Pagei

ChuHsiandNeoConfucianism

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ChuHsi(Zhuxi)11301200

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ChuHsiandNeoConfucianism
Editedby
WingtsitChan

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UNIVERSITYOFHAWAIIPRESS1986
ALLRIGHTSRESERVED
MANUFACTUREDINTHEUNITEDSTATESOFAMERICA

LibraryofCongressCataloginginPublicationData
Mainentryundertitle:
ChuHsiandNeoConfucianism.
"PaperspresentedattheInternationalConference
onChuHsi,heldJuly615,1982,inHonolulu"Introd.
SponsoredbytheUniversityofHawaiiandthe
AmericanCouncilofLearnedSocieties.
Bibliography:p.
Includesindex.
1.Chu,Hsi,11301200Congresses.2.Neo
ConfucianismCongresses.I.Chan,Wingtsit,1901
II.InternationalConferenceonChuHsi(1982:
Honolulu,Hawaii)III.UniversityofHawaii(Honolulu)
IV.AmericanCouncilofLearnedSocieties.
B128.C54C481986181'.118524532
ISBN0824809610
:AcopyofChuHsi'sselfportraitcarvedonstoneandpreservedintheChufamily,madebyChuHsi'ssixteenthgenerationdescendantChuY

FRONTISPIECE

(AclassifiedcompilationofthecompletecollectionofliteraryworksofMasterChu).ItismaintainedthatChuHsipaintedtheportraitwhile
facingthemirroratsixty.Anumberofportraits,notallidentical,havebeenclaimedtobecopiesofthestoneportrait.

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Thisvolumeisdedicated
to
Dr.HungWoChing
whoseunusualinsight,generoussupport,
andoutstandingleadershiphavemadepossibleseveral
EastWestPhilosophers'Conferences
includingthe
InternationalConferenceonChuHsi

Pagevii

Contents
Preface

xi

1
Introduction
WingtsitChan

2
AGeneralStatementonNeoConfucianism
FungYulan

21

3
ChuHsi'sContributiontoConfucianLearningandtheFlawsinHisTheoretical
Thinking
LiangShuming

26

4
AHistoricalPerspectiveonChuHsi'sLearning
Ch'ienMu

32

5
AComparativeStudyofChuHsiandtheCh'engBrothers
HsFukuan

43

6
ChuHsi'sTheoryofMetaphysicalStructure
StanislausLokuang

58

7
TheGreatUltimateandHeaveninChuHsi'sPhilosophy
YuYamanoi

79

8
OnChuHsi'sTheoryoftheGreatUltimate
TengAimin

93

116

10
WhatWasNewintheCh'engChuTheoryofHumanNature?
A.C.Graham

138

11
TheSystemofChuHsi'sPhilosophy
TomoedaRyutaro*

158

12
ChuHsi'sMethodologyandTheoryofUnderstanding
ChungyingCheng

169

9
ZhuXi'sDoctrineofPrinciple
ChiuHansheng

Pageviii

197

14
ChuHsi's"TreatiseonJen"
SatoHitoshi

212

15
MoralityandKnowledgeinChuHsi'sPhilosophicalSystem
YingshihY

228

16
ChuHsiontheStandardandtheExpedient
WeiChengt'ung

255

17
ChuHsionPersonalCultivation
JuliaChing

273

18
AnAnalysisofChuHsi'sSystemofThoughtofI
ChangLiwen

292

19
ChuHsi'sDisciplineofPropriety
KaoMing

312

20
ChuHsiAsLiteraryTheoristandCritic
RichardJohnLynn

337

21
ChuHsiandReligion
RenJiyu

355

22
ChuHsionBuddhism
CharlesWeihsunFu

377

23
ChuHsiandHisWorld
BrianMcKnight

408

24
TheProblemofOrthodoxyinChuHsi'sPhilosophy
ShuhsienLiu

437

25
AReappraisalofChuHsi'sPhilosophy
Ts'aiJenhou

461

26
ChuHsiandHuHung
ConradSchirokauer

480

27
TheEstablishmentoftheSchoolofChuHsiandItsPropagationinFukien
MaoHuaixin

503

28
ChuHsi'sInfluenceinYanTimes
LiuTs'unyan

521

29
SomeThoughtsonMingCh'ingNeoConfucianism
LiZehou

551

13
ChuHsiandWisdomAsHiddenandStored
OkadaTakehiko

Pageix

570

31
TheTraditionoftheWayinJapan
YamazakiMichio

584

AppendixA:BiographyofChuHsi

595

AppendixB:ConferencePersonnel

603

AppendixC:Sponsors

613

Index

615

30
TheKoreanControversyoverChuHsi'sViewontheNatureofManand
Things
YounSasoon

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Preface
TheInternationalConferenceonChuHsiwasmadepossiblebymanypeoplefrommanycountries.Dr.HungWoChingraisedallthefundsfortheconference.The
responsefromvariousdirectionswasoverwhelming.TheUniversityofHawaiiandtheAmericanCouncilofLearnedSocietiesbecamesponsors.Thesupportof
PresidentFujioMatsudaoftheUniversityofHawaiiwasextremelygenerous.Thirtysixseniorscholars,allspecialistsonNeoConfucianism,camefromseveral
continents,includingthe86yearoldFungYulan.Thirtythreeyoungerscholarsselectedthroughaninternationalcompetitionalsoattended,aswellasfourteen
interestedscholarswhocameasobservers.Theconferencecommittee,withDr.Wm.TheodoredeBaryaschairmanandProfessorsIreneBloom,WingtsitChan,
ChungyingCheng,andWeimingTuasmembers,plannedtherosterofparticipantsandtheprogram.Dr.StephenUhalley,Jr.,ActingDirectoroftheCenterfor
AsianandPacificStudiesattheUniversityofHawaii,servedasadministrativedirectoroftheconference.Hetookcareofallthebusinessadministrationandreadily
mobilizedalltheresourcesoftheCenter.Hisassistant,Ms.PeggyBlumenthal,inhercapacityastheassistantadministrativedirectoroftheconference,conductedthe
dailyoperationwithanefficiencyandsmoothnessseldomseeninaninternationalgathering.Allmemberssangherpraise,andwenowaddourencore.Universityof
HawaiifacultymemberschairedthevarioussessionsandservedasmembersoftheLocalCommittee.OthersperformeddutiesontheCommitteeofConference
Historians,asinterpreters,andastranslatorsofpapersfromChineseandJapaneseintoEnglish.TheEastWestCenteropeneditsfacilitiestous.Toallthesepeople
andinstitutions,wereverentlybowourheadsthreetimes.
Regardingtheeditingofthisanthology,wehavenotinsistedonuniformityorconsistency,forscholarsfromdiversebackgroundsmustbefreetoexpressthemselvesin
theirownway.Wehaverespectedtheirstylesaswehavehonoredtheiropinions.Atthesametime,wewanttoaccommodateourfuturereaders,whomaynotbe
specialistsinNeoConfucianism.Wehavethereforereducedtransliterationtoaminimum.Whentransliterationisused,atranslationisprovidedinparenthesesorina
footnote.OfficiallywehavefollowedtheWadeGilessystemoftransliteration,butanyscholarwhowantedtousethep'inyinsystemwasfreetodoso.
TranslationofChinesetermsisalwaysacontroversialmatter,sincenoChi

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nesewordcorrespondsexactlytoanEnglishword.Inevitably,inanytranslationsomeChinesemeaningsandimplicationsareleftoutandsomeextraneousEnglish
meaningsandimplicationscreepin.ThebestonecandoistochoosetheEnglishwordthatcomesclosesttotheChinese.Whenascholarprefershisowntranslation,
hischoiceisfinal.Thuslimaybevariouslyrenderedas''principle,""reason,""pattern"ch'ias"materialforce,""vitalforce,""ether,""breath"andwuhsingas"five
agents,""fiveelements,""fivephases."Insuchcases,however,eithertheoriginalChinesetermoranalternatetranslationisgivenforreadyidentification,andcross
referencesintheindexwillremoveanypossibleconfusion.Fortunately,aparticulartranslationhasbeenusedinmostcases.Thusthereisahighdegreeofuniformity
andconsistencyafterall.
Datesareprovidedfordynastiesandhistoricalpersonsatthefirstoccurrenceineachchapter,ontheassumptionthatthereadermayconsultdifferentchaptersat
differenttimes.Inafewcasesscholarsdonotagreeonthesedates,anddatesforsuchpeopleasConfuciusmayseemunnecessarytothespecialist,butwedonot
wanttoignorethegeneralreader,whomayneedsomekindoftimeframework.Atanyrate,itisdifficulttodrawthelineregardingwhatthereaderdoesanddoesnot
know.TheOrientalyearissimplyequatedwiththeWesternyear,exceptinsuchcasesasLuHsiangshanandWangYangming,whodiedattheendoftheOriental
yearthathappenedtobethebeginningofthefollowingWesternyear.AsianagesarecountedaccordingtotheAsiantradition,thatis,bycalendaryearinsteadof
twelvemonths.NamesofhistoricalpersonsfollowtheOrientalorderwiththefamilynamefirst.Formodernandcontemporarywriters,however,wehavefollowed
theauthor'sownpreferenceastowhetherthefamilynameorprivatenamecomesfirst.WerefertopeopleinhistorybytheirprivatenamesexceptinthecasesofLu
ChiuyanandWangShoujenbecausepracticallyallAsianwritershavecalledthembytheirhonorificnames,thatis,LuHsiangshanandWangYangming,
respectively.Diacriticalmarksoverpersonalnamesfollowtheusageofthepersonsthemselves.
Wehavetriedtoidentifyallpeopleandplacesmentioned,translatealltitles,explainallterms,traceallsourcesofquotations,andgivethespecificeditionsandpage
references.Abbreviatedtitleshavebeenavoidedexceptthefollowingtwo:
SPPY

Ssupupeiyao

SPTK

Ssuputs'ungk'an

(EssentialsoftheFourLibraries)
(FourLibrariesseries)

ChinesecharactersforAsiannames,titles,andtermsarefoundintheglossaryattheendofeachchapterexceptfordynasties,provinces,andwellknowncities.
WINGTSITCHAN

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1
Introduction
WingtsitChan
ThepresentanthologyconsistsofpaperspresentedattheInternationalConferenceonChuHsiheldJuly615,1982,inHonolulu.Thesymposium,convenedasone
ofthecontinuingEastWestPhilosophers'ConferencesandinconjunctionwiththeseventyfifthanniversaryoftheUniversityofHawaii,wasthefirstonthisNeo
Confucianthinker.Awordmaybeappropriatetoexplainthereasonfortheevent.
ThemainreasonisChuHsihimself.HewasthemostinfluentialChinesephilosophersincethetimeofConfucius(551479B.C.)andMencius(372289B.C.?).He
wasnotonlythecrystalizationoftheNeoConfucianmovementthatdominatedChinafor800yearsbutalsotheonlythinkerintheChristianeratoinfluencemany
phasesofAsianlifethroughoutEastAsia.Asianscholarshavecalledhimthe"chitach'eng"aofNeoConfucianism,usingMencius'descriptionofConfuciusas"a
completeconcert,"1anorchestrainwhichallperfectnotesblendtogetherinaharmoniouswhole.However,becausechimeans''togather"andtach'engmeans
"greataccomplishment,"theChinesephraseisusuallyrenderedinEnglishas"greatsynthesis."ThistranslationgaverisetothegeneralunderstandingintheWestthat
ChuHsimerelyputtogetherthephilosophiesoftheearlySung(9601279)NeoConfucianists,notablyChouTunib(10171073),ChangTsaic(10201077),
Ch'engHaod(10321085),andhisbrotherCh'engIe(10331107),especiallythelast.ButIpreferredtotranslatethewordch'engliterally,namely,"tocomplete."
WhenIwrote"ChuHsi'sCompletionofNeoConfucianism"fortheSungProjectinParis,2IdidnotmeantosuggestthatthephilosophicalsystemofChuHsiwas
perfect.Scholarshavepointedoutmanydifficulties.ButitisunfairtosaythatChuHsididnotofferanythingnew.AsIpointedoutinmyessay,hereconstructedNeo
Confucianisminanoriginalwayinthreeareas.FirstwashiscompletionoftheconceptoftheTraditionoftheWay(taot'ungf).Hedidthisbyleavingoutthe
ConfucianistsoftheHan(206B.C.A.D.220)andT'ang(618907)dynastiesandanumberofSungNeoConfucianists,notablyShaoYungg(10111077),Chang
Tsai,SsumaKuangh(10191086),andevenhisownteacher,LiT'ungi(10931163),affirmingadirectlinefrom

Page2
j

theancientsagestoChouTuniandtheCh'engbrothers,chieflyonthegroundthatChoudevelopedthedoctrineoftheGreatUltimate(T'aichi )andtheCh'engs
developedthedoctrineoflik(principle).3Hereestablishedthetaot'ungprimarilyonphilosophicalgrounds,thatis,onthebasisofli.AsCh'engIbeforehim,hebuilt
hisentiresystemonthisconcept.TheideaoflibecamesocentralinthewholeNeoConfucianmovementthatinChineseithasbeencalledLihsehl(theLearningor
SchoolofPrinciple).Second,in1190hegroupedtheGreatLearning,theAnalects,theBookofMencius,andtheDoctrineoftheMeanastheFourBooks.The
groupingprovidedamethodologyinthestudyoftheClassicsforthefirsttimeinChinesehistory,beginningwiththeblueprintintheGreatLearning,throughthe
applicationsintheAnalectsandtheelaborationintheMencius,tothewonderandmysteryoftheMean.Evenmoreimportant,hetookthestudentbacktothedirect
sourcesofConfucianteachings,becausetheFourBookscontainthewordsofConfuciusandMenciuswhereastheFiveClassics,4whichhaddominated
Confucianisminpreviouscenturies,werebutindirectsources.5AtoncethiscreatedanewapproachandanewspiritinConfucianstudies.TheFourBooksandChu
Hsi'scommentariesonthemweremadebasicandofficialtextsincivilserviceexaminationsin1313andthuscontrolledChinesethoughtaswellastheselectionof
governmentofficialsfor600yearsuntil1905.
Histhirdinnovationwasthemostimportantofall,namely,hiscompletionofNeoConfucianphilosophy.6Thishedidinfourdifferentways.First,hedeterminedthe
directionofNeoConfucianismbychoosingthephilosophyoflioftheCh'engbrothersasthefoundationofNeoConfucianthought.HadhepreferredBuddhismor
Taoism,thecourseofChinesehistorywouldhavebeendifferent.Evenifhehadsidedwiththephilosophyofmaterialforce(ch'im)ofChangTsaiorthephilosophyof
formandnumber(hsiangshun)ofShaoYung,thecomplexionofChinesethoughtwouldnothavebeenthesame.ButheguidedChinesethoughtinthedirectionof
principle,andChinesethoughthasbyandlargeremainedthatwaysince.
Second,heclarifiedtherelationbetweenprincipleandmaterialforce.Ch'engIprovidedthedoctrinethatliisonebutitsmanifestationsaremany(liifenshuo),7but
heneverexplainedwhythingsdiffer.ByborrowingtheconceptofmaterialforcefromChangTsai,ChuHsiwasabletoexplainthevariationofmanandthingsby
sayingthattheinteractionofthetwomaterialforces,yinpornegativecosmicforce,andyangqorpositivecosmicforce,differsineverycaseandthereforeeveryone's
endowmentinmaterialforceisdifferent.
Third,hedevelopedtheconceptoftheGreatUltimate.ChouTunihadmodifiedadiagramoftheGreatUltimatethathereceivedfromaTaoistpriestandhadwritten
ashortexplanationofit(T'aichit'ushuor).ThetreatisehadremainedobscureuntilChuHsiplaceditattheheadoftheChinssulus(Reflectionsonthingsathand8
whichheandLTsuch'ient(11371181)compiledin1175.Asthefirstanthologyofitskind,itbecamethebeststate

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u

mentofNeoConfucianism.UnderhisinfluenceitalsobecametheopeningpassageintheHsinglitach'an (ThegreatcollectionofNeoConfucianism)andthe
Hsinglichingiv(TheessentialsofNeoConfucianism),bothofwhicharebasicsourcesonNeoConfucianism.9ChuHsihadtousethediagramoftheGreat
UltimateinspiteofitsTaoistoriginbecausetheconceptoftheGreatUltimateisnecessarytoaccountfortheoperationofprincipleandmaterialforce.Accordingto
ChouTuni,theGreatUltimateproducesthetwomaterialforces,yinandyang,theinteractionofwhichinturnengendersallthings.AccordingtoChuHsi's
interpretation,theGreatUltimateisthesumtotalofprinciples.Principledoesnotproduceanything,butastherearetheprinciplesoftranquilityandactivity,oryinand
yang,theremustbetheiractuality.Yinandyangnaturallyhavetointeracttoproducethings.Thisistheprocessofperpetualproductionandreproduction,resultingin
anendlessvarietyofthingsandaffairs.
Fourth,ChuHsidevelopedtheconceptofjenw(humanity)toitshighestpointinChinesehistory.Confuciushadtaughtjennotonlyasaparticularvirtuebutasthe
generalvirtueoutofwhichallvirtuesemerge.ToMenciusjenmeantcompassion.AndtoHanYx(768824),itmeantuniversallove.10Beingmorerational,Ch'engI
maintainedthatjenisthebasicanduniversalvirtuebecauseitiscreative,givingrisetoallothervirtues,justasjenasaseedgrowsintoleavesandflowers.11ChuHsi
wentstillfurthertodescribejenas"themindofHeavenandEarthtocreatethings."12Insodoing,hecombinedphilosophy,religion,andethicsasone.Inallthese
ways,he"completed"NeoConfucianismasnooneelsehaddonebeforeorhasdonesince.
IfChuHsi'saccomplishmentwerelimitedtocompletingNeoConfucianphilosophy,hewouldhavebeenbutaChineseSpinozaorSt.ThomasAquinaswithwhomhe
hasbeencompared.13Butheachievedmuchmore.Hisinfluenceontheexaminationsystemhasbeennoted.Hewrote,commentedon,compiled,andeditedalmost
onehundredworks.AsidefromhiscommentariesontheConfucianClassics,hisworksonsocialandreligiousritesshapedChinese,Korean,andJapanesebehavior
forhundredsofyears.Hisworkonhistoryhasbecomeastandard.AndtheHsiaohsehy(Elementaryeducation),whichwascompiledbyhisstudentsunderhis
direction,servedasthebasicprimerineducation.Heestablishedpublicgranariestorelievefamineandthusinauguratedasocialinstitutionthatstillexistsinmany
communitiestoday.HerebuilttheWhiteDeerHollowAcademyandtheYehluzAcademy,twofamouseducationalcentersthathadcometoruin,andfoundedmany
newoneshimself,besideslecturingatmanyothers.Theseacademies,togetherwiththosewhichhispupilsfoundedorheadedorwheretheylectured,becamea
concertedmovementthatwastochangethenatureandextentofprivateeducation.Inrejectingthe"Prefaces"oftheBookofOdesasinauthentic,14ininsistingthat24
ofthe305odesarebutlovesongsinsteadofdidacticverses,15inoverthrowingtheauthenticityoftheancientversionoftheBookofHistory,16inassertingthatthe
BookofRitesisbuttheHanConfu

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aa

17

cianists'explanationsoftheIli (Bookofceremonial), andinregardingthethreecommentariesontheSpringandAutumnAnnalsastwiceorthriceremovedfrom

theauthor,Confucius,18ChuHsibroughttheskepticismtowardancientClassicstonewheightsandthuspioneeredthemovementofk'aochuab(evidentialresearch)
thatflourishedintheCh'ingdynasty(16441912).Inadditionhewasarenownedpoetandcalligrapher.
ChuHsi'sworksreachedKoreaandJapansoonafterhisdeath.TheWest,however,hadtowaitforseveralhundredyears.WesternstudiesofNeoConfucianismin
general,andChuHsiinparticular,didnotstartuntiltheseventeenthcentury,whenChristianmissionaries,especiallytheJesuits,werelookingforsomethinginChinese
thoughttosupporttheirChristiandoctrines.ChuHsi'sworksweretranslatedintoEnglish,French,andGermanbetween1836and1889.19Thestudystoppedwhen
EmperorK'anghsiac(r.16621722)expelledthemissionariesfromChinaasaresultoftheRitesControversyinwhichthePopeprohibitedChineseChristiansfrom
performingreligiousritesbeforetheirancestorsandtheChineseemperorexercisedhisprerogativesasthesovereignoftheland.NeoConfucianismwasthenatits
height,fortheChuTzuch'anshuad(ThecompleteworksofMasterChu)wascompliedbyimperialorderin1714andtheHsinglichingiwascompiledby
imperialorderin1715.SincetheFourBookshadbeenmadeofficialin1313,theNeoConfucianismofChuHsibegantoenjoythepositionoforthodoxy,especially
ingovernmentandthecompilationoftheHsinglitach'anin1415,alsobyimperialorder,furtheraffirmedthisorthodoxy.UnderEmperorK'anghsiandlater
Ch'ienlungae(r.17361795),imperialpatronageofChuHsireacheditsheight.Bythistime,ChuHsi'sinfluencehadextendedtoKoreaandJapanforcenturies.
Unfortunately,NeoConfucianismwastoocloselyassociatedwiththemonarchicalsystem.WhentheChineseoverthrewthesystemin1911,Chinesetraditioncame
underattack.Intheensuingintellectualrevolutionfrom1917on,NeoConfucianismwasdenouncedasa"metaphysicaldevil."Thestrongestattacksweredirectedat
Ch'engIandChuHsi.Twoquotationswerecitedtoattackthem.Whenaskedwhetheralonelyandpoorwidowshouldremarry,Ch'enghadanswered,"Tostarveto
deathisaminormatterbuttoloseone'sintegrityisaveryseriousmatter."20IntellectualrebelswereunanimousindeclaringthatthiswasaclearproofofNeo
Confuciansuppressionofwomen.TherebelliousmoodwastoostrongforthemtorealizethatCh'engIwastalkingaboutthechoicebetweenrighteousnessandprofit
asawayoflife,anissueraisedbyMenciuslongbefore.21OfcourseintheConfuciantraditionwomenhadbeensubordinated,butCh'engIwasbynomeans
insensitivetotheirmisfortune.Inhisbiographyofhisfather,hepraisedhimforarrangingthemarriageofhisfather'swidowedniece.22WhenChuHsiwasaskedabout
theconflictbetweenCh'engI'spraiseofhisfatherandhisownprohibitionofawidow'sremarrying,ChuHsianswered,"Thegeneralprincipleislikethat,buthuman
beingssometimescannotfulfillit."23Inotherwords,oneshould

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livebymoralprinciples,buttherearealwayscircumstancesthatpreventtheidealfrombeingfulfilled.IntheConfuciantradition,integritydemandedthatawoman
shouldremaindevotedtoherhusband,livingordead,althoughnosuchrequirementwasmadeofmen.Modernreformhaschangedthattradition,butcriticsofCh'eng
Istillapplyamodernstandardtotheeleventhcentury.Philosophically,thechoiceisalwaysbetweenrighteousnessandprofit.Inpracticallife,oneoftenfacesa
situationaboutwhichChuHsiwasasked.
AfavoriteattackonChuHsiisthatofYenYanaf(16351704),whoassertedthatChuHsi"taughtpeopletositquiethalfofthedayandtoreadbookstheotherhalf
oftheday."24YenYanmeantthatthedoctrinesofChuHsiservednopracticalpurposes.ModerncriticsofChuHsilovetorepeatYenYan,justastheChinese
sayingthatgoes,"ahundreddogsbarkatthenoisewhenonedogbarksattheshadow."WhatYenYansawwasashadowindeed.AsCh'ienMuaghaspointedout,
ChuHsigavethisadvicetohispupilKuoYujen(KuoTeyanah)onlyonce,andhenevertaughtanyotherpupiltoactso.25ChuHsigavethisunusualadvicetothis
pupilbecauseKuowastoorashandneglectedhisstudies.26Asusualinteachinghispupils,ChuHsiwaslikeaphysicianprescribingaspecificmedicinefora
particularailment.27
WhenthepoliticalsituationbecamemoresettledinChinainthe1930s,scholarsbegantohavesecondthoughtsaboutNeoConfucianism.Thetideseemedtoturnin
itsfavor.In1939,forexample,FungYulanaipublishedhisHsinlihsehaj(Newlearningofprinciple),inwhichhepouredWesternwineintotheoldChinesebottle
ofChuHsi'sNeoConfucianism.28AftertheCommunistsgotcontrolofmainlandChinain1949,thereactiontoNeoConfucianismtookoppositedirections.Chinese
scholarswhowenttoHongKongandlatertoTaiwan,suchasCh'ienMu,HsFukuan,akTangChuni,alandMouTsungsan,ampublishedalargenumberofarticles
andbooksofhighqualityonthesubjectandtrainedanumberofbrilliantyoungscholarswhonowteachNeoConfucianisminHongKong,Taiwan,andtheUnited
States.Onthemainland,NeoConfucianismwasatfirstignored.Ofthe213bookspublishedbetween1949and1963,onlyonewasonChuHsianditdealtwiththe
ChuHsischoolinJapanandofthe756articlespublishedduringthesameperiod,thesixontheCh'engbrothersandChuHsiweregenerallyaccusatory,whileChang
Tsai'sphilosophyofch'iwashailedasmaterialism.29In1980thequotationfromCh'engIregardingthewidowstilldominatedthedescriptionofhimintheHistorical
MuseuminPeking.InOctober1981,however,262scholarsattendedasymposiumonNeoConfucianisminHangchow.IwasinvitedtoattendwithProfessorWm.
TheodoredeBaryfromtheUnitedStatesinatotalofsevenfromoutsideChina.InthesectiononChuHsiinwhichIparticipated,discussionswerestrictlyon
scholarlygroundsandappraisalwasreasonablyobjective.Naturally,ChuHsiwasstillregardedasservingfeudalsociety,andconsiderationwasgiventohowhe
couldbemadetocontributetoMarxism.
TwobooksonChuHsi'slifeandthoughtappearedshortlybeforeandafter

Page6

theHangchowconference.Theywerewrittenfromthescholarlypointofviewandapproachedhimfrombothfavorableandunfavorablestandpoints.They
acknowledgedcertaincontributionsChuHsihadmade.AlthoughtheauthorshaveacceptedthefabricatedstoriesofShenChitsu,anwho,attheheightoftheCourt's
attackontheChuHsiSchoolasweihsehao(falselearning),accusedChuHsioftakingtwonunstobehisconcubinesandofmarryingLiuKung'sapdaughterforher
dowry30wheninfactChuHsimarriedthedaughterofLiuMienchihaq(10911149),andalthoughtheyhavemisinterpretedChuHsi'sthankstotheemperor31asa
confessionofhisevildeeds,theyhavealsopointedoutsomeofShen'sfalsehood.32Theyhavetriedtobefair.Generallyspeaking,theattitudetowardChuHsiis
remarkablydifferentfromadecadeagowhenhewastotallydenounced.NeoConfucianismasawholeisstillconsideredtobeatooloffeudalism,buttheappraisal
hastakenanewturn.ChuHsirelicsdestroyedduringtheCulturalRevolutionarebeingrestored.TherestorationsatFukien,intheWhiteDeerHollowAcademy,and
intheYehluAcademyimpressedmetremendously.Allinall,ChuHsi'sfortuneinAsiahasturnedforthebetter.
Inthemeantime,interestinNeoConfucianism,particularlyinChuHsi,wasrevivedintheWest.FatherGraftranslatedtheChinssuluintoGermanandwrotea
definitivebook,TaoarundJen(TheWayandhumanity),onthetwoconceptscentraltoNeoConfucianphilosophy.33TheSungProjectinParis,withthe
collaborationofscholarsaroundtheworld,producedindispensableworksonSungbibliographyandbiography.34ForatimeEuropewasthecenterforstudiesofthe
Sungperiod.Eventually,thecentershiftedtotheUnitedStates.FollowingWorldWarII,AsianstudiesprogramsdevelopedrapidlyinAmericanuniversities.
OutstandinginstitutionslikeHarvardandColumbiaproducedanumberofyoungspecialistsonNeoConfucianthought.ProfessordeBaryorganizedseveral
conferencesonNeoConfucianism,andtheColumbiaUniversityPresspublishedaseriesofbooksonthesubject.35
SinceAmericanstudiesonNeoConfucianismhadreachedthepointwhereanentireconferencecouldconcentrateonanindividualphilosopher,scholarsfeltaneed
foraconferenceonChuHsi.Asearlyas1962anationalconferenceinChangshawasdevotedtoWangFuchihas(16191692)incommemorationofthe270th
anniversaryofhisdeath36in1972aninternationalconferenceonWangYangming(WangShoujen,at14721529)washeldinHonoluluincelebrationofthe500th
anniversaryofhisbirth.37ButChuHsiwastooimportantahistoricalfigureforustowaitforanysuchanniversaryofhis.Ithereforetooktheinitiativetoorganizea
meetingonhim.Theresponsefromallquarterswasoverwhelming.Dr.HungWoChingauofHonolulusinglehandedlyraisedfundsinampleamount,theUniversityof
HawaiiandtheAmericanCouncilofLearnedSocietiesreadilyagreedtosponsortheconference,andscholarsfromseveralcontinentsofferedunreservedsupport.
TheconferencewasnotintendedtocoverallareasinwhichChuHsiwas

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concerned.Fromthestart,theconferencecommitteerejectedthetextbookorencyclopediaapproach.Wesimplywantedtogathertogetherinternationallyknown
authoritiesonChuHsiandrenownedscholarsonNeoConfucianismtodiscussquestionsoftheirownchoiceandtosharetheirscholarshipwithothers.Bynomeans
canweclaimthatallauthoritiesonChuHsiwereattheconference.ProfessorsLiangShumingavandCh'ienMu,bothintheirlateeighties,forexample,wereexpected
tocomebutfinallydidnotattend.Fortunately,theydidpreparepapers.Wedaresaythattherehasneverbeensomuchaccumulatedexpertiseataconference
devotedtoaChinesethinker.
Asthescholarswerefreetochoosetheirownsubjects,therewereboundtobesomeoverlappingandsomeomissions.ThetopicoftheGreatUltimate,forinstance,
wasdiscussedagainandagain,probablyoutofbalanceinrelationtoothertopics.Asmattersturnedout,however,thetopicwasapproachedfromdifferentangles,
andmonotonousrepetitionwasreducedtoaminimum.Ontheotherhand,anumberoftopicswerenotcovered:ChuHsi'sgovernmentservice,ChuHsi'sreligious
practice,ChuHsiasapoet,ChuHsiandscience,tonamebutafew.Onthelatter,wehadfullyexpectedDr.JosephNeedham,surelytheworldauthorityonthe
subject,toleadaworkshoponscience,buthewasunabletocome.Theresultwasthattheconferencecommitteedecidedtocanceltheworkshop.Thisisregrettable,
forNeoConfucianismhasoftenbeenregardedasanobstacletoscience,andyetChuHsidiscoveredthenatureoffossils,threehundredyearsaheadofthediscovery
inEurope.38Thustherearemanygaps.AcomprehensiveconferenceonChuHsicoveringallaspectswillhavetowaitfordecadeswhenthereareenoughspecialists
toembraceallphasesofthisgreatthinker.Itishopedthateventhegapswillplayaconstructiverolebyhighlightingtheneedforandstimulatingresearch.
Theconferencewasanopenforum,withnodoctrinetopropagateandnoissuetoresolve.Allscholarscameasindividuals,notasrepresentativesofanyorganization.
TherewereasmanyscholarsfromthemainlandasfromTaiwan,andthenumbersofWesternersandChinese,andseniorandyoungerscholars,wereequal.Itwas
fearedthatbecauseofthepoliticalsituation,scholarsfromthemainlandandfromTaiwanwouldfindtheirencounterunpleasant.Thefearwasreal,becausethiswasto
bethefirstmeetingofthesescholarsonChinesethought.Insuchameeting,politicalideologycouldeasilyemerge.Butassoonastheymetatthecustomsareaatthe
airport,theyseemedlikeoldfriends.Infact,someofthemhadbeenacquainted,andmanyhadbeenawareofeachother'spublicationsonChuHsi.Throughoutthe
conferencenopoliticalissueeverarose.
Unlikeaninternationalcongressonsciencewhereanewtheoryisannouncedoramedicalmeetingwhereanewdiscoveryisreported,fewearthshakingideashave
emergedfrommeetingsinthehumanities,forphilosophicalideasarenotsubjecttoquantitativeanalysis,developveryslowly,andarewellknownamongcolleagues.
WecannotclaimanythingnewfromtheChu

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Hsiconference.However,sincethestudyofChuHsiisstillinitsinfancyintheWest,theconferencedidopenupterritoriesthathavebeenscarcelytraversed.Ihave
inmindProfessorOkadaTakehiko'sawdiscussionofChuHsi'sideaofwisdomashiddenandstored(chapter13),ProfessorSatoHitoshi'saxdeliberationonChuHsi's
"TreatiseonJen"(chapter14),ProfessorWeiChengt'ung'saypaperonChuHsi'stheoryofthestandardandtheexpedient(chapter16),ProfessorChangLiwen'saz
analysisofChuHsi'ssystemofthoughtofI(changes)(chapter18),ProfessorKaoMing'sbaessayonChuHsi'sdisciplineofproprietyorsystemofrites(chapter19),
andProfessorRichardLynn'spresentationonChuHsiasaliterarycritic(chapter20).ChuHsi'sinterpretationofwisdomashiddenandstoredhasnotbeenstudied
eveninChinaorJapan,letalonetheWest.
ItisnotsurprisingthatthreefourthsoftheconferencepapersdealwiththeGreatUltimateinonewayoranother,andsixpaperselaborateonitatlength.Severalof
thesixmaybesaidtobeentirelydevotedtoit,buttheyapproachthesubjectfromdifferentanglesProfessorStanislausLokuangbbfromwhatispriortophysical
formandwhatisposteriortoit(chapter6),ProfessorYuYamanoibcfromprincipleandmaterialforce(chapter7),ProfessorTengAiminbdfromsubstanceand
functionandotherpairsofopposites(chapter8),ProfessorChiuHanshengbefromthePrincipleofHeavenandnature(chapter9),ProfessorTomoedaRyutaro*bf
fromthegroundprovidingprincipleofnatureandman(chapter11),andProfessorChangLiwenfromtheoperationofChanges(chapter18).Nowhereelseisthere
suchaconcentratedstudyoftheGreatUltimate.
ItisexpectedthatanyonewhodiscussesChuHsi'sphilosophywillrefertotheGreatUltimate,foritisthefoundationofhisthought.NeoConfucianismiscalledLi
hsehinChinese,suggestingthatliisthekeynote.Inageneralsense,itis.Ch'engIinaugurateditasthebasisofhiswholephilosophy,andChuHsiinheriteditfrom
him,expandedit,andrefinedit.ButCh'engIonlyemphasizedtheunityofprinciple.Althoughhetaughtthatprincipleisonebutitsmanifestationsaremany,henever
explainedhowthedifferentiationcameabout.ChuHsihadtofillthisgap.ForanexplanationheborrowedtheconceptofmaterialforcefromChangTsai.According
toChuHsi,materialforce,initsoperationasyinandyang,endowsmanandthingsdifferentlysothatsomeendowmentsaresubstantialandbalancedandothersare
meagerandunbalanced.Thusnotwothingsareexactlyalike.Toaccountfortherelationshipbetweenprincipleandmaterialforce,ChuHsiresortedtoChouTuni's
"ExplanationoftheDiagramoftheGreatUltimate."InChou'sphilosophicalscheme,theUltimateofNonbeing(wuchi),bgwhichissoundlessandodorless,produces
theGreatUltimate,whichinturnproducesyinandyangoutofwhoseinteractionallthingsemerge.SinceCh'engInevermentionedtheGreatUltimate,39ChuHsi
believedthatalthoughhelearneditfromhisteacher,ChouTuni,hedidnottransmititbecausenopupilwasreadytoreceivetheknowledge.40AlthoughLuHsiang
shan(LuChiuyan,bh1139

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41

1193)stronglyobjectedtothediagrambecauseitcamefromaTaoistpriestandbecausethetermwuchiisofTaoistorigin, ChuHsi'smetaphysicalstructurebuilt
ontheGreatUltimateprevailed.StudentsofNeoConfucianismhavelongacceptedit.
Itcameasasurprise,therefore,whenProfessorYamanoipronouncedthattheGreatUltimate"remainedanalienelementinChuHsi'stheoreticalsystem"andthatit
"hasneverbeenwovenintothefabricofhisphilosophy"(chapter7).ProfessorYamanoi'sargumentsarethat"thewordt'aichiwasusednowhereintheSsushuchi
chu"bi(CollectedcommentariesontheFourBooks),that"nowheredidChuHsiusethewordt'aichitoannotateorelucidatetheFourBooks,"andthathediscussed
t'aichionlyinconnectionwithChou'sdiagramoftheGreatUltimateandtheBookofChanges.ProfessorYamanoihadexpressedthisopiniontohisJapanese
colleagues,butitsurprisedtheinternationalaudience.SincetheSsushuchichuisChuHsi'smostimportantwork,ProfessorYamanoihasapoint.ChuHsispent
decadesontheworkandwasstillrevisinghiscommentaryontheGreatLearningthreedaysbeforehedied.42AnumberofhiskeyconceptscamefromtheSsushu
chichu,suchasjenas"thecharacterofthemindandtheprincipleoflove''43andpropriety(orrites)as"therestraintandbeautifulornamentaccordingtothePrinciple
ofHeavenandtheformandlawofhumanaffairs."44Still,ChuHsispokeagreatdealinhisconversationsandlettersabouttheGreatUltimatewithoutreferenceto
Chou'sdiagramortheBookofChanges,45anditisverydifficulttoconceivethattheyarenotpartofhisthoughtsystem.However,ProfessorYamanoihasgivenus
aninterestingideatoconsider,andthatiswhataconferenceisallabout.
AstheGreatUltimateisthetotalityofprinciple,anydiscussionontheGreatUltimatenecessarilyinvolvesprinciple.OfspecialinterestareProfessorA.C.Graham's
discussionofitinconnectionwithhumannature(chapter10)andProfessorChungyingCheng'sbjanalysisofliintosixdifferenttypes(chapter12).
Onetroublesomeproblemiswhetherprincipleproducesmaterialforce.ChuHsiisoftenquotedashavingsaidthat"principleproducesmaterialforce."46Butas
ProfessorYamanoihascorrectlypointedout,thequotationcannotbefoundinChuHsi'sworks.Thisraisesthequestionwhetherthequotationisauthentic.Ayear
aftertheconference,inAugust1983,Iacquiredsomesignificantinformation.WhileattendingameetingattheInstituteofPhilosophyoftheChineseAcademyof
SocialScienceinPeking,IwasgivenajournalinwhichanarticlestatesthatthequotationisfoundinLNan'sbk(14791542)ChuTzuch'aoshihbl(Selectionsfrom
MasterChuexplained).IntheprefaceLwrotethathetookthesayingsfromtheChuTzuylehbm(AsimpleselectionofsayingsfromMasterChu),compiledby
ChuHsi'spupilYangYli.bnThewriterofthearticlesurmisesthattheeditoroftheChuTzuylei,LiChingtebo(fl.1263),musthaveseenthecompilationbut
probablyattachednoimportancetoit.47ButIratherthinkthatLiChingtedeliberately

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excludedthesayingfromtheChuTzuyleibecauseitisinconsistentwithChuHsi'stheory.ChuHsisaid,"Lihasnofeelingorintention,doesnocalculation,and
doesnotcreate."48Inhisphilosophicalsystemtheprocessofcreationisnatural.TheGreatUltimateisthesumtotalofprinciples.Asthereareprinciplesofyinand
yang,theremustbetheiractuality.Inotherwords,theremustbetheinteractionofactivityandtranquility,whichmeanscreation.Butprincipleitselfdoesnotcreate.
SinceChuHsi'sconversationstookplaceoverseveraldecades,thereisboundtobesomeinconsistency.Andyetitissurprisinghowlittleinconsistencythereisin
ChuHsi'swordsorthinking.IprefertothinkthatYangYlimisunderstoodhisteacher,andProfessorYamanoi'sskepticismisfullyjustified.
InChuHsi'sphilosophy,principlemustbethoroughlyinvestigatedinordertounderstandit.Thisishiscentraldoctrineoftheinvestigationofthings.Hedeliberately
"amended"thecommentaryofthefifthchapteroftheGreatLearningtomaketheNeoConfuciansystemcomplete.Thetopicoftheinvestigationofthingshasbeen
takenupinanumberofpapers.Intwoofthem,however,ithasreceivedspecialattention.ToProfessorLiangShuming,ChuHsi'sdoctrinehasthedrawbackof
applyingthemindtoexternalthings(chapter3).OneisremindedofWangYangming'scriticismofChuHsionthisground.49HesetforthhiscriticisminalettertoLo
Ch'inshunbp(14651547).ButasLoreplied,thevalueoftheinvestigationofthingsistoseethatprincipleisonebutitsmanifestationsaremany(liifenshu).Thatis
tosay,fromthepointofviewofprinciple,thingsandtheselfareaunity,andthereisnodistinctionbetweentheinternalandtheexternal.50Thecontroversyover
whetherChuHsiexternalizedthemindtoinvestigatethingsoutsidehasbeenanissueforseveralhundredyearsandisyetunsettled.Thephraseliifenshuiscitedin
manyofthepapers(chapters7,8,9,12,15,16,30)andtheconceptisdiscussedinevenmore.
Agreatdealofconfusionandmisunderstandinghasariseninthetranslationofthisexpression.TheexpressioncomesfromCh'engI.51Thewordfenispronouncedin
thefourthtone,meaningone'slot,one'sshare,one'sendowment,andthelike,andnotinthefirsttone,meaningtodivide.InMorohashiTetsuji'sbqDaikanwajitenbr
(GreatChineseJapanesedictionary),7:929,fenisexplainedasfuybs(endowment)andnot"todivide."Inthe1702editionoftheSsushutach'anbt(Great
collectionontheFourBooks),page110b,thereisasignoverthecharacterontheupperrighthandcornertoindicatethatitispronouncedinthefourthtoneandthere
isalsoanote,"fuwenchieh,"butoshowthepronunciation.IntheChuTzuylei,chapter98,section100,page4014theChungyunghuowenbv(Questionsand
answersontheDoctrineoftheMean),commentonchapter22andtheMengTzuhuowenbw(QuestionsandanswersontheBookofMencius),commenton
1A:8,liandfenareusedasnounsinparallelconstructionfenisnotusedasaverb.However,intheprocessofelaboratingontheterm,fenisalsopronouncedinthe
firsttonemeaningtodivide.AcaseinpointistheChuTzuylei,chapter98,section88,

