3.

Drainage
3.1. Urban Drainage
3.2. Land Drainage
3.3. Highway Drainage

3. Drainage
Drainage is the term applied to systems for dealing with excess water. The three primary
drainage tasks are urban storm drainage, land drainage, and highway drainage. The primary
distinction between drainage and flood mitigation is the techniques employed to cope with
excess water and in the fact that (with the exception of highway culverts and bridges) drainage
deals with water before it has reached major stream channels.
3.1. Urban Storm Drainage
In cities, storm water is usually collected in the streets and conveyed through inlets to
buried conduits which carry it to a point where it can be safely discharged. The collected water is
usually discharged into a stream, lake, or ocean, but it some instances it is spread for percolation
into the ground. A single outlet may be used, or a number of disposal points may be selected on
the basis of the topography of the area. The accumulated water should be discharged as close to
its source as possible. Gravity discharge is naturally preferable but not always feasible; and
pumping plants may be an important part of a city storm-drainage system.
The design of a drainage project requires a detailed map of the area. The contour interval
should be small enough to define the divides between the various sub-drainages within the
system. Final design requires even more detailed maps of those areas where construction is
proposed. All existing underground facilities (gas, water, electricity, telephone, and sanitary
sewers) must be accurately located, together with buildings, canals, railroads, or other structures
which might interfere with the proposed route.
3.1.1. Estimates of flow
The first step in the design of storm-drainage works is the determination of the quantities
of water which must be accommodated. In most cases, only an estimate of the peak is required,
but where storage and pumping of water is proposed, the volume of flow must also be known.
Drainage works are usually designed to dispose of the flow from a storm having a specified
return period. It is probable that return period or 2-yr in residential districts and 5 to 10 yr in
commercial districts are all that can be justified for the average project. In the final analysis, it
may be the willingness of the residents to finance the drainage works by taxes or bonds that
determines the actual design.
For urban drainage, the most widely used method has been the rational formula using a
rainfall of the desired frequency but the most satisfactory method for estimating urban runoff is
digital computer simulation.
3.1.2. Gutters

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The discharge capacity of gutters depends on their shape, slope, and roughness.
Mannings equation may be used for calculating the flow in gutters; however, the roughness
coefficient n must be modified somewhat to account for the effect of lateral inflow from the
street. For well-finished gutters, n has a value of about 0.016 when used in the Manning
equation. Unpaved gutters with broken pavement will have much higher values of n.
3.1.3. Inlets
Gutter flow is intercepted and directed to buried sewers by drop inlets. There are two
main types of inlets, with many commercial patterns available in each type. Grated inlets (Figure
3.1a) are opening in the gutter bottom protected by grates. A curb-opening inlet (Figure 3.1b) is
an opening in the face of the curb which operates much like a side-channel spillway. Curbopening inlets are feasible only where curbs have essentially vertical faces.

Figure 3.1 Types of Inlet

The location of street inlets is determined largely by the judgment of the designer. A
maximum width of gutter flow of 6 ft has been suggested as a suitable criterion for important
highways. Under this rule an inlet is necessary whenever the gutter flow exceeds the gutter
capacity within the limiting 6-ft width. In residential sections the ultimate in inlet spacing
provides four inlets at each intersection as shown in Figure 3.2a. With this arrangement flow
travels in the gutter only one block before interception. A less expensive arrangements provides

52

only two inlets at the uphill of the intersection (Figure 3.2b), and water is allowed to flow around
two sides of the block. A much more economical design might place inlets at spacing of several
blocks. In residential sections an arrangement such as shown in Figure 3.2 c may be quite
adequate provided inlet spacings are such as to prevent gutter flows so great as to flood
sidewalks, lawns, and even houses. In commercial areas with heavy pedestrian and vehicle traffic
the arrangement in Figure 3.2b would be more appropriate.

