of

executive
and legislative organs.21 Arelevant factor here might be the
extent to which
the area not under the control of the government is claimed by
another
state as amatter of international law as distinct fromde facto
control. The
general requirement might be seen to relate to the nineteenthcentury
concern with civilisation as an essential of independent
statehood and
ignores the modern tendency to regard sovereignty for nonindependent
peoples as the paramount consideration, irrespective of
administrative
conditions.22
The capacity to enter into relations with other states is an aspect
of
the existence of the entity in question as well as an indication of
the
importance attached to recognition by other countries. It is a
capacity
not limited to sovereign nations, since international organisations,
nonindependent
states and other bodies can enter into legal relations with
other entities under the rules of international law. But it is
essential for a
sovereign state to be able to create such legal relations with other
units as
it sees fit. Where this is not present, the entity cannot be an
independent
state. The concern here is not with political pressure by one
country over
another, but rather the lack of competence to enter into legal
relations.
The difference is the presence or absence of legal capacity, not
the degree

of influence that may affect decisions.

The essence of such capacity is independence. This is crucial to
statehood
and amounts to a conclusion of law in the light of particular
circumstances.
It is a formal statement that the state is subject to no other
sovereignty and is unaffected either by factual dependence upon
other
states or by submission to the rules of international law.29 It is
arguable
that a degree of actual as well as formal independence may also
be necessary.
Self-determination and the criteria of statehood (from notes)
criteria for Statehood contained in the Montevideo Convention on the Rights and
Duties of States: permanent population; defined territory; government; and capacity
to enter into relations with other States

It is the criterion of government which, as suggested above, has

been most
affected by the development of the legal right to selfdetermination. The
traditional exposition of the criterion concentrated upon the
stability and
effectiveness needed for this factor to be satisfied,42 while the
representative
and democratic nature of the government has also been put
forward
as a requirement. The evolution of self-determination has affected
the
standard necessary as far as the actual exercise of authority is
concerned,
so that it appears a lower level of effectiveness, at least in
decolonisation
situations, has been accepted.43

Recognition
Recognition is amethod of accepting certain factual
situations and endowing
themwith legal significance, but this relationship is a
complicated one.

In the context of the creation of statehood, recognition

may be viewed as
constitutive or declaratory, aswill be noted in more detail
in chapter 9.The
former theory maintains that it is only through
recognition that a state
comes into being under international law, whereas the
latter approach
maintains that once the factual criteria of statehood have
been satisfied, a
new state exists as an international person, recognition
becoming merely
a political and not a legal act in this context. Various
modifications have
been made to these theories, but the role of recognition,
at the least in
providing strong evidential demonstration of satisfaction
of the relevant
criteria, must be acknowledged. In many situations,
expressed requirements
for recognition may be seen as impacting upon the
question of
statehood as the comments in the previous section on the
EC Guidelines
indicate. There is also an integral relationship between
recognition and
the criteria for statehood in the sense that the more
overwhelming the
scale of international recognition is in any given situation, the less
may
be demanded in terms of the objective demonstration of
adherence to
the criteria. Conversely, the more sparse international recognition
is, the