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page4004.Mytranslation,"Principleisonebutitsmanifestationsaremany,"ismeanttoindicateasmanymeaningsoffen(lot,endowment,andthelike)aspossible.
"Diverseparticularization"willdo,exceptitmayleadthereadertopronouncefeninthefirsttone.
Regardinghumannature,anothercardinalconceptinNeoConfucianthought,ProfessorA.C.Graham(chapter10)approachesthesubjectfromthepointofviewof
theGreatUltimate,principle,andmaterialforce,whileProfessorJuliaChingbxcouplesnaturewiththeemotionsandgoesintoadiscussionofreverence,selfconquest,
meditation,andgoodandevil(chapter17).Thediscussionofhumannatureleadstothediscussionofjen(humanity),sinceitisthechiefqualityofhumannature.
Inthelastdecadeorso,jenhasbecomeafavoritesubjectindiscussionsofChuHsi,sinceitisacardinalconceptinhisphilosophy.Hisideasonjenarefully
developed,thoughsuccinctlyexpressed,inhis"TreatiseonJen."52Thisessay,whichtookhimmorethantenyearsofthoughtandcorrespondencewithfriendsto
complete,hadneverbeendiscussedinEnglishuntilthisconference,althoughayearbeforeIhadpublishedalongarticleinChineseonit.53ProfessorSatoHitoshi's
treatisedeservesspecialattention,especiallyashehasrelatedChuHsitootherNeoConfucianistsinChinaandJapan(chapter14).
ChuHsibeginshis"TreatiseonJen"withthesentence"themindofHeavenandEarthistoproducethings,andinthebirthofmanandthings,eachreceivesthismind
ofHeavenandEarthtobehismind."Inotherwords,humanity,ortoloveandtobehumane,isderivedfromthespiritoflifegivinginHeavenandEarth.Similarly,
ritesarederivedfromHeaven.Asstatedbefore,ChuHsidefinedritesintermsofthePrincipleofHeaven.Hetookreligiousandsocialritesveryseriously.Whenhe
becamekeeperofrecordsormagistrateattheageoftwentyfour,heregulatedreligiousandmarriageceremonies.Thedaybeforehedied,hewroteonhisdeathbed
requestingthathissoninlawandapupilcompletehisworkofcompilingbooksonrites.Inamostlearnedandmostcomprehensivediscussiononthesubjectin
English,ProfessorKaoMingdealswithChuHsi'sworksonritesandmakesitclearthatoneoftheseatleast,theFamilyEtiquette,exertedtremendousinfluence.
WemayaddthatthisinfluenceextendedfarintoKoreaandJapan(chapter19).
Ifritesarenormsforproperhumanbehavior,chingbyandch'anbzareguidelinesforrighthumanbehavior.Thetopicofthestandard(ching)andtheexpedient
(ch'an)isofmorethanacademicinterest,forChuHsiregardeditasamatterofgreatconcerninhislife.Hereligiouslydirectedhislifewiththestandard,whichis
basedonrighteousness,andavoidedtheexpedient,whichisbasedonprofit.Herepeatedlydeclinedgovernmentservicewhenheconsidereditwrongtoserve,and
hestronglyattackedCh'enLiangca(11431194)forhisutilitarianism,whichChuHsiconsideredtohavebeenmotivatedbyprofitatthesacrificeofrighteousness.
WhenLuHsiangshanvisitedhimin

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1181andlecturedattheWhiteDeerHollowAcademyontheConfuciansayingthatthesuperiormanunderstandsrighteousnessandtheinferiormanunderstands
profit,54itmusthavepleasedhimgreatly.Chinssulucontainsachapteronservingornotservinginthegovernment.AstaughtbyCh'engIandotherNorthernSung
(9601126)NeoConfucianists,theissuemustbedecidedinfavorofrighteousnessoverprofit.OnlywhenweperfectlyunderstandthisdoctrineofChuHsi'scanwe
evaluatehispoliticalbehaviorcorrectly.Tothisend,ProfessorWeiChengt'ung'schapteronthestandardandtheexpedient(chapter16)isagreathelp.
WeregretnothavingapaperonChuHsi'spoliticallife.Infact,theconferencewaslongonhisideasbutshortonhispersonallife.EvenProfessorRenJiyu'scbessay
onChuHsiandreligion(chapter21)dealsmostlywithChuHsi'stheoreticalsystem.Onthepracticalside,itexplainshowConfucianreligionservedfeudalismbutnot
howChuHsipracticedreligionhimself.Fortunately,wedohaveDr.BrianMcKnight'saccountoftheworldChuHsilivedin(chapter23).Indescribingtheeconomic
andpoliticalsituation,thekinshipandthelandsystems,andthepositionoftheelite,ProfessorMcKnighthasgivenusavividpictureoftheworldinwhichChuHsi
lived,thusenablingustounderstandhimmoreadequatelyasateacher,apatriot,anadvisortotheemperor,andalocalreformer.Ifmoredetailsabouthislifeare
needed,AppendixAcontainsthebiographythatIwroteforSungBiographies.
AstohisrelationswithotherNeoConfucianists,wehaveapaperonCh'engIandoneonHuHungcc(11061161).InspiteofthefactthatChuHsiderivedmany
ideasfromCh'engI,somuchsothathisschoolisoftencalledtheCh'engChuSchool,ProfessorHsFukuanmakesitveryclear(chapter5)thattherearemany
differencesbetweenChuHsiandhismentor.
Ontheotherhand,ChuHsinotonlydifferedwithHuHungbutwasdirectlyopposedtohim.AccordingtoHu,natureisbeyondthedistinctionofgoodandevil,and
HeavenlyPrincipleandhumanselfishdesiresaresimilarinsubstancethoughdifferentinfunction.ToChuHsi,originalhumannatureisgood,andhumanselfishdesires
cannotbegoodinsubstancebecausegoodsubstancecannotperformanevilfunction.55Thisisbutoneissueonwhichthetwophilosophersarediametrically
opposed.AthoroughexaminationontheirdifferencesmaythrowasignificantlightonwhyChuHsi'sdoctrinebecamedominantwhileHu'sschoolsoondisappeared.
Unfortunately,WesternscholarshaveshownnointerestinHu,andthereispracticallynothinginEnglishonhim.WethereforewelcomeProfessorConrad
Schirokauer'spresentationonthisphilosopher(chapter26).
HuHungisalsodealtwithinProfessorTs'aiJenhou'scdpaper(chapter25),alongwithotherNorthernandSouthernSungNeoConfucianists.ByandlargeProfessor
Ts'aireflectstheviewpointofhisteacher,ProfessorMouTsungsan.InrecentyearsProfessorMouhasvigorouslyarguedthatNeoConfucianismintheSouthern
Sungshouldbedividedintothreeschools,theHunanSchoolofHuHunginadditiontotheChuHsiandLuHsiangshan

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56

schools. Intermsofideasaboutthemindandthenature,ProfessorMouiscorrect,becausethethreeschoolsdorepresentthreedifferentviewpoints.Intermsof
ideasingeneral,however,histheoryisunsoundbecauseitleavesouttheUtilitarianSchoolofCh'enLiangandtheHistoricalSchoolofLTsuch'ien.Scholarsarenot
inerrorindividingtheSouthernSungNeoConfucianSchoolsintotwo,namelythatofChuHsi,whichholdsthatthenatureisprincipleandthatofLuHsiangshan,
whichholdsthatthemindisprinciple.HuHung'sschoolwasapassingphenomenonsofarashistoryisconcerned,becausehehadveryfewfollowersandtheir
influencedidnotreachbeyondtheirlocalarea.
ProfessorMouhasadvancedanothertheory,whichisabsolutelynewandoriginal.HeagreesthatChuHsi'sideascamefromCh'engIbutarguesthatLuHsiang
shan'sideascamedirectlyfromMenciusandthatLuisthereforemorerepresentativeofConfucianorthodoxy.Inhispaper"TheProblemofOrthodoxyinChuHsi's
Philosophy,"ProfessorShuhsienLiuceexaminesMou'sthesiscriticallybutgenerallyagreeswithhisconclusion(chapter14).Intheirview,inotherwords,ChuHsi
was"thesidebranchthattakesoverthepositionoftheorthodoxy"(piehtzuweitsungcf).
WhetherthistheorywillwinacceptancebythemajorityofNeoConfucianscholarsremainstobeseen.IthasalreadyrenderedvaluableserviceinthestudyofNeo
Confucianism.Foronething,ithelpstooverthrowthedominationoftheNeoConfucianmovementbytheCh'engChuSchool.Foranother,ProfessorLiustrikes
downtheoppositionbetweentheCh'engChuSchoolandtheLuWangSchool.Ashehasindicated,"honoringthemoralnature"and"followingthepathofinquiry
andstudy"57arenotmutuallyexclusive,butinthecaseofChuHsi,thelattermerelyservesasthemeanstotheformer.Mostimportantofall,althoughProfessorMou
labelsChuHsiaspiehtzuweitsung(literally''asecondsoninthedirectlineofdescent"),heimpliesthatChuHsiandLuHsiangshanareinthesamefamilyafterall.
Bynotcontrasting"honoringthemoralnature"and"followingthepathofinquiryandstudy,"ProfessorLiushowsthenewspiritofharmonybetweentheChuHsiand
LuHsiangshanschools.ForcenturiestherehasbeenapartisanspiritamongNeoConfucianists.FollowersofCh'engIandChuHsi,ontheonehand,andfollowers
ofLuHsiangshanandWangYangming,ontheother,haveattackedeachotherinbitterterms.Accordingtothetraditionalaccount,thefeudbeganattheGoose
LakeTemplein1175whenLTsuch'ienarrangedforChuHsiandLuHsiangshantomeet.Theyhadheardofeachotherandwantedverymuchtogetacquainted.
ChuHsihadbythistimebecometheleadingfigureintheintellectualworld.Lu,tenyearsyounger,brilliant,andselfconfident,attractedmanyfollowersandwas
becomingastrongrivaltoChuHsi.Accordingtothetraditionalaccount,ChuHsiadvocated"followingthepathofinquiryandstudy"whileLuadvocated"honoring
themoralnature,"andthemeetingwasto"resolvetheirphilosophicaldifferences."Theirsevenoreightlettersinsubsequentyearshave

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usuallybeencitedtoshowtheirdifferencesonthisissueandalsoontheiroppositeattitudestowardChouTuni's"ExplanationoftheDiagramoftheGreatUltimate,"
whichChuHsitookasthefoundationofNeoConfucianmetaphysicsandLuregardedashavingnoplaceintheNeoConfuciansystem.Thattheyheldopposite
viewsontheGreatUltimatecannotbedenied.ButinmystudiesIhavefoundthatbesidesthesevenoreightcorrespondencesusuallycited,theywrotetoeachother
almostonceayear,totalingtwentyonetimesineachdirection.Intheseletterstheytalkedaboutprivateaffairs,suchasbuildingastudyorthelossofaninfant
daughter.Thelettersshowmutualrespectandgenuinefriendship.Myconclusionwasthatwhilethetwofirmlyheldontotheirphilosophicalviewsandwerefrankand
strongintheircriticismofeachother'sideas,theywerecourteousandwarminpersonaldealings.58ThemeetingattheGooseLakeTemplewasbynomeansoneto
resolvephilosophicaldifferences.Tobesure,inthegatheringtherewereargumentsoverChuHsi'semphasisonbooklearning,buttheissuewasnotoneof
knowledgeversusmorality.IhavefoundthatwhileLuwentwithhisbrotherandseveralpupils,ChuHsiwentalone.Besides,intheinformalgatheringofaweekor
so,theytalkedabouttheorderofhexagrams,LTsuch'ien'scommentaryontheBookofHistory,Lu'sbrother'snewtreatise,andinterpretationsofthewordicginthe
titleoftheIching(Bookofchanges).Iwasforcedtoconcludethatthemeetingwasnotatallconfinedtotheissueof"honoringthemoralnature"and"followingthe
pathofinquiryandstudy"butrangedovermanysubjects.Themeeting,therefore,wasnotdesignedtoresolveanyphilosophicaldifferencebutsimplytoget
acquainted.Ifitwastobeadebatebetweenthetwoschools,pupilsinequalnumbershouldhavebeenmobilized.59Nevertheless,mostlikelythemeetingsowedthe
seedofdiscord.Theneedofthetimeforanewphilosophyprovidedafertileground,andLu'spupilswhoshuttledbetweenLuandChuaddedthenecessarywater
andfertilizerwiththeirdistortedreportsofthetwoteachers.Theupshotwasbiasofoneschooltowardtheother,especiallyafterthedeathofthetwoMasters.This
antagonismcontinuedthroughoutChinesehistoryuntilrecentdecades,withtheChuHsiSchooltriumphantbecauseitrepresentedorthodoxy.Whenorthodoxywas
overthrownearlythiscentury,however,thepartisanspiritbegantodie.
Itisinthelightofthisdevelopmentthatthreepaperspresentedattheconferencetakeonspecialsignificance.Inhisopeningremarks(chapter2)ProfessorFungYu
lanstrikesthenoteoftheNeoConfucianunityof"thisside"and"theotherside,"whichheconsiders"acontributiontothedevelopmentofthehumanintellectandthe
advancementofhumanhappiness."ProfessorCh'ienMu's''AHistoricalPerspectiveonChuHsi'sLearning"(chapter4)notonlystressesChuHsi'semphasisonthe
similaritiesamongearlySungNeoConfucianistsratherthantheirdifferencesbutalsocallsattentiontothefactthatthroughoutChinesehistory,philosophershave
soughtconvergenceratherthandivergence.Hesuggeststhattherearemoresimilaritiesthandif

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ferencesbetweenChuHsiandLuHsiangshan.ManypapersdealwithChuHsi'samendedcommentaryontheGreatLearning(chapters10,15,17,21,24).
ProfessorLiangShumingalone(chapter6)sawinit"amajorflaw."
ProfessorYingshihYchdidnotaddresshimselftotheproblemofChuHsi's"followingthepathofinquiryandstudy"andLuHsiangshan's"honoringthemoral
nature,"butratherthecloserelationshipbetweenthesetwoapproachesinChuHsi'sownphilosophy(chapter15).Wedonotneedtogointohiscarefulanalysisof
ChuHsi'smethodologyofbooklearningandChuHsi'sinterpretationofConfucianClassics.ItisenoughtociteProfessorYu'srepeatedstatementthatforChuHsi,
knowledgeisthefoundationofmorality.Oncethisisunderstood,itwillbeabsurdtosaythatChuHsistandsforoneapproachwhileLuHsiangshanstandsforthe
other.
ChuHsioftencharacterizedLuHsiangshanasaMeditation(Ch'anci)Buddhist.HewasevenmorecriticalofBuddhism.Infact,hewasverymuchafraidofit.Inthis
respecthewasuncompromising,oftentimesgoingtoofar.ProfessorCharlesWeihsunFucjhassubjectedhiscriticismtoacarefulanalysisstrictlyonphilosophical
grounds(chapter22).ChuHsi'scritiqueofBuddhistmetaphysics,theBuddhisttheoryofmindandnature,andtheBuddhistmethodofpersonalcultivationleadingto
suddenenlightenmentiscarefullyexamined,pointingoutbothitsstrengthsanditsweaknesses.
TurningtothehistoricaldevelopmentofChuHsi'sphilosophy,wewelcomeProfessorMaoHuaixin'sckaccountoftheChuHsiSchoolsinhisnativeprovince,Fukien
(chapter27).Althoughbrief,theaccountshowsthedevelopmentofChuHsi'steachingsindifferentdirections.ThispreparesthewayforfurtherWesternstudieson
thedevelopmentoftheChuHsiSchool,forsofarthesubjecthasnotbeentoucheduponinEnglish.Forlaterdevelopment,wearefortunatetohaveProfessorLiu
Ts'unyan'sclpaperontheYanperiod(12791368).Itisacomprehensivetreatmentwithfulldocumentarysupport(chapter28).Theauthordiscussestherole
playedbytheFourBooks,theHsiaohseh,andthecivilserviceexaminations,aswellasthepromulgationofChuHsi'steaching,itsrevision,andthereconciliationof
conflictinginterpretationsofChuHsi'sdoctrines.WewishwehadasimilarpapertocovertheMing(13681644)andCh'ing(16441912)dynasties.However,
ProfessorLiZehou'scmpresentation(chapter29)doesdealbrieflywithsomeMingandCh'ingNeoConfucianistsandbringsustosomethinkersofthePeople's
RepublicafterageneralsurveyofNeoConfucianmetaphysics.
WewishwehaddonemoreonChuHsi'sroleinKoreaandJapan,butthatwouldrequireaseparateconference.Inthemeantime,severalconferenceshavebeen
heldinwhichChuHsi'sinfluenceinKoreaandJapanhasbeendiscussedatleasttoalimitedextent.Asfarasthisconferenceisconcerned,byfocusingonthedebate
betweenHanWonjincn(16821751)andYiGanco(16771727),ProfessorYounSasooncp(chapter30)bringsoutoneofthetwobasicissuesinKoreanstudyof
ChuHsi'sthought:thecontroversyoverthe

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natureofmanandthings,anaturalandlogicaloutgrowthoftheearlierdebateontherelationshipbetweennaturebasedonprincipleandfeelingbasedonmaterial
force.ProfessorYamazakiMichio'scqconcentrationonInabaMokusaicr(17321799)(chapter31)maybetakenasacasestudyonChuHsi'sdoctrineofthelearning
oftheWayinJapan.
Allinall,webelievetheconferencecoveredagooddealofgroundanddidmuchtopromotethefurtherstudyofChuHsi.Indeed,oneofitspurposeswastolookto
thefuture.Thiswasthereasonfortheinnovativeprogramofawardingfellowshipstoyoungscholarsthroughaninternationalcompetition.Mostoftheyoungscholars
chosenhadreceivedtheirPh.D.'sinNeoConfucianstudiesseveralhadpublishedbooks.Threeworkshopsweresetupforthem,andthereisnoquestionbutthat
theintimateassociationwithseniorscholarshasgiventhemtremendousinspirationandstrongstimulation.ItisnotfantastictoexpectthatanewgenerationofChuHsi
scholarswillemergefromthisconference.
Fourbookswerepublishedjustbeforetheconference,threeexclusivelyonChuHsi60andoneonNeoConfucianismingeneral.61Theywerepresentedtomembers
oftheconference.Inthetwoyearssincetheconference,aparticipanthaspublishedabookonChuHsi'sthoughtsontheBookofChanges.62Inaddition,anumber
ofarticlesonChuHsihaveappearedinmainlandChina,Taiwan,theUnitedStates,andelsewhere.AtleastoneprofessorinPekinghasbeguntolectureonNeo
Confucianismattwouniversities.CoursesonNeoConfucianismorChuHsihavebeenaddedatseveraluniversitiesintheUnitedStatesandTaiwan.Aconferenceon
NeoConfucianismandeducation,underthedirectionofProfessordeBary,washeldinthefallof1984.Itwasadelayedreaction,onemightsay,fromtheworkshop
thatProfessordeBaryledattheconference.Wecannotclaimcreditforallthis,butstudiesonChuHsiarecertainlygrowingrapidly.
Notes
1.BookofMencius,5B:1.
2.InFrancoiseAubin,ed.,tudeSongSungStudiesimmemoriamtienneBalazs,Ser.II,no.1,1973,pp.5990.
3.See"ChuHsi'sCompletionofNeoConfucianism,"sec.2.
4.TheBookofOdes,theBookofHistory,theBookofChanges,theBookofRites,andtheSpringandAutumnAnnals.
5.See"ChuHsi'sCompletionofNeoConfucianism,"sec.3.
6.Ibid.,sec.1.
7.Ich'uanwenchics[CollectionofliteraryworksofCh'engI],5:12b,andIchuanct[CommentaryontheBookofChanges],1:48aand3:3b,bothintheErh
Ch'engch'anshucu[CompleteworksofthetwoCh'engs],(SPPYed.).
8.TheChinssulucontainsthesayingsofChouTuni,Ch'engHao,Ch'engI,andChangTsai.IhavetranslatedtheworkintoEnglishunderthetitleReflectionson

Page17

ThingsatHand.ItwaspublishedbytheColumbiaUniversityPress,NewYork,in1967.
9.Forthelatter,seemy"TheHsinglichingiandtheCh'engChuSchoolintheSeventeenthCentury,"inWm.TheodoredeBary,ed.,TheUnfoldingofNeo
Confucianism(NewYork:ColumbiaUniversityPress,1975),pp.543579.
10.Fordetails,seemy"TheEvolutionoftheConfucianConceptJen,"PhilosophyEastandWest,4(1955),pp.295319.
11.Ishucv[Survivingworks],2A:12band18:2a,intheErhCh'engch'anshu.
12.ChuTzuwenchicw[CollectionofliteraryworksofMasterChu],(SPPYed.),67:20a,"TreatiseonJen."
13.J.P.Bruce,ChuHsiandHisMasters(London:Probsthain,1923),pp.148and241OlafGraf,TaoundJen:SeinundSollenimsungchinesischen
Monismus(Wiesbaden:OttoHarrassowitz,1970),pp.243,277,317341,350352.
14.ChuTzuyleicx[ClassifiedconversationsofMasterChu],(Taipei:ChengchungcyBookCo.ed.,1970),ch.80,sec.3643,pp.32943303.
15.IntheShihchichuancz(CollectedcommentariesontheBookofOdes),odesnos.42,48,64,72,74,76,81,8395,137,139,140,143.
16.ChuTzuylei,ch.78,sec.25and26,p.3153.
17.Ibid.,ch.84,sec.28,p.3469.
18.Ibid.,ch.83,sec.39,p.3413.
19.Seemy"TheStudyofChuHsiintheWest,"JournalofAsianStudies,vol.30,no.4(Aug.1976),pp.555577.
20.Ishu,22B:3b.
21.BookofMencius,6A:10.Menciussaid,"Ilikelife,andIalsolikerighteousness.IfIcannothaveboth,Iwillletlifegoandchooserighteousness."
22.Ishu8:4b.
23.ChuTzuylei,ch.96,sec.60,p.3928.
24.ChuTzuyleip'ingda[CriticismofMasterChu'sclassifiedsayings],intheYenLits'ungshudb[YenYanandLiKungseries],p.24a.
25.ChuTzuhsinhsehandc[NewanthologyandcriticalaccountsofMasterChu],(Taipei:SanminddBookCo.,1971),Vol.II,p.293.
26.ChuTzuylei,ch.116,sec.55,p.4474.Forthedisciple,seetheSungYanhsehanpuide[SupplementtotheAnthologyandCriticalAccountsofthe
NeoConfucianistsoftheSungandYanDynasties],(Taipei:TheWorldBookCo.ed.),69:190b.
27.Seehisinstructionstopupils,ChuTzuylei,chs.113121.
28.Foradiscussionandtranslationofselectionsfromthiswork,seemySourceBookinChinesePhilosophy(Princeton,N.J.:PrincetonUniversityPress,1963),
ch.42.
29.SeemyChinesePhilosophy,19491963(Honolulu:EastWestCenterPress,1967),pp.38and190194.
30.YehShaoweng,dfSsuch'aowenchienludg[Whatwasheardandseenduringthefourreigns],4thcollection,4:3b.
31.ChuTzuwenchi,85:19a.
32.YangT'ienshih,dhChuHsichich'ichehsehdi[ChuHsiandhisphilosophy],(Peking:ChunghuadjBookCo.,1982),pp.6970ChangLiwen,ChuHsissu
hsiangyenchiudk[StudyofChuHsi'sthought](Beijing:ChineseSocialSciencesPress,1981),pp.7879.
33.OlafGraf,trans.,DschuHsi,dlDjinsilu,dmdieSungkonfuzianischeSummamit

Page18
dn

demKommetardesYTsai (Tokyo:SophiaUniversity,1953)TaoundJen:SeinundSollenimsungchinesischenMonismus(Wiesbaden:Otto
Harrassowitz,1970).
34.YvesHervouet,ed.,ASungBibliography(HongKong:TheChineseUniversityPress,1978)HerbertFranke,ed.,SungBiographies(Wiesbaden:Franz
SteinerVerlag,1976),4vols.
35.Theconferencevolumesare:Wm.TheodoredeBary,ed.,SelfandSocietyinMingThought,1970deBary,ed.,TheUnfoldingofNeoConfucianism,
1975deBaryandIreneBloom,eds.,PrincipleandPracticality,EssaysinNeoConfucianismandPracticalLearning,1979andHoklamChandoandde
Bary,eds.,YanThought:ChineseThoughtandReligionundertheMongols,1982allpublishedbytheColumbiaUniversityPress.
36.ConferencepaperswerepublishedasWangCh'uanshanhsehshut'aolunchidp[AnthologyofthesymposiumonthelearningofWangFuchih],(Peking:
ChunghuaBookCo.,1963).
37.PaperspresentedattheconferencewerepublishedinaspecialissueofPhilosophyEastandWest,vol.23,nos.12(Jan.&Apr.1973).
38.ChuTzuylei,ch.94,sec.16,p.3759.
39.TheonlyplaceinCh'engI'sworkswheret'aichiismentionedisinthe"PrefacetoChanges,"whichisgenerallyconsideredunreliable.Foradiscussionofthis
question,seeA.C.Graham,TwoChinesePhilosophers:Ch'engMingtaoandCh'engYich'uan(London:LundHumphrey,1958),AppendixIandmy"Patterns
forNeoConfucianism:WhyChuHsiDifferedfromCh'engI,"JournalofChinesePhilosophy,5(1978),pp.108109.
40.ChuTzuylei,ch.94,sec.109,p.3790.
41.Hsiangshanch'anchidq[CompleteworksofLuChiuyan],(SPPYed.),2:6ab,"LettertoChuYanhuidr[ChuHsi]."
42.WangMaohung,dsChuTzunienp'udt[ChronologicalbiographyofMasterChu],(WorldBooksCo.ed.),p.216(underthethirdmonthof1200),andpp.
341342.
43.CommentaryontheAnalects,1:2.
44.CommentaryontheAnalects,1:12.
45.ChuTzuylei,ch.1,sec.1,4,pp.12ch.6,sec.13,p.161ch.100,sec.31,p.4050andChuTzuwenchi,36:8b9a12a67:16ab.
46.Forexample,inch.1oftheChouTzuch'anshudu[CompleteworksofMasterChouTuni].
47.Ch'enLai,dv"KuanyCh'engChulich'ihsehshuoliangt'iaotzuliaotik'aocheng"dw[Investigationontwopiecesofmaterialinconnectionwiththetheorieson
principleandmaterialforceofCh'engIandChuHsi],Chungkuochehsehshihyenchiudx[StudiesinthehistoryofChinesephilosophy],1983,no.2,pp.8586.
48.ChuTzuylei,ch.1,sec.13,p.5.
49.InstructionsforPracticalLiving,trans.WingtsitChan(NewYork:ColumbiaUniversityPress,1963),sec.172.
50.K'unchihchidy[Knowledgepainfullyacquired],(1528ed.),supplement,5:3a.
51.Ich'uanwenchi,7:12bIchuan,1:48aand3:3b.
52.ChuTzuwenchi,67:20a21b.
53.InmyChuhsehlunchidz[CollectedessaysonChuHsistudies],(Taipei:StudentBookCo.,1982),pp.3768.
54.Analects,4:16.

Page19

55.ChuTzuwenchi,73:40b47b,"DoubtsonHuHung'sKnowingWords."
56.MouTsungsan,Hsint'iyhsingt'iea[Thesubstanceofthemindandthesubstanceofthenature],(Taipei:ChengchungBookCo.,1969),Vol.1,p.49.
57.DoctrineoftheMean,ch.27.
58.Forthesecorrespondences,seemy"ADetailedAccountoftheCorrespondencesbetweenChuandLu,"Chuhsehlunchi,pp.251269.
59.Forthemeeting,seemy"SupplementaryInformationontheGooseLakeTempleMeeting,"ibid.,pp.233249.
60.MyChuhsehlunchiandChuTzumenjeneb[ChuHsi'spupils],andShuhsienLiu'sChuTzuchehsehssuhsiangtifachenywanch'engec[The
developmentandmaturityofMasterChu'sphilosophicalthought],allpublishedbytheStudentBookCo.ofTaipeiin1982.
61.Ts'aiJenhou,"HsinJuchiatichingshanfanghsiang"ed[ThespiritualdirectionofNeoConfucianism],(Taipei:StudentBookCo.,1982).
62.TsangChunhai,eeHuianIhseht'anweief[AninvestigationintothesubtletiesofChuHsi'sphilosophyofChanges],(Taipei:FuJenegCatholicUniversityPress,
1983).
Glossary

Page20

Page21

2
AGeneralStatementonNeoConfucianism
FungYulan
IamveryhappytobeheretoparticipateintheInternationalConferenceonZhuXi.BesidewhatIshalllearnfromotherscholarscomingfrommanycountries,Iwill
alsohaveachancetorenewmymemoryofthirtyfiveyearsago,whenIhadtheprivilegeofbeingavisitingprofessoratthisuniversity.DuringtheChristmasvacation,
afriendwithhisfamilyandIengagedayachttotraveltotheotherislands.EverywhereIwasimpressedbythebeautyofthelandandthehospitalityofthepeople.
Theconferencenowgivesmeachancetoseetheseoldplacesandtomeetoldfriends.
ItakethisopportunitytoexpressmycongratulationsontheseventyfifthanniversaryoftheUniversityofHawaii.TheislandsofHawaiiaremidwaybetweentheWest
andtheFarEast.Takingadvantageofthisgeographicallocation,thisuniversityconsidersitselfasuitablemeetingplaceforculturalexchangeandinterflowbetween
EastandWest.Theuniversityhasdonemuchworkinthatrespect.Thisconferenceisanexampleofsuchwork.UnderthesponsorshipoftheUniversityofHawaii
andtheAmericanCouncilofLearnedSocieties,theconferencewillpromoteculturalexchangebetweenEastandWestingeneralandthestudyofZhuXiinparticular.
ZhuXiwasaleaderofwhatisknownintheWestasNeoConfucianism.IshallheretrytomakeageneralstatementofwhatItaketobetheessenceofNeo
Confucianism.
NeoConfucianismmaybecalled"thelearningofman."Itdealswithsuchtopicsasman'splaceandroleintheuniverse,therelationbetweenmanandnature,andthe
relationsbetweenmanandmanandbetweenhumannatureandhumanhappiness.Itsaimistoachieveunityofoppositesinthelifeofman,andtoshowhowto
accomplishthis.
Generallyspeaking,therearetwosetsoffundamentalopposites,hence,twofundamentalcontradictions.Theyarefundamentalbecausetheyarecommonto
everythingintheuniverse.
Intheuniverse,everything,bigorsmall,isanindividual,humanbeingsincluded.Beinganindividual,itmustbeanindividualofsomekind.Itmusthavesomequalities.
Nothingiswithoutqualities.Theindividualisaparticu

Page22

laritsqualityistheuniversalinherentinit.Thecontradictionbetweenuniversalityandparticularitythusexistsineverything.Thisisonekindofcontradiction.
Beinganindividual,theindividualmustconsideritselfasthesubjectandothersasobjects.Thisisanotherkindofcontradiction,thecontradictionbetweensubjectivity
andobjectivity.
Thesetwokindsofcontradictionaretheconsequenceofthesamefactthatanindividualisanindividual.Thisfactiscommontoeverything.Whatispeculiarinmanis
thatheisconsciousofit.Inthisrespect,theoutstandingrepresentativeisthephilosopherthelearningofmanisthephilosophyofthephilosophers.
Inphilosophy,therearethreewaystoapproachtheabovefact:theontological,theepistemological,andtheethical.
IntheWest,Platowastherepresentativeoftheontologicalapproach.Inspiredbythesuggestionofmathematics,heintroducedhistheoryofIdeas.Geometrydefines
thecircularityofcircles,onlytofindthatamongconcretecircles,noonecircleisexactlyinaccordancewiththedefinition.Thatistosay,amongconcretecircles,no
oneisperfectlycircular.Thedefinitionisnotmerelywordsofgeometry,normerelythethoughtofthemathematician.Thedefinitionofcircularityexpressesthe
objectivestandardofcriticismandaction.Withthisstandardpeoplecouldsaythisorthatcircleismoreorlesscircular,pointingoutitsdefectsandimperfections.
Withthisstandardpeoplecouldstrivetocorrectitsdefectsandimperfections.PlatopointedoutthatthestandardistheIdea,theoriginalofcircularity,whileconcrete
circlesaremereimitations,merecopiesofcircularity.Animitationcanneverbeexactlythesameastheoriginal.
Platomadeclearthecontradictionbetweenuniversalityandparticularity,onlytoshowthatthecontradictionismuchsharperandmoreacutethanwhatisgenerally
understood.Inconsequence,heconsideredthoseaspectsofhumanlifethatareduetoparticularitysuchassensuousdesires,forexampletobebynaturebase
andevil.Reasonisbynaturesuperiortoandhigherthanthesensuous,justasslavemasterswerebynaturesuperiortoandhigherthantheslaves.Theorderofnature
isthatthehighershouldcontrolthelower.
Kantstartedwiththeoppositesofsubjectivityandobjectivity.Accordingtohim,thesubjectcouldknowtheobjectonlythroughitsownsubjectiveformsand
categories.Whatisknownthroughsubjectiveformsandcategoriesisonlythephenomena,notthenoumena.Evenwithregardtoman'sownspiritualworld,whatis
knowntohimisalsoonlyaphenomenon,becausethatalsoisknownthroughhissubjectiveformsandcategories.Kantmadeclearthecontradictionbetween
subjectivityandobjectivityonlytoshowthatthecontradictionismuchsharperandmoreacutethanwhatisunderstoodbythecommonpeople.
AccordingtoKantthereissomethinglikeaflashlightthroughwhichman

Page23

couldhaveaglanceatthenoumena.Theflashlightisthemoralconductofman.AccordingtoKant,moralconductismoralbecauseitrepresentsauniversallaw.
Throughthisuniversallaw,whichmanlegislatesforhimself,hecouldhaveaglanceatthenoumena.God,immortalityandfreedom.Bylogicalinferencethroughthe
accumulationofmoralconductmancouldhaveacompleteknowledgeofnoumenaorawholeexperienceofit.Kant,however,didnotmakethisinferencebut
regardedthenoumenaasthe"otherside."Whatmencouldknowandexperienceis"thisside."ToKant,the"otherside"wasbeyondthereachofman.
TheNeoConfucianistsapproachedtheproblemfromtheethicalangle.Theydidnotaltogetherneglecttheontologicalapproach,however,forwithouttheontological
approachthecontradictionbetweenuniversalityandparticularitycouldnotbemadeclear.Infact,ZhuXihimselfwasoneofthegreatontologistsinthehistoryof
Chinesephilosophy.ButtheNeoConfucianistsdidnotstopwiththeontologicalapproach.Theydidnotstopwiththeanalysisoftheoppositesofuniversalityand
particularitybuttriedtoachieveaunityofthetwo.Forthemthewaytoachievesuchaunitywasthroughtheaccumulationofmoralconduct.
AccordingtotheNeoConfucianiststheuniversalisinherentintheparticular.Theparticularisnotmerelytheimperfectimitationoftheuniversal,butratherthe
realizationoftheuniversal.Therealizationmaybeimperfect,butwithouttheparticulartheuniversalcouldnotexistatall.OnthispointthedifferentschoolsofNeo
Confucianismwerenotinagreement.EvenZhuXihimselfwasinconsistentinhissayings.ButIthinkthispointcorrectlyrepresentstheconclusionsofNeo
Confucianism.
FortheNeoConfucianiststhenatureofmanisthatwhichdistinguishesmanfromotheranimals.Itistheuniversalofmaninherentinmanasaparticular.Thenatureof
manisnotequivalenttotheinstinctofman.Thenatureofmanisalogicalconcept,notabiologicalconcept.Itincludesthebiologicalinstinctsbutisnottheseinstincts.
ItisinthissensethatNeoConfucianisminsistedthathumannatureisgood.Itcouldnotbeotherwise.
EvensensuousdesiresassucharenotbynaturebaseandevilasPlatothought,fortheyderivefromthebody,thematerialfoundationofhumanexistence.According
toNeoConfucianismwhatisbadandevilisnotthesedesiresthemselvesbuttheselfishnessassociatedwiththem.Thestandardforjudgingaconductmoralor
immoraliswhethertheconductis"forprivate,"or"forpublic."Ifitis"forprivate,"itisimmoralornonmoralifitis''forpublic,"itismoral.Moralconductmeansthat
theselfishnessofmanisreduced.Theaccumulationofmoralconductmeanstheaccumulationofthisdiminutionofselfishness.Whentheaccumulationofthe
diminutionsreachesacertainpoint,selfishnessiscompletelyovercome,andaunityofparticularityanduniversalitycomesasaresult.ThispointiswhatZhuXicalled
the"thoroughunderstanding"(huojankuant'unga)andwhatCh'anbBuddhismcalled"suddenenlightenment"(tunwuc)."Withthethoroughunderstand

Page24
1

ing...thecompletenatureandthegreatfunctionofthemindareilluminated,"asZhuXisaid. Whenselfishnessisovercome,thesensuousdesireisnotabolished
altogetherwhatisabolishedistheselfishnessassociatedwithit.Withthisunitytherecomesalsotheunityofsubjectivityandobectivity.
TheNeoConfucianistsconsideredbenevolence(humanity,'jen'd)asthefirstofFourFundamentalVirtues,orevenincludingallfour.2Benevolencemeanslovefor
others.Themanwholovesothersiscalledthe"benevolenceman".AccordingtoNeoConfucianismthespiritualworldofthebenevolentmanmergesintoawhole
withtheuniverse.Heconsidersallmenashisbrothersandeverythingashiscompanion.TheChinesewordsfor"benevolence"andfor"man"(jene)havethesame
sound.Inthesamesound.IntheClassics,thetwowordsmutuallydefinedeachother.Thelearningofmanmaythusbedefinedasthelearningofbenevolence.
AccordingtoNeoConfucianism,whenthiskindofunityisachieved,therecomessupremehappiness.Itisakindofhappinessdifferentinqualityfromsensuous
pleasures.Itisanenjoymentofemancipationandfreedomfromtheboundariesandlimitationsofparticularityandsubjectivity.Itisanemancipationnotinthe
politicalsense,butanemancipationformthefinitetotheinfinite,fromtimetoeternity.WhatKantsaidaboutthethreeimportantmattersintheworldofnoumena
God,immortality,andfreedomissimilar.
Platoofferedaparabletellingofamanwho,imprisonedinacaveforlife,escapedfromthecave.Heimmediatelybegantoseethebrillianceofthesunandthebeauty
oftheworld.Hisviewbroadened,heexperiencedajoythathehadneverexperiencedbefore.Platousedthisparabletoillustratethemindofthemanwhohasgained
theinsightoftheworldofIdeas.WhattheNeoConfucianistscalled"supremehappiness"issomethinglikethis.
Suchsupremehappinessmaybecalledintellectualhappiness,becauseitistheresultoftheactivityoftheintellect.Itdiffersinqualityfromsensuouspleasuresresulting
fromthesatisfactionofthesenseorgans.Inordertoachievethisstate,onedoesnothavetodoanythingspecial,toleavesocietyorabandonone'sfamily.Noristhere
needforworshipandprayer.Onejustaccumulatesmoralconductindailylife,alwayskeepsinmindtheneedtofightagainstselfishness.Thatisall.Inthisway,the
"thisside"becomesthesameasthe"otherside,"the"otherside"residesin"thisside.''ThissynthesisisthecontributionofNeoConfucianismtowardthedevelopment
ofthehumanintellectandtheadvancementofhumanhappiness.
Anymoralconduct,asaparticular,isunavoidablyassoicatedwiththeexistingsocialinstitutionsandinvolvdeinthesocialregulationsofthetime.TheNeo
ConfucianistslivedinthefeudalsocietyofChina.Whattheyconsideredasmoralwasnaturallyassoicatedwithaninvolvedinfeuadlinstitutionsandregulations.This
assoicationalsoshowsthecontradictionbetweenuniversalityandparticularity.Concretemoralconductistheparticularthecharcterofbeing"forpublic"isthe
universal.Theuniversalisinherentintheparticular.ThusinthefeudalsocietyofChina,therulingclasshonoredNeoCon

Page25

fucianismastherulingphilosophyinthetimeofantifeudalism,NeoConfucianismisdenouncedasreactionary.Neitherpositioniswithoutreasonbotharethe
consequencesofthedialecticaldevelopmentofhistory.ThepointsIhavemadeareconfinedtothephilosophicalaspectofNeoConfucianism.
InthislimitedspaceIdidnotquotemuchfromthesayingsoftheNeoConfucianiststoillustratemypoints.InsteadItalkedaboutPlatoandKant,Western
philosopherswhoconsideredthesameproblemsasdidtheNeoConfucianists.ThisshowsthatEastandWest,althoughseparatedbyoceans,facethesame
problemsinlife,whicharereflectedinphilosophy.
Notes
1.IntroductiontohisChungyungchangchf[CommentaryontheDoctrineoftheMean].
2.BookofMencius,2A:2,6A:6.TheFourFundamentalVirtuesarebenevolence,righteousness,propriety,andwisdom.
Glossary

Page26

3
ChuHsi'sContributiontoConfucianLearningandtheFlawsinHisTheoreticalThinking
LiangShuming
Tobeginwith,wemustclarifywhatkindoflearningConfucianismis.Havingdoneso,wecanthenevaluateChuHsi'scontributiontothistradition.Ishallproceedwith
mydiscussioninthissequence.
Describinghisownprocessoflearningandintellectualmaturity,Confucius(551479B.C.)onceremarked,"AtfifteenIsetmymindonlearning.AtthirtyIhad
establishedmyself.AtfortyInolongerhadperplexities.AtfiftyIunderstoodtheDecreeofHeaven.AtsixtyIbecameateasewithwhateverIheard.AtseventyI
couldfollowmyhear'sdesireswithouttransgressingmoralprinciples."1ItisthusevidentthatwhatConfuciuscalledlearningisbothaconsciousreflectionuponone's
lifeandone'smanneroflivingandasearchforgradualimprovementofboth.Scholarsinthepasthaveofferedvariousconjecturestointerpretthedifferentstagesof
developmentoutlinedbyConfucius.Toexplainthesentence,"AtsixtyIbecamesomethinglike"Whenthesoundenters,themindispenetrated."Thisahighly
inappropriateexplanation.Whenwereflectuponthematterseriously,evenConfuciushimselfdidnotknowwhatstageofdevelopmenthewouldreachbeforehe
actuallyreachedit.Howcanweventureanyrecklessguess?Weshouldstrictlyobservethedictumthat"whenwedonotknow,weacknowledgeourignorance."2
Whatwedoknow,however,isthatConfucianlearningisnotingotherthantheconsciousreflectionuponone'slifeandone'smannerofliving.
ThewayConfucius'discipleYenHuia3(C.521490B.C.)undertookhisstudyisthebestillustrationofConfucianlearning:
WhenDukeAibofLucaskedhimwhichofhisdiscipleswasfondoflearning,Confuciusreplied,"TherewasoneYenHuiwhowasfondoflearning.Hedidnotventhisanger
uponaninnocentparty,nordidhemakethesamemistaketwice.Unfortunatelyhisallottedspanoflifewasashortoneandhedied.Nowthereisnoone.Ihavenotcomeacross
anotherasfondoflearningashewas."4