Figure 3.2 Possible arrangement of storm-drain inlets

3.1.3.1.
Grated Inlets
Few inlets intercept all the flow that reaches them in the gutter unless they are at low
points from which the water has no other route of scape. The most efficient grated inlets have
bars parallel to the curb and sufficient clear length so that water can fall through the opening
without hitting a crossbar or far side of the grate. Experiment has shown that this free length x
should be at least

53

x=

V 1/ 2
y
2

(3-1)

where V is the approach velocity in the flow intercepted by the grate (ABCD, Figure 10.1a), and
y is the drop from the water surface to the underside of the grate. A grate which satisfies these
requirements may be expected to intercept all the flow in the gutter prism crossing the grate.
Grates with bars parallel to the curb may be a hazard to bicycle riders unless the space
between bars is less than about 1.25 in. However, when the bars are at right angles to the curb,
water tends to bounce along the top of the bars and very little is intercepted. Such grates are
more likely to clog with debris. If water ponds over the grate, the orientation of the bars is of
little importance. Grates with ponded water function as weirs with a crest length L equal to the
perimeter of the grate over which the water flows and a coefficient Cw of about 3.0. If one side of
the grate is adjacent to the curb, it should not be included in the perimeter.
3.1.3.2.
Curb-opening Inlets
When water enters a curb-opening inlet, it must change direction. If the street has a low
crown, the gutter flow will be spread out over a considerable width and a correspondingly greater
length of inlet will be required for the change of direction to be accomplished. Curb-opening
inlets, therefore, function best with relatively steep transverse slopes
If the flow is ponded at the inlet and the head is less than the height of the opening in the
curb, a curb-opening inlet may be considered as a weir with a coefficient of about 3.1. If the
depth of the pond exceeds twice the height of the clear opening in the curb, the discharge is that
of an orifice, or
Q=5.62 Lb h0.5
(3-2)
where b is the height of the inlet opening, and h is the depth of water above the mid-elevation of
the inlet opening. Equation 3-2 is the usual orifice formula with Cd = 0.7.
3.1.4. Manholes
Manholes serve two main purposes in drainage systems. They provide access to the drain
for cleaning, and they act as junction boxes for tributary drains. To serve these purposes, a
manhole is required wherever a drain changes size, slope, or line; where tributary drains join a
main line; and at intervals of not more than 500 ft along a line if the conduit is too small for a
man to enter.
Manholes are usually constructed of brick concrete, and occasionally of concrete block or
corrugated metal. The general design of brick of concrete manholes is shown in Figure 3.3. The
bottom of manhole is usually of concrete with a half-round or U-shaped trough for the water.
Tributary conduits interesting above the grade of the main drain may be brought directly into the
manhole and flow allowed to drop inside (Figure 3.3a), or a drop may be constructed outside the
manhole (Figure 3.3b). The latter method is preferred where drops in excess of 2 ft occur in
sanitary sewers to avoid splashing which might interfere with work in the manhole. Manholes

54

are usually about 4 ft in diameter at the conduit, decreasing to 20 or 24 in. at the top. If the
conduit is less than 4 ft in diameter the manhole is usually over the sewer. For large sewers, the
manhole will spring from one wall of the conduit (Figure 3.3c).

Figure 3.3 Typical sewer manholes: (a) inside drop, (b) outside drop, (c) manhole for large
sewer
Manhole covers and cover frames are usually of cast iron, and the combination will
weigh 200 to 600 lb. The light frames and covers are used only where subject to negligible traffic
loads, while the heavier combinations are employed on major highways. The cover is usually
corrugated to improve traction.
3.1.5. Outlet Works
In some instances, the terrain does not permit gravity flow of storm water to the point of
discharge. In this case, pumping stations will be a necessary part of the system. Water is
collected in the wet well until the level rises and actuates the float switch which starts the motor.
When the wet well is emptied, the switch turns the pump off.
Storm water is normally discharged into a steam lake, or tidal estuary, if the level of the
water body receiving the sewage varies, it may not always be possible to accomplish this
discharge by gravity. In this case the outfall may be required with tide gates, which operate like
check valves to permit gravity flow at low stages in the receiving waters but close to prevent
backflow when the elevation of the receiving water is high. Unless the drain itself has sufficient
capacity to store the flow until the tide gates reopen, some special provisions must be made. The
arrangements may consist of pumps capable of discharging the maximum expected flow against
the maximum anticipated head, or they may consist of a storage basin large enough to store the
maximum volume of flow expected during a period when discharge is impossible.