more attention will be focused upon proof of actual adherence to

the
criteria concerned.
2.1.5. The role of international law in the creation of a State The application of the
principle of self-determination of peoples shows that the creation of States is more
than just a question of facts: international law can and has granted the qualification
of States to entities whose governments lacked effective control, that is, a factual
basis. On the other side, if the creation of a State was a purely matter of fact, and
as we will further explain below, then a problem would arise when the creation of a
State was based in an illegal situation, in facts produced in violation of norms of
international law, particularly when the violated norm is one of imperative
character. International law, then, has a double role in the creation of States, a
positive role and a negative role, both of which we will analyse in the following lines.
2.1.5.1. Statehood granted by international law As we have previously mentioned,
certain entities have, in application of the principle of self-determination of peoples,
achieved Statehood from decolonization without the requirement of an effective
government, particularly after 1960. Indeed, the principle of self-determination of
peoples establishes the peoples right to determine its political status internally and
externally. Internal self-determination refers to the relationship between the
government of a State and the people of that State, whereas external selfdetermination generally denotes the determination of the international status of a
people,23 including the possibility of creating a new State.
Prior to the recognition of self-determination as a positive right of a people by the
UN General Assembly in the 1960s, State practice chiefly pointed out to that
effectiveness of governmental control was a condition sine qua non for the
recognition of statehood.25 However, as mentioned above, the granting of
independence to colonial peoples was done independently of the requirement of an
effective government, meaning that States came into existence under operation of
international law despite a substantial lack of effective control by the authorities of
the previously colonial territory over the relevant territory and population. 26 This
leads Raic to conclude that while there is (still) no empirical statehood, the State
does exist in a juridical sense (juridical statehood), provided, of course, that the
other criteria for statehood are satisfied.27 In other words, the traditional
international law condition for the creation of a State, which required an entity to be
effective, to have a solid base in reality, in order to receive its qualification of State
-with the full international legal personality that it entailed and all the rights and
obligations thereto- was set aside in cases of decolonization. In such situations,
statehood was granted by what could be considered pure operation of international
law, without the previous requirement of effectiveness that had always been
associated with the creation of a State.
Raic, when analysing the criteria of statehood, explains how effectiveness is set
aside in this type of circumstances: [E]ffectiveness as a pre-condition for the
acquisition of a legal right is required only when this right is claimed or when it has
to be proved. Thus, when the existence of a right can directly be based on, for
instance, a treaty provision or another source of law, or when a right is inherent or

implied in another right, power or competence, then the notion of effectiveness as a

basis for the evaluation of the existence of the right becomes substantially less
relevant and sometimes even irrelevant, at least from a theoretical point of view.28
It is then clear that international law can and has qualified an entity as a State even
in the absence of a practical verification that the entity has a government in
effective control of the population and territory. Such an entity, therefore, derives its
condition of State strictly by operation of International Law, rather than, as
continues to be the case with the creation of States outside colonization, having
international law verify what already exists in reality

Extinction of statehood 51
Extinction of statehood may take place as a consequence of
merger, absorption
or, historically, annexation. It may also occur as a result of the
dismemberment of an existing state.52 In general, caution needs
to be exercised
before the dissolution of a state is internationally
accepted.53While
the disappearance, like the existence, of a state is a matter of
fact,54 it is
a matter of fact that is legally conditioned in that it is
international law
that will apportion particular legal consequences to particular
factual situations
and the appreciation of these facts will take place within a certain
legal framework.
While it is not unusual for governments to disappear, it is rather
rarer
for states to become extinct. This will not happen in international
law as
a result of the illegal use of force, as the Kuwait crisis of August
1990 and
the consequent United Nations response clearly demonstrates,55
nor as a
consequence of internal upheavals within a state,56 but it may
occur by
consent.
Independence
Independence as a requirement of statehood means, to some extent, factual, as
well as legal, independence from other states. Although it is accepted that states
may influence the policies and conduct of another state, there may come a point,
where factual dependence by one state upon another is so great that it is really no
more than a "puppet" state and will not be treated as meeting the requirement of
independence.

Austro-German Customs Union Case (PCIJ, 1931) - advisory opinion

Held: the conception of independence, regarded as the normal characteristic of
States
as subjects of international law, cannot be better defined than by comparing it with
the
exceptional and, to some extent, abnormal class of States known as dependent
States".
These are State subject to the authority of one or more States.... It follows that the
legal conception of independence has nothing to do with a State's subordination to
international law or with the numerous and constantly increasing states of de facto
dependence which characterize the relation of one country to other countries.
North Atlantic Coast Fisheries Case (PCIJ, 1910)
Held: rejected a US submission in the following terms: "...to hold that the US, the
grantee of the fishing right, has a voice under the treaty granting the right in
reparation of fishing legislation, involves recognition of a right in that country to
participate in the internal legislation of GB and her colonies and to that extent
would
reduce these countries to a state of dependence..."