Whatismeantby"notventingangeruponaninnocentparty"?Whatismeantby"notmakingthesamemistaketwice"?FromConfucius'toneof

Page27

approvalintheabovequote,wecansurmisethatYenHui'saccomplishmentinlearningmusthavebeenmostimpressive.Wemustnotfollowtheexampleoflater
scholars,however,ChuHsiincluded,toconjecturepurelyfromthesuperficialmeaningofthewordsusedwhatthesephrasesreallysay.Todosowillbetoclaim
knowledgewhenactuallyweareignorant.Whatwearesureabout,however,isthatYenHuiwasunmatchedpreciselybecauseofhisunderstandingandappreciation
oflifeandthemannerofliving,andnothingelse.
AsrepresentativeoftheSung(9601279)scholars,ChuHsihascertainlymademajorcontributionstothepropagationandperpetuationofConfucianlearning.In
particular,IhaveinmindhisshrewdandinsightfulselectionfromamongthefiftychaptersoftheBookofRitesthetwochaptersthatbestillustratethetrueessenceof
Confucianteaching,namely,theGreatLearningandtheDoctrineoftheMean,andhiscombinationofthemwiththeAnalectsandtheBookofMenciustoformthe
FourBooks,whichconstitutethemostbasicreadingforallstudentsinlatergenerations.ThisaccomplishmentofChuwillbefurtherdiscussedbelow.
Confucianismwas,inthebeginning,onlyoneofthecontendingschoolsofthought.DuringtheWarringStatesperiod(403222B.C.),themiscellaneouspracticesofthe
hegemonwerewidelyadopted.InWesternHan(206B.C.A.D.8),thetraditionofHuangLaod(Taoiststatecraft)waspopular.Acursoryreadingofthechapter"Liu
chiayaochih"e(Essentialdoctrinesofthesixschools)intheShihchif(Historicalrecords)willrevealthatConfucianismwasverymuchineclipseduringthistime.We
cangenerallystatethatfromHan(206B.C.A.D.220)toT'ang(618907)therewereonlyclassical,canonicalstudies,butnoauthentic,practicingConfucianists.Itwas
onlyafterthechallengeofTaoismandBuddhismintheT'angdynastythatConfucianistsbegantoreemergeinSungandMing(13681644)torevivetheirlong
obscuredtradition.
WhenthisConfuciantraditionwasrevivedintheSungperiod,itwasatonetimeknownasTaohsehg(ThelearningofimmutableWay).IthadanothernameofLi
hsuenh(Thelearningofprinciples).BeginningwithChouTunii(10171073),itwastransmittedthroughChangTsaij(10201077),thetwobrothersCh'engHaok
(10321085)andCh'engIl(10331107),andthetwobrothersLuChiulingm(11321180)andLuChiuyan(LuHsiangshan,n11391193).WhenChuHsi
appearedonthescene,heenjoyedgreatesteemforhavingsynthesizedtheideasoftheseSungmastersintoanintegratedwhole.
ChuHsi'screationofanintegratedsynthesismustbeseeninthelightofthedecisionmadebytherulingauthoritiesinMingandCh'ing(16441912).Bothdynasties
recruitedofficialsthroughthecivilserviceexamination.ItwasChuHsi'sSsushuchangchchichuo(CommentariesontheFourBooks)thatwasdesignatedtobe
thebasisforallcompositionsintheseexaminations.
SincetheconsolidationofChuHsi'sauthoritativepositionreliedonthe

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politicalsupportoftherulingdynasty,theteachingsofConfuciusandMencius(372289B.C.?),whichoriginallyrepresentedonlyoneschoolofthoughtandnota
religion,wereturnedintoa"ReligionofConfucianism"(K'ungchiaop)throughthemanipulationoftheauthorities.ChuHsihimselfwasexaltedastherepresentativeof
thisreligion.The"religionofrituals"(lichiaoq),orthe"religionoftitlesandstatuses"(mingchiaor),whichespousetheThreeBondsandtheFiveConstancies(san
kangwuch'angs),5wasthusestablished.ThetruespiritofConfucianteachingbecamesuffocatedandlost.Theabusesofthisnewreligionhadbeengivenan
impassioneddenunciationbyTaiChent(17231777)intheCh'ingperiod.InfairnesstoChuHsi,however,hewasnotentirelytoblamefortheselaterdevelopments.
TheDoctrineoftheMeanandtheGreatLearningbestexemplifythequintessenceofConfucianteachingbecausetheybothclearlyrevealthatthisteachingcenters
onthenotionsofhsiushenu(cultivationoftheself)andshentuv(vigilanceinsolitude).Thisfocusoninnercultivationisalsocalledhsiuchiw(selfcultivation).Hsiuchi,
hsiushen,andshentuareevidentlyidenticalinmeaning.HavewenotpointedoutearlierthattheessenceofConfucianlearningisthisconsciousreflectiononone's
lifeandone'smannerofliving?AllofthisismadeclearinConfucius'replytoaquestionputtohimbyhisdiscipleTzulux(C.542480B.C.).
Tzuluaskedaboutthegentleman.TheMastersaid,"Hecultivateshimselfwithreverentialseriousness."Tzulufurtherinquired,"Isthatall?"TheMasteranswered,"He
cultivateshimselfandtherebybringspeaceandsecuritytohisfellowmen."Tzuluaskedagain,"Isthatall?"TheMasterreplied,''Hecultivateshimselfsoastobringpeaceand
securitytothecommonpeople.EvenYaoyandShunzwouldhavefoundthistaskofbringingpeaceandsecuritytothecommonpeopledifficulttoperform!"6

ThesolemnexaltationoftheDoctrineoftheMeanandtheGreatLearningbygroupingthemwiththeAnalectsandtheBookofMenciustoformtheFourBooks
thatprovidethebasisforeducationforalllatergenerationsthisisthecontributionoftheSungscholars.Atthesametime,itisthecontributionofChuHsi.Itis
regrettable,however,thatChuHsi'sannotationsontheFourBookscontainnumerouserrorsandmisinterpretations.EarlyCh'ingscholarssuchasYenYanaa(1635
1704)andLiKungab(16591733)werehighlycriticaloftheSungConfucianists,ChuHsiincluded.LaterintheCh'ingperiod,Ch'enLi'sac(18101882)Tungshu
tushuchiad(ReadingnotesfromtheEasternStudio)andLiTzuch'i'saeSsushuchihiaf(QueriesontheFourBooks)bothpointedoutsomeoftheerrorsand
providedcorrections.MaoCh'iling'sag(16231716)Ssushukaits'uoah(RectifyingmistakesontheFourBooks)offeredevenmorescathingcriticismsofChuHsi's
mistakes.Tobesure,ChuHsiwasearnestandindustriousinhisstudiesandwaswellversedinmanyschoolsofthought.However,hehadalsooverextendedhimself
and

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becomenegligentinsomeareas.Inaddition,hehadexcessivelystrongsubjectiveviews.Itisthusconceivablethatsomeofhiscommentariesshowsignsof
carelessnessandcrudeunderstanding.
Finally,IwouldliketotouchuponwhatIperceivetobeamajorflawinChuHsi'stheoreticalreasoning.Thisflawisrevealedmostglaringlyinapassageinhis
"supplementalcommentary"ontheGreatLearning(puchuanai):
Thehumanmindissentient,sononelacksthecapacitytoknow.Atthesametime,notasinglethingintheworldisdevoidofprinciple.Itisonlybecausetheprinciplesofthings
arenotfullyandexhaustivelyinvestigatedthathumanknowledgeitselfisincomplete.Forthisreason,theGreatLearningbeginsitsinstructionforeachlearnerbyadmonishing
himthat,withregardtoallthingsintheworld,heshouldproceedfromwhathealreadyknowsabouttheirprinciples,andshouldinvestigatefurtheruntilhereachesthelimit.After
exertinghimselfinthismannerforanextendedperiodoftime,hewillonedayabruptlyarriveatapenetratingcomprehensionofallthings.Theneveryaspectofthesethings,
whetherexternalorinternal,refinedorcoarse,willbeapprehendedandthemind,initsentiresubstanceandgreatfunction,willbeperfectlyenlightened.Thisiscalledthe
investigationofthings.Thisiscalledtheperfectionofknowledge.7

Wehavetokeepinmindthatinthisworldthereiswuliaj(principleofthings),andthenthereisch'ingliak(principleoffeelings).Thetwoareentirelydifferent.
Unfortunately,ChuHsihasfailedtomakeanydistinctionbetweenthem.Whenweobservethephenomenaofevolutionandnaturalselectionintheanimalandplant
worlds,wenoticethattheyarecharacterizedbythestrongdominatingtheweakandthemanyoverpoweringthefew.Eveninthehumanworldthesituationissimilar.
Thisobjectiverealityinnatureisindicativeoftheprincipleofthings.Yetemotionallywefindthisrealityrepulsive.Wealwayssympathizewiththeweakanddemand
fairnessandjusticeforthem.Occasionallywearemovedbyrighteousoutrageandstandupforthedowntroddenandtheunfairlytreated.Insuchcasestheprinciple
offeelingsisatwork.ThisprincipleoffeelingsisidenticalwithwhatwecommonlycallthePrincipleofHeaven(T'ienlial)orconscience(lianghsinam),whichinheres
inoursubjectivepreference.Moreover,whatourcommonsayingsoftenrefertoasthesenseofmoraljustice(chengikanan)isclearlyafeeling,whichisexactlythe
oppositeoftheprincipleofthings.Thelatterisexternal,objective,andisderivedentirelyfromdetachedobservationandexperimentation.Itwilltoleratenointermixing
withanysubjectivefeelingorpreference.
Fromtheperspectiveofouranalysisoutlinedabove,letusreexamineChuHsi'swritingontheinvestigationofthingsintheGreatLearning.Sincehementionssuch
termsas"thingintheworld,""theexternalandinternal,"and"therefinedandcoarseofallthings,''heisevidentlytalkingabouttheprincipleofthings.Theapplicationof
themindtoinvestigateexternalthingswillsurelyenableonetoobservetheiroperatingprinciplesandtoproducenatural

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sciencesaswellassocialsciences.Butdoesnotthisorientationrepresentadeparturefromthefocusonconsciousreflectiononthemeaningoflifeandthemannerof
living,whichwehavedeterminedtobethecentralconcernofConfucianlearning?HowthencanoneattainthegoalofwhatChuHsihasreferredtoas"theperfect
enlightenmentoftheentiresubstanceandgreatfunctionofthemind"?Weshouldknowthatinordertoattainthisgoal,thewaytofollowiswhathasalreadybeen
mentionedintheoriginaltextoftheGreatLearningthewayofmanifestingtheclearcharacter(mingmingteao).8Manifestingtheclearcharacterliespreciselyin
hsiushenandshentuandtoobserveandhandleallaffairsinreallifeisfundamentallytheundertakingsofhsiushenandshentu.Bothwillrevealanddevelopthe
entiresubstanceandgreatfunctionofourmind.Ifwebeginourlearningbyapplyingthemindtoexternalthings,willitnotruncountertothecentralteachingofthe
Confuciantraditionwehavedescribedabove?ChuHsihasthereforefailedtoavoidcommittingaseriousmistakeinhistheoreticalthinking.Iawaitthejudgmentand
commentofmyreaderswhetherI,too,havecommittedanyseriousmistakesinthisevaluation.
TranslatedbyRichardShekap
Notes
1.Analects,2:4.
2.Ibid.,2:17.
3.Confucius'mostvirtuouspupil,c.521490B.C.
4.Analects,6:2.
5.TheThreeBondsweretherulerasthestandardfortheminister,thefatherasthestandardfortheson,andthehusbandasthestandardforthewife.TheFive
Constancieswerethefiverelationsbetweenfatherandson,rulerandminister,brothers,husbandandwife,andfriends,withthetraditionalemphasisonloyaltytothe
rulerandfilialpietytowardthefather.
6.Analects,14:15.YaoandShunwerelegendarysageemperors.
7.CommentaryinthefifthchapterofhisTahsehchangchaq[CommentaryontheGreatLearning].
8.ThebeginningsentenceoftheGreatLearning.
Glossary

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4
AHistoricalPerspectiveonChuHsi'sLearning
Ch'ienMu
ThereexistsacharacteristicinChineselearningthatcanalsobeconsideredasthecharacteristicofChinesecivilizationasawhole.Itistoplacevalueonsimilarityand
convergenceratherthanondifferenceanddivergence.LetmebeginbyexaminingConfucius(551479B.C.).Confuciusdescribedhisownlearningasaneffort"to
transmitandnottoinnovate,totrustandtodelightinantiquity."1ItisevidentthatforMasterK'ung,alearninginvolvestrustingandtakingdelightinwhatisbeing
learned.Heregardedaslearningthatwhichonehasderivedfromtheancients,notthatwhichonehasarrivedatindependentlytodistinguishoneselffromtheancients.
Hencehelamented,"HowfarIhavedegenerated!IthasbeenalongtimesinceIlastdreamtoftheDukeofChou[d.1056B.C.]!"b2Itcanbeseenthatwhat
Confuciushadsoughttolearn,andwhathehadpursuedceaselesslydayandnight,wastheWayoftheDukeofChou.Likewise,Mencius(372289B.C.?)also
proclaimedthat"whatIwishtodoistolearntobelikeConfucius!"3ThereisacommonthreadthatrunsthroughtheDukeofChou,Confucius,andMencius,andit
createstheConfuciantraditioninChina.
Menciusalsoremarkedthat"Shuncthesagepracticedvirtuewithothers.Heregardedvirtueasthecommonpropertyofhimselfandothers...anddelightedtolearn
fromotherstopracticewhatwasvirtuous."4ItisthereforeobviousthattheChineseconsidersimilaritywithothers(t'ungd)asgood.ThustheGreatSimilarity(ta
t'ung,ealsotranslatedasGreatUnity)isatthesametimetheSupremeGood(chihshanf).Toengageinlearningistolearntobehuman.Thegreatwayofhumanity
residesinthecommonality,andnotthediversity,amongman.
Indeed,thislineofthinkingwasnotconfinedtotheConfucianists.ItwassharedbytheMohists.TheMohistphilosophersadvocateduniversallove,viewingthefather
ofothersastheirownfatherandarguingforthe"WillofHeaven"and"AgreementwiththeSuperiors."TheyalsoinsistedthatifonedidnotsubscribetotheWayof
thesageY,g5onewouldbeunworthytobeaMohist.MoTzu'sh(468376B.C.?)exaltationofYisanalogoustoConfucius'elevationoftheDukeofChou.MoTzu,
likeConfucius,wasatransmitterandnotaninnovator.Hetootrustedandtookdelightinantiquity.

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FollowingtheConfucianistsandtheMohists,theTaoistsappearedonthescene.Theirteachingfocusedevenmoreonthesearchforunityandnotvariance.LaoTzui
commentedintheTaotechingj(ClassicoftheWayandVirtue)that"similarityiscalledmysterymysteryuponmysterythegatewayofmanifoldsecrets."6Forthis
reasontheTaoistschoseamongtheancientstheYellowEmperorastheexemplar.Thethinkingwasthatthemoredistantpasttowhichtheindividualbelongs,the
moresimilarityheshareswithothermen.ThustheTaoistswereequallyconcernedwithtransmissionandnotinnovationandharkenedbacktoaswellasdelightedin
antiquity.EventuallyConfucianismandTaoismformedthetwoprincipaltraditionsoflearninginChina.ThisismyreasonforidentifyingthecharacteristicofChinese
learningwiththecharacteristicofChina'scivilizationitself.
TheHan(206B.C.A.D.220)ConfucianistsassignedspecialdistinctiontotheFiveClassics,7suppressedcontendingschoolsofthought,andaccordedsoleveneration
totheDukeofChouandConfucius.BytheWeiChinperiod(220420),however,theTaoistsenjoyedarevival.ThenotionthatConfuciusandLaoTzuwere"just
aboutthesame"(chiangwut'ungk)wasacelebratedobservation.AfterBuddhismwasintroducedtoChina,itsadherentsturnedouttobetransmittersandnot
innovators.ItthereforeformedatriumviratewithConfucianismandTaoism.Atthesametime,Confucius,LaoTzu,andSakyamunilenjoyedequalrespectfromthe
Chinesepeople.
WhentheNeoConfucianistsappearedintheSungdynasty(9601279),theydispelledheterodoxideasanddoctrinesandsingledouttheConfuciantraditionfor
veneration.Yettheyalsosubscribed,asthescholarsbeforethemdid,totheidealoftransmissionofancientideasandnottheinnovationofnewones.Forthisreason,
theydidnotattachanygreatvaluetocreativetheoriesandindividualizeddoctrines.Eventhewritingofbookswasnotemphasized.Tobesure,Confuciushimself
authoredtheSpringandAutumnAnnals,butitwasmeanttobeahistoricalrecord,notanexpositionofhispersonalviews.TheAnalects,acollectionofhisdaily
conversationsandactionsrecordedandcirculatedbyhisdisciples,wascommittedtowritingonlyafterafewgenerations.Itwasnotcompleteduntilmorethana
centuryafterConfucius'death.ThecaseofMoTzuwasalmostidentical.MoTzuhimselfneverwroteanybook.Thebookbearinghisnamewascompiledbyhis
disciplesandlaterfollowers.
TheBookofMencius,withitssevenbooks,wastheproductofthejointeffortbetweenMenciusandsomeofhisdisciplessuchasWanChangmandKungsun
Ch'ou.nOnthewhole,itsformatresemblesthatoftheAnalects,inthatitrecordsthedailyconversationsanddeedsoftheMaster.Thisisafarcryfromthesystematic
andorganizedexpositionofinventiveanduniqueviews.
OnlyChuangTzuo(c.369c.286B.C.)andLaoTzu,becauseoftheirretreatfromsocialinvolvementandtheirrefusaltogatherafollowingliketheConfucianistsand
theMohists,compiledbooksasindividuals.Theseven

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innerchaptersoftheChuangTzuandthetwopartsoftheTaotechingthusstartedthetraditionforbookwritingbyindividualChinesethinkers.ButtheChuang
Tzuisrepletewithmetaphors,anditteacheswithdrawalfromtheworld.ThebookLaoTzuwasinspiredbyitsnamesakementionedintheChuangTzu.Ittooisa
formofmetaphor,andtheauthor'snameoridentityremainsobscure.LateronspecialtreatisesappearedthatreflectedthesynthesisofConfucianandTaoist
teachings.WorkssuchastheDoctrineoftheMean(Chungyungp)andthecommentaryandappendicestotheBookofChangesareexamplesofworkswhose
dateofcompletionandauthorshipwereneverknown.Likewise,the"GreatLearning,"the"RecordofMusic,"andthe"EvolutionofRites"chaptersoftheBookof
Riteshavenoknownauthorshipordefinitetimeofcompletion.WecanonlysurmisethattheywerecomposedaftertheLaoTzuandtheChuangTzu.Henceitcan
onceagainbeproventhatChinesescholarsconcentratedmostlyontransmittingancientideasratherthaninnovatingnewones.Theurgetostriveforinventiveness,
individualexpressiveness,andselffamewasabsent.EventhelaterTaoists,unlikeLaoTzuandChuangTzu,placednoemphasisontheindividualcompositionof
books.
ScholarsinChinararelywrotebooksasindividualstoexpresstheirpersonalideas.Examplesofindividualauthorship,however,doexist.Inadditiontohistorical
works,literarycompositionssuchasCh'Yan'sq(343277B.C.)"EncounteringSorrow"(Lisaor)immediatelycometomind.Thispoeticpieceactuallysetthe
patternforlaterliteraryworks.Otherswerewritteninresponsetocertainneeds.ChiaI'ss(201169B.C.)"MemorialonGovernmentAffairs"(Ch'enchengshihshut)
inearlyHanandTungChungshu'su(176104B.C.)"AnswerstoQuestionsonHeavenandMan"(T'ienjentuits'ev)aresuchspecificpieces.Theydifferinnature
fromworksintendedtobeexpressionsofpersonalideasmeantforposterity.AsTungChungshufailedtomakefurtherheadwayinpolitics,heauthoredthe
LuxuriantGemsoftheSpringandAutumnAnnals(Ch'unch'iufanluw).YangHsiungx(53B.C.A.D.18)ledanundistinguishedpoliticallifewhenWangMangy(45
B.C.A.D.23)foundedtheHsindynasty(923).HethereforecomposedthetwoworksofModelSayings(Fayenz)andtheClassicofSupremeMystery(T'ai
hsanaa).TheCh'unch'iufanluwasaimedattheelucidationofthedeepermeaningoftheSpringandAutumnAnnals,whiletheFayenandtheT'aihsanwere
consciousimitationsoftheBookofChangesandtheAnalects.Theyclearlyandunequivocallyidentifiedtheirsourceofinspirationandintellectuallineage.Thusthese
worksarestilldifferentfromthosewrittenbyindividualswiththepurposeofexpoundingtheirunique,personalviews.BytheSuiperiod(581618),WangT'ung
(WenchungTzu,ab584617)wasbelievedtohavecompiledtheWenchungTzu.YetthisworkwasgivenfinalorganizationbyWang'sfollowers,whoevendecided
uponthetitleitself.Asthistextisprincipallyconcernedwiththeconsolidationofoneparticularintellectualtradition,itisstillatransmissionandnotaninnovation.Itis
apparentthat,moresothantheworksof

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TungChungshuandYangHsiung,WangT'ung'sbookisnotanoriginal,inventivepieceofwriting.Tung,Yang,andWangwerethreeofthemostoutstanding
Confucianistsofalltimes.Iftheirwritingsallsharedthiscommonfeatureofseekingtoblendinwithanestablishedtraditionratherthancreatingatotallynewone,then
thoseoftheirlesserfellowscholarsshouldgowithoutsaying.
Inadditiontohistoricalandliterarywriting,thecompilationofcommentariesonclassicaltextswasamajorundertakingoftheHanConfucianists.ChengHsanac
(127200)wasknownforhisachievementinsynthesizingthevariousschoolsofcommentaryintheHanperiod.Furthermore,WangPiad(226249)annotatedthe
BookofChangesandtheLaoTzu,whileHoYenae(190249)providedexegesisontheAnalectsandKuoHsiangaf(d.312)didthesamefortheChuangTzu.
EvensuchapoliticalwizardasTs'aoTs'aoag(155220)wroteacommentaryontheMilitaryStrategembyMasterSun(SunTzupingfaah).AfterBuddhismwas
introducedtoChina,eminentChinesemonkswereactivelyinvolvedinwritingcommentariesontheBuddhisttextsinadditiontotranslatingthem.InT'ang(618907)
China,commentariesonthecommentariesoftheFiveClassicsappeared.ThiswasapparentlyapracticeinspiredbytheBuddhists.MahayanasectssuchasT'ient'aiai
andHuayenajundoubtedlyrepresentednewmovements,yettheyinsistedonevolvingtheirdoctrinesfromonebasicscriptureinsteadofcomposingbrandnewtexts.
InCh'anaktherewereonlyrecordedsayings(ylual).Whenonecomestothinkofit,isnottheAnalectstheyluofConfucius?
IntheSungdynasty,theNeoConfucianistsenjoyedtremendousgrowth.ButonlyChouTuniam(10171073)andChangTsaian(10201077)authoredbooks.Yet
Chou'sPenetratingtheBookofChanges(T'ungshuao)wasacommentaryontheBookofChanges.ChangTsai'sCorrectingYouthfulIgnorance(Cheng
mengap)wasalsobasedontheBookofChanges.Itsaim,asthetitlesuggests,istoenlightentheignorantyoung.Itisbynomeansapieceofwritingcomposedex
nihiloandunrelatedtopreviousideas.ThetwoCh'engbrothers(Ch'engHao,aq10321085andCh'engI,ar10331107)didnotevenwritebooks.Ch'engI'smost
celebratedtreatiseishisCommentaryontheBookofChanges(Ichuanas),whichagainisnotanentirelyoriginalwork.
ChuHsiinheritedthetraditionofChou,Chang,andthetwoCh'engsandbecameagreatsynthesizerofSungNeoConfucianism.Hismostmemorableworkisthe
CollectedCommentariesontheFourBooks(Ssushuchangchchichuat).NextinimportanceistheReflectionsonThingsatHand(Chinssuluau),whichis
merelyanannotatedandcategorizedanthologyoftheteachingsofthefourNorthernSung(9601126)mastersmentionedabove.ChuHsialsowrotecommentaries
onChouTuni'sAnExplanationoftheDiagramoftheGreatUltimate(T'aichit'ushuoav)aswellasChangTsai's"WesternInscription"(Hsimingaw).He
providedannotationsontheBookofOdesandtheBookofChanges.Hishistoricalwritingsincludeanoutline(kangmuax)forSsumaKuang'say(10191086)
GeneralMirrorforAidinGovernment(Tzuchiht'ung

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az

ba

bb

chien ).InliteraturehecommentedonCh'Yan's"Lisao,"analyzedHanY's (768824)works,andstudiedtheTaoisttextTs'ant'ungch'i (Thethreeways

unifiedandharmonized).Intermsofbreadthandquantity,aswehaveseen,ChuHsiwasunsurpassedintheentirehistoryofChinesescholarship.Butnoneofhis
writingsdealtwithsubjectsuniqueororiginaltohimself.Whenhisfollowerscompiledhisrecordedsayings,theymanagedtofill140chapters.Hispoemsandliterary
compositionsalsoamountedtomorethan100chapters.Thesewereallspontaneousoutpouringsofsentimentsindifferenttimes,underdifferentcircumstances,andin
thecompanyofdifferentpeople.Theyweredefinitelynotanorganizedandsystematicexpositionoftotallyoriginalideas.ThusinthesingleexampleofChuHsi,one
characteristicofChineselearningismademanifest.Thischaracteristicvaluesunityandidentitybutbelittlesparticularityanddiversity.
Buttosaythatoneidentifieswiththeancientsimpliesthatthereisanindividualselfthatdoestheidentifying.Itdoesnotmeanthattheexistenceofthisselfiscontingent
upontheexistenceoftheancients.FromtheoutsetConfuciusadvocatedlearningfortheselfandshowedgreatcontemptforthecomplacentandconventionminded
scholars(hsiangyanbc)[whopresumablyengagedinlearningforthesakeofothers].Bothintermsofspaceandtime,eachindividualbornintothisworldhasa
uniqueself.Furthermore,eachselfisdifferentfromotherselves.ConfuciuscouldneverbewhollyidentifiedwiththeDukeofChouthismuchhehadtoconcede.The
AnalectsisinfactahighlypersonalizedandselfrevealingportrayalofConfucius.YetConfuciusinsistedthathereceivedhisinspirationfromtheDukeofChouand
thateverythinghemeanttosayhadbeenhandeddowntohimfromtheDukeofChou.
Mencius'modellingafterConfuciusdidnotmeanthecompleteobliterationofhisownindividualityeither.Tzukungbd(c.520456B.C.),adiscipleofConfucius,once
remarkedthatthemasterneverdealtwiththetwotopicsofnature(hsingbe)andtheWayofHeaven(T'ientaobf).8YetMenciusmadeastrongcaseforthegoodness
ofnature,adoctrineevidentlynotadvocatedbyConfuciushimself.Still,Menciusneverboastedthatthiswashisowncreationandnevermadeitadistinguishingpoint
betweenhimselfandConfucius.SuchselfeffacementmadeMenciuswhohewas.Menciusfurtherobservedthatthesageswerepeoplewhohadattainedanidentity
withourminds.Thisbeingthecase,itfollowsthatwhatweseektolearnfromtheancientsagesispreciselythisidenticalmind.Whenwethinkandactincomplete
accordwiththismind,wewillthenbecomeidenticalwiththeancientsages.ItcanthusbeseenthatMenciusneversoughtdissimilarityordifference.
Boththe"Commentary"ontheBookofChangesandtheDoctrineoftheMeandiscourseonnatureandtheWayofHeaven.ThisbetraystheintrusionofTaoist
ideas.YetthetwoworksbelongobviouslytotheConfuciantradition.Theirauthorsneverclaimedthattheystoodforanewdeparture,nordid

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theyboastthattheyrepresentedanewsynthesisofConfucianandTaoistdoctrines.Theyactuallyoptedfordeliberateobscuritybynotrevealingtheiridentity.
Furthermore,theyinsistedthattheideasfoundintheirworkswerethoseoftheancients,andnottheirown.Nevertheless,thetwoworksrevealgenuineindividual
insightsandanewsynthesizingoutlook.
TheteachingsofthefourNorthernSungmastersalsodisplayindividualvariations.ChuHsicombinedandsynthesizedthemtoformagreatNeoConfucianmovement
inthethreedynastiesofSung,Yan(12771368),andMing(13681644).This,combinedwiththeteachingsofConfuciusandMenciusinthepreCh'inperiod
(221206B.C.),actuallycreatedanewConfuciantradition.OneofthetrickiestproblemsinthestudyofChuHsi'sthoughtisthedifficultyinidentifyingthoseelements
thatareuniquelyhisorrepresentativeofhisindividualthinking.WhatwegenerallyfindisChuHsi'sbringingtogetherofvariousteachingsandhisheapingpraiseson
earlierscholarstothepointofcompletelyobscuringhisownideasortheoriginalviewsheheld.If,however,thereisindeedsuchathingasauniqueChuHsistyleof
scholarship,thenthisscholarshipis,fromtheChinesepointofview,thepropertyofoneindividualandisthereforeinsignificant.
SsumaCh'ien'sbg(14586B.C.?)writingoftheHistoricalRecords(Shihchibh)wasundertakeninthetraditionofConfucius'SpringandAutumnAnnals.Yethe
declaredboldlythatthepurposeofhisprojectwasto"illuminatetheencounterbetweenHeavenandman,understandthechangesfromantiquitytocontemporary
times,andformulatetheestablishmentofaschoolofthought."9Isitnottruethattheentitythatdoesthe"illuminating"andthe"understanding"istheindividualself?In
China,one'sdisciplesareknownasone'stitzubi(juniormembersinthefamily),andtheyareasclosetooneselfasone'sownkin.Inbloodrelations,thetransmission
fromgenerationtogenerationformsalineagefamily.Inscholarshipandlearning,thisalsoholdstrue.Thusthetransmissionofone'sideasthroughgenerationsof
disciplesformsa''schoolofthought"(ichiabj).AllthetwentyfiveofficialhistoriesinChinawerecompiledinthetraditionofSsumaCh'ien'sShihchi,whichwas
perceivedandveneratedastheancestralmodel.InthisrespectSsumaCh'ienhadindeedformedaschoolofthought.Ifhisideaswereuniquetohim,without
precedentandsuccessor,thentheyrepresentedthescholarshipofoneman.Howcouldtheyhavebecomea"schoolofthought?"Moreover,Ch'ien'sfatherT'anbk(d.
110B.C.)wastheauthoroftheEssentialsoftheSixSchoolsofThought(Liuchiayaochihbl),inwhichhegaveanimpartialtreatmentofeachoftheancient
schools,includingConfucianism.ButCh'ienveneratedConfuciusaboveallothersandincludedhisbiographyamongthoseofthe"hereditaryprincelyfamilies"(shih
chiabm).OnthismatteritisevidentthatCh'iendifferedfromhisfather.Yethemadenoattempttoconcealthefactandmadenoissueofit.Laterhistoriansalsofeltno
necessitytocommentonthisdifference,butinsteadfocusedtheirattentiononfollowingthepatternsetbyCh'ien.

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ContemporaryscholarsstudyingChuHsiarefondofpointingoutthedifferencesbetweenhisideasandthoseoftheearlymasters.Infact,however,ChuHsihimself
wasalsofullycognizantofthevariationsintheteachingofhisintellectualpredecessors.AcaseinpointistheteachingofthetwoCh'engbrothers.Thetwobrothers
hadfouroutstandingdisciples,YangKueishan(YangShih,bn10531135)beingoneofthem.Yang'steachingswereinheritedbyLiYenp'ing(LiT'ung,bo1093
1163),whowasthemasterofChuHsi.Tobesure,Chupaidhisteacherthehighestrespect,butitwouldbeerroneoustoconcludethathisappreciationandfurther
developmentoftheteachingofthetwoCh'engswaslimitedtotheYangLibranch.
LaterscholarsoftenmentionChuHsiandthetwoCh'engstogether,especiallytheyoungerbrotherCh'engI.ItistruethatChuHsi'svenerationforCh'engIwasdeep
andimmense.Thelatter'sCommentaryontheBookofChangeswasquotedrepeatedlyinChu'sReflectionsonThingsatHand.YetChualsowrotehisown
OriginalMeaningoftheBookofChangesofChou(Chouipenibp)inwhichhearguedthatthisancientclassicwasoriginallynothingmorethanabookof
divination.ThislineofthinkingdifferedgreatlyfromthatofCh'engI.ButChuHsididnotstressthisdifferenceatall.EveninhisCollectedCommentaries(chichubq)
ontheAnalectsandtheBookofMenciusChushowednumerousdisagreementswiththeviewsheldbythetwoCh'engbrothers.Weshould,however,notethatthe
spiritofChuHsi'sscholarshipliesinharmonioussynthesisandinterconnectedness,andthatitseekstoidentifypointsofconvergencewiththeancients.Itdeliberately
downplaystheexpressionofpersonalopinionsandindividualdifferences.Ifweinsistonlookingfordissimilaritiesandindividualuniqueviews,wearelikelytomissthe
markinourapprehensionofthespiritofChuHsi'slearning.
Somepeoplemightquestionthatifindeedthespiritoftheirscholarshipistoseeksimilarity,whythenweretheNeoConfucianssoemphaticintheircriticismof
heterodoxideas?Thisisbecauseoftheirrealizationthattoseeksimilarityonemustfirstidentifythatwhichisdissimilar.Betweenthetwoactions,however,thetaskto
seeksimilaritywasultimatelyconsideredtobeprimary,whiletoidentifydissimilaritieswasonlysecondary.SincesomepreCh'inschoolssuchasthatofMoTzuand
HsnTzubr(313328B.C.?)focusedmoreonthelatter,theywereeventuallyabandonedbylaterscholars.SincetheLshihch'unch'iubs(SpringandAutumnAnnals
ofMr.L)andHuainanTzubt10werecompiledbygroupsofadvisorsandassistantstofeudallords,theiremphasiswasonharmonioussynthesis,andtheyhavebeen
morevaluedbyscholarsthanthewritingsofMoTzuandHsnTzu.Asalreadymentioned,thecommentaryandappendicestotheBookofChangesandthe
DoctrineoftheMeanrepresentthesynthesizedviewofConfucianismandTaoism.TheyprovidedmuchinspirationforChouTuniandChangTsai.Evenbothofthe
twoCh'engswerewellversedinConfucianandTaoistconcepts.TheNeoConfucianshadadoptedmuchfromtheBuddhistschoolofCh'an,andChuHsispecifically
showedHuayen'sinfluence.Fromtheseadmissions

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modernscholarsspeculatethattheNeoConfucianshaveallmadeforaysintotheTaoistandBuddhistcampsandbeentaintedbythem.Thisispreciselythestrong
pointoftheNeoConfucians,andnottheirweakness.Toharmonizeandsynthesizeinordertoseekabroad,unifiedconsensusthisispreciselywheretheNeo
Confuciansexertedtheirgreatesteffort.
LuHsiangshan(LuChiuyan,bu11391193)wasadamantlyopposedtoChuHsi.YetChumerelycharacterizedthedifferencebetweenthemasonebetweenhis
insistenceon"taowenhseh"bv(followingthepathofstudyandinquiry)andLu'semphasison"tsuntehsing"bw(honoringmoralnature).Chufurtherexhortedhis
followerstoadoptLu'sstrongpointstosupplementhisownteachingandtoavoiddoctrinalsquabbles.WhenLudied,ChulamentedthelossofhisKaoTzubx(c.
420c.350B.C.),anobviouscomparisonofhisdebatewithLutothatbetweenMenciusandKaoTzu.11ItcanthusbeseenthatthoughChuHsidisagreedwithLu
Hsiangshan,hewasneverblindtothelatter'scontribution.HisattitudetowardTaoismandBuddhismwassimilar.WhenWangYangming(WangShoujen,by1472
1529)appearedintheMingdynasty,hesubscribedtoLuHsiangshan'sargumentandopposedChuHsi.Inhis''MasterChu'sFinalConclusionsArrivedatLatein
Life"(ChuTzuwannientinglunbz),12however,WangultimatelysoughttoprovethesimilaritybetweenChuandLu.ThisisanotherproofthatscholarsinChina
valueconvergenceofviewsratherthandivergence.
AmongChuHsi'sworks,theonemostsusceptibletoobjectionanddebateishis"SupplementaryCommentary"onthekowuca(investigationofthings)chapterofthe
GreatLearning.13InusinghisownideastofillthegapthatexistedintheinterpretationofthisClassic,ChuHsihasobviouslyviolatedthedictumof"transmittingbut
notinnovating"inChina'straditionoflearning.EventhoughChudefendedhisactionbyclaimingthathissupplementwasbasedonMasterCh'eng'sideas,hecouldnot
justifyhowhedeemeditpropertouseMasterCh'eng'sinterpretationtospeculateontheintendedmeaningoftheancientsages.TheMasterCh'engmentionedhereis
Ch'engI,notCh'engHao.ThuswhenlaterscholarsrejectedChuHsi,byextensiontheyalsorejectedCh'engI.ThecommentaryandappendicestotheBookof
ChangesandtheDoctrineoftheMean,ontheotherhand,ralliedbehindtheauthorityofConfucius,eventhoughtheyembodiedsubstantialTaoistideas.Theywere
thusfarlessopentocriticism.ItisforthisreasonthatCh'ing(16441912)ConfucianistssupportedHanLearninganddisparagedSungScholarship.Theyputequal
emphasisontextualanalysis(k'aochcb)andphilosophicinquiry(ilicc).ChuHsi'saforementioned"SupplementaryCommentary"onthekowuchapteroftheGreat
Learningcouldclaimonlyphilosophicvalidity,nottextualsupport.Henceitwasnotreadilyacceptedbylaterscholars.Theseconflictsareallduetothenatureof
China'sscholastictradition.WecanstatethatwhatascholarinChinastudiesisthehistoryofChineselearningitself,andnotanyindependentlycreatedacademic
discipline.WecanalsostatethatthishistoryoflearningwasinitiatedbyConfucius,and

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thatthemostaccomplishedorganizerandsynthesizerofthishistorywasChuHsi.ThisiswhatImeanbytreasuringsimilarityanddisparagingdissimilarity.Itis
analogoustothetotalabsenceofanyproponentofnewreligiousdoctrinesafterJesusintheChristiantradition.
KuYenwucd(16131682),HuangTsunghsice(16101695),andWangFuchihcf(16191692)inearlyCh'ingallbasedtheirscholarshiponSungMingNeo
Confucianism.KulevelledscathingcriticismsagainstWangYangmingwithoutmercybutHuangTsunghsiwaspartialtoYangming.InhislaterlifeWangFuchih
singledoutChangTsaiforveneration,butwascriticalofCh'engChu.Allthreescholarssoughttoidentifysameness,notcontrariness.Theyvaluedidentitywiththe
ancients,notindividualuniqueness.Inthispracticetheywerenodifferentfromothers.
IpersonallyfeelthattheroleplayedbyConfuciusinChinaissimilartothatplayedbyJesusintheWest,whileChuHsiwascomparabletoMartinLuther.Chu's
greatestcontributiontotheConfuciantraditionwashiscompilationoftheFourBooks14withcommentaries,andhisdesignatingtothemanimportancefarbeyondthe
FiveClassicsoftheHanT'angperiod.Atthesametime,theProperMeaningoftheFiveClassics(Wuchingchengicg)oftheT'angerabecame,bytheSung
dynasty,theCommentariesandSubcommentariesoftheThirteenClassics(Shihsanchingchushuch).Thisillustratesthatthemoreattemptismadeatsynthesis,
themoreharmoniousconsensuscanbeattained,andthemoretheunderlyingunitycanberevealed.ThisisthecharacteristicofChineselearningitisalsothe
characteristicofChinesecivilization.
TheCh'ingscholarsintheeighteenthcenturywereverymuchliketheCatholicCounterReformationleaderswhoadamantlyrejectedLuther'sProtestantism.InChina,
however,theProtestantism(ofChuHsi)finallywonout.IntheT'ungchihci(18621874)andKuanghscj(18751908)periodsofthenineteenthcentury,Tseng
Kuofanck(18111872)wrotetheessayAccountsofSketchesofSagesandWiseMen(Shengchehuahsiangchicl),andCh'enLicm(18101882)authoredthe
bookReadingNotesoftheEasternStudio(Tungshutushuchicn).Bothfocusedonunityinsteadofdisagreementintheirviewsonlearning,andbothemphasized
transmissionratherthaninnovation.Theyneverregardedthemselvestobesuperiortotheancients.Inthispracticetheyfollowedtheancienttradition.
ButConfuciuswasnotareligiousfounderinChina.Whathehadhisfaithandtookdelightin,aswellaswhathehadtransmitted,wasantiquityitself.Hisfocuswason
mankind,notonGod,whoissuprahuman.Henceheneverthoughtofhimselfassuperiortotheancients.ThisisthespiritofChineselearningandChinesecivilization.
Infact,thepositionofConfuciusinChinasurpassedthatofJesusintheWest.IfwecangraspthispointinourstudyofChuHsi'sscholarship,thenweareapttofind
thetruespiritofhislearning.
TranslatedbyRichardShekco