55

A storage basin is often feasible where the discharge into a tidal estuary in which
fluctuations are regular and the necessary detention time is relatively short.
3.1.6. Design of storm drains
The design of storm drains conforms to the principles of flow in open channels. The main
problem is the selection of economic pipe sizes and slopes capable of carrying the expected flow.
The main rules governing selection of pipe size and slope are:
1. The pipe is assumed to flow full under condition of steady, uniform flow.
2. To avoid clogging, the minimum pipe diameter should preferably be 10 or 12 in.,
although 8-in. pipes are used in some cities.
3. The minimum velocity flowing full should be at least 2.5 ft/sec.
4. Pipe sizes should bot decrease in the downstream direction even though increased
slope may provide adequate capacity in the smaller pipe. Any debris which enters a
drain must be carried through the system to the outlet, and the possibility of clogging
a smaller pipe with debris which may pass a larger pipe is too great.
5. Pipe slope should conform to the ground slope in so far as possible for minimum
excavation. In some cases it may be possible to use smaller pipe possible for some
distance downslope, it may be economical despite increased excavation.
6. Pipe grades are described in terms of the elevation of the invert, or inside, bottom of
the pipe. Where pipes of different size join, the tops of the pipes are placed at the
same elevation, and the invert of the larger pipes is correspondingly lower than that of
the smaller pipe. This does not apply to tributary drains, which may enter the main
sewer through a drop manhole.

3.2. Land Drainage

Land drainage removes excess surface water from an area or lowers the groundwater
below the root zone to improve plant growth or reduce the accumulation of soil salts. Land
drainage systems have many features in common with municipal storm drain systems. Open
ditches, which are less objectionable in rural areas than in cities, are widely used for the drainage
of surface water at a considerable saving in cost over that of buried pipe. Under suitable soil
conditions ditches may also serve to lower the water table. However, closely spaced open ditches
will interfere with farm operations, and the more common method of draining excess soil water
is by use of buried drains. Drains usually empty into ditches, although the modern tendency is to
use large pipe in lieu of ditches where possible. This free extra land for cultivation and does
away with unsightly and sometimes dangerous open ditches. Since land drainage is normally a
problem in very flat or leveed land, a disposal works provided with tide gates and pumping
equipment is often necessary for the final removal of the collected water.

3.2.1. Design flows for land drainage

56

Land drainage is not as demanding in terms of hydrologic design as other types of

drainage. The purpose of land drainage is to remove a volume of water in a reasonable time.
Where sub-drainage is installed to remove excess water from irrigated land for salinity control,
the volume of leaching water to be applied in each irrigation is known; and rains should be
capable of removing in the interval between irrigations.
Drainage installed for removal of excess water from rainfall is typically designed to
remove a specified quantity of water in 24 hrs. Commonly known as the drainage modulus or
drainage coefficient, recommended values are about 1 percent of the mean annual rainfall.
Land protected by levees is often subject to excess water as a result of seepage from the
river through or under the levee. The design flow for a drainage system in this case should be
based on estimated seepage rates at river stages having a return period of 1 or 2 yr. If the high
stages are expected to be concurrent with the rainy season drainage modulus should be added to
the seepage.
3.2.2. Drainage ditches
A ditch-drain system consists of laterals, submains, and main ditches. Ditches are usually
unlined. Small ditches may be constructed with special ditching machines, while large ditches
are often excavated with a dragline. Some very large ditches are constructed with floating
dredges. Unless the excavated material (spoil) is needed as a levee to provide additional flow
area in the ditch so that its weight does not contribute to the instability of the ditch bank. Spoil
banks decrease the cultivated area and prevent inflow of water from the land adjacent to the
ditch. If possible, this spoil should be spread in a thin layer, but where this cannot be done,
openings should be left in the spoil bank wherever a natural drainage channel intersects the ditch
at least every 500 ft along the ditch.
The slope available for drainage ditches is small, and the cross sections should approach
the most efficient section as closely as possible. A trapezoidal cross section is most common,
with side slopes not steeper than 1on 1.5. Slopes of 2: or 3:1 are required in sand or clay soils
with little cohesion. Occasionally, where the drainage must be pumped, ditches are deliberately
made with an inefficient section to crate as much storage as possible to minimize peak pumping
loads. The slope, alignment, and spacing of ditches are determined mainly by local topography.
The minimum practicable slope is about 0.00005. The ditches generally follow natural
depressions, but where possible are run along property lines.
Ditches are usually between 6 and 12 ft deep. Where tile drainage is to be used, the lateral
ditches must be deep enough to intercept the underdrains which are to discharge into it. Similarly
submain and main ditches must be deep enough to receive the flow of lesser ditches. If the
terrain is flat and the ditches quite long, an excessive depth may be required for the main ditch
and it may be advisable to divide the system into two or more portions to shorten ditch lengths.
In muck or peat soil, considerable subsidence may occur when the water is drained from the soil,
and ditches must be constructed proportionally deeper.
Dich bottoms at junctions should be at the same elevation drops which may cause scour.
This may require some steeping of the last 100 ft or more of laterals before they join a submain,