The PermanentCourt emphasised in the Lotus case77 that

[r]estrictions
upon the independence of states cannot therefore be presumed.
A similar
point in different circumstances was made by the International
Court of
Justice in the Nicaragua case,78 where it was stated that in
international
law there are no rules, other than such rules as may be accepted
by the
state concerned, by treaty or otherwise, whereby the level of
armaments
of a sovereign state can be limited, and this principle is valid for
all states
without exception. The Court also underlined in the Legality of
the Threat
or Use of Nuclear Weapons 79 that [s]tate practice shows that
the illegality
of the use of certain weapons as such does not result from an
absence of
authorisation but, on the contrary, is formulated in terms of
prohibition.
The starting point for the consideration of the rights and
obligations of

states within the international legal systemremains that

international law
permits freedom of action for states, unless there is a rule
constraining this.
However, such freedom exists within and not outside the
international
legal system and it is therefore international law which dictates
the scope
and content of the independence of states and not the states
themselves
individually and unilaterally.
The notion of independence in international law implies a number
of
rights and duties: for example, the right of a state to exercise
jurisdiction
over its territory and permanent population, or the right to
engage upon
an act of self-defence in certain situations. It implies also the duty
not
to intervene in the internal affairs of other sovereign states.
Precisely
what constitutes the internal affairs of a state is open to dispute
and
is in any event a constantly changing standard. It was maintained
by
the Western powers for many years that any discussion or action
by the
United Nations80 with regard to their colonial possessions was
contrary
to international law

Extinction and succession of States All known and accepted cases of State
extinction in recent times have involved a succession of States. By State succession
we understand the replacement of one State by another in the responsibility for the
international relations of a territory.68 In principle, a State exercises the
responsibility over the international relations of its own territory, although it may do
so over other types of territories. Now, affirming that all cases of State extinction in
the UN have involved a succession of State means that the former States territory
has always been transferred to a new or existing State.

In no case has the territory of an extinct State, then, been left outside the control of
a new or existing State. Although the term State succession refers only to the
element territory, it is clear that a population inhabits that territory and so the
extinction of a State without a succession of States presents several complex
difficulties to international law that go beyond the administration of the
international relations of a territory. In particular, the extinction of a State without
an accompanying State succession would mean that the territory and inherent
population would devolve to a pre-State type of situation, a condition that has been
foreign to international law. This view is supported by Wallace-Bruce when he writes
that international law has clear principles which apply to new entities which emerge
onto the international scene and claim to be states. Similarly, there are established
principles to apply when a new state claims to be the successor to a previous
one,69 the latter situation including the dismembering of an existing state,
whether voluntarily or otherwise.70 However, in his words, [w]hat is not provided
for is a state which ceases to function as such but which at the same time does not
fit any of the situations previously discussed.71 In particular, we must keep in mind
that although the disappearance of the population or the territory of a State may
result in its extinction, when it comes to the loss of the government, State extinction
only occurs when accompanied by a succession of States
Montevideo Convention on the Rights and Duties of States, agreement signed at
Montevideo, Uruguay, on December 26, 1933 (and entering into force the following year),
thatestablished the standard definition of a state underinternational law. Adopted by the
Seventh International Conference of American States, the convention stipulated that all
states were equal sovereign units consisting of a permanent population, defined territorial
boundaries, a government, and an ability to enter into agreements with other states. Among
the conventions provisions were that signatories would not intervene in the domestic or
foreign affairs of another state, that they would not recognize territorial gains made by
force, and that all disputes should be settled peacefully. The agreement was signed by the
United States, Argentina, Brazil, Chile, Colombia, Cuba, the Dominican Republic, Ecuador, El
Salvador, Guatemala, Haiti, Honduras, Mexico, Nicaragua, Panama, Paraguay, Peru,
Uruguay, and Venezuela. Bolivia was the only country attending the conference that refused
to
sign
the
agreement.
Article
1
The state as a person of international law should possess the following qualifications:
a.
a
permanent
population;
b.
a
defined
territory;
c.
government;
and
d.
Capacity
to
enter
into
relations
with
the
other
states.
Article
2
The federal state shall constitute a sole person in the eyes ofinternational law.