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Notes
1.Analects,7:1.
2.Ibid.,7:5.ThedukeestablishedsocialandgovernmentalinstitutionsoftheChoudynasty(1111249B.C.).
3.BookofMencius,2A:2.
4.Ibid.,2A:8.Shunwasalegendarysageemperor.
5.Legendarysageemperor,founderoftheHsiadynasty(c.21831752B.C.).
6.Taoteching,ch.1.
7.TheBookofOdes,theBookofHistory,theBookofChanges,theBookofRites,andtheSpringandAutumnAnnals.
8.Analects,5:12.
9.Hisautobiographicpreface.
10.TheformerattributedtoLPuweicp(d.235B.C.)andthelattertoLiuAncq(d.122B.C.).
11.Fordetails,seetheBookofMencius,2A:2,6A:14,6.
12.ForanEnglishtranslation,seeWingtsitChan,crtrans.,InstructionsforPracticalLivingandOtherNeoConfucianWritingsbyWangYangming(New
York:ColumbiaUniversityPress,1963),pp.263267.
13.InhisTahsehchangchcs[CommentaryontheGreatLearning].
14.TheGreatLearning,theAnalects,theBookofMencius,andtheDoctrineoftheMean.
Glossary

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5
AComparativeStudyofChuHsiandtheCh'engBrothers
HsFukuan
SpecialCharacteristicsofSungMingNeoConfucianism
ChuHsi'sideasoriginatedwiththeCh'engbrothers,Ch'engHaoa(10321085)andCh'engIb(10331107),especiallythelatter.Thatiswhyeversincethebeginning
oftheYandynasty(12171368)theirnameswerelinkedtogether.InthispaperIwouldliketoshowfirstthesimilaritiesbetweenChuHsiandCh'engIandthenthe
significantdifferences.TheCh'engbrothersseemtohavedevelopeda"humanworldwhichstretchesonthesameplane,"whileChuHsiseemstohavedevelopeda
"humanworldwhichunitestheworldbeyondandthisworld."Beforewemayenterintoadiscussionofsuchproblemsinanydepth,however,wemustfirsttryto
definethespecialcharacteristicsofSungMingNeoConfucianism.
BothCh'engIandChuHsiclaimedthattheyhadinheritedtheorthodoxyfromConfucius(551479B.C.)andMencius(372289B.C.?).Isthereabasisforthemto
makesuchclaims,oraretheseclaimsmerelyemotionalexaggerationsontheirpartwithoutanyrealfoundation?Wemustgiveananswertothisquestionbeforewe
canexpecttohaveanyunderstandingofthecommoncharacteristicsofSungMingNeoConfucianism.AreviewofthedevelopmentofConfucianthoughtisinorder.
"Knowledgeforthesakeofaction"wasthefundamentalprincipleofChinesephilosophysincetheearlyChoudynasty(1111479B.C.).Confuciusalsofollowedthe
sameprinciplebyputtingspecialemphasisonthepursuitofknowledge.Hiscontributionliesinhisbeinginterestednotonlyintheaccumulationofknowledgein
generalbutin"knowledgefortheself,"somethingdistinctlydifferentfromwhathecalled"knowledgeforothers,"whichemphasizedintellectualachievementstobe
usefulforandardentlysoughtafterbyothers.1Confuciusbelievedthattheprimarygoalofknowledgeistodiscover,develop,andelevatetheselfinordertobring
aboutselfrealization.Inlearningheurgesus"tobeginfromahumblestartinordertoreachaloftygoal."2SuchanapproachshowsthatConfuciusisnotmerely
concernedwithknowledgeofexternalobjectstheessenceoflearningforhimistotransform

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theselffromabiologicalorganismintoarational,moralbeingunderwhoseguidancetheotherselvesandthingsareunitedwiththeself.Hisidealthat"thewholeworld
turnstohumanity"(jenc)3impliestheNeoConfucianidealthat"amanofhumanityregardsHeaven,Earthandmyriadthingsasonebody."Realizingthatmostpeople
dothingsforthesakeofselfinterest,Confuciusneverthelessurgesusto"overcometheself"4and"transcendtheego."5Alsoheadvocatesthat''Amanofhumanity,
wishingtoestablishhisowncharacter,alsoestablishesthecharacterofothers,andwishingtobeprominenthimself,alsohelpsotherstobeprominent."6Obviously
then,knowledgeforConfuciuscannotmeanjustknowledgeacquiredthroughourperceptionsandconceptions,eventhoughhedoesvaluehighlytheinformation
collectedbysuchmeans.7Instead,heleadsusinanewdirection.Hesays,"Whenyouseeaworthyperson,youwouldlovetobecomelikehim.Butwhenyousee
someonewhoisnogood,thenyouwouldturninwardtoreflect[onyourownshortcomings]."8Hereobjectiveknowledgeistransformedintoakindofknowledgethat
isdeeplyconcernedwiththeself.Thisisindeedaradicalbreakthrough,asmoralknowledgenowfindsitsrootintheself.WhatConfuciusdevelopsisa"humanworld
seenthroughtheeyesofanorganicmoralself."Anditistherealizationofhumanitythatcharacterizestherealizationoftheself,eventhoughConfuciushimselfhasnot
elaboratedonthepointenoughtodevelopacomprehensivetheoryofhumannature.
SubsequentdevelopmentofConfucianthoughtshowsthattheauthoroftheDoctrineoftheMeandeclaresthat"whatHeaven(T'iend)impartstomaniscalledhuman
nature.TofollowournatureiscalledtheWay(Taoe).CultivatingtheWayiscallededucation."9AlthoughtheideaofHeavenmayappeartobeatraditionalone,yet
Heaven'sdecreeisnowinternalizedinhumannatureanditisclearthattheemphasishasbeenshiftedtotheideaofhumannature.TheDoctrineoftheMeansays,
Onlythosewhoareabsolutelysincerecanfullydeveloptheirnature.Iftheycanfullydeveloptheirnature,theycanfullydevelopthenatureofothers.Iftheycanfullydevelop
thenatureofothers,theycanthenfullydevelopthenatureofthings.Iftheycanfullydevelopthenatureofthings,theycanthenassistinthetransformingandnourishing
processofHeavenandEarth.IftheycanassistinthetransformingandnourishingprocessofHeavenandEarth,theycanthusformatrinitywithHeavenandEarth.10

Furthermore,theDoctrineoftheMeanshowsusthestepstoselfrealization.Itsays,"Studyit[thewaytobesincere]extensively,inquireintoitaccurately,thinkit
overcarefully,siftitclearly,andpracticeitearnestly."11Thefirstfourstepsmustleadtothelaststepsothatknowledgeexternalandabstractwouldbetrulyembodied
intheself.
Menciuswentevenfurtherbystatingexplicitlythathumannatureisgoodandthatitismanifestedinthefourbeginningsofhumanity,righteousness,

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12

propriety,andwisdom. ForMenciusthereisnoneedtodepartfromhumanwaysinordertoreachHeaven.Hesays,"Hewhoexertshismindtotheutmostknows
hisnature.HewhoknowshisnatureknowsHeaven.Topreserveone'smindandtonourishone'snatureisthewaytoserveHeaven."13Thefocusislaidon
knowledgeoftheselfasMenciussays,"Allthingsarealreadycompleteinoneself.Thereisnogreaterjoythantoexamineoneselfandbesincere."14
ButbeginningwiththemiddleoftheWarringStatesperiod(403222B.C.),theemphasiswasshiftedtocosmologicalspeculation.Theoriesofyinyangf(passiveand
activecosmicforces)andtheFiveAgents(Metal,Wood,Water,Fire,andEarth)weredevelopedandcompletedintheearlyHanperiod(206B.C.A.D.220),and
scholars'attentionalsoturnedtoproblemsconcerningsocialinstitutions.Eventhoughitisstilltruethatthedisciplineoftheselfwasconsideredimportantbyall
ConfucianscholarssinceHsnTzug(313238B.C.?),yetthefocusingpointwasnolongertherealizationoftheself.
ItwasnotuntiltheCh'engbrothers,duringtheSungdynasty(9601279),revivedthelineofthoughttransmittedthroughConfuciusandMenciusthatknowledgeof
theselfregaineditspositionofprimaryimportance.Scholarlylearningwasnowconsideredofonlysecondaryimportance.Itbecametheaimoftheinvestigationof
thingsandtheextensionofknowledgetoachieveaunificationbetweenwhatisinternalandwhatisexternal.Itisherethatwecanfindtheessentialcharacteristicsof
SungMingNeoConfucianphilosophies.Withoutanydoubt,realizationoftheselfistheprimarygoalfortrulycommittedNeoConfucianscholars.
WhatChuHsiInheritedfromCh'engI
ChuHsiwasindebtedtobothCh'engbrothers,whoseultimateconcernsdonotseemtodiffer.Thereare,however,certainsignificantdifferencesotherthanmerely
temperamentaldifferencesbetweenthetwo.Forexample,Ch'engHaoemphasizesthedisciplineoftheselfthroughtranquillity,whileCh'engIstressesdiscipline
throughseriousnessintheunderstandingofjen,Ch'engHaorealizesitintheselfasaspiritualstate,whileCh'engItakesittobetheconcreteembodimentof
impartialityoninvestigationofthings,Ch'engHaoproceedswiththeattitudeofartisticcontemplation,whileCh'engIapproachestheproblemwiththeattitudeof
empiricalobservationandreflection.ChuHsiputsomedistancebetweenhimselfandCh'engHao,buthewasindeedgreatlyindebtedtoCh'engI.
ChuHsistudiedunderLiT'ungh(10931163),whowasadiscipleofLoTs'ungyeni(10721135),whointurnstudiedunderYangShihj(10531135),oneofthe
mostfamousdisciplesofCh'engI.ButweshouldnotunderstandtherelationshipbetweenChuHsiandCh'engIthroughthislineoftransmission.InhislateryearsChu
Hsicriticizedhisteacher'sapproachtolookforenlightenmentthroughsittingandmeditatingasonesidedandunsatisfac

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15

tory. HewentbacktoCh'engI'sownteachingsforguidance.Ch'engIputmuchgreateremphasisonseriousnessthanontranquillity.Itwasonlyafteralongsearch
thatChuHsifinallyclaimedthathehaddiscoveredthetruemeaningsofCh'engI'steachingsondisciplineoftheselfthroughtherealizationofequilibriumand
harmony.16Theseservedastheguidelinesofhisthoughtthroughouthislife.
IntheirearlierviewstheCh'engbrothersattachedimportancetotheideaofseriousness,astheyadvocated"seriousnesstostraightentheinternallifeandrighteousness
tosquaretheexternallife."17Buttheviewisnotwithoutitsdifficulties,asitpresupposesadualitybetweenseriousnessandrighteousness.Furthermore,thereseemsto
beahiddenemphasisontranquillitythatwastaughtbytheCh'engbrothers'onetimeteacherChouTunik(10171073),18whomighthaveexertedgreatinfluenceson
theirthoughts.ButwhenCh'engIdevelopedhismatureviewslaterinhiscareer,heshiftedtheemphasisfromtranquillitytoseriousness,andhecoinedanewdictum,
whichsaysthat"selfcultivationrequiresseriousnessthepursuitoflearningdependsontheextensionofknowledge."19Nowonemayholdontoseriousnessinactivity
orintranquillityinotherwords,seriousnessisnowregardedasthatwhichappliestoboththeworldofactivityandthatoftranquillity.Hesays,''Seriousnesswithout
failisthestateofequilibriumbeforethefeelingsofpleasure,anger,sorrow,andjoyarearoused.Seriousnessisnotequilibriumitself.Butseriousnesswithoutfailisthe
waytoattainequilibrium."20Activityisnowregardedastheessenceoflife.Oneshoulddisciplinehimselfbyengaginginthingsandbecominginvolvedinevents.
Seriousnessmeansnoneotherthanconcentratingwithoutbeingledawaybydistractions.SuchthoughtsexertedthemostprofoundinfluenceonChuHsi,whosaid,
Itisnecessarytotalkmuchaboutthedoctrineofholdingfasttoseriousness.Onehasonlytobroodoverthesesayings[ofCh'engI]thoroughly:"Beorderlyanddignified,""Be
graveandaustere,""Becorrectinmovementandappearanceandbeorderlyinthoughtsanddeliberations,"and"Becorrectinyourdressanddignifiedinyourgaze,"andmake
realeffort.Thenwhat[Ch'eng]calledstraighteningtheinternallifeandconcentratingononethingwillnaturallyneednomanipulation,one'sbodyandmindwillbeserious,and
theinternalandexternalwillbeunified.21

Secondly,Ch'engIhadalwaysstressedthattolearnonemustfollowpropersteps.ChuHsialsoadoptedsuchanattitude.Ch'engIsays,"Whenyoustudyawork,
thefirststepistounderstandthemeaningofthetextthenyoumaybeabletorecoveritsintention.Itissimplyimpossibletogetattheintentionwithouteven
understandingthemeaning."22Ch'engIthoughtthatscholarsshouldbeginwiththestudyoftheGreatLearning.23ChuHsifollowedthisinstructionalmostreligiously.
Henotonlywrotethecommentaryforthedocument,butplaceditasthefirstoftheFourBooksaheadoftheAnalects

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andtheBookofMenciusandtheDoctrineoftheMean.ButwhenoneunderstandsChengI'sthoughtasawhole,itseemsthattheAnalectscouldserveasabetter
startingpointoratleastoneneednotbeginwiththeGreatLearningasrigidlyasChuHsiclaimed.BoththeCh'engbrothersweremostindebtedtotheAnalectsin
facttheprinciplesoftheirphilosophieswerederivedfromtheAnalects.ButafterCh'engHaodied,Ch'engItendedtoputmoreemphasisontheefforttoinvestigate
thingsandtoextendknowledge.Consequently,hesaidthattheGreatLearningisthegatethroughwhichthebeginningstudententersintovirtue.ChuHsisimplytook
thisforgranted.Forhim,thewayoflearningstartedwithinvestigatingprinciples,whiletheessentialsofinvestigatingprincipleslayinstudyingtheClassics.Itwashe
whoestablishedadefiniteprogramofstudy.ButsurelyhisideasmustbetracedbacktoCh'engI.
Finally,ontheproblemoftherelationbetweenknowledgeandaction,Ch'engIbelievedthatknowledgeispriortoaction24butalsothatknowledgeinitslastor
higheststagemustimplyaction.ChuHsialsofollowedtheleadofCh'engIbutdevelopedhistheoryingreaterdetailandinmorepreciseterms.
Howcanknowledgebetranslatedintoaction?ToanswerthequestionCh'engIdrawscertaindistinctionsinourunderstandingofknowledge.Forexample,hesays,
"Hearit,knowit,getit,haveit."25Inthefirsttwostages,hearingandknowing,theknowingsubjectmakesanefforttounderstandtheobject.Butwhenthe
informationcollectedbyhearingandknowingisthoroughlydigestedbytheselfthroughthethinkingprocess,onehasgotit.Andwhenwhatisexternaliscompletely
transformedintosomethinginternal,onehasit.Itisonlyatthisstagethat"trueknowledge"isacquired.Suchknowledgemustimplyaction,anditistobekeptdistinct
from"ordinaryknowledge."
Trueknowledgeandordinaryknowledgearedifferent.Ioncesawafarmerwhohadbeenwoundedbyatiger.Whensomeonesaidthatatigerwashurtingpeople,everyonewas
startled.Butinhisfacialexpressionthefarmerreacteddifferentlyfromtherest.Evenayoungboyknowsthattigerscanhurtpeople,buthisisnottrueknowledge.Itistrue
knowledgeonlyifitislikethefarmer's.Thereforewhenmenknowevilandstilldoit,thisalsoisnottrueknowledge.Ifitwere,theywouldsurelynotdoit.26

Trueknowledgemustbecompletelyappropriatedbytheselfandfinditsrootinone'slife.
ChuHsialsobelievedthatknowledgeispriortoaction.Ifonedoesnotevenknowwhatistherightthingtodo,howcanheevercultivatehisself?Onewhodoesn't
knowrightisindangerof"takingathiefasone'sfather."Buttrueknowledgeisnotstaticitalwaysimpliesaction.Onlywhenone'sknowledgeisstillshallowwouldhe
failtoactaccordingtohisknowledge.ChuHsisays,"Knowledgeandactionalwaysrequireeachother.Itislikea

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personwhocannotwalkwithoutlegsalthoughhehaseyes,andwhocannotseewithouteyesalthoughhehaslegs.Withrespecttoorder,knowledgecomesfirst,and
withrespecttoimportance,actionismoreimportant."27ChuHsistartswithinvestigationofthings,especiallythingsnearathand.Butintheendknowledgemustbe
realizedinone'slife.HisultimategoalisnotdifferentfromCh'engI's.ForthatreasonhequotedmorethanonceCh'engI'sstoryaboutthefarmer'sreactiontotalk
aboutthetiger.
TheCh'engbrothers,especiallyCh'engI,weredevotedtoinvestigationofthingsandextensionofknowledge.Theyrevivedthetraditionalemphasisonknowledge
thatexistedsincethetimeofConfuciusandopenedupnewdimensionsnotevencoveredbyMencius.NeitherCh'engInorChuHsiexcludedtheinvestigationof
naturalthings.Butultimately,theypointedout,knowledgemustberealizedintheself.ForCh'engI,investigationofthingsandextensionofknowledgeareintellectual
activities,whilerectificationofthemindandmakingone'swillsincerearemoralactivities.Ch'engIinsistedthatinvestigationofthingsandextensionofknowledgemust
bepriortorectificationofthemindandmakingthewillsincere.ChuHsiwholeheartedlyendorsedthisview.Eventhoughmethodologicallyspeakingonemuststart
withinvestigationofthingsandevents,knowledgecannotbejustpiecemealstudyofexternalthings,butmustberootedinone'slife.
TheCh'engBrothers'HumanWorldThatStretchesontheSamePlane
HavingseenthesimilaritiesbetweenCh'engandChu,weturnnowtothedifferences.ItseemstomethattheCh'engbrothershavetriedtodevelopahumanworld
thatstretchesonthesameplane,whileChuHsihastriedtodevelopahumanworldthatunitestheworldbeyondandthisworld.Inordertomakemymeaningsclear,
wemustagainhaveahistoricalreviewofthedevelopmentofConfucianthought.
IntheearlyChou,T'ien(Heaven)andTil(Lord)stillretainedtheirreligiouscharacter.ButtheDukeofChoum(d.1094B.C.)madethecrucialchange,shiftingthe
emphasisonHeavenorLordtoemphasisonman,ashebelievedthathumanbehaviorsdeterminethegoodandevilfortunesofman.Thisdevelopmentmarkedthe
beginningofanewhumanisticspirit.IntheSpringandAutumnperiod(722481B.C.),HeavenwaspreferredtoLordhenceforthitbecamethesymbolofthehighest
moralexistenceortheoriginofmoralityinman.Heavenwasunderstoodnotfromareligiouspointofviewbutratherfromamoralpointofview.Thismaybesaidto
betheresultoftheprocessof"thehumanizationofHeaven."AsHeavenstillpertainstotheworldbeyondandabovethisworld,wemaysaythatthehumanworld
showsthecharacterofhavingtwolevels.
ConfuciusfeltawebeforetheMandateofHeaven,andheclaimedthatatfiftyheknewtheMandateofHeaven.28Heseemedtobelievethatbyopening

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upanorganichumanworldofmorallifemancanrelatehimselftotheworldbeyond.Hisemphasiswasonmoralcultivationratherthanonreligiousworship.The
DoctrineoftheMeanexplicitlystatesthat"whatHeavenimpartstomaniscalledhumannature,"29showingthattheworldbeyondpenetratesintothisworldofours.
MenciusbelievedthatHeavenimpartstomanamindthathastheseedsofhumanity,righteousness,propriety,andwisdominit.30Fromthisphilosophy,moralreason
hasitsrootinman.WhenMenciussaidthatitisnecessary"toknowone'snatureinordertoknowHeaven,"31onthesurfaceitmayappearthatMenciusstillbelieved
inthetwolevelsofthehumanworldbutMencius'Heavenmustbeunderstoodthroughmanconsequently,itbecamemerelyashadowwithoutsubstance.Thusitis
bynomeansstrangeforHsnTzutosaythat"thesagedoesnotevencaretoknowHeaven."32ToseeHeavenfromanaturalisticviewpointisanaturaldevelopment
ofConfucianthoughtfromConfuciustoHsnTzu,eventhoughHsnTzu'stheoryofhumannaturecontradictsthatdevelopedbyMencius.
SincethemiddleoftheWarringStatesperiod,however,theYinYangSchoolemployedtheideasofyinandyangtoexplainthewayofHeaven.Thisexplanationhad
greatattractionforaculturebasedonagriculture.33AgainthewayofHeavenbecamecloselyrelatedtoman,onlyinadifferentfashion.Hanscholarswenteven
further,combiningtheideasofyinyangandtheFiveAgentsandtryingtoformulateanewtheorytounderstandtherelationofhumannaturetothewayofHeaven.
WhileConfuciuswantedtofindtheoriginofvalueswithinmanhimself,theHanscholarsturnedaroundandtriedtolookforitinHeaven.Theybelievedthatthereare
patternsinnaturethatshouldserveasmodelsformantofollow.Theydemandedthathumanrulersfollowthesepatterns,lestdisastersstrike.Notonlydidtheybelieve
inthetwolevelsofthehumanworldHeavennowbecameamuchmoreprominentfactorthanman.ItwasnotuntiltheCh'engbrothersthatthetrendwasreversed
andattentionturnedagaintoman.
TheCh'engbrothersreturnedtoMencius,whotaughtthathumanity,righteousness,propriety,andwisdomhavetheirrootsinthemind.Buttheywentevenfurtherthan
Mencius.Theysaid,"ThemindaloneisHeaven.Whenyouexhaustyourmind,youwouldknowyournature.Whenyouknowyournature,youwouldknowHeaven.
Realizeithereandnow.Thereisnoneedtolookforitelsewhere."34Heavenisnowcompletelyembodiedinman.ButwemustbecarefultounderstandHeavenin
thiscontextasHeavenrealizedfromamoralperspective,notHeaveninvestigatedfromascientificpointofview.TheCh'engbrothersmadeasharpdistinction
betweenman'smoralnatureandphysicalnature.ManasabiologicalorganismisrelatedtoHeaveninanaturalisticsense.Ch'engIneverassociatedphysicalnature
withHeavenasmoralreason.Asmoralreasonisrootedinthemind,thereisnoneedforanupperlevel.ThehumanworldtheCh'engbrothersdevelopedstretcheson
thesameplaneandincludestheindividual,thesocialandpolitical,andeventhescientific.

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35

TheCh'engbrotherssaid,"InnateknowledgeandinnateabilityhavenoothersourcesthanHeaven.Theyarenotmanufacturedbyman." WhentheCh'engbrothers
saidthatHeavenandmanareone,whattheyreallymeantwasthatman,asmoralreason,isHeaven.36Ch'engIsaid,"WhatHeavenimpartstomanisnature.This
referstotheprinciplesinherentinnature....TosaythattheycomefromHeavenmeansthattheyarenaturalprinciples."37ThisshowsthatwhenCh'engIusedthe
wordT'ienlin(HeavenlyPrinciples),heusedthewordT'ienmerelyasanadjectivemeaning"natural."
Furthermore,theCh'engbrothersdidnotevenwanttomaintainthedistinctionbetweenwhatismetaphysicalandwhatismundanetaughtbythe"AppendedRemarks"
oftheBookofChanges.Theysaid,"Whatexistsbeforephysicalform[andisthereforewithoutit]constitutestheWay.Whatexistsafterphysicalform[andis
thereforewithit]constitutesconcretethings.Nevertheless,thoughwespeakinthisway,concretethingsaretheWayandtheWayisconcretethings."38Ch'engI
elaboratedonthepointinvariousways.Hesaid,"Substanceandfunctioncomefromthesamesource,andthereisnogapbetweenthemanifestandthehidden."39
Principlesarehiddenwhilethingsaremanifest,butwemustlearnaboutprinciplesthroughthingsthereissimplynogapbetweenthetwo.Yinandyangarematerial
forces,butCh'engIbelievedthatthereisnoWayapartfromyinandyang.Inhislateryearsheespeciallyemphasizedthatwemust"investigateprinciplestotheutmost
bystudyingthingsathand."Naturally,onemustuseinferencetoreachwhatishiddenandabstract.Butwemustuseitwithgreatcaution.Otherwisewemayeven
succumbtohearsayandsuperstitions.Ch'engI'sthought,then,isrootedinthisworldhehasshownnointerestforwhatismetaphysical.Whathecaresaboutisthe
humanworld,whichforhimstretchesonthesameplane.Theactionsofinferenceandreasoninghevaluesarealsorelevantforthisworldalone.
ChuHsi'sHumanWorldThatUnitestheWorldbeyondandThisWorld
AlthoughChuHsifollowedCh'engI'sgeneralprinciplesclosely,thereweresignificantdifferencesbetweenthetwo.AstheCh'engbrothersdevelopedahumanworld
thatstretchesonthesameplane,ChuHsibelievedthatthereisanupperleveloftheworldthemessageofwhichmustpenetrateintothisworld.Hethereforedevoted
himselftodevelopingahumanworldthatunitestheworldbeyondandthisworld.OneindicationofthisbeliefliesinChuHsi'sendorsingChouTuni's"AnExplanation
oftheDiagramoftheGreatUltimate."40TheCh'engbrothersnevermentionedtheessay,thoughChouhadtaughttheCh'engbrothersforsometimewhentheywere
young.Theessaypresupposesadistinctionbetweenthemetaphysicalandthemundaneworld.MaybeitwasforthisreasonthattheCh'engbrotherscouldnotaccept
theessay.Theirrejectionhadnothingtodowiththediagram'sTaoistorigin.

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TheessaywasclearlyaConfuciandocumentthatsynthesizedthetheoriesofyinyangandtheFiveAgentsintheHanperiod.IntheessayChoufindsametaphysical
foundationforthisworldandarguesthatthemetaphysicalpenetratesintotheworldhereandnow.SuchapictureoftheworldclearlycontradictstheCh'engbrothers'
pictureoftheworldthatstretchesonthesameplane.ChuHsi,ontheotherhand,furtherdevelopedChou'sworldview.Butbeforewecandiscusstheprobleminany
depth,wemustexaminethedifferencesbetweentheirunderstandingofhumannature.ItisfalsetoassumethatChuHsi'sviewofhumannaturewasthesameas
Ch'engI's.
LetusfirstlookattheviewsoftheCh'engbrothers.TheywentstraightbacktoMencius,whodeclaredthathumannatureisgood.AlthoughtheCh'engbrothersalso
believedthatessentialhumannatureisgood,theyintroducedmorecomplicationsintotheirtheories.Forexample,Ch'engHaosaid,"Whatisinborniscallednature.
Natureisthesameasmaterialforceandmaterialforceisthesameasnature.Theyarebothinborn.Accordingtoprinciple,therearebothgoodandevilinthematerial
forcewithwhichmanisendowedatbirth....Man'snatureisofcoursegood,butitcannotbesaidthatevilisnothisnature."41Ch'engHaorefusedtodrawasharp
lineofdemarcationbetweenmaterialforceandnature.Whenapersonisborn,hisendowmentmusthavesomethingtodowithmaterialforce.WhenMenciustalked
abouthumannature,hemerelyemphasizedinwhatwaysmanisdistinctfromotheranimals.Buttheaspectofmaterialforceshouldnotbeneglected.ThereforeCh'eng
Isaid,"Itwouldbeincompletetotalkaboutthenatureofmanwithoutincludingmaterialforceandunintelligibletotalkaboutmaterialforcewithoutincludingnature."42
Thetwoaspectsshouldbekeptdistinctbutnotseparated.Onlybyreferringtomaterialforcecantheevilsofmanbeaccountedfor.ButtheCh'engbrotherswereby
nomeansfatalists.Forthemtheveryaimofeducationistotransformone'stemperamentthroughdisciplineoftheself.
ChuHsifollowedthisgeneraloutline.Healsoidentifiednatureasprinciplebuthewentastepfurther.Heidentifiedmindasmaterialforce,andhencehetaught
somethingquitedifferentfromwhattheCh'engbrothershadtaught.FortheCh'engs,natureasprincipleandnatureasmaterialforcecouldnotbeseparated.Andif
principleandmaterialforceareinseparable,theonecannotbesaidtobepriortotheother.ButforChuHsi,eventhoughprincipleandmaterialforceareinseparable,
fromanontologicalpointofviewprincipleissaidtobepriortomaterialforce.Principleismetaphysicalwhilematerialforceisphysical.Mindisconstitutedbysubtle
materialforce.Ithastheabilitytounderstandprinciples,butitstillbelongstothephysicallevelwhileprinciplesbelongtothemetaphysicallevel.FromChuHsi'spoint
ofview,forCh'engHaotosaythatmindisnature,natureisHeaven,Heavenisnature,andnatureismindwithoutqualificationswaswrong,asthesestatementsfailto
makecertainnecessarydistinctions.43
NowweunderstandwhyChuHsipraisedChouTuni'sessay"AnExpla

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nationoftheDiagramoftheGreatUltimate."MyriadthingsintheworldmaybetracedbacktotheFiveAgentsandthetwomaterialforces,yinandyang,whilethese
inturncanbetracedbacktotheGreatUltimate,whichhasnophysicalshapebuthasprinciplesinherentinit.True,themetaphysicalprinciplesmustbeembodiedin
things,andwhatistranscendentmustpenetrateintothisworld.Butstillthereistheimplicitassertionofahierarchyintheworld.SuchaviewisimpliedbyChou's
essaybutcontradictorytowhattheCh'engbrotherstaught.HereitisclearthatChuHsideviatedfromtheteachingsoftheCh'engbrothersandfollowedChouTuni
insteadtodevelopahumanworldthatunitestheworldbeyondandthisworld.
TheImplicationsofCh'engI'sWorldofOneLevelandChuHsi'sWorldofTwoLevels
Ch'engHaodiedbeforehisbrother.Apartfromrecordedsayingsheleftusonlysomeshortessaysandletters.Ch'engIwasmoreproductive,butevenhewroteonly
onebookinhiswholecareer,TheIchuano(CommentaryontheBookofChangesbyCh'engI).Ashespenthiswholelifepreparingthiswork,itisanextremely
importantdocumentforanyonewhowantstounderstandhisthought.ChuHsiwrotetwobooksontheBookofChanges:theChouipenip(Theoriginalmeanings
oftheBookofChanges)wascompletedwhenhewasfortyeightyearsold,andtheIhsehch'imengq(StudyoftheBookofChangesforbeginningstudents)was
completedwhenhewasfiftysevenyearsold.AcomparisonofCh'eng'sandChu'sdifferentinterpretationsoftheBookofChangeswillshowtheimplicationsoftheir
differentworldviews.
ThespecialcharacteristicofCh'engI'sapproachtotheBookofChangesliesinthatherefusedtohaveanythingtodowithdivination.Hewasinterestedonlyinthe
philosophicalprinciplesimpliedinthesocalledtenwings(tencommentaries)oftheBookofChanges.Intheprefacetohisbookhemadeitclearthatallthe
principlesareincludedinthecommentariestheonlywaytounderstandtheintendedmeaningswastostudythesecommentaries.AlthoughtheBookofChangesdoes
haveasystemofsymbolsthatweredevelopedinancienttimebythepriestclasstotellthegoodorevilfortunesofman,sinceConfuciustherationalelementswere
abstractedfromtheClassic,andConfuciusandhisfollowerswrotethecommentariestoformulateaphilosophyofcreativitybasedonrationalphilosophicalprinciples.
DuringtheHandynastyscholarsconcentratedonthedeductionandinterpretationsofthesymbolicsystem,whichbecameasourceofsuperstitionsandambiguous
messages.ItwasnotuntiltheWeidynasty(220265)thatWangPir(226249)startedaradicallynewapproach,givingaphilosophicalinterpretationtotheClassic
basedonTaoistinsight.Ch'engIfollowedWangPi'sexample,butgaveitathoroughlynewConfucianinterpretationinstead.
AsCh'engIneverbelievedthatthereisanotherworldbeyondandabovethisworld,itwasimpossibleforhimtobelieveindivination.Tohimmoral

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disciplineanditscultivationwereimportant,notthereadingofsymbolshence,hepaidonlylipservicetothetraditionalpracticeofdivination.ForCh'engI,substance
andfunctioncomefromthesamesource,andthereisnogapbetweenthemanifestandthehidden.Heshowednointerestwhatsoeverintheworldofspiritsand
deitiesormessagesfrombeyondthroughaproperreadingofsymbols.Forhim,thereisjustahumanworldthatstretchesonthesameplane.
ChuHsi'sapproachwasdifferent.OnthesurfaceitseemsthathehadendorsedCh'engI'sviewofsubstanceandfunction,thehiddenandthemanifest.Hegavehis
interpretationofCh'eng'sdictumasfollows:
Thatsubstanceandfunctioncomefromthesamesourcemeansthatfromtheperspectiveofprinciples,principlesarethesubstanceandformsarethefunctionasprincipleshave
forms,sotheycomefromthesamesource.Thatthereisnogapbetweenthemanifestandthehiddenmeansthatfromtheperspectiveofforms,formsaremanifestandprinciples
arehiddenasformshaveprinciples,sothereisnogapbetweenthetwo.44

IfChuHsi'sinterpretationwerecorrect,thenprinciplesandformswouldbeinseparable,anditwouldbeimpossibleforCh'engItotalkaboutprinciplesonly.Butin
factCh'engIhardlyeverdiscussedforms.ChuHsiactuallywasreadinghisownthoughtintoCh'engI'sdictum.Nowonderhewentontosaythat"afterall,the
distinctionbetweensubstanceandfunctionandthemanifestandthehiddenmustbemaintained."Thisshowsthatheheldadifferentview.Whenhewassixtytwo
yearsoldhewrotealettertoafriendsaying,
WhenmodernscholarsdiscussedtheBookofChanges,theyhadnothingtosayaboutdivination,buttalkedaboutphilosophicalprinciplesalone.Insodoingthemeaningsof
thetextsweretwistedandcouldnotbesubstantiatedanymore.Suchmalpracticeslastedforalongtime.Wemuststartwithdivination,recovertheoriginalmeaningsofthe
text,...sothatwewouldnotfallintoemptytalksandfalsereasonings.45

ChuHsi'scriticismshadtoapplytoCh'engI'sinterpretationoftheBookofChanges,too.ThekeydifferencebetweenthetwoliesinthatChuHsibelievedthatthere
isaworldbeyond,andtheonlywaytoreachitisthroughdivinationandthecorrectreadingofsymbolsandforms.Itwasreportedthathepracticeddivinationinhis
ownlifeontwooccasionswhenhehadimportantdecisionstomake.46
Becauseoftheirdifferenceinworldviewstheyalsohelddifferentattitudestowardspiritsanddeities.TheCh'engbrothersdidnotbelieveintheexistenceofspiritsand
deitiestheywarnedpeoplenottotrustrumors.TheirattitudetowardlifeanddeathwasveryclosetoConfucius'attitude:"Ifwedonotyetknowaboutlife,howcan
weknowaboutdeath?"47AlthoughChuHsifollowedChangTsais(10201077)inunderstandingthephenomenaofspirits

Page54

anddeitiesintermsofnaturalcausesandthoughtthattheyresultedfromtheinteractionofthetwomaterialforces,atleastheconcededtheexistenceofspiritsand
deities.Forhimitisnaturalforamantoturnintoaghostorspiritafterhedies.ChuHsimighthavehadsomereligiouspurposeforbelievinginthetwolevelsofthe
world.Buthismainemphasiswasonmetaphysics.Hemighthavegoneabittoofarinhisinferencesandineffectcontradictedsomewhathisownrigorousdemandto
investigatethingsandextendknowledgeonanobjectivebasis.
SomeCluestoMoveAwayfromMetaphysicalSpeculationinChuHsi'sThought
ToreviewChuHsi'sphilosophyasawhole,hisdiscipleaswellassoninlawHuangKant(11521221)said,"Beseriousinordertoestablishthefoundation,
investigateprinciplesinordertoextendknowledge,andpracticeinordertorealizeintheself.Seriousnessisthatwhichrunsthroughthesethreeitemsitisthe
beginningaswellastheendingpoint."48Thesewordsarewellsaid.ForChuHsi,furthermore,toinvestigateprinciplesmeansnoneotherthantoinvestigatethings.
Thusinvestigationofprincipleshasasitsobjectthingsintheempiricalworldthemoreoneisinvolvedwithinvestigationofprinciples,thelesshewouldhaveanything
todowiththetranscendentmetaphysicalworldandtheworldofspiritsanddeities.Nomatterwhetheritwasthestudyofclassicsorthepracticeofmoralbehaviors,
ChuHsialwayswantedtokeephisfeetonthesolidground,whichisnoneotherthanthehumanworldthatstretchesonthesameplane.Therefore,thecoreofhis
thoughtwasnotthatmuchdifferentfromthatoftheCh'engbrothers.Infact,itseemsthathechangedhisattitudetowardtheDiagramoftheGreatUltimateinhislater
years.Whenhewassixtytwo,hereinterpretedChouTuni'sideasasfollows:
MasterChou'sunderstandingoftheUltimateofNonbeingandtheGreatUltimateareinseparablefromthedailypractice,andhistheoriesofyin,yangandtheFiveAgentsare
inseparablefromhumanity,righteousness,propriety,wisdom,strength,weakness,goodandevil.Herealizesthatsubstanceandfunctioncomefromthesamesourceandthat
thereisnogapbetweenthemanifestandthehiddennobodyhadabetterunderstandingoftheprinciplethanhimsinceCh'in(221206B.C.)andHandynasties.Butwhathe
transmitsarenothingbutwhathavebeentaughtbytheSixClassics,theAnalects,theDoctrineoftheMean,theGreatLearningandtheBookofMencius.Andthesocalled
GreatUltimateisbutthecommonnameoftheprinciplesofHeaven,Earth,andmyriadthingsintheworld.49

WhatisremarkableaboutthisessayisthatChuHsinolongertreatedtheGreatUltimateastheoriginofthings,butratherasthecommonnameoftheprinciplesof
Heaven,Earth,andmyriadthingsintheworld.Undersuchan

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interpretationthemetaphysicalimplicationoftheDiagramoftheGreatUltimateisgreatlyreducedandthehierarchyofworldsdisappears.
OnlyamonthortwobeforehisdeathatseventyonehescoldedLiaoTzuhui(LiaoTeming,u1169cs),adisciple,whoappearedtotaketheUltimateofNonbeing
orGreatUltimatetobeametaphysicalentity,somethingshiningandrollinglikeamercuryball.ChuHsibelievedthatitneverpaidtoreflectonthemindinitselfwhat
isimportantistorealizetheprinciplesgraspedbythemindinone'slife.50Thismustbeconsideredhisdefinitiveideaonthesubject.Therefore,itisbynomeansan
accidentthathecriticizedstronglytheBuddhistpositionandshowedastrongdistasteformetaphysicallanguageingeneral.
Toconclude,hismainconcernwasthehumanworld,thehereandnow,andheputequalemphasisontheoryandpractice.Andyetsomecontemporarywritersstill
condemnhimasgivingonlyempty,mysterioustalks,accusehimofcoveringhisBuddhistviewswithaConfuciancloak,andattackhimasrepresentingtheinterestsof
thelandlordclasstosuppressthecommonpeople.TheseareunfoundedcriticismstheyfailtoappreciatethetruespiritofChuHsi'sphilosophy.
Notes
IamindebtedtoProfessorLiuShuhsienvwhoagreedtoeditandtranslatemyarticleinEnglish.OwingtolimitedspacetheEnglishversionofmypapermustomitthe
detailsandalmostthreefourthsofthenotes.ForabetterunderstandingofmyviewsreadersarerequestedtoconsulttheChineseversionofmypaper.SeeHsFu
kuan,"Ch'engChuit'ung"inChungkuossuhsiangshihlunchihsp'ienw[SupplementtoacollectionofessaysonhistoryofChinesethought],(Taipei:China
TimesPublishingCo.,1982),pp.569611.
1.Analects,14:15.
2.Ibid.,14:37.
3.Ibid.,12:1.
4.Ibid.
5.Ibid.,9:4.
6.Ibid.,6:28.QuotedfromWingtsitChan,xASourceBookinChinesePhilosophy(Princeton,N.J.:PrincetonUniversityPress,1963),p.3.Hereafter,Chan,
SourceBook.
7.Ibid.,2:18.Forexample,ConfuciusurgedhisdiscipleTzuchangy(503c.450B.C.?)tohearagreatdealandseeagreatdealsothathewouldmakefewmistakes
andhavefewregrets.Analects,2:18.
8.Ibid.,4:17.
9.DoctrineoftheMean,ch.1Chan,SourceBook,p.98.
10.Ibid.,ch.22Chan,SourceBook,pp.107108.
11.Ibid.,ch.20Chan,SourceBook,p.107.
12.BookofMencius,2A:6,6a:6,Chan,SourceBook,pp.54,6566.
13.Ibid.,7:1Chan,SourceBook,p.78.
14.Ibid.,7a:4Chan,SourceBook,p.79.

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z

aa

15.ChuTzuylei [ClassifiedconversationsofMasterChu],(Taipei:Chengchung BookCo.,1970),120:1,pp.41274128.