57

Right-angle junctions encourage local scour of the bank opposite the tributary ditch, and the
smaller ditch should be designed to enter the larger at an angle of about 30. Scour will also
occur at sharp changes in ditch alignment, and long-radius curves should be used where a change
in line is necessary. With high flows or steep slopes the radius of curvature should be 1200 ft or
more, while for small ditches on flat slopes a radius of 300 to 500 ft may be satisfactory.
Easement curves are sometimes used on important ditches.
The most important factors controlling the value of Mannings n for drainage ditches are
the neatness with which the ditch is constructed and the extent to which vegetation is permitted
to grown in the ditch. If brush and weeds are cut and burned annually, a value of n = 0.040 is
typical for a well-formed channel. If the channel section is very irregular or if several years
growth of weeds and brush develops, n may be 0.100.
3.2.3. Underdrains
Unglazed clay-tile or concrete pipe are the most common materials for underdrains,
although wooden box drains and perforated steel pipes have also been used. Plain pipes without
special joints are used and are placed with the ends of adjacent pipes butted together. Water
enters the drain through the space between the abutting sections. The space should not be so
large to permit soil to enter and clog the drain.
Tile drains are usually spaced at 50 to 150 ft apart. Only the most permeable soils permit
the wider spacing, while spacing under 50 ft will usually be more expensive. Where a very close
spacing is required, the use of mole drains is sometimes feasible. Mole drains are tunnels formed
in cohesive soils by pulling a steel ball through it (Figure 3.4). If the soil is sufficiently cohesive,
mole drains may remain effective for many years. Perforated flexible plastic tubing can be
installed with a mole to maintain the drain if the added cost can be installed with a mole to
maintain the drain if the added cost can be justified by the longer drain life. Mole drains have
been spaced as closely as 5 ft apart in soil of very low permeability.
If the land slope is such that drains can parallel the surface, there is no limit to drain
length except that imposed by the topography. On level ground a drain on the minimum slope of
0.002 will drop 1 ft in 500 ft, and this distance becomes about the maximum permissible length.
On steeper slope drains ae rarely more than 2000 ft long.
3.2.4. Lay-out of a Tile Drain System
The plan for a system of tile drains is determined largely by the topography of the area.
Several possible arrangements are shown in Figure 3.5.
(a) Natural system. If only isolated portion of the area require drainage, a pattern similar to the
natural stream system is most economical. This is used in rolling topography where drainage
in necessary only in small swales and valleys.

58

Figure 3.4 Schematic diagram of a mole-drain machine

Figure 3.5 Some arrangements of tile drains

(b) Gridiron layout. If the entire area is to be drained, a gridiron layout is more economical.
Laterals enter the submain from one side only to minimize the double drainage which occurs
near the submain. This system might be used where the land is practically level or where the
land slopes away from the submain on one side.

59

(c) Herringbone pattern. If the submain is laid in depression, the herringbone pattern is used.
The laterals join from each side alternately. The land along the submain is double-drained
but since it is in depression, it probably requires more drainage than the land on the
adjacent slopes.
(d) Double-main system. If the bottom of the depression is wide, a double-main system is
often used. This reduces the lengths of the laterals and eliminates the break in slope of the
laterals at the edge of the depression.
(e) Intercepting drain. If the main source of excess water is drainage from hill lands, an
intercepting drain along the toe of the slope may all that is required to protect the bottom
land.
(f) Arrangement to arrange trees. Roots of trees can easily enter the open joints of
underdrains. If possible, only the end of the laterals should be exposed to this hazard.
Mains and submains should be kept well away from trees, or bell-and-spigot joints with
joint filler should be used if the drain must run close to trees.
3.2.5. Design of a land-drainage system
The basic procedure for the design of land-drainage system is not much different from
that for the design of municipal storm drains. A typical farm layout is shown in Figure 3.6. The
steps may be summarized as follows:
1. Prepare a detailed contour map of the area.
2. Select the location of the system outlet, if several outlets are possible, an economy study
of the alternatives may be necessary.
3. Determine the drainage modulus for underdrains, and estimate the amount of water the
ditches will intercept.
4. Lay out a system of ditch (or pipe mains) of adequate size to carry the expected flows.
5. Determine the proper depth for tile drains, and plan the tile land-drain layout. Field drains
of the customary minimum size (4 in.) will usually have adequate capacity, and it will be
necessary to calculate only required sizes for mains and submains.
6. The first trial layout of mains may require revision after the plan for underdrains is
completed. The entire system should be planned for minimum cost by use of shortest
routes and ditches.
7. Estimate the project costs, and proceed with legal steps necessary to undertake the
project.