Article
3
The political existence of the state is independent of recognition by the other states. Even
before recognition the state has the right to defend its integrity and independence, to
provide for its conservation and prosperity, and consequently to organize itself as it sees fit,
to legislate upon its interests, administer its services, and to define the jurisdiction and
competence of its courts. The exercise of these rights has no other limitation than the
exercise
of
the
rights
of
other
states
according
to international
law.
Article
4
States are juridically equal, enjoy the same rights, and have equal capacity in their exercise.
The rights of each one do not depend upon the power which it possesses to assure its
exercise, but upon the simple fact of its existence as a person under international law.
Article
5
The fundamental rights of states are not susceptible of being affected in any manner
whatsoever.
Article
6
The recognition of a state merely signifies that the state which recognizes it accepts the
personality of the other with all the rights and duties determined by international law.
Recognition
is
unconditional
and
irrevocable.
Article
7
The recognition of a state may be express or tacit. The latter results from any act which
implies
the
intention
of
recognizing
the
new
state.
Article
8
No state has the right to intervene in the internal or external affairs of another.
Article
9
The jurisdiction of states within the limits of national territory applies to all the inhabitants.
Nationals and foreigners are under the same protection of the law and the national
authorities and the foreigners may not claim rights other or more extensive than those of
the
nationals.
Article
10
The primary interest of states is the conservation of peace. Differences of any nature which
arise
between
them
should
be
settled
by
recognized
pacific
methods.
Article
11
The contracting states definitely establish as the rule of their conduct the precise obligation
not to recognize territorial acquisitions or special advantages which have been obtained by
force whether this consists in the employment of arms, in threatening diplomatic
representations, or in any other effective coercive measure. The territory of a state is
inviolable and may not be the object of military occupation nor of other measures of force
imposed by another state directly or indirectly or for any motive whatever even temporarily.
Article
12
The present Convention shall not affect obligations previously entered into by the High
Contracting
Parties
by
virtue
of
international
agreements.
Article
13
The present Convention shall be ratified by the High Contracting Parties in conformity with
their respective constitutional procedures. The Minister of Foreign Affairs of the Republic of
Uruguay shall transmit authentic certified copies to the governments for the aforementioned
purpose of ratification. The instrument of ratification shall be deposited in the archives of

the Pan American Union in Washington, which shall notify the signatory governments of said
deposit. Such notification shall be considered as an exchange of ratifications.
Article
14
The present Convention will enter into force between the High Contracting Parties in the
order
in
which
they
deposit
their
respective
ratifications.
Article
15
The present Convention shall remain in force indefinitely but may be denounced by means
of one year's notice given to the Pan American Union, which shall transmit it to the other
signatory governments. After the expiration of this period the Convention shall cease in its
effects as regards the party which denounces but shall remain in effect for the remaining
High
Contracting
Parties.
Article
16
The present Convention shall be open for the adherence and accession of the States which
are not signatories. The corresponding instruments shall be deposited in the archives of the
Pan American Union which shall communicate them to the other High Contracting Parties.
In witness whereof, the following Plenipotentiaries have signed this Convention in Spanish,
English, Portuguese and French and hereunto affix their respective seals in the city of
Montevideo, Republic of Uruguay, this 26th day of December, 1933.

International Organisations as Subjects

International organisations can and do have limited legal personality - in certain
circumstances they can enter treaties and make claims, their employees may
receive diplomatic privileges
Reparations for Injuries Suffered in the Service of the UN - Advisory Opinion (ICJ,
1949)
Facts:
Concerned a claim proposed to be made by the UN against Israel (who was not at
that time a member) for death of Count Bernadotte (Swedish) who was UN truce
negotiator in Israel in 1948
Held:
Court, having regard to the purposes of the UN, accepted that the UN could claim
against non-UN member for direct injury to itself, and for injury suffered by its
agents
Member-States responsible for clothing organisation with international legal
personality - community of States had power to create an entity that had "objective
international personality"
Rights and duties not the same as a State, rather were dependant upon its
"purposes and functions as specified in its constituent documents and developed
practice"
Court did not rule on possibility of Sweden making a claim on behalf of injured
national
UN could make a claim on behalf of employee's family (because otherwise an
employee might not act contrary to interests of his State of nationality) - a right of
"functional protection

II. International Organizations - in international law it is seen as an actor that is made up by an

agreement and the States are its main members A) Global Organizations B) Closed Organizations
However, the international personality is to some extent. The international personaliy is defined byt
he constitution of each organization. However, the international organization can be established on
states if only states allowed that.
The UN : Under Article 104 "such legal capacity may be necessary for the exercise of its functions
and fulfilment of its purpose" UN is thus not granted with international personality but it still enjoys
one by another convention. International Court stated that the aim of UN (to promote peace and
security) can only be achieved if it has international personality. This claim acn be seen int the case
of "Reparations for Injuries suffered int he Service of the United Nations" (International Court of
Justice, Advisory opinion, 11 april 1949" As it was showed in the case UN has the legal personality
because it is affirmed in its tasks, and it is almost viewed as a state and it can raise issues as a
state.

"