16.Cf.WangMouhung,abChuTzunienp'uac[ChronologicalbiographyofMasterChu],underChuHsi'sfortyfirstyear.
17.BookofChanges,commentaryonthesecondhexagram,k'unad(earth,female).
18.IamreferringtoChouTuni'sfamousessay''AnExplanationoftheDiagramoftheGreatUltimate."TheessayisfoundintheChouTzuch'anshuae[Complete
worksofMasterChou],ch.1.ForanEnglishtranslation,seeChan,SourceBook,pp.463465.
19.Ishuaf[Survivingworks],18:5b,intheErhCh'engch'anshuag[CompleteworksofthetwoCh'engs],(SPPYed.)Chan,SourceBook,p.562.
20.Ibid.,2A:23bChan,SourceBook,p.552.
21.ChuTzuylei,12:11a,p.337Chan,SourceBook,p.607.
22.Ishu,22A:14a.
23.Ibid.,22A:1a.
24.Ibid.,3:6a.
25.Ibid.,15:2b.
26.Ibid.,2A:2b3aChan,SourceBook,p.551.
27.ChuTzuylei,9:1a,p.235Chan,SourceBook,p.609.
28.Analects,2:4Chan,SourceBook,p.22.
29.DoctrineoftheMean,ch.1Chan,SourceBook,p.98.
30.BookofMencius,2A:6Chan,SourceBook,p.65.
31.Ibid,7A:1Chan,SourceBook,p.78.
32.HsnTzu,ch.17Chan,SourceBook,p.118.
33.TheideasofyinandyangwereusedtoexplainseasonalchangesasconcretemanifestationsoftheWayofHeaventheunderstandingofwhichhadagreatdealto
dowithfarmerswhosecropsdependedongoodweatherconditions.
34.Ishu,2A:2b.
35.Ibid.,2A:6a.
36.Ibid.,2A:5b.
37.Ibid.,2A:2a.
38.Ibid.,1:3bChan,SourceBook,p.527.ThequotationisfromtheBookofChanges,"AppendedRemarks,"pt.1,ch.12.
39.PrefacetohisIchuan,intheErhCh'engch'anshuChan,SourceBook,p.570.
40.Chan,SourceBook,pp.463465.
41.Ishu,1:7bChan,SourceBook,pp.527528.ThequotationisasayingbyKaoTzuah(c.420c.350B.C.)intheBookofMencius,6A:3.
42.Ishu,6:2aChan,SourceBook,p.552.
43."EssentialsofTheMencius,"intheChuTzuwenchiai[CollectionofliterarywritingsofMasterChu],ch.74.Translator'snote:Thisreferencewasgivenin
originalnote135.ButIcannotfindChuHsi'scriticismofCh'engHao'sviewthatmind,nature,andHeavenareoneintheessay.Isuspectthatthiscouldbeamistake.
UnfortunatelytherewasnowaytoconsultProfessorHsashehadpassedaway.ButitisquitetruethatChuHsi'sviewwasdifferentfromCh'engHao'sasChuHsi
believedthatmindisconstitutedofmaterialforce(ChuTzuylei,5:3b,p.138)whilenatureisregardedasprinciple(ChuTzuylei,5:1b,p.134),theirontological
statusaredifferent.ButgenerallyChuHsiseemedtodeliberatelyavoidanydirect,harshcriticismsofCh'engHao.

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aj

44.ChuTzuwenchi(SPPYed.),40:38b,twentyninthlettertoHoShuching.
45.Ibid.,separatecollection,3:9b,thirdlettertoSunChiho.ak

46.Originalnote148pointedoutthatthesedivinationswerepracticedwhenChuHsiwassixtysixyearsoldandeixtyeightyearsold.SeeWangMouhung,Chu
Tzunienp'u.
47.Analects,11:11Chan,SourceBook,p.36.
48.HuangKan,"ChuTzuhsingchuang"al[BiographyofChuHsi]intheMienchaichiam[CollectedworksofHuangKan],(PreciousworksoftheFourLibraries
ed.),36:30b.
49.ChuTzuwenchi,78:18b19a,"AnEssayinCommemorationofMasterChouTuni."TheSixClassicsweretheBookofOdes,History,Rites,Changes,
Chouli[RitesofChou],andtheSpringandAutumnAnnals.TheancientSixClassicshadtheBookofMusic,nowlost,insteadoftheChouli.
50.Ibid.,45:42b,eighteenthlettertoLiaoTzuhui.
Glossary

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6
ChuHsi'sTheoryofMetaphysicalStructure
StanislausLokuang
Introduction
InthehistoryofChinesephilosophy,thereisnotermformetaphysics.Thereisonlythetermhsingshang,ofwhichscholarsthroughoutthecenturieshavehad
differentinterpretations.Thetermshsingerhshanga(priortophysicalform)andhsingerhhsiab(posteriortophysicalform)originallyarederivedfromtheIchingc
(Bookofchanges).Accordingtoits"AppendedRemarks,""ThatwhichishsingerhshangiscalledtheWay(Taod)thatwhichishsingerhshiaiscalledaconcrete
thing(ch'ie)."1TheBookofChangesdidnotgiveexplanationorinterpretationtothesetwotermsneitherdidscholarsdevotedtothestudyoftheClassicsintheHan
dynasty(206B.C.A.D.220)paymuchattentiontothesetwosentences.
HanK'angpof(332380)commentedonthesentencefromthe"AppendedRemarks,"part1,chapter2,"Thatwhichisvisiblewethencallhsiang(form).That
whichhasformwethencallch'i."2Han'scommentaryreads:"Thatwhichbecomesformiscalledaconcretething."3Hetakeshsingerhshangasthatwhichdoesnot
yethaveformandhsingerhhsiaasthatwhichhasform.
HsnShunang'sg(128190)commentaryexplainedthesentenceinquestionasfollows:"Itissaidthatthesun,moon,andstarsthatmanifestthemselvesintheheavens
becomehsiang.Themyriadthingsproducedandgrownontheearthhaveformandcanbetakenasconcretethings."4HanK'angpo'scommentisbasedonthis
explanation,butneitherHannorHsncommentedonthetermshsingerhshangandhsingerhhsia.
Finally,intheSungdynasty(9601279)scholarsoftheSchoolofPrinciple(Lihsehh)whostudiedprinciple(lii)andmaterialforce(ch'ij)begantopayattentionto
theproblemofhsingerhshangandhsingerhhsia.
ChangTsai'sk(10201077)Ishuol(CommentaryontheBookofChanges)tookhsingerhshangasaformlessbodyandhsingerhhsiaasabodywithform.He
said,
Hsingerhshangisthatwhichisformless.ThereforehsingerhshangiscalledtheWay.Hsingerhhsiaisthatwhichhasform.Thereforehsingerhhsiaiscalledaconcrete
thing.ThatwhichhasnoformorleavesnotraceistheWay,likegreat

Page59
virtuewhichstrengthensmoraltiesbetweenhumans.Thatwhichhasformandleavestracesisaconcretething,visiblefromfactandreality,likeceremonyandetiquette.Allthat
whichishsingerhshangiscalledtheWay.Onlybecauseofthisisitdifficulttounderstandtheconnectionbetweenthepointwhichdividesbeing(yum)andnonbeing(wun)and
physicalform(hsingo)andformlessness(wuhsingp).Itisatthiscrucialpointthatmaterialforcebegins.Thereforethatwhichismaterialforcecanunitebeingandnonbeing.Outof
nonbeingmaterialforcenaturallyarises.ThisistheWayandtheChange.5

TheopinionsofCh'engI(Ch'engIch'uan,q10331107)andCh'engHao(Ch'engMingtao,r(10321085)differfromChangTsai'sopinion:"Tzuhous[ChangTsai]
takesch'inghsitat(theonegreatpurevacuity)tomeantheWayofHeaven(T'ientaou).Thereforeheconsidersitnotfromtheviewpointofhsingerhshang,but
fromconcretethings."6InChangTsai'sthinking,formlessnessishsingerhshang.AndbecauseheadvocatedthatthematerialforceoftheGreatVacuityisformless
materialforceitfollowsthatthematerialforceoftheGreatVacuity(T'aihsv)ishsingerhshang.AsChangnoted:"Materialforceoriginatedfromvacuity,and
thereforeitshouldoriginallybeformless.Havingbeenaffected,itwasproduced.Thuscongregating,itbecameform(hsiangw)."7Ch'engIandCh'engHaodidnot
agreewithChang'stakingmaterialforceashsingerhshangmoreover,theWaywhichisformlessandtheconcretethingwhichhasformcannotexistinthesame
physicalbody.Therefore,thatwhichhasformandthatwhichdoesnothaveformcannotexplainhsingerhshangandhsingerhhsia.Evenifmaterialforceisthe
materialforceoftheGreatVacuity,itisstillhsingerhhsia.
ChuHsifollowswhatCh'engIandCh'engHaoadvocated.Hetakeshsingerhshangas"priortophysicalform"andhsingerhhsiaas"posteriortophysicalform."
Thesetwocancoexistinthesameobject.
Thatwhichispriortophysicalformreferstoprinciple.Thatwhichisposteriortophysicalformreferstofactsandthings.8
Someoneasked,"Whydoyouexplainhsingerhshangandhsingerhhsiaintermsofshangandhsia?"
ChuHsireplied,"Becauseitismostappropriate.Supposeyouuse'form'and'formlessness'.Thenyousevertherelationshipofthingsandprinciple.Thereforewhenyouuse
shangandhsiatodescribethedifferenceclearly,youareonlydrawingacleardistinction,notseparatingthemfromeachother.AconcretethingisalsotheWay.TheWayisalso
aconcretething.Theyaredistinctbutnotseparate."9

ThedifferencebetweenChuHsiandChangTsaiconsistsinChangTsai'stakingtheconstitutingmaterialforceoftheGreatVacuityasformless,whileChuHsitakes
anythingthathasmaterialforceashsingerhhsia.
Inheavenandearththereareprincipleandmaterialforce.PrincipleistheWaywhichispriortophysicalform,therootofthecreationofthings.Asformaterial

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force,itistheconstitutiveelementsofwhatisposteriortophysicalform.Itistheimplementofthecreationofthings.Forthisreasonthecreationofmanandthingshasto
possessthisprincipleandthenthereisthenature(hsing).Ithastopossessthismaterialforce,andthenthereisphysicalform(hsing).10
Hsingshangandhsinghsiamerelyrefertotheseparation,fusion,anddistinctionofform.Thisispreciselythepointofdemarcation.Ifyoumerelysay"existingpriorto"or
"existingposteriorto,"thenthatseparatesthemintotwoseparateentities.11

InthebeginningoftheCh'ingdynasty(16441912),WangFuchihxhadhisownopiniononhsingshangandhsinghsia.Heused"hidden"(yiny)and
"manifest"(hsienz)tointerpretthesetwoterms.
TheWaywhichishiddenisnotnonexistence.Thenhowcanitbefoundinthevastemptiness?Thatwhichishsingerhshangishiddenthatwhichishsingerhhsiaismanifest.
Assoonasyouspeakthetermhsingerhshang,youpresupposethereisthewordhsing(physicalform)whichleavesatracethatcanbefollowedandcanbereferredto.12
Thatwhichisformlessisthedarknesswhichcannotbeseenbyman.Formlessnessisnotreallyformless.Man'seyesightiscircumscribedbytheobscurity,soitisseenas
obscure.Thecapacityofthemindiscircumscribedbythevastnessofwhatitcontemplates.Thepowerofeyesightandhearingarecircumscribedbyminuteness.13

WangFuchihtakestheGreatUltimate(T'aichiaa)asthematerialforceoftheGreatHarmony(T'aihoab).ThematerialforceoftheGreatHarmonyalready
possessesyinac(passivecosmicforce)andyangad(activecosmicforce),butitisnotyetmanifestbecausethereisnomaterialforcepriortoyinandyang.Ifthereis
materialforce,yinandyangexist.ThematerialforceoftheGreatHarmonyisthenthematerialofwhichyinandyangarenotyetmademanifest.Humaneyesight
cannotperceiveyinandyangthereforetheyarelabeledasformless.Whenthetwomaterialforcesofyinandyangaremademanifest,thentheyaresaidtohaveform.
TaiChenae(17231777)oftheCh'ingdynastyhadanotheropinion.Hethoughtthatformlessnessandhavingformshouldreferto"priortoform"and"posteriorto
form.""Formreferstotheentitywhichhasalreadybecomeconcrete.Hsingerhshangislikesaying'priortoform'andhsingerhhsiaislikesaying'posteriorto
form'.Theyinyangthathasnotbecomeanentitywithformissaidtobehsingerhshang.Itisclearthatitisnothsingerhhsia."14
TheSchoolofPrincipleexplainshsingshangandhsinghsiabyusingtheterms"havingform"and"becomingform"and"manifestingform."Theseareallbasedon
materialforce.Ifmaterialforceistheonlyelementcomprisingtheuniverseandthemyriadthingsinit,andifthedistinctionbetweenhsingshangandhsinghsiais
basedonmaterialforce,thenmaterialforceis

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eitherconcreteornotyetconcrete.Thatwhichisconcreteisyinyang,is"posteriortoform."Thatwhichisnotyetconcreteishsingerhshang.WangFuchih
dividedthesubstanceofmaterialforceintoyinandyang.Thereisnomaterialforcethatisnotdividedintoyinandyang.Hedistinguishedbetweenhsingerhshang
andhsingerhhsiaintermsofthe"hidden"andthe"manifest."ChuHsiadvocatedthedualismofprincipleandmaterialforce.Hetookprincipletobethatwhichis
hsingerhshangandmaterialforceasthatwhichishsingerhhsia.ItseemstomethatChuHsi'sinterpretationisclosertothatwhichthe"AppendedRemarks''of
theBookofChangesreferredtoashsingerhshangandhsingerhhsia.The"AppendedRemarks"takestheWayashsingerhshangandconcretethingsas
hsingerhhsia.TheWay,wecansay,isequaltoprinciple,butwecannotsayitisequaltothematerialforceoftheGreatVacuity.Whenwesayprincipleishsing
erhshang,wemeanthathsingerhshangiscalledtheWay.
InChinesephilosophywetranslateAristotle'sFirstPhilosophyashsingshanghseh,afbutwecannottakehsingshangastheobjectofthestudyofFirstPhilosophy
metaphysics.ThemetaphysicsofAristotleresearchesthehighestprincipleortheultimateprincipleofeverything.ThehighestprincipleofeverythingistheFirst
Principleofeverything.Therefore,Westernmetaphysicsstudies"Being.""Being"isthesubstanceofeverything.Metaphysicsstudiesthesubstance.
OnSubstance
Westernontologystudies"Being"intheaspectof"Being"asanidea."Being"isthesimplestidea.Ithastheleastintensionalorconnotativemeaning.Itcanbeneither
analyzednorexplained.Wecanexplain"Being"intermsofitscharacteranditsrelationships.Truth,beauty,andgoodnessarethecharacteristicsofBeingthelawof
identity,thelawofcontradiction,andthelawofcausalityareitsontologicalrelationships.
OntologyintheBookofChangesstudiesthemetamorphosisof"being,"thatis,itstudiestheconcrete"existence"ofbeing,becoming(ch'engag)oractus(hsingah).
Becomingoractusisthemetamorphosis(huaai).MetamorphosiswascalledchangeintheBookofChanges.Imeanschangeandchangemeansmetamorphosis
(huashengaj)orproductionbytheperpetualrenewaloflife(shengshengak).
Thingsthatareproducedbymetamorphosisarebecomingoractustheyarealsoexistence.Ontheperpetualrenewaloflife,theBookofChangesstatesthatfrom
theGreatUltimate,yinandyangareproduced.Fromyinandyang,theFourPhenomena(ssuhsiangal)ortheFiveAgents(wuhsingam)15areproduced.Fromthe
FourPhenomenaortheFiveAgentsareproducedthings,whichare"existence."OntologyintheBookofChangesisanontologyofactus.Itstudiesactus.Itisa
philosophyofactus.
AlthoughChuHsi'sontologystudiesproductionbymetamorphosisandtheperpetualrenewaloflife,hepaysmoreattentiontothestructureofthings

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asthings.Heanalyzesthingsandadvocatesthatthingscontaintwoelements,principleandmaterialforce.InWesternphilosophy,thingsfallwithintheboundaryof
cosmology.BothAristotleandSt.ThomasAquinasadvocatedthatthingscontainedformaandmateria."Being"inontologyofcourseishsingshang,becauseithas
nophysicalformthingsbelongtohsinghsiabecausetheyhavematter.ThesubjectofontologyinWesternphilosophyis"Being"thereforeitiscertainlythescience
ofhsingshang.ThesubjectofWesterncosmologyis"things"thereforeitiscertainlythescienceofhsinghsia.ButsincetheontologyofboththeBookofChanges
andChuHsistudiesmaterialforceasitssubject,thereforeitcannotbutbethescienceofhsinghsia.Butthesubstanceofthingsbelongstothefieldofthescienceof
hsingshang.ThereforetheontologyoftheBookofChangesandChuHsishouldbeviewedasthescienceofhsingshanghseh(metaphysics).
Althoughthetermsoft'ian(substance)andyungao(function)appearedinphilosophicalthoughtbeforetheSungdynasty,theywerenotinwidespreaduse.Thesetwo
termswereincommonuseinBuddhistscripturesandcommentariesonthescriptures.ThescholarsoftheSchoolofPrincipleintheSung,Ming(13681644),and
Ch'ingdynastiesweremuchinfluencedbyBuddhistthoughtandwidelyusedthesetwoterms.
ChuHsidiscussedsubstanceandfunctiononmanyoccasions,buthisdiscussionsonthesubstanceofthingsarefew.Indiscussingsubstanceandfunctionhefocused
forthemostpartonfactsandevents:
Whatoneshoulddoiscalledsubstance.Whatonedoesiscalledfunction.Forexample,afanconsistsofthespine,handle,andpaper.Thisissubstance.Fanningitthenis
function.Anotherexampleisarulerandascalewhichhaslinesanddots.Thesearesubstance.Weusethemtomeasureandweightthings.Thatisfunction.16

Thesubstanceinquestionisthesubject,thefunctioninquestionistheusage.Therearemanyelementsinthesubject.Someofthembelongtosubstancesomeof
thembelongtoaccident:
Thespinesofthefanthemselvesaresubstance.Thefloworstagnancyofwaterorthewavesofthewaterarefunction.Thewateritselfcanfloworbestagnant,canbestirredup
intowaves.Thisissubstance.
Takeforexample,ourbody.Itissubstance.Seeingwihtheeyesandhearingwiththeearsandmovingwiththelimbsarefunction.Ortakethehand.Itissubstance,andpointing
andcarryingandothermovementsofthefingersarefunction.17

Thissubstancemeanssubjectum.Theaccidentofthesubjectumisfunction.ButwhenChuHsidiscussedthesubstanceofthings,heusedWayorprincipletoreferto
substance.Hesaid:

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Substanceistheprincipleandfunctionistheusage,liketheseeingoftheeyesandthehearingoftheears.Itisnaturallyso.Thisisprinciple.Weuseoureyestoseethings.We
useearstohearsounds.Thatisfunction.18

Someoneasked,"Aresubstanceandfunctionalwaysdifferent?"
ChuHsireplied,"Takethissignpost.Itisoneprinciple.Itpointsoutadirectiondowntheroadthiswayorthatway.Ortakethishouse.Itisoneprinciple.Ithassittingroomsand
halls.ThereareChangSanapandLiSsu.aqLiSsucan'tbeChangSan.ChangSancan'tbeLiSsu.Takeyinandyang.The'WesternInscription'(Hsimingar)saysthat'theprinciple
isonebutitsmanifestationsaremany'.Themeaningisthesamehere."ChuHsialsosaid,"Themorethingsaredifferentiated,thegreatertheprincipleappears."19

ChuHsitakesprincipleassubstancebecausefirstthereissubstanceandthenthereisfunction.Functionisconsistentwith(inaccordancewith)principle.Butwith
respecttooriginalsubstance,whatisimportantisnottherelationshipofsubstanceandfunctionbuttherelationshipofprincipleandexistence.Whatdoestheexistence
ofthisthingtakeasitsoriginalsubstance?Theoriginalsubstanceofsomething'sexistence.Thereasonofsomething'sexistencemustbewithinthenatureofthatthing.
Thisthingisthisthingbecauseofitsnature.Theexistenceofsomethingshouldhaveitsownoriginalsubstance,becauseexistenceistheexistenceoftheoriginal
substance.Originalsubstanceisthesubjectofexistence.Besidestheoriginalsubstance,theexistingsubjectalsocontainsmanyaccidentals.ChuHsisaidinrelationto
originalsubstance,
ThereforewhenweConfucianistsspeakoftheoriginalsubstanceofthenature,itmeansonlytherealityofhumanity,righteousness,propriety,andwisdom(jenilichihas)...20If
itisnotthattheoriginalsubstancecontainsthese,howcantheydevelopfromfunction?Thereisnopointwecangrasptheoriginalsubstancewecanonlylookfortheoriginal
substancefromitsfunction.21

InthisquotationChuHsitakeshumanity,righteousness,propriety,andwisdomastheendowmentofnature.Themeaningoforiginalsubstanceandthemeaningofthe
originalsubstanceofthemindthathasnotyetbeguntoworkarethesame.Herethesubstancemeansentity.
Someoneasked,"Whatisthedifferencebetweenthemindnotyetworkinganditsnature?"
ChuHsireplied,"Mindcontainssubstanceandfunction.Beforethemindbeginstoworkitissubstance.Whenitisworking,itisfunction."22

ChuHsiadvocatedthatthemindconsistsofitsfeelinganditsnature.Theoriginalsubstanceofitsnatureisthesubstanceofthemindandtheprincipleofhumanity,
righteousness,propriety,andwisdom.Inthesamewaytheoriginalsubstanceofthemindisalsotheprincipleofhumanity,righteousness,propriety,andwisdom.
"Whenwetalksolelyaboutthevirtueofthemind,

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thenthemindnotyetfunctioningissubstanceandthemindalreadyfunctioningisfunction.Whenwetalkonlyoftheprincipleoflove,thenhumanityisthesubstance
andcompassionisthefunction."23
WhenwetakeprincipleortheWayassubstance,wecontrastittofunctionandnottoexistence.AccordingtoChuHsi,thatbywhichathingexistshastohave
principleandmaterialforce.Theoriginalsubstanceofathingisthereforeformedbythefusionofprincipleandmaterialforce.Thisoriginalsubstancethenistherootof
thethingallothersubstanceandfunctionsaredependentuponthisoriginalsubstance.
ChuHsitookprincipleandmaterialforceastheoriginalsubstanceofthings,equivalenttothingsinWesterncosmology,notbeinginWesternontology.Butfromthe
pointofviewofChinesephilosophy,ChuHsi'sthingwhichconsistsofprincipleandmaterialforceiswhattheBookofChangesspokeofasbecomingandactus.The
twotermsintheBookofChangesrefertothemyriadthingsintheuniverse,whichwereformedbychange.Thebecomingandactusofthemyriadthingsarenot
absoluteactus.Theabsoluteactusexhibitsnochange.Ithasnoelementoftheperpetualrenewaloflife.Theactusofthemyriadthingsintheuniverseisformedby
fusionandtheperpetualrenewaloftheelements.TheBookofChangestookthemyriadthingstobeformedbythematerialforceofyinandyang.Withinthematerial
forcethereisnaturallytheprincipleofunion.ChuHsiadvocatedthatprincipledidnotcontainmaterialforce,butwasinoppositiontoit.Themetamorphosisofthe
myriadthingshasitsownprincipleofbecominganditsownmaterialforceofbecoming.Ifthereisacertainprinciple,thereisacertainmaterialforce.Principleand
materialforceuniteandformthemyriadthings.TheBookofChangestakesmaterialforcetobetheoriginalsubstanceofthings.Withinmaterialforcethereis
principle.ChuHsitookprincipleandmaterialforceasthesubstanceofthings.Principleandmaterialforcearetwo,buttheyarenotseparate.
ChuHsi'stheoryofmetaphysics,therefore,doesnotusethecategoriesofhsingerhshangandhsingerhhsiabutbeginswithoriginalsubstance.Althoughmaterial
forceishsingerhhsia,itisstilloneelementintheoriginalsubstanceofthings.Thereforeitstillbelongstothemetaphysics.ThingsinWesternepistemologyhavetwo
elements:formaandmateria.Materiabelongstomaterialthereforeitbelongstotheuniverse.MaterialforceinChinesephilosophydoesnotmeanmaterial.Therefore
itbelongstothescienceofhsingerhshang.
PrincipleandMaterialForce
Instudyingthesubstanceofthemyriadthings,ChuHsiwasfollowingCh'engI'sthought,whichadvocatedthatthemyriadthingsarecomposedofprincipleand
materialforce.Principleformsthenatureofthethingandmaterialforceformstheformofthething."Someoneasked,'Isthenaturethemate

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24

rialoflife?'ChuHsireplied,'No,thenatureistheprincipleoflife.Materialforceisthematerialoflife,andalreadyhasformandfigure.'"

Thethingsoftheuniversearecalledthemyriadthings,yetthingsarenotnecessarilyallmaterial.Thingsrepresentthatwhichactuallyexists.Everythinghasprincipleby
whichitisformedandalsohas"existence"whichformedeachthing."Existence"istheconcretething,thatis,therealityofthething.Andprinciplesareabstract.
Abstractprinciplewhichformsrealityhastohave"material."Materialisconcrete,andthereforeitmusthaveform.Materialcomesfrommaterialforce.Therefore
everythinghasbothprincipleandmaterialforce.
Thewordhsing(physicalform)wasoriginallywrittenashsing,atwhichmeansamodel.InancientChinapeoplemadebricksbyfirstmixingclay,thenspreadingit
evenly,thentakingawoodenmodelandpressingitontheclaytoseparateitintosquares.Afterbakinginthesun,thesquareclayturnedintosquarebricks.Ifweuse
thiswordhsing(model)toexplainthesubstanceofthings,thenthishsing(physicalform)isequivalenttotheformainWesternscholasticphilosophy.Thisformathen
isequivalenttoChuHsi'sprinciplebutnottomaterialforce.Thereforethehsingin"materialforceformsthehsingofthings"doesnotmeanmodelbutphysicalform.
Astheformdependsonthematerial,itissaid,"Materialforceformsthephysicalformofthings."Physicalformisthecharacteristicofmaterialforce,butprinciplehas
noformandmoreovercan'thaveform.Therefore,ChuHsiadvocatedthatprincipleishsingerhshangandhsingerhhsia.
Materialforceisthematerial,equivalenttomateriainWesternscholasticphilosophy.Thisisspeakingofitintermsoffunctionandnotfromthepointofviewofits
originalnature.Materialforcehasthefunctionofmateriainthesubstanceofthings.Materiainoriginalnatureisalwaysofamaterialnaturebutmaterialforceisnot.
Materialforcemaybematerialormaybeimmaterial.
Thingshavetheirownprincipletoformthings.Principleisthenatureofthething.Thingshavetheirownmaterialwhichismaterialforce."Asthereissuchprinciple,
thenthereissuchmaterialforce."25
Athingbecomesacertainthingbecausetheprincipleforitexistsiftheprincipleexists,thensodoesthematerialforce.Forexample,aparticularpersonbecamethat
particularpersonbecausethereexistsprincipleofthepersonandthenthematerialforceoftheperson.The"this"ofthepersonisthecharacteristicofthepersonand
alsotheprincipleoftheperson.Becausetheparticularprincipleexists,sodoesthematerialforce.ChuHsioftensaidthatprincipleandmaterialforceshouldnotbe
seenassequentialbutintheory,principlemustcomefirst."Someoneasked,'Doesprinciplecomefirstandmaterialforcefollowit?'ChuHsireplied,'Principleand
materialforceassucharenotsequentialbutwhenwearereasoning,principlecomesfirstandmaterialforcefollowsit.'"26
Thismeansthatprincipleconditionsmaterialforce.Principledetermines

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materialforce.Thereisalittlesimilaritytotheformadeterminingmateriainscholasticphilosophy.Materiaisanundeterminedmaterialhavingformaaddedtoit,it
becomesmateriaofthethings.ButinChuHsi'sphilosophy,therelationshipofprincipleandmaterialforceisnotlikethis.ChuHsiadvocatedthatprincipleisonebut
itsmanifestationsaremany.Originallyprincipleisone,butbecauseofmaterialforceitismanifestedasmany.Inthiswayofspeaking,materialforcedetermines
principle.Firstthereisaunifiedprinciple,butthenaccordingtothedifferencesofmaterialforce,thethingsformedaredifferent.Thedifferencesofthingsdonotcome
fromprinciplebutfrommaterialforce.
ThethoughtthatprincipleisonebutitsmanifestationsaremanycomesfromCh'engI,butChangTsaialreadyhadthiskindofthought.ChuHsistronglysupportedit.
Someoneasked,"Whatareprincipleandmaterialforce?"ChuHsireplied,"Ich'uan(Ch'engI)saiditwell:'Principleisonebutmanifestationsaremany.'27Ifyoutakeallofheaven
andearthandmyriadthingstogether,thereisonlyoneprinciple.Buteachpersonhashisownprinciple."28
"'TheWesternInscription'frombeginningtoendisexplainingthisconceptthatprincipleisonebutmanifestationsaremany."29

ChuHsitakestheGreatUltimateasthesupremeprinciplebutitisnotthehighestprincipleoftheuniverse,anditisnottheoriginoftheuniverse.TheGreatUltimateis
themostrelevantprincipleofeverything.ChuHsitaughtthatthereisonlyoneGreatUltimateintheuniversebutthateverythinghasitsownGreatUltimate.Thisisthe
meaningthatprincipleisonebutitsmanifestationsaremany.
ChuHsisaid,"TheGreatUltimateisonlytheprincipleofheaven,earth,andthemyriadthings.Withinheavenandearth,thereistheGreatUltimate.Withinthemyriad
phenomena,eachphenomenonhasitsownGreatUltimate".30
"TheGreatUltimateisonlythebestandmostperfectprincipleeveryonehasaGreatUltimateandeverythinghasaGreatUltimate."31

Howdoweexplainthisseemingcontradiction?FungYulanausaid,
Accordingtothis,ineverythingbesidesprinciplewhichformsthethingitself,thereistheGreatUltimate.Thatis,thewholeprincipleofeverything.32AsIhavewritten,"This
explanationisnotcorrect.ChuHsidoesnotseparateprincipleandtheGreatUltimateastwodifferentkindsofprinciple.Thereisonlyoneprinciple.TheGreatUltimaterepresents
thesupremeprinciple,thatis,thewholeprinciple.Onethingcannotcontaintwoprinciples,orelseitcan'tbeonethingbuttwo.Theprincipleofathingisthewholeprincipleof
thePrincipleofHeaven.Itisonlymanifestedtoadifferentdegree.ChuHsimadeananalogy:'Thereisonlyonemoonbutthemoonsreflectedintherivers,lakes,andstreamsare
different.'"33

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Buttheproblemishere.Principleformsthenatureofathingitistheprinciplebywhichathinggetsitsphysicalform.Whentheprincipleisthesame,thenthenature
shouldbethesame.Whenthenatureisthesame,thethingisthesame.Supposethereisonlyoneprincipleforallmyriadthingsintheuniverse.Thenthereisonlyone
nature.Ifthereisonlyonenature,thenthereisonlyonething.ThentheresultofChuHsi'sthoughtwouldbesimilartotheresultofChuangTzu'sav(c.369c.286B.C.)
"Ch'iwulun"(Ontheequalityofthings),thatis,themyriadthingsarethesame.Onlythesurfaceappearancediffers.Allofthesubstanceisthesame.Forexample,the
natureofhumanbeingsisthesame.Allpersonsarehuman.Onlytheirquantityandqualitydiffer.
ButthisisnottheconclusionChuHsiwanted.Hestillbroughtforththetheorythatprincipleisonebutitsmanifestationsaremany.Butiftheprincipleisone,howcan
itbemanifesteddifferently?Ifwewanttoexplainthis,wemustanalyzeandclarifythecontentofprinciple.
ThetraditionalthoughtofConfucianiststooktheuniverseasthefluxoflifeandeverythingpossessinglife.Lifetothemwassimplytheexistenceofthings.Fromthe
pointofviewofexistence,everythingisexistent,justaseverythingisbeing.Theexistenceofthemyriadthingswasformedbythefusionofyinandyangintheir
operations.Theoperationsofyinandyangnevercease.Theyarecontinuousandunceasinglycombinetoproducethemyriadthings.Wecalltheiroperationsthe
perpetualrenewaloflife.TheBookofChangessays,"TheperpetualrenewaloflifeiscalledChange."34
Becauseeveryexistenceisformedfromtheoperationofyinandyang,eachexistenceisalife.TheBookofChangessays,"OneyinandoneyangiscalledtheWay.
Thatwhichcontinuesitisgoodness.Thatwhichisformedisthenature."Yinandyangnotonlyrevolveunceasinglyintheuniversetheyalsorevolveunceasinglyinthe
physicalbodyofeachthing.Theexistenceofeachphysicalbodyneverceasesmotion.Itisakindofexistenceofongoingmovement.Thereforewecallitlife.
Thewholeuniverseiscomposedoftheoperationsofyinandyang.Yinandyanghavetheirownprincipleofoperations.Thisprincipleistheprincipleofperpetual
renewaloflife.ItisalsotheGreatUltimatethatcomprisestheuniverse.ChuHsithoughtthattheuniversehasaGreatUltimate.Inaddition,everyphysicalbodyalso
hastheprincipleoftheoperationsofyinandyang.Thisprinciplealsoistheprincipleofperpetualrenewaloflife.ThisisalsotheGreatUltimateineveryphysicalbody.
Theprincipleofperpetualrenewaloflifeineverythingandintheuniverseisthesame.Buttheprincipleofperpetualrenewaloflifeofeachthingisdifferent.Therefore
ChuHsisaid,"Principleisonebutitsmanifestationsaremany."
Originallytheprincipleofperpetualrenewaloflifeineachthingisthesameprinciple.Thenwhyisitdifferent?Itisdifferentbecausethematerialforcethateach
physicalbodypossessesisdifferent.Materialforceisdifferentiatedintopurityandturbidness.Thedegreeofpurityorturbidnessalsohascountlessvarietiesand
diversifications.Theeffectofpurityandturbidness

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consistsinconcealingormakingmanifesttheprincipleofperpetualrenewaloflife.Turbidmaterialforceconcealstheprincipleofperpetualrenewaloflife.Pure
materialforcemakesmanifesttheprincipleofperpetualrenewaloflife.Thedifferenceinthedegreeofpurityorturbidnessdeterminesthedegreetowhichtheprinciple
ofperpetualrenewaloflifewillbeconcealedormademanifest.Themostturbidmaterialforcecompletelyconcealstheprincipleofperpetualrenewaloflife,causing
thephysicalbodynottomanifesttheslightestamountoflife.Thelowerthedegreeofturbidness,thelowerthedegreeofconcealmentoftheprincipleofperpetual
renewaloflife.Thereforelifeismoreabletobemademanifest.Take,forexample,plants.Onthemthedegreeofturbidnessbeinglow,thedegreeofconcealmentof
theprincipleofperpetualrenewaloflifewillbelow,andthisprinciplewillbemanifest.Thematerialforceofman,ontheotherhand,ispure,andthereforeman's
principleofperpetualrenewaloflifecanbemanifested.ThisiswhatChuHsimeantwhenhesaidthatthings,thatis,animals,obtainedonlypartofprinciple,butman
obtainedthewholeofprinciple.
Someoneasked,"Ifsomeoneaskedifmaterialforcewhichisuprightandunobstructedconstitutesmanandmaterialforcewhichisobliqueandobstructedconstitutesthings,
whatwouldyousay?"
ChuHsireplied,"Thecomingintoexistenceofthingsmustnecessarilydependonthecoagulationofmaterialforceandthenhaveform.Thatwhichpossessespurematerialforce
ismanthatwhichpossessesturbidmaterialforceisathing...."
Someoneelseasked,"Whatdoyouthinkofthis:Materialforcehaspurityandturbidnessbuttheirprincipleisthesame?"
ChuHsireplied,"Itiscertainlylikethat.Theprincipleislikeapreciousjewel.Whenpossessedbyasaintorwiseman,itislikebeingplacedinclearwater.Itsbrilliancenaturally
canbeseen.Whenitispossessedbystupidorunworthypersons,itislikebeingplacedinturbidwater.Thewatermustbemadeclearandthemudandsandremovedbeforeits
brilliancecanbeseen."35

Eventhoughman'smaterialforcemaybepure,therearestilldifferencesinthedegreeofpurity.ThereforeChuHsiadvocatedthenatureofthequalityofmaterial
force.Thepurityorturbidnessofmaterialforcemakeshumannaturegoodorevil.Comparedtothatofman,thematerialforceofthingsisturbid,andtheprinciplethat
thingspossessisobliqueandobstructed.Thematerialforceofman,ontheotherhand,ispurethustheprinciplethatmanpossessesisuprightandunobstructed.
Principleandmaterialforcefusetoformthesubstanceofthings.Substancepossessesthenatureofthethinganditsform.Inhisontology,St.ThomasAquinastakes
formaandmateriatoformthenatureofthings.Natureandexistentiafusetoform"reality,"whichisaconcretething.ThestructureofsubstanceforChuHsiandSt.
ThomasAquinasaresimilarbuttherearedifferences.Figure1showsthosedifferences.

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Figure1

ExistentiainSt.ThomasAquinas'theoryofsubstancebringswithittheindividualityofquantityandqualitybesidescharacteristicsincommon,theconcretethinghas
itsindividuality.MaterialforceinChuHsi'stheoryofsubstancebringsindividualitywithit,too.IndividualityconsistsoftheFiveAgents.ChuHsicallstheseFive
Agentsquality.Qualityisformedbymaterialforce:"YangchangesandyinfuseswithitandthenWater,Fire,Wood,MetalandEarthareproduced.Yinandyangare
thematerialforcewhichproducesthequalityoftheseFiveAgents.WhenHeavenandEarthproducedthings,theFiveAgentscameintoexistencefirst."36
ChouTuniaw(10171073)inhis"ExplanationoftheDiagramoftheGreatUltimate"(T'aichit'ushuoax)advocatedthattheUltimateofNonbeing(wuchiay)begat
theGreatUltimate.TheGreatUltimateproducedyinandyang,whichproducedtheFiveAgents.TheFiveAgentsproducedmaleandfemale.Maleandfemale
producedthemyriadphenomena.EventhoughChuHsidefendedChouTuni's"ExplanationoftheDiagramoftheGreatUltimate,"hedidnotmakeuseofit.Hedid
notadvocatethattheGreatUltimateproducedyinandyangbutsaidthattheGreatUltimatewastheprincipleandyinandyangwerethematerialforce.Thefusionof
principleandmaterialforceproducedthings.ThefusingofprincipleandmaterialforceproducedtheFiveAgentswhicharethequalityofthings.Whenaskedabout
thetheoryofthe"ExplanationoftheDiagramoftheGreatUltimate"ChuHsireplied,''Inspeakingofman'sphysicalbody,thebreathinbreathingistheyinandyang.
Thebody,theblood,andtheflesharetheFiveAgents.Theirnatureistheprinciple."37
ChuHsi'stheoryofsubstanceisasshowninFigure2.Materialforceis

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Figure2

hsinghsiaandtheFiveAgentsarehsinghsia.Principlethenishsingshang.Thereforethesubstanceofthingscontainshsingshangandhsinghsia.AsChuHsi
advocated,thereisadistinctionbetweenhsingshangandhsinghsia,buttheycannotbeseparated.38InChuHsi'smetaphysicalstructureofthesubstance,hsing
shangandhsinghsiaaremutuallyconnected.
ThePrincipleofPerpetualRenewalofLife
ThereisonlyoneprincipleinHeavenandEarth,yeteachthinghasaprinciple.Principleisonebutitsmanifestationsaremany.Thisprincipleistheprincipleof
perpetualrenewaloflife.Whatdoesitinvolve?AlthoughtheprincipleofperpetualrenewaloflifewhichChuHsispokeofistheprincipleoflife,itisdifferentfromthe
principleoflifeinWesternphilosophyingeneral.AlthoughlifeasspokenofinWesternphilosophyhasvariousdifferentexplanations,themostcommonexplanationis
thatlifeisautonomous.Lifegrowsbyitself.ChuHsispokeoflifeintheunswervingConfuciantraditionaslifeofthemind.Mencius(372289B.C.?)saidthatmanhas
smallerpartsandgreaterparts.Thesmallerpartsaretheorganslikeearsandeyes.Thegreaterpartistheorganofthemindandthought.39Thedifferencebetween
manandanimalsisinthisgreaterpart.Menciussaid,"Thedifferencebetweenthesuperiormanandthecommonpeopleisthathepreservesandfostershismind."40
Thehumanmindisunobstructedandflexibleitcanknowandthinkandmakedeterminations.Itcommandsnatureandfeeling.Thereforethemindcontainsthewhole
principleofperpetualrenewaloflife.AsChuHsinoted,"Thewholeofthemindisclearandopenitcontainsmyriadprinciples."41"Themindisthemyriadprinciples
onlytheonewhocanpreservethemindcanprobetotherootoftheprinciple."42"Natureistheprinciplewhichthemindpossesses,andthemindistheplacewhere
theprinciplesconverge."43
ChuHsitakesthemindascommandingthenatureofthethinganditsfeeling.Thenatureisthesubstanceofthemindfeelingistheusageofthemind.Theprincipleof
thenaturecompriseshumanity,righteousness,propriety,

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andwisdom.Theusageofthemindcomprisesthefeelingofcommiseration,shame,rightandwrong,andhumility.
Someoneaskedaboutmind,natureandfeeling.ChuHsireplied,"Menciussaidthefeelingofcommiserationofthemindisthebeginningofhumanity.Fromthisonesectionall
becomesclear.Thefeelingofcommiseration,shame,rightandwrong,andhumilityareallfeelings.Humanity,righteousness,propriety,andwisdomarethesubstanceofthe
nature.Withinthenaturethereareonlyhumanity,righteousness,propriety,andwisdom.Itisexpressedasthefeelingofcommiseration,shame,humility,rightandwrong.
Thereforeitisthefeelingofthenature."44

Thissectionmakesitclearthattheprinciplecontainedinthehumanmindisthenature.Thenatureisthenhumanity,righteousness,propriety,andwisdom.The
principleofperpetualrenewaloflifeforChuHsiishumanity,righteousness,propriety,andwisdom.Thesefourqualitiesgeneralizedarehumanity.Menciussaid,
"Humanityisthehumanmind."45Healsosaid,"Asforhumanity,itismancombiningthetwoformstheWay."46ChuHsiexplainsthemindofmanbeinghumanityas
manpossessingthemindofHeavenandEarthashismind.HeavenandEarthtakethecreationofthingsastheirmind.Themindofmanthereforeishumanity.
Humanityiscreation(sheng).Toclarifythemeaningoftheword"mind,"ChuHsisaid,
Onewordcancoveritall.Thatissimplycreation.ThegreatvirtueofHeavenandEarthiscreation.ManreceivestheelementofHeavenandEarthandiscreated.Thereforethis
mindmustbehumane.Humanityisthencreation.47
HeavenandEarthtakecreationofthingsastheirmind.AndthecreationofmanandthingslikewisetakethemindofHeavenandEarthastheirmind.Thereforewesaythat
althoughthevirtueofthemindencompassesallandthereisnothingwhichitdoesnotcontain,onewordcancoveritall.ThusIsaysimplehumanity.48