60

Figure 10.6 Farm drainage plan

3.3. Highway Drainage
Highways occupy long, narrow strips of land and pose two types of drainage problems.
Water collecting on the roadways (or on the adjacent land slopes if the road is in cut) must be
collected and disposed of without flooding or damaging the highway and adjacent areas.
Highways cross many structural drainage channels, and the water carried by these channels must
be conveyed across the right of way without obstructing the flow in the channel upstream
of the road and causing damage to property outside of the right of way.
3.3.1. Design flows for highway drainage
For the design of longitudinal drainage- roadside ditches and spillways the design flows
are best calculated using Izzards method to calculate a time to equilibrium for the transverse
flow across the pavement. The peak flow per unit length of pavement (cfs/ft) is given by
iL
q=
(3 3)
43,200

61

where i is rainfall intensity in inches per hour for the duration tc and desired return period and L
is the length of overland flow in feet normal to the contours or
L

w r 2 +1
r

(3 4)

where w is the width of pavement and r is the ratio of cross slope to longitudinal slope. For short
distances and steep slopes the length of pavement multiplied by q can be design flow for the
ditch. For long ditches and flat slopes an allowance for channel storage should be made, possibly
by routing with Muskingum method.
No wholly satisfactory method exists for calculation of flow for cross-drainage structures
culverts and bridges. For large streams with gaging station, frequency analysis of the observed
peaks will be satisfactory. For ungagged streams the most widely used procedure is rational
formula, a procedure which is grossly inadequate for the purpose. Regional flood frequency is a
much better approach for basins in the size range from 20 mi 2 upward. Digital simulation
methods should provide maximum accuracy for basins of all sizes but costs would be prohibitive
on an individual basin basis.
3.3.2. Longitudinal drainage
Unless storm water resulting from rainfall on the highway right of way and tributary
slopes is properly controlled, severe erosion of the shoulder and cut slopes may create a costly
maintenance problem and driving conditions. In humid regions erosion can often be controlled
by establishing vegetative cover on slopes of cut and fill and along shoulders. In this case the
water should be spread out as much as possible since erosion increases with some power of
velocity which in turn increases with depth. Bermuda grass is typical of turf-forming grasses
offering good protection. Grass will not withstand immersion for long periods, and slopes of at
least 0.005 should be provided so that water will drain off rapidly.
In arid regions where natural rainfall is insufficient to maintain a vegetal cover or in
humid regions where the soil is easily eroded, other means of protection are necessary. Slopes of
cuts may be protected by an intercepting dike or ditch at the top of the slope (Figure 3.7). In long
cuts the dike should approximately follow, a contour and, if possible, should divert the water into
a natural drainage way without allowing it to reach the roadway. If it is necessary to direct the
water to a roadway ditch before the end of the cut, a paved spillway section down the cut slope in
necessary. Contour furrows at intervals above the top of the cut slope will retard overland flow,
and the landowner may benefit from the additional moisture retained on the land.
Roadside ditches are usually constructed in a shallow V shape since this section is easily
maintained with graders, is less hazardous to vehicles, and permits the shallow flow necessary to
avoid erosion. The ditch should be long enough to carry the design flow with a freeboard of 3 to
6 in.
Bare earth will withstand velocities between 1 and 4 ft/sec, depending upon the soil. If
the computed velocity for the design flow is too high for the soil, protection may be provided by
lining the ditch with asphalt, concrete, dry rubble, or transplanted sod. As alternative to lining the

62

ditch throughout its entire length is drop structures at intervals which permit the remainder of the
ditch to be maintained on a grade sufficiently low to prevent excessive velocities. Drop structures
may prove to be a traffic hazard. A third alternative is to divert the flow to a natural drainage way
by use of a paved chute across the side of the fill before the accumulated runoff in the ditch is
sufficient to cause harmful velocities. Drop inlets discharging the flow into a pipe which carries
it to the downstream side of the fill are preferred for intercepting the flow in the uphill ditch
unless the intercepted water can be discharged directly into a culvert on the upstream side of the
roadway. If the interception is necessary in long cuts, a drop inlet discharging into a buried pipe
running parallel to the highways is required until a point is reached where the flow can be
directed into a natural drainage way.
Depressed highways and underpasses sometimes create a difficult drainage problem.
Occasionally the flow which collects at the bottom of an underpass can be carried away by
gravity to a storm drain or natural channel. Often, however, a small automatic pumping station
set in a sump beneath the roadway is required to lift the water to a point where it can be carried
away by gravity flow.

Figure 3.7 Longitudinal drainage plan for a highway

63

3.3.3. Cross drainage

Since highways cross many natural drainage channels, provision for carrying this water
across the right of way is necessary.
Cross drainage is accomplished with culverts, bridges, and dips. Culverts and bridges
carry the roadway over a stream, and the distinction between the two types of structures is
mainly on the basis of size. Frequently structures with a span in excess of 20 ft are classed as
bridges, while structures of shorter span are called culverts. In hydraulic viewpoint culverts are
all structures designed to flow with submerged inlet. A dip is a depression of the roadways so
that flow from a cross channel may pass over the road.
3.3.3.1.
Culverts
The essential features of a culvert are barrel which passes under the fill; the headwalls
and wingwalls at the entrance and endwalls or other devices at exit to improve flow conditions
and prevent embankment scour; and in some cases debris protection to prevent entrance of debris
which might clog the culvert barrel.
Culvert barrels are made of variety of materials, the main basis of selection being the cost
of the installed culvert. Small culverts may be made from precast-concrete, vitrified-clay, castiron, or corrugated-steel pipe. In the larger sizes corrugated steel arches, reinforced-concrete
arches, or concrete box culverts are usually selected. In some instances rubble masonry and
treated timber have been employed for culverts. Minimum diameter for culverts should be about
18 to 24 in., although 12-in pipe might be used for small flows carrying no debris or trash.
Whenever possible, the culvert barrel should follow the line and grade of the natural
channel (Figure 3.8a). The length of the conduit can be shortened by raising the outlet above the
natural channel bottom (Figure 3.8b), but this requires protection for the downhill fill slope and
places the culvert entirely in fill. This location is used mainly for small corrugated-pipe culverts
which can be cantilevered out on the downstream end so that no part of the flow strikes the fill,
even at low discharges. If the inlet elevation is increased by use of sidehill location (Figure 3.8c),
the culvert may be materially shortened but the embankment must act as a dam and a stagnant
pool is formed on the upstream side of the fill. With such an arrangement the culvert is usually
placed in a trench or natural bench on the side of a ravine so that it rests on undisturbed earth for
most of its length.
It is common to place a culvert axis normal to the highway center line (Figure 3.9a) even though
this requires some changes in the natural channel. The alternative is a skew culvert (Figure 3.9b),
which will be longer than the normal culvert and will require more complex construction of
headwalls and endwalls. However, when the skew of the stream is large, a culvert normal to the
alignment of the road creates bends in the channel which may be points of erosion. Moreover,
the hydraulic capacity of the culvert will be decreased by the poor entrance and exit conditions.
As a general rule, it is best that culvert alignment conform to the natural stream alignment.

64

Figure 3.8 Various culvert locations

Figure 3.9 Typical culvert alignments

3.3.3.1.1.
Culvert inlets and outlets
Entrance structures (Figure 3.10) serve to protect the embankment from erosion and, if
properly designed, may improve the hydraulic characteristics of the culvert.
a. The straight endwall is used for small culverts on flat slopes when the axis of the
stream coincides with culvert axis.
b. If an abrupt change in flow direction is necessary, the L endwall is used.
c. The U-shaped endwall is the least efficient form from the hydraulic point of view and
has the sole advantage of economy of construction.
d. Where flow is large, the flared wingwall is preferable.
e. The flare should be made from the axis of the approaching stream rather than from
the culvert axis.

65

The purpose of the culvert outlet is to protect the downstream slope of the fill from
erosion and prevent undercutting of the barrel. With moderate velocities, flaring of outlet
wingwalls is helpful, but the flare angle must be small enough so that the stream from the
culvert will adhere to the walls of the transition. Izzard suggests that the flare angle for
supercritical flow should be about as indicated by
1
2.85 d
tan=
=
(3 5)
2 Nf
V
Where Nf is the Froude number of the flow

V
gd

d is the depth of flow

V is the mean velocity

Figure 3.10 Culvert endwalls and wingwalls

3.3.3.1.2.