TheprinciplepossessedbyHeavenandEarth(theGreatUltimateofHeavenandEarth)istheprinciplethatproducesandreproducesthemyriadthings.Itiscalledthe
mindofHeavenandEarth,thatis,theprincipleofperpetualrenewaloflifeofHeavenandEarth.
Manpossessesthematerialforceofyinandyang,ofHeavenandEarth,andthuspossessestheprincipleofperpetualrenewaloflife.Man'sprincipleofperpetual
renewaloflifeiscalledhumanity.ThemyriadthingsallpossesstheprincipleofperpetualrenewaloflifeofHeavenandEarth:"ThemindofHeavenwhichproduces
thingsneverceases....TheWayofch'ienaz(Heaven)49changesandperpetuallyrenewslife.Eachthingobtainsitspropernatureandlife.Thereforeitmakeseach
grassandtreeobtainitsprinciple."50
Butthemyriadthingsdon'thavethefacultyofmindandthought.They

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cannotrecognizetheprincipleofperpetualrenewaloflifeandcannotexperienceit,muchlessmanifestanddevelopit.Manhasthefacultyofmindandthought.Man
hasfeelingheknowstolovehisownlifeandthelifeofothermenandthings.ChuHsitakeshumanityastheprincipleoflove:"Loveisnothumanitytheprincipleof
loveishumanity.Themindisnothumanityitsvirtueishumanity."51
Humanityistheprincipleoflove.Thiskindofloveisnotlustforthingsbutforvirtue.Themindofmanputsintopracticethevirtueofhumanityandlove.Therefore
manhasthefeelingofcommiseration,shameanddislike,rightandwrong,andhumility.ChuHsitakesfeelingasemanatingfromthenaturethatis,emanatingfromthe
principleofthemind.Commiseration,shameanddislike,rightandwrong,andhumilityarefeelings.Thusthemind'sactionisthebeginningofvirtue.Menciussaid,
"Thefeelingofcommiserationofthemindisthebeginningofhumanity.Thefeelingofshameanddislikeofthemindisthebeginningofrighteousness.Thefeelingof
humilityofthemindisthebeginningofpropriety.Thefeelingofrightandwrongofthemindisthebeginningofwisdom.Manhasthesefourbeginningsjustashehas
fourlimbs."52
Thenaturepossessedbyman'ssubstanceistheprincipleofhumanity,righteousness,propriety,andwisdom.Thematerialforcepossessedbyman'ssubstanceisthe
feelingofcommiseration,shameanddislike,rightandwrong,andhumility.Thesubstanceofmanisthegoodnessofethicalmorality.Man,accordingtohissubstance,
ismoral.Theprincipleofperpetualrenewaloflifeistheprincipleofhumanity,righteousness,propriety,andwisdom.Whatiscalledperpetualrenewaloflifeisspiritual
life,istheactivityofthemindandspirit.
Heavenandearthandallthemyriadthingsoftheuniversepossessthiskindofprinciple.Thedegreeofmanifestationoftheprincipleofspirituallifeisdifferent
dependingonwhetherthematerialforcethatformsitiseitherpureorturbid.Thematerialforceofmanispure,andthushisspirituallifecanbemanifested.Thereforeit
issaidthattheprinciplemanpossessesiscomplete,upright,andunobstructed.However,withinthematerialforceofmantherearedifferencesofdegreeofpurity.A
lowerdegreeofpurityinthematerialforceproducesturbidmaterialforce.Menwhopossessthiskindofmaterialforceareevil.Thematerialforcepossessedby
sagesisthepurest.Thespirituallifeofsagesisthuscompletelymanifested.The"AppendedRemarks"oftheBookofChangessays,"ThegreatvirtueofHeavenand
Earthiscreation.Thegreatpreciousnessofsaintsiscalledrank.Howtopreservethisrankiscalledhumanity."53
ThevirtueofthehumanityofsagesmatchesthevirtueofcreationofHeavenandEarth.ThustheBookofChangessays,"Asforthegreatman,hisvirtuematchesthat
ofHeavenandEarth,hisbrightnessmatchesthatofthesunandmoon,hisorderlinessmatchesthatofthefourseasons,andhisauspiciousnessandinauspiciousness
matchesthatofghostsandspirits."54ChuHsisaid,

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Theuniverseisonlytheflowingofonematerialforce.Themyriadthingsarenaturallyproducedandnaturallygrowandformandhavetheirowncolor.Aretheyonebyone
decoratedthus?Asageisonlyaflowingoutfromthegreatorigin.Hisvisionisnaturallyclear.Hishearingisnaturallysharp.Hisdispositionisnaturallygentle.Hisappearanceis
naturallyrespectful.Therelationoffatherandsonisthereforehumane.Therelationshipofrulerandministeristhereforerighteousness.Themanyprinciplesflowingoutofthe
greatoriginareonlythisonefrombeginningtoend.55

Thesagerepresentsthewholemeaningoftheprincipleofperpetualrenewaloflife.Heisalsothewholeexpressionofthatprinciple.SagesandHeavenandEarth
matcheachother.HeavenandEartharecharacterizedbycreation,andsagesarecharacterizedbyhumanity.Creationandhumanitymatcheachother.
TheMetaphysicalBasisofMorality
Moralityistheexpressionofspirituallife.WhenChuHsispokeofmorality,heoftentalkedabouttheFiveConstantVirtuesofhumanity,righteousness,propriety,
wisdom,andfaithfulness.TheFiveConstantVirtuesareman'sspirituallife.Inhistheoryofsubstance,ChuHsitookprincipleandmaterialforcetobethe
metaphysicalstructure.Principlebecomesthenaturematerialforcebecomesconcreteform.Theformofmaterialforcefirsthasyinandyang,thentheFiveAgents.
Afterwardscomestheindividualityofthings.IntheuniverseyinandyangbecometheFiveAgents,whichoperateasOrigination,Flourish,Advantage,andFirmness
(yanhenglichenba).56Withinhumans,yinandyangbecometheFiveAgents,whichcorrespondtohumanity,righteousness,propriety,wisdom,andfaithfulness.
Origination,Flourish,Advantage,andFirmnessarethenaturebirth,growth,harvest,andstoragearefeelings.Asforthemind,ittakesOriginationtocreateittakesFlourishto
growittakesAdvantagetoharvestandittakesFirmnesstostore.Asforthenature,itishumanity,righteousness,propriety,wisdom,andfaithfulness.Asforfeeling,itis
commiseration,shameanddislike,humility,andrightandwrong.Asforthemind,ittakeshumanitytolove,ittakesrighteousnesstodislike,ittakesproprietytobehumble,andit
takeswisdomtobewise.Asforthenature,itistheprincipleofthemind.Asforfeeling,itisthefunctionofthemind.57

Humanity,righteousness,propriety,wisdom,andfaithfulnessmatchWood,Fire,Metal,Water,andEarth.EarthisthebasisofWood,Fire,Metal,andWater.When
theFiveAgentsmatchthefivedirections,theearthmatchesthecenterwhentheFiveAgentsmatchthefourseasons,earthisthecentralpointoftheyear.Whenthe
FiveAgentsmatchtheFiveConstantVirtues,Earthmatchesfaithfulness.Faithfulnessisthecommonconditionofhumanity,righteousness,propriety,andwisdom,that
is,sincerityinnature.Thus,

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theusageoftheFiveConstantVirtuesonlyhastheFourVirtuesofhumanity,righteousness,propriety,andwisdom.TheFourVirtuesthenmatchOrigination,
Flourish,Advantage,andFirmness.
ThegreatvirtueofHeavenandEarthiscalledcreation.HeavenandEarthproducethemyriadthingsthroughaprocessofbirth,growth,harvest,andstorage.
Originationisthebirth,Flourishisthegrowth,Advantageistheharvest,andFirmnessisthestorage.TheexternalformofOrigination,Flourish,Advantage,and
Firmnessisthefourseasonsofspring,summer,autumn,andwinter.Thereforeitissaidthatinthespringthereisbirth,inthesummerthereisgrowth,intheautumn
thereisharvest,andinthewinterthereisstorage.Man'sspirituallifealsohasitsownprocess,whichishumanity,righteousness,propriety,andwisdom.
Ethicalmoralityisnotonlyethicalbehaviorandthehabitofhumanity.Westernethicstakesgoodnessasthehabitofbeinggoodfosteredbycharitableaction.Ithasno
relationshiptothetheoryofsubstance.Goodorevilinmandoesnotinfluencehisbasicnature.Menwhodoevilactionsdonotdecreasetheirsubstance.Goodmen
aremenevilmenarealsomen.InChinesephilosophy,suchasinChuHsi'sphilosophy,moralityisnotonlyhumaneaction,butitisalsotheexpressionofaman's
substance.IntheDoctrineoftheMeanitiscalledfulldevelopmentofone'snature,thatis,developingone'sownhumannature.TheDoctrineoftheMeansays,
"OnlypeopleoftheutmostsincerityunderHeavencandevelopfullytheirnaturedevelopingfullythisnaturecanthusdevelopfullythenatureofothersdevelopingfully
thenatureofothersthuscandevelopfullythenatureofthings."58ChuHsisaid,
Byutmostsincerityintheuniverseismeanttherealityofthevirtueofthesage.Theuniversecannotaddtoit.Asonewhofullydevelopshisnature,hisvirtueissolid.Because
hepossessesnoselfishhumandesiresandbecausetheMandateofHeaveniswithinhim,hecanbeawareofit,followitwhetheritbegreatorsmall,coarseorrefined.Thereis
noteventheslightestbitthatwillnotbedeveloped.Thenatureofmanandthingsisalsomynaturebutsincetheyareendowedwithdifferentmaterialforceandphysicalforms,
sotherearedifferences.Hewhocanfullydevelopissaidtoknowwithclarityandtohandlewithoutimpropriety.59

Thenatureofmanishumanity.Fullydevelopingone'snaturethenistodevelophumanityandlove,toloveone'sownlife,tolovethelifeofothers,andtolovethelife
ofthemyriadthings.TheDoctrineoftheMeansays,"HewhocandevelopthenatureofthingscanthenassistHeavenandEarthinrenewingandfostering.Hewho
canassistHeavenandEarthinrenewingandfosteringcanthenbeinthesamerankofHeavenandEarth."60DevelopinghumanityandloveistoassistHeavenand
Earthintheperpetualrenewalofthemyriadthings.ManthuscanbeinthesamerankasHeavenandEarth.Inthe"AppendedRemarks"weread,"Asforthegreat
man,hisvirtuematcheswithHeavenandEarth."61

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Ethicalmoralityisconnectedtothemetaphysicalsubstance.Ethicalmoralitytakessubstanceasitsbasis.Westernethicstakesmoralityasrootedinhumannature,for
inhumannaturetherearerulesofmorality.TheethicsofChuHsiandtheConfucianiststakemoralitytooriginateinthesubstanceofmanmoralityisthedevelopment
ofhumanlife,becausetheprincipleofhumanity,righteousness,propriety,andwisdomistheprincipleofperpetualrenewaloflife.Theprincipleofperpetualrenewalof
lifeistheprincipleofthesubstanceofman.
Theprincipleofmanandthingsisthesame.Thenatureofmanandthingsisalsomynature,butsincetheyareendowedwithdifferentmaterialforceandphysical
forms,sotherearedifferences.Themyriadphenomenaintheuniverseallhavetheprincipleofhumanity.Itisonlybecauseoftheturbidnessoftheirmaterialforcethat
itcannotbemademanifest.Thematerialforceofmanispure.Thusitcanmanifesttheprincipleofhumanity.
Conclusion
ChuHsi'stheoryofmetaphysicalstructureconcernsthesubstanceofthings.Thesubstanceofthingswasformedbyprincipleandmaterialforce.Principlebecamethe
natureofthethingandmaterialforcebecametheformofthething.Thenatureofthethingistheprincipleofwhyaparticularthingisitself.Theformisthematerialof
whyitbecameitself.Materialcomesfrommaterialforce.MaterialforcefirstformstheFiveAgents,andthenfromtheFiveAgentsitformsthematerial.
Theprincipleofthingsisoneprinciple.ChuHsiadvocatedthatprincipleisonebutitsmanifestationsaremany.Theprincipleofthingsistheprincipleofactual
"existence."
Theexistenceofthingsisformedbytheunionofyinandyang.Theunionofyinandyangthenisthecontinuousoperationsof"becoming."Theoperationsofyinand
yang,whichnevercease,producethemyriadthings.Theprincipleoftheunionofyinandyangistheprincipleofperpetualrenewaloflife.
Theprincipleofperpetualrenewaloflifeinthemyriadthingsoftheuniverse,ineachofthephenomena,isthesameprinciple.Yetbecausethematerialforceendowed
byeachisdifferent,theprinciplemanifestedinthemyriadthingsappearstobedifferent.Materialforcecanbepureorturbid.Turbidmaterialforceconcealsthe
principleofperpetualrenewaloflife.Purematerialforcemanifeststheprincipleofperpetualrenewaloflife.Thematerialforceofthingsisturbid.Thematerialforceof
manispure.
Theprincipleofperpetualrenewaloflifemanifestedinmanishumanity,righteousness,propriety,andwisdominspirituallifegeneralized,thesebecomehumanity.
Man'sprincipleofperpetualrenewaloflifethenishumanity.
TheprincipleofHeavenandEarthisperpetualrenewaloflife.Theprinci

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pleofmanishumanity.Fromcreationthereishumanity.Inthemyriadthingsoftheuniversethereiscreation,andinmanthereishumanity.Perpetualrenewaloflifein
HeavenandEarthpassesthroughfourprocesseswhichareOrigination,Flourish,Advantage,andFirmness.Thespirituallifeofmanalsopassesthroughfour
processes,whicharehumanity,righteousness,propriety,andwisdom.Thesebelongtothesubstanceofmanandthecharacteristicsofthesubstance.Thusethical
moralityandthecharacteristicsofthesubstanceconnectwitheachother.ChuHsi'stheoryofmetaphysicalstructurecombinedsubstanceandmorality,andconnected
ethicsandontology.Thus,althoughthephilosophyofChineseConfucianismseemstohaveonlyethics,actuallyitsethicsarethecontinuationofontology.Itsethics
andontologyaremutuallyconnected.
Notes
1.BookofChanges,"AppendedRemarks,"pt.1,ch.12.
2.Ibid.,ch.11.
3.Han'scommentaryisfoundintheThirteenClassicsedition.
4.Commentonibid.
5.Ishuo,bb11:15b16a,intheChangTzuch'anshubc[CompleteworksofChangTsai],(SPPYed.).
6.Ishubd[Survivingworks],11:lb,intheErhCh'engch'anshube[CompleteworksofthetwoCh'engs],(SPPYed.).ThetextdoesnotmentionChangTsai
specifically,butthereferenceisclearlyimplied,fornooneelsebutChangTsaihadsaidthat.
7.Chengmengbf[Correctingyouthfulignorance],ch.1.
8.ChuTzuylei,bg[ClassifiedconversationsofMasterChu],(Taipei:ChengchungbhBookCo.,1970),75:20a,p.3077.
9.Ibid.,75:19b,p.3067.
10.ChuTzuwenchibi[CollectionofliteraryworksofMasterChu],(SPPYed.entitledChuTzutach'anbj[CompletecollectionofMasterChu],58:4b,firstreply
toHuangTaofu.bk
11.ChuTzuylei,94:4a,p.3761.
12.TuSsushutach'anshuobl[OnreadingtheGreatCompletionoftheFourBooks],ch.2,commentingontheDoctrineoftheMean,ch.11.
13.Chengmengchubm[CommentaryontheChengmeng],p.12,intheCh'uanshanishubn[SurvivingworksofWangFuchih],(Taipei:TzuyuboPress,1972).
14.MengTzutzuishuchengbp[CommentaryonthemeaningoftermsintheBookofMencius],inHuShih,bqTaiTungyantichehsehbr[ThephilosophyofTai
Chen],(Shanghai:CommercialPress,1927),sec.17,p.73.
15.Metal,Wood,Water,Fire,andEarth.Wuhsinghasalsobeentranslatedas"FiveElements."
16.ChuTzuylei,6:3a,p.163.
17.Ibid.,6:2b,p.162.
18.Ibid.,6:2b3a,pp.162163.
19.Ibid.,6:3b,p.164.

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20.TheFourVirtuesaretaughtintheBookofMencius,2A:6and6A:6.
21.ChuTzuwenchi,61:2ab,thirdreplyinLinTechiu.bs
22.ChuTzuylei,5:7b,p.146.
23.Ibid.,20:17b,p.752.
24.Ibid.,137:10a,p.1239.
25.Ibid.,1:1b,p.2.
26.Ibid.,1:2b,p.4.
27.Ich'uanwenchibt[CollectionofliteraryworksbyCh'engI],5:12b,intheErhCh'engch'anshu.
28.ChuTzuylei,1:lb,p.2.
29.Ibid.,98:15a,p.4009.
30.Ibid.,1:1a,p.1.
31.Ibid.,94:62,p.3765.
32.Chungkuochehsehshihbu[HistoryofChinesephilosophy],(Shanghai:CommercialPress,1934),p.902.
33.ChuTzuylei,94:35b,p.3824Lokuang,Chungkuochehsehssuhsiangshih:Sungtaip'ienbv[HistoryofChinesephilosophicalthought:theSung
period],(Taipei:StudentBookCo.,1978),p.499.
34.BookofChanges,"AppendedRemarks,"pt.1,ch.5.
35.ChuTzuylei,17:4a5b,pp.600601.
36.Ibid.,94:3a,p.3759.
37.Ibid.,94:11b12a,pp.37763777.
38.Seeabove,n.9.
39.BookofMencius,6A:1415.
40.Ibid.,4A:28.
41.ChuTzuylei,5:11a,p.153.
42.Ibid.,9:6a,p.245.
43.Ibid.,5:6a,p.143.
44.Ibid.,5:8b,p.148.
45.BookofMencius,6A:11.
46.Ibid.,7B:16.
47.ChuTzuylei,5:3b,p.138.
48.ChuTzuwenchi,67:20a,"ATreatiseonHumanity."
49.ThefirsthexagramintheBookofChanges.
50.ChuTzuylei,27:18b,p.1108.
51.Ibid.,20:24a,p.765.
52.BookofMencius,2A:6.
53.BookofChanges,"AppendedRemarks,"pt.2,ch.10.
54.BookofChanges,themaincommentaryonthefirsthexagram,ch'ien.
55.ChuTzuylei,45:2ab,pp.18251826.
56.TheFourQualitiesofthefirsthexagram,ch'ien,intheBookofChanges.
57.ChuTzuwenchi,67:1a,"ATreatiseonOrigination,Flourish,Advantage,andFirmness."
58.DoctrineoftheMean,ch.22.
59.Chungyungchangchbw[CommentaryontheDoctrineoftheMean],commentonch.22.
60.DoctrineoftheMean,ch.22.
61.BookofChanges,themaincommentaryonthefirsthexagram,ch'ien.

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Glossary

Page79

7
TheGreatUltimateandHeaveninChuHsi'sPhilosophy
YuYamanoi
Introduction
IthasbeenbaidthatChuHsi'sphilosophyisalich'iadualism.Theli(principle)andch'i(materialforce)arenotmerelyjuxtaposedinChu'sphilosophy.Liismore
fundamentalandessentialitissuperiortoch'iandisseenastheultimateprincipleofexistenceintheuniverse.Inotherwords,liisoneofthemostimportantconcepts
inthetheoreticalsystemofChuHsi'sphilosophy.
ButholdingtheviewthatliisthesupremenotioninChuHsi'sphilosophicaltheoryposessomeproblems.Onecannotacceptitwithoutreservations,forother
conceptsinhisphilosophyhaveplayedanimportantrole,especiallyT'aichib(GreatUltimate)andT'ienc(Heaven).
First,T'aichiisgenerallyacknowledgedasaconceptequallyasimportantas,orevenmoreimportantthan,li.Manyscholarshaveacceptedthisinterpretation,butI
cannotregardT'aichiinthesameway,becausetheword''t'aichi"neverappearedinChuHsi'sseriousdiscussionsonphilosophicalissues.
Second,itseemstomethatT'ienhasbeenneglectedwhenconsideringChuHsi'sphilosophy.TherearenotafewexamplesinChu'sphilosophicalwritingsinwhich
T'ienisobviouslysuperiortoli,ifweinterprettheoriginaltextswithoutregardtotraditionalinterpretations.Hence,Ithinkthatweoughttoreconsidertherelationship
betweenliandT'ieninanewlight.
TheGreatUltimate(T'aichi)
T'aichiandlihavebeenunderstoodtostandonthesamelevelbecauseT'aichicanbethoughtofastheGreatUltimatefromwhicheverythingisgeneratedandin
whicheverythingexists.Butahigherplace,aplacesuperiortoli,canbegiventoT'aichibecauseitis"theultimateofli"or"thetotalityofli."Thisisafairlyprevalent
wayofunderstandingofChuHsi'sphilosophicalsystem.
InJapan,UnoTetsuto,dforexample,wroteinhisLecturesontheHistoryofChinesePhilosophy,"ChuHsi,combiningChouTuni'se[10171073]'T'ai

Page80
f

chit'ushuo' [ExplanationofthediagramoftheGreatUltimate]withCh'engI's (10331107)lich'idualism,madeT'aichiwhathecalledthesubstanceofthe

universe,andwithafulluseofthenotionofT'aichi,hetriedtobringthelich'idualismintoanintegratedwhole."1InhisAHistoryofChinesePhilosophy:Early
modernConfucianism,Unoalsocommentedthat"whileproclaimingT'aichiasthesubstance,ChuHsididnotdisplacethelich'idualism"because"bythenotionof
T'aichi,ChuHsimadeanattempttobringthislich'idualismintoanintegratedwhole."2InthiscitationChuHsiisspokenofasaphilosophercallingT'aichithe
substanceoftheuniverse.HenceitfollowsthatChuHsi'sT'aichiistheUltimateOnesynthesizingthelich'idichotomy.
InChinathefollowingcommentcanbefoundinAGeneralHistoryofChineseThought,editedbyHouWailuh:"AkeytoinvestigatingChuHsi'scomplex
theoreticalsystemisthenotionofliwhichheoriginatedastheabsolutesubject,orthenotionofT'aichiastotalityofli."InChuHsi'sphilosophy"theultimateofthe
myriadlis"isequalto"T'aichiasthetotalityofliintheuniverse."Moreover,itshowsanillustrationaccountingfortheinterrelationshipbetweenT'aichiandother
notions:li,ch'i,chihi(physicalnature),yinyangj(passiveandactivecosmicforces),wuhsingk(theFiveAgentsorelementsofMetal,Wood,Water,Fire,and
Earth),andsoforth.3Accordingtothisexplanation,liistoch'iwhatT'aichiistoyinyang,anditisworthnotingthatChuHsi'sT'aichiistakenas''thetotalityofli."
IntheWesternworld,H.G.CreelwritesinhisChineseThoughtfromConfuciustoMaoTsetunglasfollows:"Principlesorli,ChuHsisays,are'withoutbirthand
indestructible.'Theyneverchangeinanyway.Theyareallreallypartoftheonegreatli,theSupremeUltimate[GreatUltimate]whichChuHsisometimesequates
withtheTao.m"Accordingtothisinterpretationman'snature,which,accordingtoChuHsi,ishisli,isapartoftheSupremeUltimate.4
Thesethreeauthors,Japanese,Chinese,andWestern,offertousthecommonmodeofunderstandingwhatChuHsicalledT'aichi.Thisunderstandingseemsfairly
prevalent,indeed,evendominantintheacademicworldasimilarassumptionofT'aichicanbefoundinmanyacademicresearchpublicationsbesidesthoseIhave
mentioned.TounderstandthatChuHsithoughtofT'aichiasliorthatT'aichiistheultimateofallcreationisquitejustifiableitisnottheobjectofmycriticism.But
tosaythatT'aichidoesnotsimplymeanlibutis"theultimateli"or"thetotalityofli"ismorethanmisleadingitiswrong.Hence,eventosaythattheconceptofT'ai
chiissuperiortothatofliinChuHsi'sphilosophicaltheorywillgiverisetomisunderstandingitiswrongalso.Furthermore,tounderstandthatChuHsigavethename
T'aichitotheultimateofallcreationwillleadtoobviousmisunderstanding.
ThereasonthatwhatChuHsicalledT'aichihasbeenunderstoodtomean"theultimateli"or"thetotalityofli"isprobablyduetoseveralremarksthatChuHsi
himselfmadeasanexplanationofthenotionofT'aichi.Hesaid:

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n

1."T'aichi...isnothingbutli,anditcanbecalledT'aichibecauseitisultimate(chi )li."
2."WhatT'aichimeansisjustthatliistheultimate(chi)ofeverything."6
3."Sinceliistheultimate(chi),wecallitultimate(chi)."7
4."ItisT'aichithatsynthesizestheliofheavenandearthandallthings."8
5."T'aichihasalltheliofyinyangandwuhsing."9

But"theultimate"mentionedinthefirstthreepassagesdoesnotmeanliisT'aichi.Thiscanbemadeclearbydistinguishingwhatistheultimateliandwhatisthe
rudimentaryli.Liisoriginallytheultimateformofexistencewhatthesepassagestrytodoistooffersomeexplanationconcerningthenatureofli,explanationsbased
solelyonthemeaningofthewordchibysayingthat"licanbecalledT'aichibecauseitistheultimate."HenceT'aichiisequaltolibutnevertranscendsli.
InthefourthandfifthpassagesChuHsispokeofT'aichiasthatwhichcontainseveryli.CertainlyT'aichiseenthusmeansthatitisthewholeofeveryindividualli,
butatthesametimeitmeansthatT'aichiisalsoanindividualli.Inotherwords,T'aichiisthelioflii(Principleisone)whenspokenofasliifenshuo(Principleis
onebutitsmanifestationsaremany)andatthesametimethelioffenshu.ChuHsihimselfsaid,"Generallyspeaking,allcreationsasawholeshareoneT'aichi.
Analyticallyspeaking,everycreaturehasitsownproperT'aichi."10So,T'aichiisnoneotherthanli.SufficeittosaythatT'aichiisli.Itisunnecessarytoaddto
thisdefinitionanyotherprovisionithardlymatters.Whatisworse,todothatwilldogreatharmtotheunderstandingofChuHsi'sphilosophy.
Furthermore,ChuHsi'sconceptionofT'aichidoesnotexhausthisconceptionofli,whichhasallinclusiveaswellascompleximplications.T'aichiisincludedinthis
notionofli,butitfailstoacquireastableandproperpositionthere,whichIwillconsiderinsomedetailbelow.
Although,asIhavealreadymentioned,itisundoubtedlyafactthatChuHsithoughtofT'aichiasli,ChuHsihimselfneversaidthatT'aichimeantsuchandsuchhe
neversaidsomethingtotheeffectthat"theoriginofallcreationisT'aichi,"orthat"liasraisond'etrecanbecalledT'aichi."Thewordt'aichiisusedbyChou
Tuniinhis"T'aichit'ushuo,"whichcomesfromthe"AppendedRemarks''oftheBookofChanges11andisnotChuHsi'soriginalterm.WhatChuHsididwasto
interpretthetermt'aichi(whichhadbeendefinedandusedbyotherphilosophers)intermsofhisownunderstandingofli.Althoughliwasaphilosophicaltermthat
hadbeenhandeddowntohim,ChuHsiendoweditwithhisownmeaningandusedthewordashisownkeyword.Hebuilthisphilosophicalsystemaroundtheterm
liasitscentralcore.Eventhoughalmostallofhisphilosophicaltermssuchasch'i,hsinp(mind),hsingq(nature),ch'ingr(feeling),ys(desire)wereinheritedfrom
hisprecursorswiththeirexistingdefinitions,ChuHsiwovethesetermsintohisowntheoreticalsystem,assigningeveryoneofthemtoitsownpositionwithinthe

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system.Andheinterpretedthevarioussayingsinclassicalworksaswellasvariousphenomenainboththenaturalandmundaneworldsbyapplyinghisowntheoretical
systemasthestandard,andaccountedforthemwithaliberaluseofmanykeywords,includingthosementionedabove.
Unlikesuchtermsasli,ch'i,hsin,andhsing,thecaseofthetermt'aichiisquitedifferent.Thewordt'aichiwasneitherwovencloselyintoChuHsi'sphilosophical
systemnorgivenitsproperplacewithinit.ForChuHsi'stheoreticalsystem,thewordt'aichiisnotanindispensableone.
ChuHsiusedChouTuni's"T'aichit'ushuo"whenhebuilthisownphilosophicalsystem.Itisbecauseheattachedgreatimportancetothe"T'aichit'ushuo"thathe
publishedhis"T'aichit'ushuochieh"(Commentaryonthe''ExplanationoftheDiagramoftheGreatUltimate").Inthissensethewordt'aichiplayedanimportant
roleinhisphilosophy,havingagreatdealofbearingonhim.Wereitnotso,hewouldneverhavebecomesoenthusiasticastodiscussandexplainitincessantly.But
weshouldkeepinmindthatwhenhespokeofthewordt'aichihemerelytreateditasaprevailingandacceptedterm.Hedidnotweavetheconceptintohis
theoreticalsysteminordertoaccountforsomethingintermsofthewordt'aichi.
IfweexaminetheChuTzuwenchit(CollectionofliteraryworksofMasterChu)andChuTzuyleiu(ClassifiedconversationsofMasterChu)fortheuseofthe
wordt'aichiwefindthatitappearsabout260timesintheformerandabout350timesinthelatter.Perhapsonecannotsaythatthewordisused"agreatmany"
times,butonecansay"notafew."AndnoticethatalmostallofthecasesinwhichthistermisusedbelongtothecontextswhereChuHsiinterpretedthewordt'aichi
describedinthe"T'aichit'ushuo"orinthe"AppendedRemarks"oftheBookofChanges,ortothecontextswherehediscussedsomephilosophicalissuesrelevant
totheseworks.ThereareveryfewinstanceswhereChuHsiusedthistermwhenhedevelopedhisowntheoryorexpressedhisownopinionswithoutanyregardto
the"T'aichit'ushuo"ortheBookofChanges.Butonemustadmitthatthereareafewcasesthathavenothingtodowiththesetwoworks.Thefollowingpassages
areremarksthatseemtobearcomparativelylittlerelationshiptothe"T'aichit'ushuo"ortheBookofChanges:
1."ItisnecessarytoseeT'aichiwithintheevermovingch'iandtoseetheoriginalnature(penhsingv)withintheeverworkingmind.Todepartfromtheever
movingch'iinordertoseekforT'aichiortodepartfromtheeverworkingmindinordertoseekfortheoriginalnaturewillprobablyleadtotheabsurdityofthe
BuddhistsandTaoists."12
2."IfitwerenotforT'aichi,heavenandtheearthwouldnotmove."13
3."Whatthe'Hsiming'w(Westerninscription)setsforthistheprincipleofphysicaltransformationandthenaturewhichisthesourceofallthings.14SinceT'aichi
pushesitswayfromtheoutsideintothisculminatingpoint,thereisnofurtherpointtogoandonecanthereforecallittheGreatUltimate."15

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16

4."FrommajormatterslikeheavenandearthandthetenthousandthingstominormattersofeverydaylifeathomeallaretheliofT'aichiandyinyang."

OnecannotbecertainthatthesefourquotationsexpressChuHsi'sphilosophicalviewswithoutonlydirectrelationshiptotheBookofChangesandthe"T'aichit'u
shuo."Howeverthepossibilityexiststhattheystandbythemselveswithoutanyspecialreferencestothesetwoworks.Theveryfactthatthereareonlyfourexamples
amonghundredsbespeaksmypointthatthewordt'aichididnotbecomeoneofthewordsthatcouldsustainChuHsi'sphilosophicalsystem.
Moredecisiveonthisissueisthatthewordt'aichiwasusednowhereintheSsushuchichux(CollectedcommentariesontheFourBooks).17EvenintheSsushu
huoweny(QuestionsandanswersontheFourBooks),thewordt'aichiisnotusedexceptinthebriefremarkthat"WhenMasterChou[ChouTuni]appeared,he
advocatedthedoctrinesofT'aichi,yinyang,andtheFiveAgents."18Moreover,eventhisoneexamplebelongstothecontextwhereChuHsipointedoutthe
greatnessofwhatChouTuni's"T'aichit'ushuo"hadachieved.NeverdidheaimatelucidatingMencius'doctrineofnaturebythenotionofT'aichithere.Nowhere
didChuHsiusethewordt'aichitoannotateorelucidatetheFourBooks.IfChuHsihadregardedT'aichiinthewaymanyscholarshavethoughthedid,hewould
haveusedthewordt'aichifrequentlyintheCollectedCommentariesontheFourBooksandtheQuestionsandAnswersontheFourBooksthefrequencyin
theuseofthiswordmusthavebeenatleastasgreatasthefrequencyintheuseofthewordsyinyangandwuhsing,itseemstome.Foratestimonytothispoint,
nowchecktheexamplesofyinyangandwuhsing:
1."Heavenandearthaccumulateessence.Thatwhichacquirestheexcellentelementsofwuhsingbecomesman."19
2."Bloodandvitalpowerarewhatgivephysicalformtothings.Bloodisyinandvitalpowerisyang."20
3."Heavengivesrisetoeverythingthroughthefunctioningofyinyangandwuhsing."21
4."Speakingoftwoch'is,kueiz(negativecosmicforce)isthespiritofyinandshenaa(positivecosmicforce)isthespiritofyang."22
5."Allthebeginningandendofthingsarecausedbythecolletionanddistributionofyinyang."23
6."Allthecollectionanddistributionofyinyangisnoneotherthantruth."24
Howeversmallthenumberoftheseexamplesmaybe,ChuHsishowedhismasterfuluseofthesetermstointerpretthetextoftheFourBooksasiftheywerehisown
originalphilosophicalterms.Whilethewordsyinyang,wuhsingwereusedthus,thewordt'aichiwasneverusedinthesameway.

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AlsointheQuestionsandAnswersontheFourBooks,thecontextsinwhichthewordsyinyangandwuhsingareusedarealmostthesameasintheexamples
citedabove.Especiallyhelpfulisthefollowing:
WhentherevolutionoftheWayofHeavengivesrisetoandbringsupeverything,whatfunctionsasacreativeforceisyinyangandwuhsing.Butitisnotuntilliexiststhat
thesech'iscancomeintobeingitisnotuntilch'icollectsthatnaturecancomeintobeing.If,inthisprocess,manandthingscomeintoexistence,theycannotconstitutethe[two
qualities]natureofstrengthandobedience25andtheFourVirtuesofhumanity,righteousness,propriety,andwisdom26untiltheyacquirelitheycannotconstitutebodies
connsistingoftheheavenlyandearthlypartsofthesoul,thefiveinternalorgansandtheskeletonuntiltheyacquirech'i.WhenMasterChouremarkedthat"Whentherealityof
theUltimateofNonbeingandtheessenceofyinyangandwuhsingcomeintomysteriousunion,integrationensues,"27hemeantexactlythis.However,fromtheviewpointofli,
theoriginofeverythingisallthesamethereisnodifferencebetweenmanandthings,thenobleandthevulgar.Butfromtheviewpointofch'i...28

Theformerpartofthispassagedescribesthewayeverythingcomesintobeingthroughthefunctioningofyinyangandwuhsing.IfthenotionofT'aichihadacquired
inhisphilosophicaltheorysuchapositionasisgenerallysupposed,thatveryword,t'aichi,musthavebeenusedhere.Insteadofit,thewordT'ientaoab(Wayof
Heaven)orliisusedhere.WhetherornotChuHsiavoidedusingthewordt'aichiwiththatintentionwhenhequotedfromthe"T'aichit'ushuo,"onecannotbe
sure.Butthefactremainsthatbytakingup"therealityoftheUltimateofNonbeing,"whichissubstantiallyanequivalentforT'aichi,ChuHsitreateditasaquotation
fromChouTuni,amerequotationwhichwouldservetosupporthisowntheory,insteadofweavingitintotheframeworkofhistheoryforfurtherdiscussions.
Torepeatmypoint:AlthoughT'aichiservesasanimportantcluetoChuHsi'sformationofhisownphilosophicaltheory,theexamplesaboveshowusthatitisnot
closelywovenintoChuHsi'sphilosophicaltheory.
Whydidthishappen?Thereseemtobetworeasons.First,inChuHsi'sphilosophythetwonotionsliandch'icanservesufficientlytoaccountforthegenerationand
existenceofallcreation(inadditiontothem,thephysicalnatureofwuhsingisadvancedasasupplementcompletingthefunctionofch'i).Hence,thereisnoroomin
hisphilosophyforT'aichi.T'aichineednothavebeenaddedtohisestablishedtheoreticalsystem.
Second,wewillneedtoconsiderthehistoryofthewordt'aichi.Thisword,asisgenerallyknown,hasitsorigininthe"AppendedRemarks"oftheBookof
Changes."InthesystemofChange,thereexistsT'aichi,whichgivesrisetotheTwoModes,whichgivesrisetotheFourForms,whichgivesrisetotheEight
Trigrams."29Thispartofthe''AppendedRemarks"hasbeenregardedasanaccountforthegenerativeprocessofallthecomponentsintheuniverse,aswellasan
accountforthepatternsoftheEightTrigrams.From

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thetimeoftheBookofChanges,fromtheperiodofHan(206B.C.A.D.220)throughtheperiodofT'ang(618907)thewordt'aichihasbeenopentovariouskinds
ofinterpretationinvariousphilosophicalschools.Inthegenerativetheoriesofferedbythesephilosophicalschools,T'aichiwascommonlyregardedasyanch'iac
(theultimateororiginalmaterialforce).AlthoughT'aichihassometimesbeenregardedasametaphysicalexistencetranscendingtheyanch'i,nogreatnumbersof
suchexamplescanbefound.AccordingtothegenerativetheoryofthesocalledFiveEvolution(wuynad)theoryfrom"GreatChange"to"GreatBeginning"to
''GreatOrigin"to"GreatSimplicity"to"GreatUltimate"(T'aii,T'aich'u,T'aishih,T'aisu,T'aichiae)setforthinHsiaochingkoumingchehaf(Prophetic
commentaryontheClassicofFilialPiety),forinstance,T'aichiisdescribedastheoriginofeverythingthatexistedbeforeheavenandearthwereseparatedfrom
eachother.ButnotethatT'aichiisnotascribedtheplaceofultimateexistencebutthefifthplace,whichisregardedastheplaceclosesttoindividualthingsinthereal
word,theplace,accordingtothistheory,where"physicalnatureandphysicalformarealreadyprovided."30
Thisisthehistorythatthetermt'aichihasgonethroughithasbeenunderstoodtopossessthecharacterofch'i.ChouTuni'suseoft'aichiinhis"T'aichit'ushuo,"
musthavebeeninheritedfromtraditionalinterpretationsthetermmusthavereferredto"theultimatech'i."ItwasChuHsiwhointerpretedittobeli.
Ashasbeenoftenpointedout,ChuHsi'sontologyisalich'idualism.Buteventhoughitisdualism,ChuHsitookliasthesupremeprincipleofexistence,placingli
overch'i.ItisnowonderthathetookT'aichiasli,becauseT'aichihadbeendefinedastheultimateoriginofallcreationintheuniverseasinthesaying,"Wuchier
t'aichi"ag(theUltimateofNonbeingandtheGreatUltimate).31Thatheinterpretedthet'aichiofthe"AppendedRemarks"oftheBookofChangesasli,therefore,
needsnoexplanation.AccordingtoChuHsi'sinterpretation,thispartofthe"AppendedRemarks"statestheprocessinwhichT'aichi(thatis,theliofthe
transformationofyinyang)makesitpossiblefortheTwoModes(and),andtheFour?Forms(
)andtheEightTrigrams,
bothofwhichcanbeproducedfromthecombinationofthetwomodes,toevolveinsuccession.Brieflyspeaking,ChuHsiunderstoodthispartofthe"Appended
Remarks"torefertothepurelydiagrammaticproblemcausedbytheEightTrigramsintheBookofChanges.
SinceT'aichiinthe"T'aichit'ushuo"wasclearlydefinedastheultimateoriginofthegenerativeprocessofallthingsintheuniverse,ChuHsi,whoproclaimedhimself
tobeaninheritorofthephilosophyofthe"T'aichit'ushuo,"couldnotbutapprehendthenotionofT'aichiintermsofhisnotionofli.Butthereremainsaslight
differencebetweentheT'aichiofChuoTuniandtheliofChuHsiafterall.InChouTuniT'aichiwasdefinedastheultimateoriginofexistence,theoriginwhich
"givesrisetoyanginitsmotionand

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32

givesrisetoyininitsstationarystate." ChuHsi'sli,ontheotherhand,isdifferentbecausewhileitistheultimateoriginofexistence,itisbynomeanstheultimate
originfromwhicheverythinggenerates.Worthyofspecialmentionisthenotionofli.ChuHsisaid,"Lihasneitheremotionnorwillneitherplanningabilitynorcreative
ability....Liisathoroughlycleanworldofemptinessithasnoformandnoabilitytocreateanything."33Thusseen,li,whichcannotmove,stop,orcreateanything,is
apurelymetaphysicalentity.Inthisrespect,ChouTuni'sT'aichiandChuHsi'slidiffermarkedly.Althoughonacertainoccasion,ChuHsi,inanswertoadisciple's
questionconcerningthemotionandreposeofT'aichi,saidthatwhatmovesandstopsisnoneotherthanli,34hisanswerisanawkwardone.Ratherthanthisanswer,
ChuHsi'sviewonthemovementseemstohavebeenmoredefinitelyshownwhenhesaid,"T'aichiisli,andwhatmovesandhaltsisch'i.Ifch'imoves,thenli
accompaniesit."35Theagentofthismovementisch'iratherthanli.Asfortheliwhich,ChuHsisaid,cangiverisetoyinyang,therearesomeexampleswherehesaid
that"licreatesch'i":''Ch'iiscreatedbyli.Butoncech'icomesintobeing,licannolongercontrolit,"36andthat"T'aichicreatesyinyangmeansthatlicreates
ch'i."37Tomyknowledge,however,thesearetheonlyremarksChuHsimadeonthesubjecttheycanthereforeberegardedasexceptional.Itisabsolutely
impossibletotaketheseremarksastrueexpressionsofChuHsi'sphilosophy,forevenifonecanadmitthatlisustainstheexistenceofch'iorthatlideterminesthe
modeoftheexistenceofch'i,onecannotadmitthatch'icanbecreateddirectlyoutofli.Thatishardlypossible.
LetmesummarizewhatIhavefound.ChouTuni'sT'aichiwasoriginally"theultimatech'i."Itcanbetheultimateoriginofallthingsbecause,beingtheultimatech'i,
itcan"giverisetoyanginitsmotionandgiverisetoyininitsstationarystate."ChuHsiinterpretedthist'aichitobeli.Asaresult,ChuHsi'snotionofT'aichicanno
longerfititselftowhathethoughtofli.Moreover,ChuHsineveraccordedtheconceptofT'aichiastablepositioninhistheoreticalsystem.
Furthermore,whenChuHsispokeofT'aichiasli,thelatterhassuchawidespreadconceptualrangethatT'aichiisreallypartofli,forliisconceivedasthe
ultimateoriginofyinyang,wuhsing,andallcreationsintheuniverse.ThusliincludesT'aichi.Hence,whenChuHsispokeofliindiscussingandaccountingfor
something,hislicouldcoveralltheimplicationsT'aichicouldhave.Infact,itcanbesaidthatChuHsi'sconceptoflimakesitunnecessaryforhimtousetheword
t'aichiinthediscursivecontexts.
Butthisviewofminecannotsettlealltheissuesentirely.ThestatementthatT'aichiispartofthetotalityofliandiscontainedwithintheconceptualrangeofli,
providesonlyaroughoutlineofthecomplicatedrelationshipbetweenliandT'aichi.Insomerespects,T'aichicannotevenbeincludedandcoveredbyli.Tobe
moreexact,T'aichiisdoomedtoremainanalienelementinChuHsi'stheoreticalsystem.Theconceptseemstohavemadehimuneasy,andforthatreasonhemay
havetriedtoavoidusingtheterm.
ButinthecontextswhereChuHsiattemptedtodiscussandinterpretthe