66

Debris barriers

The sole function of a debris barrier is to prevent the entrance of material which might
clog a culvert. The barrier must be so designed that it does not become blocked with debris and
close the culvert entrance. To do this, the spacing of bars in the barrier should be quite wide so
that small material will easily pass through them. A bar spacing of one-half to one-third of the
least culvert dimension is usually satisfactory. The barrier should not be placed tightly over the
culvert entrance when an accumulation of debris might block the culvert. A V-shaped or
semicircular rack at the culvert entrance or a straight rack placed at the upstream of the
wingwalls is effective since if it should be blocked by debris, it can be overtopped and flow into
the culvert can continue. Culvert entrances in a cut are often at roadbed level, and abrupt break in
the channel is necessary. This favors debris deposition near the entrance, and a sturdy crib of
timber or reinforced concrete bars with a top to prevent entrance of stoned may be necessary.
3.3.3.1.3.
Culvert hydraulics
The hydraulic design of most culverts consists in selecting a structure that will pass the
design flow without an excessive headwater elevation. A secondary hydraulic consideration in
some cases is the prevention of scour at the culvert outlet. The maximum headwater elevation
must provide a reasonable freeboard against flooding of the highway. It must also be low enough
so that there is no damage to property upstream from the highway. Either of these two conditions
may control in a specific case. In majority of culvert designs, the limiting headwater elevation
will be well above the top of the culvert entrance and the flow in the culvert will take place under
one the three conditions illustrated in Figure 3.11. Under conditions (a) and (b) of the figure the
culvert is said to be operation with outlet control, and the headwater required to discharge the
design flow is determined by the head loss hL in the culvert.
The total head loss hL is the sum of an entrance loss he, friction loss in the barrel hf, and
the velocity head hv in the barrel.
h L=he + hf + hv
(10 6)
Entrance loss is a function of the velocity head in the culvert, while friction loss may be
computed with the Manning formula. Thus
V 2 n2 V 2 L V 2
h L=K e
+
+
(10 7)
2 g 2.2 R4 / 3 2 g
If normal depth in the culvert is less than the barrel height, with the inlet submerged and
the outlet free, the condition illustrated in Figure 3.11c will normally result. This culvert is said
to be flowing under entrance control. The inlet functions like an orifice for which
Q=C d A 2 gh
(10 8)
where h is the head on the center if the orifice and Cd is the orifice coefficient of discharge. The
head required for a given flow Q is therefore

67

h=

1 Q
2
2
Cd 2 g A

(10 9)

Under condition of entrance control, flaring the culvert entrance will increase its capacity
and permit it to operate under a lower head for a given discharge. Experiments have shown that
the best results are obtained by flaring the entrance of a box culvert to about double the barrel
area in a distance to four times the offset from the barrel (Figure 3.12). The entrance of circular
culverts should be rounded on a radius of about 0.15D.

Figure 3.11 Flow conditions in culverts with submerged entrance

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Figure 3.12 Entrance flare for box culvert

3.3.3.2.
Bridge waterways
The waterway opening of a bridge must be large enough to pass the design flood without
creating excessive backwater. If stream velocities are low there are only a few piers in the
stream, the backwater problem may be of little importance. Massive piers or long-approach
embankments encroaching on the waterway of the stream may result in considerable damage
from high stages above the bridge and may increase the likelihood of the bridge being
overtopped by floodwater. Economic design requires the determination of the minimum clear
length of span which will not cause intolerable backwater conditions. The first step in the study
is a determination of the permissible backwater heights, based on field investigation of lands and
structures along the stream which might be harmed by an increase in stage. The second step is
the determination of the stage in the channel downstream from the bridge site at design flow.
This may be done by backwater computations from the nearest control section below the bridge.
3.3.3.3.
Dips
Dips sometimes offer an economical solution to the cross-drainage problem in arid areas
where streamflow is infrequent and of short duration, provided the channel to be crossed is
shallow enough to permit construction of the dip without excessive grading of the approaches.
The upstream edge of the roadbed at the dip should be even with the bottom of the channel to
avoid scour which might undermine the road. The downstream edge of the road should be
protected with a cutoff wall, paving, or rock riprap for the same purpose. The profile of the dip

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should be as close to the shape off the stream cross section as possible to eliminate interference
with streamflow. If the stream transports heavy debris, the road surface should be made
especially heavy.

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