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"AppendedRemarks"oftheBookofChangesandthe"T'aichit'ushuo,"hediscussedandelucidatedeverypossiblemeaningofthewordt'aichi.Itisnowonder
thatindoingsoChuHsiconsideredtheissuesintermsofhisownphilosophicalprinciples,discussingthembyapplyinghisownnotionstothem.Moreover,heputa
greatemphasisuponthe"ultimate"qualitythatthetermt'aichiwassupposedtohave,overandoveragain.Thisfact,combinedwithhisphilosophicalactivitiesasan
admirerofthegreatnessthatthe''T'aichit'ushuo"hadachievedandasacommentatoronthework,seemstohavecausedmisunderstandingthatT'aichiisthe
supremenotioninChuHsi'sphilosophicalsystem.
Howeverimportantthewordt'aichimaybeinChuHsi'sphilosophicalwriting,ithasneverbeenwovenintohisphilosophy.Itwasnothisowntermheusedit
exclusivelyinthecontextsinwhichheinterpretedthewordt'aichiasdefinedandusedbyotherphilosophers.
Heaven(T'ien)
ThereisanotherillfittedwordinChuHsi'stheoreticalsystem,thewordt'ien(sometimes,t'ientiahorHeavenandEarth).
AccordingtoChuHsi'sdescription,atthegenesisoftheuniverse,throughtheprocessoftherevolutionofch'i(yanch'iortheoriginalch'i),whilelightand
transparentch'iexpandedandbecameHeaven,thedregscoagulatedintoasolidcoreandbecameEarth.HeavenandEarthwerethuscreatedbytheli,asisshown
inthefollowingpassage:"Thereisonlyonegreatliintheuniverse.HeavenacquiresitandbecomesHeaventheEarthacquiresitandbecomesEarth."38Heavenand
EarthcanexistinsofarastheyfollowtheirownproperlitheliofHeavenandtheliofEarth.
ThissortofHeaven(orHeavenandEarth)fitsadequatelyintoChuHsi'stheoryoftheuniverse,whichdependsonthelich'itheory.Butwecanfindnotafew
examplesinwhichtheconceptofHeavenandEarthwillnotfitintothetheoreticalframeofthelich'iphilosophy.
ThetermT'ienliai(PrincipleofHeaven)inthephraseT'ienlijenyaj(PrincipleofHeavenandselfishhumandesires)is,contrarytotheabovedefinition,nottheli
thatissupposedtogiveHeavenitsownbasisofexistenceandtogovernitsoperation.TheliinthephraseT'ienlimeansthelibasedonT'ienorthelifollowing
T'ien.ThustheprioritybetweenT'ienandliisreversed.Henceliinthiscasereferstothatwhichwouldbejustifiablefromthemoralpointofview.Judgingfromthe
definitionofthetermT'ienli,T'ienhasanauthorityoverliandguaranteesitsexistence.T'ien,regardedthus,seemstobesuperiortoli."Asforthe't'iench'itichih'
inthispassage:Natureisequaltoli.Butwherethereisnot'iench'itichihak(thematerialforceofHeavenandthephysicalnatureofEarth),thereisnoplaceforlito
stayin."39Heret'iench'itichihmeansneitherthech'inorthechihthatissupposedtoconstituteHeavenandEarthandsustaintheirexistencebutthech'ichih
(endowedphysicalnature)thatisdistributedtomanandthingsbyHeaven

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andEarth."Ornoticethefollowingremark,forinstance:HeavenandEarthhavenootherthingtodobuttoproducethings.Thech'iofonesourcecreateseverykind
ofthinginitsincessantmovement."40HerethenotionthatHeavenandEarthgiverisetoeverythingthroughthemovementofch'iisclearlyshown.
TheHeavenorEarthspokenofintheaboveexamplesisregardedassuperiortobothliandch'i.Therefore,itisevidentthatT'ienisneitherthet'iennorthetithatis
supposedtohavebeenformedbyliandch'i.
ThisrelationshipbetweenT'ienandlich'iismoredefinitivelygiveninthefollowingexamples:
1."NatureisthelithatmanreceivesfromT'ien.Lifeisch'ithatmanreceivesfromT'ien."41
2."Inorderthatmanandthingscanbeborn,bothofthemmustreceivetheliofT'ientitoformtheirnature,andmustreceivethech'iofT'ientitoconstitutetheir
physicalform."42
3."Natureisequaltolithatthemindpossesses,andT'ienistheoriginofli."43
Althoughthesepassagesdealwithnature,theirtheoriesrefertoT'ienastheultimateexistencesuperiortobothliandch'i.Manandthingsaresupposedtobebornby
thepowerofliandch'i.Bethatasitmay,thereisT'ien,whichisspokenofassuperiortoliandch'i.Itfollowsthatmanandthingscannotcomeintobeinguntilthey
aregivenliandch'ibyT'ien.
Onecanreadilynoticeaparadoxhere.AlthoughT'ien(T'ienti)anditsmodeofexistencearedecidedbylibecauset'ienisonewithallcreationintheuniverseandis
madetocomeintobeingbych'i,T'ienisatthesametimespokenofashavingultimateexistencesuperiortobothliandch'ibecauseitcangivebothliandch'itoall
creationintheuniverse.Thisishardlypossiblethisisaparadox.OnemustadmitthatChuHsi'stheory,quatheory,contradictsitself.Howdoweresolvethe
contradiction?
Itseemsthatthet'ienasspokenofbyChuHsihasadoublemeaning,oneasanaturalobjectintheuniverseandoneasthecreatorororganizeroftheuniverse.While
t'ien,sofarasitcanbedefinedasoneofallcreationintheuniverse,canremainintheframeofthelich'iphilosophy,T'ienasthecreatorororganizeroftheuniverse
existsbeyondtherealmoflich'i,juttingoutoftheframeofthelich'iphilosophy.
WheredidthistranscendentalnatureofT'ienjuttingoutofChuHsi'sphilosophicalframecomefrom?Obviously,itcamefromtheChineseClassicsofConfucianism.
RemarkssuchasT'ien"gaveriseto,""created,"or"commanded"manandthingscanfrequentlybefoundintheFourBooks,whichbearaspeciallycloserelationship
toChuHsi'sphilosophy,aswellasintheBookofHistoryandtheBookofOdes.44TheideathatT'ienisthecreatorororganizerofthenaturalandhumanworldwas
sopowerfulintheConfuciantraditionthatChuHsicouldnotescapefromitsinfluence.Evenhiswide

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scalelich'iphilosophycouldnotencompassthisnotionsuccessfully,itwouldseem.
Thus,T'iencouldnotfititselfintoChuHsi'slich'iphilosophy.ButthelongtraditionIhavementionedpermittedthisnotionofT'ientooccupyahighlyrespectable
placewithinthatphilosophy.Moreover,theinfusionofT'ienintohisphilosophicaltheoriesmadeitpossibleforthenotionofT'ientoacquiresufficientforceandgreat
powerofapplicability.Whilethewordt'aichifailedtoenterChuHsi'sphilosophyandhasseldombeenusedinhisdiscussionsonlich'i,mindandnature,theword
t'ienhasbeenusedmanytimesintheCollectedCommentariesontheFourBooksandtheQuestionsandAnswersontheFourBooks.Itmaybethattheword
t'ienwasusedbecauseitwasusedintheoriginaltextsoftheFourBooks.ButmoreimportantisthatChuHsitreatedthiswordexhaustivelywhenhearguedover
philosophicalissuesitwasaliveinChuHsi'sphilosophy.
RegardingtheusageofthewordT'ienli,bothT'ienliandT'aichihaveasimilarhistory.Thetermt'ienlicomesfromthe"RecordsofMusic"chapteroftheBook
ofRites.Thisistheonlysource,anditcametobeusedfrequentlybytheCh'engbrothers(Ch'engHao,al10321085,andCh'engI).Thetermshardlydiffer.InChu
Hsi'sphilosophytheybothrefertoliandbothareincludedinlibecausetherangeofreferenceofbothwordsisnarrowerthanthatofli.Butthewordt'ienli,as
comparedwiththewordt'aichi,isamorefullydigestedphilosophicalterm,ithavingbeenusedmorefreelyandexhaustively.IntheChuTzuwenchi,forinstance,
thewordt'aichiappearsabout260times,whilet'ienlioccursabout340times.Ifwecomparethenumbersonly,thereseemstobenomarkeddifference.Butwhile
thewordt'aichiisusedincontextsthatalmostalwaysbearsomerelationshiptothe"AppendedRemarks"oftheBookofChangesorthe"T'aichit'ushuo,"the
wordt'ienliisusedlessfrequentlyincontextsthatbearsomerelationshiptothe''RecordsofMusic"oftheBookofRitesortothet'ienliusedanddefinedbythe
Ch'engbrothersthanincontextsfreefromsuchrelationships.SuchusageimpliesthatChuHsiusedthewordt'ienliashisownoriginalphilosophicalterm.
Finally,Iwouldliketosubmitonedefinitiveexampleforfurtherconsideration.IntheCollectedCommentariesontheBookofMencius,ChuHsiwrote,"Natureis
theliwhichmanreceivedfromtheT'ien."45Inanothercontextheexplained,"NatureistheT'ienliwhichmanreceivedatbirth."46Thereisaslightdifferencebetween
thefirstandthesecondpassages,butbothmustbeunderstoodtomeanthesamething.ThusweseethatChuHsiusedthetermt'ienliinvariousways,useditfreely,
andwasnotinfluencedbyitsclassicalandtraditionalusages.Whatarichandpowerfulapplicabilitythewordst'ienli,t'ien,andlihaveinChuHsi'sphilosophy!
Conclusion
Ashasbeenshownabove,ChuHsifailedtoenclosetheconceptsofT'aichiandofT'ieninhistheoreticalsystemoflich'iphilosophy.Inaddition,thetwo

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conceptshavebrokenthroughthetheoretical,referentialframeofhisphilosophyinstrikinglydifferentways.ChuHsiseldomusedthewordt'aichiinhisoriginal
philosophicalremarksbecausethewidediscrepancybetweenhisT'aichiandhislideprivedthewordt'aichiofitsrichapplicability.Thewordt'ien,ontheother
hand,couldmaintainitsstrongpowerbecauseitisinharmonywiththekeynotionsoflich'ieventhoughinsomerespectsitcannotbeencompassedentirelybythe
notionofliorch'i.Thusweseemuchdifferenceinusagebetweenthewordt'aichiandthewordt'ien.
ItistheconceptoflithatoccupiesthesupremepositioninChuHsi'sphilosophy.HencetheconceptofT'aichiisnotsuperiortothatofli.NeitherdoesChuHsiuse
thetermT'aichiinitstranscendentalsenseas"theultimateli"veryofteninhiscommentaries.Whatshouldbeplacedinthepositionsuperiortoli,whetherornotChu
Hsieverthoughtofit,wouldbethenotionofT'ienandnotthenotionofT'aichi.T'ien(t'ienti),however,wasanexceptionalnotioninChuHsi'sphilosophy.Chu
Hsi,afterall,builtandrebuilthissystemofphilosophicaltheorieswithintheframeofreferencethathadliandch'iasitscentralcore.
TranslatedbyOhasiYoichiam
Notes
1.UnoTetsuto,Shinatetsugakushikowa*an(Tokyo:Daidokan*,ao1914),p.290.
2.UnoTetsuto,Shinatetsugakushi:kinseijugakuap(Tokyo:Hobunkan*aq1954),p.175.
3.HouWailu,Chungkuossuhsiangt'ungshihar(Peking:JenminasPress,1960),vol.4,pt.2,pp.600605.
4.H.G.Creel,ChineseThoughtfromConfuciustoMaoTsetung(London:Eyre&Spottiswoode,1954),p.218.
5.ChuTzuylei[ClassifiedconversationsofMasterChu],(Taipei:ChengchungatBookCo.,1962),94:6a.
6.ChuTzuwenchi[CollectionofliteraryworksofMasterChu],(SPTKed.)37:34a,thirdreplytoCh'engK'ochiu.au
7.Ibid.,36:9b,fifthreplytoLuTzuching.av
8.ChuTzuylei,94:9b.
9.Ibid.,94:2b.
10."T'aichit'ushuochieh"aw[Commentaryonthe"ExplanationoftheDiagramoftheGreatUltimate"],intheChouTzuch'anshuax[CompleteworksofMaster
Chou],(Wanyuwenk'uay[UniversalLibrary]ed.),1:1a.
11."AppendedRemarks,"pt.1,ch.11.
12.ChuTzuwenchi,32:14a,replytoChangChingfu.az
13.ChuTzuylei,1:1b.
14.The"WesternInscription"waswrittenbyChangTsaiba(10201077)andbecameakeydocumentinNeoConfucianthought.Itoccupiesthefirstchapterofthe
ChangTzuch'anshubb[CompleteworksofMasterChang].ChuHsi'spassagequotedhereisobscure.
15.Ibid.,98:17b.

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16.Ibid.,6:5a.
17.TheGreatLearning,theAnalects,theBookofMencius,andtheDoctrineoftheMean.
18.MengTzuhuowenbc[QuestionsandanswersontheBookofMencius],(ChuTzuishubd[SurvivingworksofMasterChu]ed.),commentontheBookof
Mencius,6A:6.
19.Lunychichube[CollectedcommentariesontheAnalects],commentonAnalects,6:3.ChuHsiwasquotingCh'engI.Ich'uanwenchibf[Collectionofliterary
writingsofCh'engI](SPPYed.),4:1a,"WhatYenTzubglovedtolearn."
20.Ibid.,commentonAnalects,16:7.
21.Chungyungchangchbh[CommentaryontheDoctrineoftheMean],commentonch.1.
22.Ibid.,commentonch.16.
23.Ibid.
24.Ibid.
25.ThetwoqualitiesarethoseofthefirsttwohexagramsintheBookofChanges.
26.TheFourVirtuesaretaughtintheBookofMencius,2A:6and6A:6.
27."ExplanationoftheDiagramoftheGreatUltimate."Seeabove,n.10.
28.TahsehhuowenbiintheSsushutach'anbj[CompletecommentariesontheFourBooks],(1698ed.),p.7b.
29.BookofChanges,"AppendedRemarks,"pt.I,ch.11.Thetwomodesareyinyang,theFourFormsarelesserandgreateryinyang,andtheEightTrigrams
consistsofyin,orbroken,andyang,orcontinuouslines.
30.Hsiaochingkoumingcheh,inIshoshuseibk[Collectionofbooksofprophecy],(Tokyo:MeitokablPress,1973),5:76.
31."T'aichit'ushuo."Seeabove,n.10.
32.Ibid.
33.ChuTzuylei,1:3a.
34.Ibid.,94:9a.
35.Ibid.,94:10a.
36.Ibid.,4:13b.
37.CollectedcommentariesaddedtoChuHsi's"Commentaryonthe'ExplanationoftheDiagramoftheGreatUltimate'"intheChouTzuch'anshu,ch.1.The
ChouLienhsichibm[CollectedworksofChouTuni],editedbyChangPohsingbn(16511725)(Kuohsehchipents'ungshuboed.),1:6theChouTzuch'an
shu,editedbyTungYungbp(17111760),p.7aswellastheHsinglichingibq[Essentialideasofnatureandprinciple],compiledbyLiKuangtibr(16421718),
(SPPYed.)1:4a.,quoteditasChuHsi'sremark,butIhavenotyetbeenabletoidentifyitsoriginalsource.IshallbeprofoundlygratefulifIaminformedofit.
38.ChuTzuwenchi,70:5a.
39.ChuTzuylei,4:9b.
40.Ibid.,1:3b.
41.MengTzuchichubs[CollectedcommentariesontheBookofMencius],commentontheBookofMencius,6A:3.
42.Ibid.,commentontheBookofMencius,4B:19.
43.Ibid.,commentontheBookofMencius,7A:2.
44.Forexample,BookofOdes,oden.260BookofHistory,ch.27,"TheGreatOath,"sec.7theAnalects,7:23theBookofMencius,5A:7,theDoctrineof
theMean,chs.1and17.

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45.MengTzuchichu,commentontheBookofMencius,6A:3.
46.Ibid.,commentontheBookofMencius,6A:1.
Glossary

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8
OnChuHsi'sTheoryoftheGreatUltimate
TengAimin
ThephilosophyofChuHsishouldbeconsideredthesummationofidealisminoldChina.Hisdoctrinewasacceptedastheofficialphilosophy,possessing
unquestionableauthorityandservingtheinterestsoffeudalisticdynastiesformorethansevenhundredyears,fromthelateSouthernSung(11271279)totheendof
theCh'ingdynasty(16441912).ChuHsi'sphilosophyalsohadatremendousinfluenceinKoreaandJapan.
ComparedwiththeWest,Chinesefeudalsocietydevelopedmorefullyandlastedmuchlonger.Initslateperiod,thedevelopmentofscienceandtechnologywas
slow,andtheemergenceofcapitalistproductionlaggedmuchbehindWesternsociety.ChuHsi'sdoctrine,beingthedominantofficialphilosophy,evidentlyhad
negativeeffectsinthisrespect.
Sincethebeginningofthemodernperiod(18401949),Chinahaspassedfromasemifeudalandsemicolonialsocietytosocialismthroughrevolutionary
transformation.TheinfluenceofChuHsi'sphilosophy,however,haspersisted.Evennow,feudalideologyremainsanobstacletothemodernizationofChina.
SinceChuHsiwassoinfluential,weshouldmakeanunbiasedevaluationofhisachievementsanddrawusefullessonsfromthem,insteadofmerelyemphasizingthe
negativeaspectofhisphilosophy.ThispaperisapreliminarystudyofChuHsi'stheoryoftheGreatUltimatefromthisapproach.
SomeresearchersofChuHsi'sphilosophyhaveusedtheChuTzuyleia(ClassifiedconversationsofMasterChu)asthemaintext.ItistruethattheChuTzuylei,
astherecordofhisdialogues,treatssomeproblemsmoreconcretelythandohisotherwritings,aswellasreflectinghisthoughtsinhislateyears.However,sincethere
arediscrepanciesamongtherecordsofdifferentdisciples,theserecordsarenotasreliableashisownwritings.Therefore,althoughIshallalsousetheChuTzuylei
asanimportantreference,Ipreferthe"T'aichit'ushuochieh"b(Commentaryonthe"ExplanationoftheDiagramoftheGreatUltimate")asthemaintextforthis
discussion,becauseinthiswritingChuHsihimselfsystematicallyelucidatedhistheoryoftheGreat

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1

Ultimate.Thisworkwaswrittenaround1173butwasnotexpoundedtohisdisciplesuntil1188.Hetaughtitonceagainin1200theyearofhisdeath showing
thatthistextalsocontainsexamplesofhislaterthought.
ChuHsi'sDescriptionoftheGreatUltimate
AccordingtoChuHsi,theGreatUltimateisthehighestbeingorsubstance(pent'ic)oftheuniverse.Thewholeworldtogetherwiththemyriadthingsaregeneratedby
it.Hesaid,"TheoperationsofHeaven(T'iend)haveneithersoundnorsmell,andyetthisisreallytheaxisofcreationandtheoriginofthingsofallkind."2The
substanceoftheuniverse,sofarasithasneithersoundnorsmellandisincapableofbeinggraspedbyperceptualcognition,iscalledtheUltimateofNonbeing(wu
chie).Thesamesubstance,sofarasitiscapableofgeneratingtheworldtogetherwiththemyriadthings,iscalledtheGreatUltimate.Forthiskindofsubstance,"If
thissubstanceissaidnottobetheUltimateofNonbeing,thentheGreatUltimatewouldbeconsideredafinitethingandunabletobetheoriginofthemyriadthings.If
itissaidnottobetheGreatUltimate,theUltimateofNonbeingwouldperishinemptiness(k'ungf)andabsolutequiet(chig)andunabletobetheoriginofthemyriad
things."3Thisiswhytheexpression"theUltimateofNonbeingandalsotheGreatUltimate''wasusedtodescribeit.Inshort,thisexpressionmeansthatitlacksshape
butcontainsprinciple(lih).ItdoesnotmeanthatoutsideoftheGreatUltimatethereisanUltimateofNonbeing.
Afterassertingthis,ChuHsiconsideredthattheGreatUltimateisthemysteryofnaturalness(penjanchihmiaoi).Heelaboratedthecharacteristicsofitasfollows:
First,theGreatUltimateisnaturallyasitisandnottheresultoftheactionandeffectofotherbeings.Thusitissupreme.Inotherwords,itiswhatisinitselfand
conceivedthroughitself.Itpossessesmysticalenergyandeffect,andiscapableofgeneratingallbeings.Itis,ashesaid,"thehighest,thesubtlest,thefinestandthe
mostmystical."4
FollowingtheNeoTaoistsoftheWeiandChindynasties(220420),Chualsousedthetermsbeing(yuj)andnonbeing(wuk)tocharacterizeit.Ontheonehand,he
maintainedthattheGreatUltimateisbothbeingandnonbeingorthesynthesisofbeingandnonbeing.Hesaid,"TheoperationsofHeavenhaveneithersoundnor
smell,thatistosay,nonbeingexistsinbeing.TheUltimateofNonbeingisalsotheGreatUltimate,thatistosay,beingexistsinnonbeing."5Ontheotherhand,the
GreatUltimatecouldbeconsideredasneitherbeingnornonbeing,thatis,somethingtranscendingbothbeingandnonbeing.Inhisopinion,"'TheUltimateofNonbeing
andalsotheGreatUltimate'meansthatintheUltimateofNonbeing,allthingsareluxuriantlypresent.Therefore,itcannotbecallednonbeing.TheGreatUltimateis
fundamentallytheUltimateofNonbeing,thatis,theGreatUltimateassubstanceisemptyandtranquilandwithoutanysign.Therefore,itcannotbecalledbeing."Then
headdedthattheGreatUltimate"hasnorelationto

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6

beingandnonbeing." Inotherwords,theGreatUltimateisbothasynthesisofbeingversusnonbeingandtranscendsbeingversusnonbeing.
Second,theGreatUltimateisinfiniteandeternal.Considerthisstatement:"TheGreatUltimateisalargething.Thefourdirectionstogetherwithaboveandbeloware
calledspace(yl).Thepast,thepresent,andthefuturetogetherarecalledtime(choum).Nothingisaslargeasspace,extendinginfinitelyintofourdirections,above
andbelow.Howlargeitis!Nothingisaslastingastime,enduringfromtheancientpasttothecomingfuture.Itiseternal."7ChuHsiattemptedheretocharacterizethe
GreatUltimateasinfiniteandeternal,liketheuniverse,becausetheuniverseitselfisgeneratedfromit.Thusitisalsoabsolute.Ashedeclared,"TheGreatUltimateis
onewithnothingequaltoit."8OriginallytheGreatUltimatehasnosuchappellationitismerelyanexpressionofitscharacter.9
Third,theGreatUltimateisthehighestgoodandperfect.ChuHsisaid,"TheGreatUltimateissimplyanutterlyexcellentandsupremelygoodnormativeprinciple....
TheGreatUltimateisanappellationforallthatisgoodinHeavenandEarth,andamongmenandthings."10Theprincipleofathingisthesupremelygoodarchetypeof
thatthing.Thisisthemeaningoftheword"Ultimate"asusedinthestatement"Foreverythingorobject,thereisanUltimatewhichisthenormativeprinciple[ofthat
thingorobject]initshighestultimateform.''11Theprinciplesofallthingswithintheuniverse,broughtintoonewhole,constitutetheGreatUltimate.TheGreatUltimate
thusstandsasthehighestarchetypeandbecomesthefinalpurposeofallthingsintheuniverse.TheuniverseisorderlybecauseithastheGreatUltimatetoserveasits
archetypeandpurpose.WithouttheGreatUltimatetheuniversewouldbesomethingotherthanitself.Therefore,"IfthereexistsnoGreatUltimate,theuniverse,soto
speak,wouldbeturnedupsidedown."12TheGreatUltimatemaythusberegardedasthefinalcauseofallthings.
TheGreatUltimateasthehighestarchetypeandfinalpurposeofallthingsissimilartothetopofahouseorthezenithofthesky,beyondwhichpointthereisnomore.
Itistheultimateofprinciple.13Itcomesintobeingandactsbyitselfandforitself,notbyothersandforothers.Therefore,theGreatUltimatehasbeenforever
spontaneousitlacksvolition,plan,andcreativemeans.14
Finally,theGreatUltimatepossessesactivity(tungn)andtranquillity(chingo).ChuHsisaid,"TheactivityandtranquillityoftheGreatUltimatearetheMandateof
Heaven(T'ienmingp)initsuniversaloperation."15HealsosaidthattheUltimatethroughmovementgeneratesyangq(activecosmicforce),throughtranquillity
generatesyinr(passivecosmicforce),soit"givesrisetothedistinctionofyinandyang,andthetwomodesarethusestablished."16HereChuHsiexplainedthatactivity
istheactivityoftheGreatUltimateandtranquillityisalsoitstranquillity.
ChuHsialsoelucidatedmoreexplicitlythepointthattheGreatUltimateisactive.Thatis,theGreatUltimateassubstancealreadycontainedwithin

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itselfactivityandtranquillityfromthestandpointofuniversaloperation.However,theGreatUltimatecannotbereducedtoactivityandtranquillitynorbeidentifiedwith
them.IfweidentifytheGreatUltimatewithactivityandtranquillity,thentheassertionthattheGreatUltimateservesasthebasisofchangewouldbesuperfluous.17
ChuHsifurtherpointedoutthattheassertion"takingtheGreatUltimateasthesubstance,activityandtranquillityarethefunction"isdefective,because"tranquillityis
thesubstanceoftheGreatUltimatewhileactivityisthefunctionoftheGreatUltimate."18
ChuHsialsomadethedistinctionbetweenactivityandtranquillitypertainingtothingsexistingafterphysicalform(hsingerhhsias)andthatpertainingtoprinciple
existingbeforephysicalform(hsingerhshangt).Hesaid,"Thingscannotbetranquilwhileactiveoractivewhiletranquil."Thisreferstomaterialobjectsexistingafter
physicalform.Thatwhichexistsafterphysicalformcannotmutuallypenetrate.Therefore,whileacting,itisnottranquilwhiletranquil,itisnotactive.Furthermore,
'beingactivewithoutactivityandtranquilwithouttranquillity'doesnotmeanthatitisneitheractivenortranquil.Itreferstoprinciplewhichexistedbeforephysicalform.
Principleisunfathomable,likespirit.Whileacting,itcannotbesaidthatitisnottranquilthereforeitiscallednonactivity.Whiletranquilitcannotbesaidthatitisnot
activethereforeitiscallednontranquillity.Thereistranquillityinactivityandactivityintranquillity.Itistranquilbutabletoactandactivebutalsotranquil."19ChuHsi
hereacceptedandexpoundedtheviewofChouTuniu(10171073)thatprincipleortheGreatUltimate,likespirit,canbeactiveandtranquil,butitisakindof
activityandtranquillityexactlyoppositethatofthings.TheactivityandtranquillityoftheGreatUltimateconsistsintheunityoftheiropposition.Becauseofthispoint,
theGreatUltimateis"mysteriousandprofound''andalso"infinitelycomplicated."Itpossessestheabilityforproductionandreproduction(shengshengv),andsothe
wholeuniverseisgeneratedfromit.
WhethertheGreatUltimateconceivedbyChuHsishouldbeinterpretedasbeingcapableofmovementisacontroversialquestionamongspecialists.Forinstance,
FungYulanwonceassertedthatChuHsithoughtthatneithermovementnortranquillitymaybepostulatedfortheGreatUltimate.Theprincipleofmotionexistsinthe
GreatUltimatewhilethematerialforce(ch'ix)thatmovesaccordingtothisprincipleconstitutesthematerialforceofyang.Theprincipleofmotionitself,however,does
notmove.20
FungcitedtwosupportingquotationsfromChuHsi.Oneisthefollowingpassagerecordedbyhisstudent:
Oncethereistheprinciplegoverningmovement,therecanthenexistthemovementtoproduceyang.Oncethereistheprincipleoftranquillity,therecanthenexistthetranquillity
toproduceyin.Whenthereismovement,thereisprinciplewithinthismovement.Whenthereistranquillity,thereisprinciplewithinthetranquillity.

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Question:Movementandtranquillitypertaintomaterialforce.Isitthencorrecttosaythatitisbecausethereisthisprinciplewhichgovernsmaterialforce,thatmaterialforcecan
thereforeoperateinthismanner?
Answer:Itis.21

FromtheabovepassageFungconcludedthatmovementandtranquillitypertaintomaterialforce.22Healsocitedapassagefromaletter:
Question:Inthe"T'aichit'ushuo"itisstated:"TheGreatUltimatethroughmovementgeneratesyang.Whenitsactivityreachesitslimit,itbecomestranquil.Throughtranquillity
theGreatUltimategeneratesyin."ButtheGreatUltimateisprinciple,andhowcanprinciplebeinastateofactivityandtranquillity?Whathasshapemayhavesuchactivityand
tranquillity.ButtheGreatUltimatehasnoshape,andthereforeitseemsasifoneshouldnotspeakofitintermsofactivityandtranquillity.YetNanhsien[ChangShih,y1133
1180]saysthattheGreatUltimatecannotbuthavesuchactivityandtranquillity.Idonotunderstandhim.
Answer:Itisonlybecauseprincipleisinpossessionofactivityandtranquillitythatmaterialforcethushasactivityandtranquillity.Forifprincipleisnotinpossessionofactivity
ortranquillity,howcouldmaterialforceinitselfhavesuchactivityandtranquillity?23

FromtheabovepassageFungconcludedthat"yangandyinbothpertaintowhatexistsafterphysicalform,whereastheprincipleofactivityortranquillityiswhatexists
beforephysicalform.Henceithasneitheractivitynortranquillity.Thereforeoneshouldnotspeakofitintermsofactivityandtranquillity."24
WehavealreadyindicatedthepointthatChuHsifollowedChouTuni'sviewthattheGreatUltimateiscapableofactivityormotion.Onthispointtheideaof
principlehasdifferentimplicationsforChuHsiandCh'engIz(10331107).Ch'engIheldthat"allprinciplesareplainlylyingdownthere."25Healsomaintainedthat
"theconstantprincipleremainschangeless.Itisneverinactivity.Beinginactive,itissaidtoremaininthestateofabsolutequiet."26
FungheldthatChuHsiadvocatedthattheGreatUltimatehaseitheractivityortranquillity.Thefirstquotationcited,however,onlyconfirmstheinterpretationthatChu
Hsiadvocatedthatmaterialforcehasactivityandtranquillity.ItdoesnotprovethatChuHsiadvocatedtheviewthatprincipleisincapableofeitheractivityor
tranquillity.Chumaintainedthatprinciplehasactivityandtranquillityandmaterialforceorthingsalsohaveactivityandtranquillitythenatureoftwokindsofactivity
andtranquillity,however,aredifferent.
Furthermore,ChuHsisometimesassertedexplicitlythatactivityandtranquillitycanbespokenofonlyinrelationtoprincipleortheGreatUltimateandnotinreference
toyinandyangormaterialforce.Ashesaidwhenasked

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ifactivityandtranquillityarepredicatedabouttheGreatUltimateoryinandyang,"Itreferstoprinciplewhichiscapableofundergoingactivityortranquillity."

27

NeitherdoesthesecondcitationaboveproveFung'spoint.Thestatementthat"theGreatUltimatehasnoshape,andthereforeitseemsasifoneshouldnotspeakofit
intermsofactivityandtranquillity"isapartofthequestionputforthbyadiscipleofChuHsiandnotChu'sanswer.Itseemslogicallydeficienttorelyuponthe
questiontointerpretthedoctrineofthemaster.
Furthermore,Chu'sanswerwasthat"itisonlybecauseprincipleisinpossessionofactivityandtranquillitythatmaterialforcethushasactivityandtranquillity.Forif
principleisnotinpossessionofactivityortranquillity,howcouldmaterialforceinitselfhavesuchactivityandtranquillity?"ThisanswerisinterpretedbyFungtomean
that"materialforceundergoesactualphasesofactivityandtranquillity,butonlybecausethereareimplantedinitprinciplesgoverningthisactivityandtranquillity,which
themselvespertaintotheGreatUltimate."28Heretheideaof''activityandtranquillity"hasbeenreplacedbythatof"principlesgoverningthisactivityandtranquillity."
Moresimply,Funghereuses"principlesofactivityandtranquillity"insteadof"activityandtranquillity"inhisinterpretationandthussomeunfoundedconjecturehas
slippedin.
Oneshouldinterprettheabovequotation,Ithink,astheGreatUltimatebeinginpossessionofactivityandtranquillity,havingactivityandtranquillity,andconsequently
generatingmaterialforce.Asprincipleandmaterialforce,thereresultactivityandtranquillity.Ifprincipleisnotinpossessionofactivityandtranquillityandincapableof
beingactiveandtranquil,thenmaterialforcecouldnotbegenerated,andthustherewouldbenomaterialforcetobeactiveortranquil.
Funghasdeletedthelasttwosentencesoftheoriginalpassagewhichrunasfollows:"Andinthepresentcontext,humanity(jenaa)isactivityandrighteousness,(iab)is
tranquillity.Ithasnothingtodowithmaterialforce."29ItisquiteclearthatChumaintainedherethatactivityandtranquillityonlypertaintoprinciple(suchashumanity
orrighteousness)ortheGreatUltimateitself,andnottomaterialforce.Fungattemptstoasserttheopposite.Butthisattemptcannotbebasedontheletterhequoted
withoutdistortingtheoriginalconnotationoftheletter.
Tobesure,accordingtotheChuTzuyleisomeofChu'sconversationsseemtoshowthatactivityandtranquillityonlypertaintomaterialforceandnottotheGreat
Ultimate.Oncehesaid,"Yangisactiveandyinistranquil,buttheGreatUltimateisneitheractivenortranquil,...Itissimplythattherearetheprinciplesofactivity
andtranquillity.Principleisnotvisible,itbecomesvisiblethroughyinandyang.Principleholdsitselfuponyinandyangjustasamansitsastrideahorse."30Orashe
said,"T'aichiisonlyli,andlicannotbespokenofintermsofactivityandtranquillity."31Itmeansthesamething.Whenmaterialforceisinaction,thentheGreat
Ultimatealsoisinaction.Butthisideaappearsonlyintherecordsorinterpretationsofhis

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ac

disciples.Itcannotbefoundinhisownwritings,suchasthe"T'aichit'ushuochieh."Besides,asTs'aoTuan (13761434)pointedoutlongago,thisideaisnot
rational,forifso,thehorseisalivinghorse,butthemanisadeadman.Howcansomethingdeadbetheoriginofthemyriadthingsintheuniverse?32
Inrecentyears,Ch'ienMu'sadChuTzuhsinhsehanae(NewanthologyandcriticalaccountsofMasterChu)hasarousedgreatinterest.Ch'ien'sviewpointis
diametricallyopposedtothatoftraditionalformulationandFungYulan.
Ch'ienMusaid,"ManyofthescholarsconcernedareusuallyoftheopinionthatsincetheCh'engChuSchooladvocatedtheviewthatnatureisidenticalwithprinciple
whiletheLuWang[LuChiuyan,LuHsiangshan,af11391193andWangShoujen,WangYangming,ag14721529]Schoolmaintainedthatmindisidenticalwith
principle,itwouldbeappropriatetodesignatetheformerastheSchoolofPrincipleandthelatterastheSchoolofMind.Thisdistinctionissomewhatimprecise,
becauseChuHsiseemstobebestatelucidationoftheconceptofmind."33ThereforeaccordingtoCh'ien,"Chu'sphilosophyisadetailedsystemoftheschoolof
mind."34HealsomaintainedthatthephilosophyofChangTsaiah(10201077),whohimselfconsidereditthecontinuationofsomeancientlearningthathadbeen
interrupted,wasalsonothingbutasortofschoolofmind.
ItseemsthatCh'ien'sclassificationofallschoolsthatlayspecialemphasisontheelucidationoftheconceptofmindtothecategoryoftheSchoolofMindhasthe
advantageofclarifyingbetterthecommonfeatureofdifferentschoolsofNeoConfucianismintheSungandMing(13681644)dynasties,thatis,theirspecial
emphasisonphilosophyoflife.Importantdistinctionsintheirtheoriesofcosmology,however,wouldbeblurred,ifthiscriterionwereconsistentlyused.Sucha
criterionwouldnotonlyforceustoclassifytheCh'engChuSchoolintotheSchoolofMindbutalsocompelustodothesamewithChangTsaiandevenWangFu
chihai(16191692).Thiskindofclassificationwouldleadtodifficulties.ThereforeIrecommendexaminingtheircosmologicalviewsfordistinctions.
ThecosmologysystematicallydevelopedbyChuHsiinhis"Commentaryonthe'ExplanationoftheDiagramoftheGreatUltimate'"isakindofobjectiveidealismthat
iscoherentwiththeviewheconsistentlyheldthat"natureisidenticalwithprinciple."ThismakesChuHsi'sphilosophydifferentfromthesubjectiveidealismoftheLu
WangSchool,whichadvocatedtheviewthat"mindisidenticalwithprinciple."Fromtheperspectiveofthehistoryofphilosophy,thisdistinctionbetweenthetwo
schoolsismoreimportantthanaretheirsimilarities.
SubstanceandFunctioninChuHsi'sPhilosophy
InChuHsi'sphilosophysubstance(t'iaj)andfunction(yungak)comefromthesamesourceandthereisnogapbetweenthemanifestandthehidden(t'iyung

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al

am

iyan, hsienweiwuchien ).AccordingtoChu,theGreatUltimateisthesubstancethatgeneratestheuniverse.Hedescribedthisprocessofgenerationas

follows:"WiththeexistenceoftheGreatUltimate,thetwomodesresultedfromactivityandtranquillityandwiththeexistenceofyinandyang,theFiveAgents(wu
hsing,anMetal,Wood,Fire,Water,Earth)resultedfromtransformationandunification.FortheFiveAgents,however,thecorporalmatterisembodiedinearth,while
materialforceoperatesinheaven...ThingsresultingfromthetransformationoftheFiveAgentsareinfiniteandinexhaustible,buttheyallbelongtothescopeofyin
andyang.ItisthenaturalpropertyoftheGreatUltimatethatmakesitsoandthereisnodeficiencyandnogap."35
AccordingtoChuHsi,theGreatUltimateiscausasui.GiventheexistenceoftheGreatUltimate,itsactivityandtranquillityaremanifestedasakindofforceof
generation.Thisnecessarilyresultsintheappearanceofyinandyang,thatis,thetwomodes.Thetwomodesactuallyareonlythecondensationanduniversal
operationofthesinglematerialforce,whichinteractuponeachother,beinginincessantchange.ThusChuHsisaid,"Yinandyangconsistofasinglematerialforce.
Yangresultsfromtheuniversaloperationofyinandyinresultsfromthecondensationofyang.Itisnotthecasethattherearetwothingsinrealityopposingeach
other."36TheFiveAgentstogetherwiththemyriadthingsresultfromthevariousactionsofyinandyang,which,inturn,resultfromtheGreatUltimate.
IntheprocessduringwhichthemyriadthingsaregeneratedfromyinyangandtheFiveAgents,which,intheirturn,areproducedfromtheGreatUltimate,theGreat
Ultimateandyinyangarefusedandthereisnogapbetweenthem.Thisiswhatissaidtobeonesplittingintotwoandtwocombiningintoone.Fortheprocess,there
isneitherbeginningnorend.InChu'sterms"activityandtranquillityhavenobeginningandyinandyanghavenostartingpoint."37Inthisprocess,theGreatUltimate
andyinyangarealwaysfused.Fromtheperspectiveoftheuniversaloperationofthesubstance,Chunotedthat"Substanceandfunctioncomefromthesamesource,
andthereisnogapbetweenthemanifestandthehidden."38Chusaid,
TheGreatUltimateistheWaythatstandsbeforephysicalform.Yinandyangaretheconcretethingsthatexistafterphysicalform.Hence,ifit[theGreatUltimate]isconsideredin
itsprominent(hsienao)aspects,wefindthatactivityandtranquillitydonotcoexistintime,nordoyinandyangcoexistinspacewhereastheGreatUltimateitself,onthecontrary,
istobefoundeverywhere.Butifitisconsideredinitsobscure(weiap)aspects,wefindthattheGreatUltimateissomethingempty,tranquil,andwithoutanysignyetitcontains
fullywithinitselftheprinciplesgoverningthevisiblemanifestationsofactivityandtranquillity,yinandyang.39

Thatistosay,fromtheperspectiveofitsobscureaspectofpossessingthepowerofgeneratingtheuniverse,althoughtheGreatUltimateisempty,tranquil,and
withoutanysign,theprinciplesofactivity,tranquillity,andyin

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yangareimpliedaswellastheprincipleoftheuniverse.FromtheprominentaspectoftheprocessbywhichtheGreatUltimatecreatestheuniverse,activityand
tranquillityoryinandyangareinteractinguponeachother.Sometimesthereisactivitybutnotranquillityandatothertimesthereistranquillitybutnoactivity.
Sometimesthereisyinbutnoyangandatothertimesthereisyangbutnoyin.TheGreatUltimate,however,persiststhroughalltimeandallspacesofthis
transformationprocess.Therefore,ChuHsisaid,"Fromtheperspectiveofexistingthings,yinandyangembracetheGreatUltimate.Intracingtheirorigin,yinand
yangaregeneratedfromtheGreatUltimate."40
ThedoctrineofsubstancefunctionwasoriginallyputforthbyCh'engI,whousedittoexplaintherelationbetweenprincipleandsymbol(hsiangaq).ChuHsi
associatedsubstancefunctionwithChouTuni'stheoryoftheGreatUltimateandappliedittoillustratetherelationbetweentheGreatUltimateandyinyang,inother
words,betweenprincipleandmaterialforce.ThusChuHsiestablishedasystematiccosmogonydevelopingthephilosophyofCh'engI.ThroughhiscosmogonyChu
HsiassimilatedChangTsai'smaterialistictheoryofmaterialforce,makingtheconceptofmaterialforceanimportantcomponentofhistheoryoftheGreatUltimate.In
otherwords,ChangTsai'sconceptofamaterialch'i,whenitwasusedbyChuHsiasaninterpretationofthegenerationandchangeoftheuniverse,was
encompassedbyasystemthatwasakindofobjectiveidealism.ThisisthefirstfeatureofthedoctrinethatChusummarizedinthesubstancefunctionproposition.
ChuHsi'ssecondinterpretationofthedoctrineofsubstancefunctionproceedsfromCh'engI'sviewoftherelationbetweenprincipleandsymbolorthings.
MasterCh'enghadalreadyillustratedindetailthepropositionthat"Substanceandfunctioncomefromthesamesource."Bythepropositionthat"Substanceandfunctioncome
fromthesamesource"wemeanthat,sofarastheprincipleofthemosthiddenisconcerned,itisemptyandtranquilandwithoutanysignandyetallthingsareluxuriantlypresent.
Theassertionthat"Thereisnogapbetweenthemanifestandthehidden"meansthat,sofarastheformsofthemostmanifestareconcerned,theprincipleisomnipresentinall
factsandthings.Inprinciple,substanceispriortofunctionbecausetheprincipleofthefunctioncomestogetherwiththatofsubstance.Therefore,theyaresaidtobefromthe
samesource.Asforfacts,themanifestispriortothehidden,becausesubstanceoftheprincipleisseeninthefacts.Therefore,itcouldbesaidthatthereisnogap.Thus,by
"samesource''wedonotmeanthatthereisnodistinctioninfinenessandnoorderinsequence.Itissaid,afterall,thatfunctionprevailsonlyaftersubstanceissetupanditis
allowabletohaveonethingbeingfollowedbyanother.41

Inthispassage,ChuHsimaintainedthatmyriadconcretethingswereimpliedwhenonetalkedaboutthehighestprinciple.Thatistosay,functionis

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impliedinsubstanceandtheyareunifiedintoone.Whenwearetalkingaboutconcretethings,principleisembodiedineachofthem.Thatistosay,thehiddenis
impliedinthemanifestandthereisnogapbetweenthemanifestandthehidden.ItseemsthatChuHsigaveanontologicalinterpretationofthesubstancefunction
proposition.
ChuHsidiscussedtwodifferenttheoreticalquestionsinhisinterpretationofthepropositionthat"Substanceandfunctioncomefromthesamesource."Thefirst
questionconcernstherelationshipbetweentheabsoluteandtherelative.Theproposition"substanceandfunctioncomefromthesamesource"meansthattheabsolute
isembodiedintherelativeandtherelativecontainstheabsolute.Theyareunifiedandinseparable.Substanceisthehighestabsolute.Thepursuitoftheabsolutecould
berealizedonlythroughtheexistingthings,concreteandrelative.Itisimpossibletoattaintheabsolutewithoutknowledgeoftherelative.
Thesecondquestionconcernstherelationshipbetweennoumenonandphenomenonorrealityandprocess.Sofarasrelationsbetweenthingsintheuniverseasa
wholeareconcerned,thisrelationshipisthesameasthatbetweentheabsoluteandtherelativediscussedabove.Sofarasconcretethingsareconcerned,wearehere
actuallydealingwiththerelationshipbetweenessenceandappearanceorthatbetweensubstanceandaccidentsorattributes.
Bythepropositionthatsubstanceandfunctioncomefromthesamesource,wemeanthattheessenceofathingismanifestedinallappearancesandeachappearance
alsocontainsitsessence.Thetwoareunifiedandinseparable.Wecouldperhapsputitinanotherway,sayingthatsubstanceandaccidentsofathingareunifiedand
inseparable.Inthisconnection,ChuHsiappearedtobeawarethatsubstanceandfunctionformaunityofopposition,buthefailedtorecognizethedialectical
relationshipbetweenthetwo.Hiswords"Functionprevailsonlyaftersubstanceissetupanditisallowabletohaveonethingfollowinganother,"showthatheactually
leftthetwoseparated.
Finally,ChuHsiinterpretedthesubstancefunctionpropositionfromtheperspectiveofethics.Hesaid,"Fromnowon,Iknowthatintheprocessoftheextensive
transformationoftheuniverse,everybodycanfindarestingplaceforhimself,thatisaplacetosettledowninspirituallifeandtomakethewayforhimselfandaplace
tocontrolhisconsciousness.Thisisthepivotalpointuponwhichthegreatfoundationislaidandfromwhichtheuniversalpathleadsout.Thisexplainstheproposition
'Substanceandfunctioncomefromthesamesourceandthereisnogapbetweenthemanifestandthehidden.'"42Thatistosay,ifoneisendeavouringto"laythegreat
foundationandgoalongtheuniversalpath"withtheaimofattainingthehighesttruth,thenonemustworkhardatcontrollinghisownconsciousness.ThisiswhatChu
Hsimeantwhenhesaidthat"whenyouperceivetheprinciple,youshouldconsidermind(hsinar)asthemaster."43Ifoneplacesspecialemphasisuponseriousness
(chingas),bothbeforeandafterthefeelingshavebeenaroused(wei

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at

au

av

fa, ifa )andifoneisonone'sgoodbehavior,quiet(chi)yetconstantlyactedupon(kan )andbeingacteduponyetconstantlyquiet,thenthestatewherein

"substanceandfunctioncomefromthesamesourceandthereisnogapbetweenthemanifestandthehidden"isrealized.Chuadded,"Thisexplainswhythemindis
constantlybothquietandacteduponandsubstanceandfunctionhavealwaysremainedinseparable."44AccordingtoChu,mind,includingboththestatebeforeand
afterfeelingsarearoused,isnothingbutthemanifestationoftheGreatUltimate.Hesaidthat"beforefeelingsarearoused,[mindisthemanifestationof]theGreat
Ultimateinitsstateoftranquillity,thatis,beingyinandafterfeelingshavebeenaroused,[mindisthemanifestationof]theGreatUltimateinthestateofactivity,thatis,
beingyang."45Ifonekeepshimselfconstantlyinthestateofseriousnesseitherwhenactiveortranquil,thenheattainssagehood.Thesage'smindisidenticalwith
principle,andasanindividualheisidenticalwiththeuniverse.ThisiswhatChuHsisaid:"Thesage,theGreatUltimateinitsentirety,couldnothelpbutnaturallyattain
thehigheststateoftheMean(chungaw),correctness(chengax),humanityandrighteousness,withoutdependingonselfcultivation,eitherwhenheisactiveorwhenhe
istranquil."46
ThedoctrineoriginatingwithCh'engIthat"substanceandfunctioncomefromthesamesourceandthereisnogapbetweenthemanifestandthehidden"tookonnew
meaningsafterbeingextendedbyChuHsiintocosmology,ontology,andethics.Inconnectionwiththisdoctrine,ChuHsidiscussedtherelationshipbetweenthe
absoluteandtherelativeandthatbetweenessenceandappearance.Therearesomerationalelementsinhistheory.
If,however,weexamineChuHsi'stheoryasaphilosophicalsystem,wenoticethatheconsideredtheGreatUltimateasthesupremesubstanceoftheWay(Taoay).
ThisspiritualsubstanceoftheWayexistedpriortothebeginningoftheuniverse,beingtheoriginofitsgeneration.Inhisdoctrineconcerningsubstanceandfunction,
andthemanifestandthehidden,boththeschismbetweensubstanceandfunctionandthegapbetweenthemanifestandthehiddenremain.StudentsofChinese
philosophyaregivenalessonhere.Questionssuchastherelationshipbetweentheabsoluteandtherelativeandbetweenessenceandappearance,thatis,questions
relatingtounityofopposition,couldnotbeproperlydealtwithinanidealisticphilosophicalsystem.
SomeChinesescholarsthoughtthatthespecialityofChinesephilosophycouldbesummarizedasreachingbrilliantheightsbutfollowingthepathoftheMean,leading
tosagelinesswithinandkinglinesswithout.Thisistheidealofthesage,proposedbyChuHsi,inwhomtheGreatUltimateisrealizedintotality,leadingtoidentification
withtheabsolute.Thisisbasedonthedoctrineofsubstancefunction.Butitisnothingbutafictionofanidealisticsystem.Althoughthepurposeofthistheorymightbe
thepursuitoftheidealofthesage,itsshortcomingisthatitplacesthesageatanundueheightandundulydeifiesaparticularperson.Itcouldeasilybeturnedintoa
tooltoservetheinterestofthefeudalautocracy.

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ChuHsi'sTheoryofPrinciple
ImportantalsotoChuHsi'stheoryoftheGreatUltimateisthepropositionthatprincipleisonebutitsmanifestationsaremany(liifenshuaz).Wementionedabove
thataccordingtoChuHsithetwomaterialforcesandtheFiveAgentsaregeneratedfromtheGreatUltimateandthemyriadthingsareproducedintheinteractionof
thetwomaterialforcesandtheFiveAgentswhileeverythinghasinitselftheGreatUltimate.Chusaid,"ThingsgeneratedfromtheFiveAgentsaredistinctinmind
owingtodifferencesinphysicalnature(ch'ichihba).Thisiswhatwemeanbysayingthatthingsaredistinctinnature.Sincethingsaredistinctinnature,theGreat
Ultimateinitsentiretyexistsineachindividualthing.Thisalsoindicatesthatnatureisubiquitous."47Thisistheinterpretationofhissaying"Everybodyhasinhimthe
GreatUltimateandeverythinghasinittheGreatUltimate."48
AccordingtoChuHsi,eachthinghasitsownprinciple,andtheprincipleoftheuniverseisasynthesisofprinciplesinherentinmyriadthings.Thissynthesis,however,is
notamechanicaloneprinciplesinherentinmyriadthingsarenotseparateanddisconnectedbutinterrelatedtoformanorganicwhole."Whenallprinciplesofheaven
andearthandthemyriadthingsareputtogether,thenyouhavetheGreatUltimate."49
ChuHsi'ssaying"everypersonhasinhimtheGreatUltimateeverythinghasinittheGreatUltimate"isthesamesayingthatprincipleisonebutitsmanifestationsare
many.Chufurtherexplained:"Fromtheangleofthemaleandthefemale,theyhavetheirownnaturesyetthemaleandthefemaleeachhasitsownGreatUltimate.
Fromtheangleofthemyriadthings,eachhasitsownnatureandeachitsownGreatUltimate.Themyriadthings,takentogether,consistofoneGreatUltimate
separately.Itisadequatelyshownherethatthereisnothingintheuniversethatliesbeyondthescopeofnatureandnatureisubiquitous."50Chuhassaidherethatthe
myriadthingsasawholehaveoneGreatUltimate,andthereforewecansaythatprincipleisoneandeachindividualthinghasinititsownGreatUltimatewhichis
nothingbutitsnature,andthuswecansaythatthemanifestationsaremany.Principlesoftheindividualthingsareobtainedfromtheoneprinciple.
Howdotheypartakeofthisoneprinciple?AccordingtoChu,principlesofindividualthingsdonotresultfromsectioningtheoneprinciple,becauseafterthe
generationofprinciplesofindividualthings,theoneprincipleremainstheGreatUltimateinitsentiretywhiletheseprinciplesofindividualthingsarealsotheGreat
Ultimate.ChuHsionceexplainedthispointtohisstudents.
Question:[Yousaid,]"Principleisasingle,concreteentity,andthemyriadthingspartakeofitastheirsubstance.HenceeachofthemyriadthingsalsopossessesinitaGreat
Ultimate."Accordingtothistheory,doestheGreatUltimatenotsplitupintoparts?

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Answer:FundamentallythereisonlyoneGreatUltimate,andyeteachofthemyriadthingshasbeenendowedwithitandeachinitselfpossessestheGreatUltimateinitsentirety.
Thisissimilartothefactthatthereisonlyonemoonintheskybutwhenitslightisscattereduponriversandlakes,itcanbeseeneverywhere.Itcannotbesaidthatthemoonhas
beensplit.51

Incharacterizingthisrelationintermsofthemetaphorofthemoon'sreflectioninstreams,Chuwasshowingthattherelationbetweenoneandmanyisneitherthat
betweenthewholeandthepart,northatbetweengenusandspecies,northatbetweentheuniversalandtheparticular.
Butthemyriadthingsaredistinctinnature.Ifeachindividualthing"hasinititsownGreatUltimatewhichiscomplete,"howcanwedistinguishthenatureofdistinct
things?Tosolvethisproblem,ChuHsiintroducedtheconceptofmaterialforceandexplainedthedistinctionofthenaturesofthingsintermsofdistinctionsinmodes
ofcombinationofprincipleandmaterialforce.Hesaid,"Whenconsideringthatallthingscomefromonesource,weseethattheirprincipleisthesamebuttheir
materialforceisdifferent.Lookingattheirvarioussubstances,weseethattheirmaterialforceissimilarbuttheirprincipleutterlydifferent.Thedifferenceinmaterial
forceisduetoitspurityorimpurity,whereasthedifferenceinprincipleisduetoitscompletenessorpartiality."52Thatistosaythatthemyriadthingscomefromthe
combinationofprincipleandmaterialforce.Consideringthattheprincipleofthemyriadthingscomesfromthesamesource,principlesofallthingsatthebeginningare
thesame.Materialforcediffersinitsdegreeofpurity.Consideringthatthemyriadthings,inheritingtheprinciplefromthesamesource,aredistinctfromoneanother,
thedifferenceinmaterialforceisminor,andyetthedifferenceinprincipleisgreatbecauseofitscompletenessorpartiality.Thusindividualthingsaredifferentinnature.
Chugavesomeexamplestoillustratethispoint.Heremarkedthat,forinstance,sofarasmaterialforceisconcerned,thedifferencebetweenmanandanimalisminor
thereforetheybothhavethesenseofcoldandhunger.Butsofarasprincipleisconcerned,thedifferenceisgreat.Manhasthenatureofhumanity,righteousness,rites
(libb),andwisdomwhile"inthecaseoflove,forexample,intigersandwolves,orinthesacrificialritesinthewolfandotter,orintherighteousnessinbeesandants,
onlytheobstructiontoaparticularpartoftheirnatureispenetrated,justaslightpenetratesonlyacrack."53Thisexampleshowsthat,accordingtohim,animalsalso
partakesomeofthenatureofhumanity,righteousness,rites,andwisdomandalsopossesstheGreatUltimateinentirety.Butowingtodifferenceinmaterialforce,ants
andbeeshaveonlyalittlebitofthenatureofrighteousness,andtigersandwolvesonlyalittlehumanity.
ChuHsialsodistinguishedhisdoctrineofonemany(orprincipleone/manifestationsmany)fromthedoctrineofoneandalloftheHuayenbcSchool.InChuHsi's
system,materialforceismoreemphasized.Bytheoperationofmaterialforce,heexplained,principlebecomesmanymanifestations.Thatis

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tosay,hisdoctrineofonemanymeansthatthemanycopiesoftheoneprincipleexistingasmanifestationsaredistinctfromoneanother.Accordingtotheoneandall
doctrineoftheHuayenSchool,oneisallandallisone,oneisinallandallisinone.Thatistosay,allthecopiesoftheoneprincipleexistingasmanifestationsarethe
same.Furthermore,inChuHsi'sopinion,principleisobtainedfromHeavenandthenbecomesembodiedinthemind.AccordingtotheHuayenSchool,all
phenomenalthingsdependuponthemindtobemanifested.
ChuHsicriticizedthedoctrineofoneandalloftheHuayenSchool.Heheldthatifallcopiesoftheoneprincipleexistingasmanifestationswerethesame,the
differencesofallthingscouldnotbesufficientlyexplained.Hesaid,"TheSagedidnotspeakofthedoctrineofoneandallbutonlyofonemany.Itisonlyby
concentratingupontheparticularityoftheprinciplesoffactsandthingsthatonecanreachtheirinevitabilityandthenknowtheprinciplerunningthroughthem.Ifone
doesnotunderstandthatthereareasmanyprinciplesasthetenthousandmanifestations,butonlyassertsthatthereisoneprinciple,howcanoneknowhowthisone
principlemanifests?"54Withthedoctrineofoneandallwhichlaysthefoundationforthetheoryoflife,theHuayenSchoolalsoaffirmedthatalllivingbeingsareequal.
Thismeantcastingofftheethicsofsocialdistinctions.ChuHsiattackedthisdoctrineasviolatingConfuciantraditionandagreedwithhisteacherLiT'ungbd(1093
1163)thatthedifferencebetweenConfucianismandBuddhismwasthedoctrineofonemanyversusthedoctrineofoneandall.Sincethedoctrineofoneandall
deniedthatthemanycopiesoftheoneprincipleexistingasmanifestationsdohavedistinctions,itwasaheterodox(ituanbe)one.55
FromthedifferencebetweenChuHsi'sdoctrineandtheHuayenSchool,wecanseethattoexplaintherelationofoneprinciplewithmanymanifestationsintermsof
themetaphorofthemoonreflectingitselfintenthousandstreamswasnotsuitable.ThusChuHsioftenillustratedhistheoryintermsofthemetaphorofthegrowing
plant.Oncehesaid,
Thereisoneprinciplewhichthemyriadthingsdividetoformtheirsubstance.Theneachthingembodiesprincipleseparatelyitiscalledthewayofch'ienbf(male)whichis
"changingandtransformingsothateverythingwillreachitscorrectnatureanddestiny(mingbg)."Everythingtakentogether,thereisonlyoneprinciple.Theoneprinciple
manifestseverywhereasanintegralwhole,justasonegrainofmilletcomesupasaseedling,whichproducesflowersthatruntofruitandformseedsagain.Thereareahundred
grainsonanearofmillet.Everygrainisperfectinnature.Asahundredgrainsaresown,eachgraingrowsintoahundredgrainsagain.Itproducesandreproducesunceasingly.
Butatthebeginning,thereisonlyonegraintogrow.Eachthinghasitsprinciple.Tosummarize,thereisonlyoneprinciple.56

ThismetaphorisamoresuitablecharacterizationofChuHsi'sonemanydoctrine.Atthesametime,italsoexplainswellfeudalethicsfordifferentstations

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ofpersons.AsChusaid,"Themyriadthingshavethisprincipleallprinciplescomefromthesameorigin,buttheyareindifferentpositions.Thereforethefunctionsof
principlesaredifferent.Forexample,asaruler,onemustbehumaneasaminister,onemustbereverentasason,onemustbefilial(hsiaobh)asafather,onemust
lovedeeply(tz'ubi).Eachthinghasitsrespectiveprincipleandeachaffairadifferentfunction.Yetamongallthesethingsandaffairs,thereisnonethatisnotthe
universaloperationofoneprinciple."57
ChuHsiadvocatedthedoctrineofonemanynotonlytodrawacleardistinctionfromthedoctrineofoneandalloftheHuayenSchool,butalsotolayatheoretical
foundationforcriticizingYangChubj(440360B.C.?)andMoTibk(fl.479438B.C.).Mencius(372289B.C.?)criticizedYangandMoonlyfromthestandpointof
ethics,showingthattheirdenialofthespecialrelationshipswiththerulerandthefatherrespectivelywoulddegrademantoananimal.Chucriticizedthemintermsof
thedoctrineofonemany.MoTiadvocateduniversallove(chienaibl),whichmeansanaffirmationofoneprinciplebutadenialofthevariousmanifestations.Yang
Chuadvocatedegoism,whichmeansanaffirmationofindividualmanifestationsbutadenialofoneprinciple.Theybothtookanerroneous,onesidedapproach.Chu
said,
Itisthemeaningofthe"WesternInscription"(Hsimingbm).MasterCh'engIregardeditasilluminatingthedoctrineofonemany.Heactuallycapsulizeditinasinglesentence.
Whench'ienisregardedasthefather,k'unbn(female)asthemother,andthisappliestoallclassesoflivingbeingswithoutexception,suchisthestatementthatprincipleisone.
Yetamongmenandallotherlivingbeingswithbloodintheirveins,eachloveshisownparentsasparentsandtreatshisownsonasason,howcanitsmanifestationsnotthenbe
many?Oncethereisthisunitywhichyetleadstomyriadmanifestations,theneventhoughthewholeworldisasinglefamilyandChinaisasingleperson,wedonotdriftintothe
errorofuniversallove.Andoncetherearethesemyriadmanifestationswhichmayyetbereducedtoasingleunity,theneventhoughthefeelingsexpressedtowardthosecloseto
usandthoseremotefromusmaydifferandeventhoughclassdistinctionsmayexistbetweenthoseofhonorableandthoseofhumblestation,neverthelesswearenotshackled
bytheselfishnessofeachoneforhimself.58

Bymeansofthiscriticism,ChumadeitclearthatthedoctrinesofYangandMonotonlywouldnotleadtogood,butalsowereuntrueinthemselves.Chudeveloped
thethoughtofMenciusatthesamemetaphysicalleveluponwhichhecriticizedYangandMo.HeturnedMencius'doctrineintoatotaltruthandregardeditasthe
Confucianorthodoxtradition.InthiswayhehopedtoavoiddriftingintotheerrorofMo'suniversalloveadvocatingthatthewholeworldisasinglefamily.Atthesame
timehewouldnotbeshackledbyYang'segoismadvocatingthedoctrineofclassdistinction.
Bythedoctrineofonemany,ChuHsiindicatednotonlytherelationbetweenoneprincipleandmanyprinciples,thatis,"thetenthousandprinciplesendinone,"59but
alsotherelationbetweenprincipleandthings,thatis,

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principleisonebutitsmanifestationsarethetenthousandthings.Thisrelation,too,istherelationbetweensubstanceandfunction.Hesaid,"Thatwhichisabsolutely
sincereandceaselessisthesubstanceoftheWay.Thisiswhythetenthousanddifferentiationscanbeonesubstance.Thetenthousandthingsarewelladjustedintheir
placesandthisisthefunctionoftheWay.Thisiswhyonesubstancebecomesthetenthousanddifferentiations(ipenwanshubo)."60Inotherwords,thesubstanceof
theWayissincereandreal,notemptinessandabsolutequietallegedbyBuddhism.ThefunctionoftheWayisthemultiplicityofthemyriadthings,nottheillusionheld
byBuddhism.ThesubstanceoftheWayisunceasingproductionandreproduction.ThefunctionoftheWayisitsvariedmanifestations.
ChuHsialsopointedoutthatthecentralideaoftheDoctrineoftheMeanisthatofthe"WesternInscription"oneprinciplebutmanymanifestations."Itspeaksof
oneprincipleatthebeginning,whichdispersesandbecomesthemyriadthings.Theyatlastreunitetobecomeoneprinciple.Whenreleased,itexpandstofilltheentire
universebutwhenrolledup,itiscontainedwithinone'sinnermostbeing.Itisallpracticallearning(shihhsehbp)."61HereChushowedthattherelationbetween
substanceandfunctionisthatofoneprinciplewithmanymanifestations.Theidentityofsubstanceandfunctionisthesameastheidentityofoneprinciplewithmany
manifestations.Thereforehesaid,"Whenwespeakofoneprinciple,itisasitrunsthroughmanymanifestations."62
ThedoctrineofonemanyoriginatedwithCh'engIbutwasdevelopedsystematicallybyChuHsi.Itwashewhoidentifiedoneprinciplewithitsvariousmanifestations,
andthroughitsubstancewithfunctionandprinciplewiththings.ButwhilefollowingCh'engI'stheoryofprinciple,healsousedChangTsai'sdoctrineofmaterialforce
tosolvesomeproblemsimperfectlyansweredbyCh'eng.Histheoryexertedgreatinfluence,escapingcriticismuntilTaiChenbq(17231777)madeadirectattack.
Taisaiditimpededinvestigationofthelawsoftheobjectiveworld.Hepointedout:
TheSungNeoConfucianistsknewalsohowtoseekprincipleinthings,butbecausetheywereattractedtoBuddhism,theyhaveappliedwhattheBuddhistsusedtodesignate
spiritualconsciousness(shenshihbr)todesignateprinciple.Thereforetheylookuponprincipleasifitwereathing.Theynotonlytalkabouttheprincipleofthings,butalsosay
thatprincipleliesscatteredthrougheventsandthings.Sinceprincipleisthatofthings,itcanbediscoveredonlyafterthingshavebeenanalyzedtotheminutestdetail.Andsince
principleliesscatteredthrougheventsandthings,theythereforeseekitthroughdeepandquietconcentrationofthemind.Theysaidthesubstanceisonebutithastenthousand
manifestations,andwhenreleased,itexpandstofilltheentireuniversebutwhenrolledup,itiscontainedwithinone'sinnermostbeing."63

TaiChenwasnotaccurateinallegingthatChu'sprincipleisthesameasthespiritualconsciousnessofBuddhism.Butheshowedtheunacceptablemysti

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cismoftheassertionsthat"thesubstanceisonebutithastenthousandmanifestations"andthat"principlecanbesoughtthroughdeepandquietconcentrationofthe
mind."ForthesewerecontrarytoTai'smethodofinvestigatingprinciplebyanalyzingthingsthemselvestotheminutestdetail.Theywerenothelpfulinobtaining
scientificknowledge.Tai'sexposurewascorrect.
AccordingtoChuHsi,principleandmaterialforcearetwodifferententities,buttheyaremergedintooneandareinseparable.Becauseofthisconcept,somescholars
comparehisphilosophytothatofAristotle.Forinstance,FungYulanhasassertedthatprincipleandmaterialforceinChu'ssystemcorrespondtoformandmatterin
Aristotle's.64Thoughthiscomparisonisworthyofseriousconsideration,yetAristotledidnotsuggestamysticismofthedoctrineofonemany.Thisdifferencebetween
themisanimportantone.
SeveralscholarsalsohavecomparedthephilosophyofChuHsiwiththatofLeibniz.KnowingthatLeibnizhadreadConfucianphilosophyanddebatedwithhis
correspondentonChuHsi'sviewofShangtibs(GodonHigh),NeedhambelievesthatLeibnizwasinfluencedbyChuHsi.Furthermore,Leibniz'sideaofthemonad
andpreestablishedharmonyoftheuniversearestrikinglyclosetotheideasofChuHsithateverythinghasitsownGreatUltimateandthatprincipleisanorganic
order.65Consideringthedoctrineofonemany,thiscomparisonissufficientlywarranted.Indeed,ChuHsirepeatedlyassertedthathisGreatUltimateisanorganic
order,whichgrowsanddevelopslikeaplant.Forexample,hesaid,"TheGreatUltimateislikeaplantwhichgrowsoutoftherootintostemandbranches.Theleaves
andflowersaregeneratedfromthestemandbranches.Itisintheconditionofproductionandreproductionuntilthefruitscomeintobeing.Inthefruitsthereare
infiniteprinciplesofproductionandreproduction,bymeansofwhichalsogrowoutinfiniteGreatUltimates.Thisprocessneverceases."66Thatistosay,theGreat
Ultimateisaspiritualsubstance.ItisasactiveasthemonadofLeibniz.TheGreatUltimateisanorganicwholelikeatree,ineachnodeofwhichexistsalsoaGreat
Ultimate.Justaseverymonadreflectstheuniverse,allthemonadstogetherconstitutethewholeorganicuniverseasaresultofpreestablishedharmony.Herethe
similaritiesendandimportantdifferencesbegin.
Inmyopinion,ChuHsiisaphilosopheroffeudalism.Hissystemwasestablishedasthebasisoffeudalsocialhierarchy.Hepreferredpracticalormoralreasonto
intellectualorpurereason.Andthemaincomponentsofhismoralreasonarethemoralsoffeudalsociety.Heneglectedtheimportanceofscientificknowledge,
especiallyoftheuniversalandnecessaryknowledgeofthephysicalworld.AlltheseideasarereflectedinhistheoryoftheGreatUltimate.
Ontheotherhand,Leibnizwasaphilosopherofthebourgeoisie.Thoughhisidealismisunacceptabletous,yethestressedthefreedomofmanandthoughthighlyof
purereasonandtheimportanceofnaturalscience.Ashelpfultotheprogressofsociety,thesethoughtsarealsoreflectedinhissystemof

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monadology.Butthesignificanceandfunctionofthetwophilosopherswithintheirowncontextsareverydifferent.Essentially,everyphilosopherexistsaspartofa
certainclassandwithintheculturaltraditionofhisnation.WhenwecomparetheoriesofChinesephilosopherswiththoseofphilosophersintheWest,weshouldnot
forgettheirsocialandhistoricalcontexts.ItisasWingtsitChanbtstates,"Thesecomparisonsshowthatinanycomparativestudy,similaritiesareusuallyaccompanied
bydissimilarities.TheimportantpointtonoteisthatChuHsiisneitherPlatonicnorAristotelian.TheusualWesternpolaritiesdonotapplyinChinesephilosophy."67It
isthecasewithPlatoandAristotle,anditisalsothecasewithLeibniz.
Conclusion
Tosumupbriefly,ChuHsi'stheoryoftheGreatUltimategatheredallthemainidealisticdoctrinesofsubstanceinancientChinaintoaharmoniouswholeandachieved
greatcompletion.ClassicalConfucianismingeneralisanethicalsystem,butitprovidednoexplicitphilosophicalfoundationforitsmorals.AsTzukungbu(520450
B.C.)said,"WecannothearourMaster'sviewsonhumannatureandtheWayofHeaven(T'ientaobv)."68ChuHsicombinedtheGreatUltimateofChouTuniandthe
principleofCh'engI,addedsomeideasofTaoismandBuddhism,andthenestablishedasystematicontologyandcosmologyasthemetaphysicalfoundationfor
Confucianethics.ThushedevelopedclassicalConfucianismtoanewstage.
ChuHsiheldthattheGreatUltimateissupreme,infinite,andthehighestgood,andthatitpossessesactivityandtranquillity.Allthingsintheuniversearegenerated
fromit.Italsostandsastheirarchetypeandpurpose.HeassertedthattheGreatUltimateispriortoyinandyangandthatprincipleispriortomaterialforce.Allthese
viewpointsareidealistic.Healsoadvocatedthedoctrineofonemany.Thisideabroughtamysticflavortohisidealism.
ItisevidentthatChuHsi'stheoryoftheGreatUltimateappliedtopoliticsatthattimewasreactionary.Inlayingthemetaphysicalfoundationforfeudalethicssuchas
theThreeStandards(sankangbw)andtheFiveConstantVirtues(wuch'angbx),69thistheorysetuptheirabsoluteauthority.HenceitstrengthenedfeudalisminChina.
Itwascriticizedbysomelaterprogressivephilosophers.TaiChenpointedoutthatSungNeoConfucianistskilledapersonwithprinciple.Hesaid,"Ifsomeoneis
killedforviolatingthelaw,perhapshewillbepitied.Ifheiskilledwithprinciple,whowilltakepityonhim!"70T'anSsut'ungby(18651898)complainedthat"the
ThreeStandardsadvocatedbySungNeoConfucianistscouldstrikeintosomebodysomuchterrorastoputhissoultodeath!"71Thesecriticismsarenoexaggeration.
ChuHsi'stheoryoftheGreatUltimatealsohadmorenegativeinfluencethanpositiveinfluenceonthedevelopmentofscienceinChina.Hemaintainedthateach
individualthingmusthaveitsindividualprincipleandthatoneshouldcomeintocontactwiththingstogainanexhaustiveknowledgeof

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theirprinciple.Fromthispointofview,thesocalledprinciplesseemsomewhatscientific.ButwhenhedeclaredthattheGreatUltimateisthesumtotalofallprinciples
andthateachthingpossessestheGreatUltimateinitsentirety,principlecannotbelawsofnature.Furthermore,heassertedthatsomeofthemaincomponentsofthe
GreatUltimatearefeudalmoralssuchastheThreeStandards,takingthemeaningofprincipleevenfurtherfromthelawsofnatureinmodernscience.HuShihbz
(18911962)assertedthatthepurposeofnaturalscienceis,asadvocatedbyChuHsi,theinvestigatingofprinciplesofallthings.72Thisassertiondoesnotquite
correspondtoChuHsi'stheoryofprinciple.
NeedhampointsoutthataccordingtoChuHsi,principleisthedynamicpatternembodiedinalllivingthings,inhumanrelationships,andinthehighesthumanvalues.It
lacksthesenseofuniversalityofaformulatedlaw.Indeed,alawintheNewtoniansensewasfarfromChuHsi'smind.UndertheinfluenceofChuHsi'sorganic
philosophy,Chinesescienceneverawokefromitsempiricalslumbers.Fromthemeaningsofprinciple,NeedhamconcludesthatChuHsi'stheoryoftheGreat
UltimateimpededthedevelopmentofscienceinChina.73Thisanalysisisadirecthit.
ButinChuHsi'stheoryoftheGreatUltimatetherearemanypositivefactorsthathadnostrictconnectionwithfeudalpolitics.Hesaidthatconsideringthepresent
world,yinandyangimplytheGreatUltimateandprincipleandmaterialforcearemergedonewiththeotherintracingtheirorigin,theGreatUltimategeneratedyin
andyang.Thatistosay,theGreatUltimateisbothtranscendentandimmanentintheuniverse.ItisakindofpantheismdirectlyopposedtotheTaoistnonbeingand
Buddhistemptiness.Togoastepfurther,itwastobetransformedintonaturalismormaterialism,thelatteranachievementofWangFuchih.Wang'sphilosophyof
materialismhelpedtoshiftthecentralconcernfromanearlyemphasisonthepracticallearning(shihhseh)ofmoralsubstantialitytothatoffunctionalpracticality.It
wasconducivetothedevelopmentofmodernscienceinChina.
TheGreatUltimateisalsosaidtopossessactivityandtranquillity.Itisthefirstnecessarycauseoftheuniverse.TheGreatUltimategeneratesyangthroughmovement
andgeneratesyinthroughtranquillity,andthengeneratesallthingsintheuniverse.WithintheGreatUltimateliethecontradictionsofactivityandtranquillity,yangand
yin.ThustheGreatUltimateembodiesadynamicforceorthepowerofproductionandreproduction.Thispowerwassaidtobetheessenceofhumanity.Thusthe
traditionalconceptofhumanityacquiredametaphysicalcharacter,leadingtotheconceptoffraternityandhumanisminthebourgeoisrevolution.
Inaddition,accordingtoChuHsi,theuniverseisamacrocosm,whileeachmanisamicrocosm.Thistheoryprovidesthemetaphysicalfoundationforsagehood.A
sageisamanwhorealizestherealprinciplesintheGreatUltimateandthenbecomesidenticalwiththeGreatUltimate,hismicrocosmformingonebodywiththe
macrocosm.Itrequirestheunityofinvestigating

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principletotheutmostandfullydevelopingone'snature.ThoughthereweresomeelementsinthistheoryfavorabletofeudalisminChina,asstatedabove,yetit
consistentlydevelopedaphilosophyofmanandtriedtoestablishanultimatestandardforman.
ChuHsialsoanalyzedtheinterdependentrelationsofsuchpairsofoppositesastheUltimateofNonbeingandtheGreatUltimate,beingandnonbeing,activityand
tranquillity,yinandyang,substanceandfunction,principleandmaterialforce,theWayandconcretething(ch'ica),andwhatexistsbeforephysicalformandafter
physicalform.Althoughingeneralhedidnotacknowledgethattwooppositescantransferthemselvesintooneanother,yethisclearandpenetratinganalysisofthese
categoriespromotedtheprocessofcognitionofobjectivereality.
InthehistoryofChinesephilosophy,ChuHsi'stheoryoftheGreatUltimateremainsanindispensiblelink.Thenaturalism,secularism,andhumanisminhistheorywere
developedbylaterphilosophers.Thesesignificantcontributionsmayalsobeusedforreferencetoday.
TranslatedbyWuYunzengcb
Notes
1.WangMaohungcc(16691741),ChuTzunienp'ucd[ChronologicalbiographyofMasterChu],underChuHsi'sageof71.
2.ChuHsi,''T'aichit'ushuochieh,"inChouTzuch'anshuce[CompleteworksofMasterChou],(Wanyuwenk'ucf[Universallibrary]ed.),p.5.Hereaftercited
asShuochieh.
3.ChuTzuwenchicg[CollectionofliteraryworksofMasterChu],(SPPYed.entitledChuTzutach'anch[CompleteliteraryworksofMasterChu]),36:3b.
HereaftercitedasWenchi.
4.ChuTzuylei(1880ed.),94:4b5a.HereaftercitedasYlei.
5.Wenchi,36:14a.
6."CollectedConversationsofMasterChu,"inChouTzuch'anshu,p.13.
7.Ylei,94:6a.
8.Ibid.,100:7b.
9.Ibid.,94:11a.
10.Ibid.,94:7a.
11.Ibid.,94:11a.
12.Ibid.,1:1b.
13.Ibid.,94:10a.
14.Ibid.,1:3a.
15.Shuochieh,p.6.
16.Ibid.,p.7.
17.Wenchi,45:12a.
18.Ylei,94:7b8a.
19.Ibid.,94:35b36a.
20.FungYulan,Chungkuochehsehshihci[AhistoryofChinesephilosophy],(Shanghai:CommercialPress,1934),p.907.
21.Ylei,94:9ab.

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22.Chungkuochehsehshih,pp.901902.
23.Wenchi,56:33b34a.
24.Chungkuochehsehshih,pp.901902.
25.Ch'engHaocj(10321085)andCh'engI,Ishuck[Survivingworks],2a:16a,intheErhCh'engch'anshucl[CompleteworksofthetwoCh'engs],(SPPYed.).
26.Ibid.,2A:22b.
27.Ylei,94:10b.
28.Chungkuochehsehshih,p.901.
29.Wenchi,56:34a.
30.Ylei,94:10a.
31.Ibid.,94:5a.
32.Ts'aoTuan,Pienlicm[Refutingtheunreasonable],inTs'aoYehch'uanHsienshengishucn[SurvivingworksofMasterTs'aoTuan],1:17b18a.
33.Ch'ienMu,ChuTzuhsinhsehan(Taipei:SanmincoBookCo.,1971),Bk.III,p.48.
34.Ibid.,Bk.II,p.1.
35.Shuochieh,p.11.
36.Wenchi,50:1b.
37.ChuHsioftenquotesfromCh'engI'sChingshuocp[ExplanationsoftheClassics],1:2a,intheErhCh'engch'anshu.
38.ChualsooftenquotesfromCh'engI'sprefacetohisIchuancq[CommentaryontheBookofChanges]intheErhCh'engch'anshu.
39.Shuochieh,p.7.
40.Ylei,75:17b18a.
41.Shuochieh,p.34.
42.Wenchi,32:4b.Forthegreatfoundationandtheuniversalpath,seetheDoctrineoftheMean,ch.1.
43.Ibid.,32:24b.
44.Ibid.,32:25a.
45.Ibid.,40:36a.
46.Shouchieh,p.26.
47.Ibid.,p.13.
48.Ylei,94:7a.
49.Ibid.,94:11a.
50.Wenchi,37:31b.
51.Ylei,94:41b42a.
52.Wenchi,46:11b.
53.Ylei,4:3a.
54.Ibid.,27:9a.
55.Yenp'ingtawencr[LiTung'sanswerstoquestions],(ChuTzuishucs[SurvivingWorksofMasterChu]ed.),Postscript,p.9b.
56.Ylei,94:9b.Thequotationonch'ien(male),thefirsthexagramintheBookofChanges,isfromitscommentaryonthehexagram.
57.Ibid.,18:9a.
58.ChuHsi,"Hsimingchieh"ct[Commentaryonthe"WesternInscription"],intheChangTzuch'anshucu[CompleteWorksofMasterChang],(Kuohsehchi
pents'ungshucv[BasicSinologicalseries]ed.),p.8.K'unisthesecondhexagramintheBookofChanges.
59.Ishu,18:10b.

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cw

60.Lunychichu [CollectedcommentariesontheAnalects],commentonAnalects4:15.
61.Chungyungchangchcx[CommentaryontheDoctrineoftheMean],introductoryremark.ThepassageisasummaryofCh'engI'sremarksintheIshu,7:3b,
14:1a,and18:30a,Waishucy[Additionalwork],11:1b,intheErhCh'engch'anshu.
62.Wenchi,37:29b.
63.TaiChen,MengTzutzuishuchengcz[CommentaryonthemeaningsoftermsintheBookofMencius],inHuShih'sTaiTungyantichehsehda[Philosophy
ofTaiChen],(Shanghai:CommercialPress,1927),p.128.
64.Chungkuochehsehshih,p.903.
65.JosephNeedham,ScienceandCivilisationinChina,Vol.II,HistoryofScientificThought(Cambridge:CambridgeUniversityPress,1956),pp.496505.
66.Ylei,75:19ab.
67.WingtsitChan,ASourceBookinChinesePhilosophy(Princeton,N.J.:PrincetonUniversityPress,1963),p.641.
68.Analects,5:12.TsukungwasaConfucianpupil.
69.TheThreeStandardsweretheThreeBondswiththerulerasthestandardofminister,thefatherasthestandardfortheson,andthehusbandasthestandardfor
thewife.TheFiveConstantVirtuesareaffectionbetweenfatherandson,righteousnessbetweenrulerandminister,orderbetweenseniorsandjuniors,separate
functionsbetweenhusbandandwife,andgoodfaithamongfriends.
70.MengTzutzuishucheng,inHuShih'sTaiTungyantichehseh,p.56.
71.T'anSsut'ung,Jenhsehdb[Philosophyofhumanity]inT'anSsut'ungch'anchidc[CompleteworksofT'anSsut'ung],(Peking:SanlienddBookCo.,1954),
p.65.
72.HuShih,HuShihwents'unde[CollectedworksofHuShih],(Shanghai:TheOrientalBookCo.,1931),Vol.II,p.208.
73.ScienceandCivilisationinChina,Vol.II,p.579.
Glossary

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Page116

9
ZhuXi'sDoctrineofPrinciple
ChiuHansheng
Inthisshortessay,IdonotattempttoexpoundcomprehensivelyZhuXi'sDoctrineofPrinciple(lixuea)Ihavelimitedmyselftoadiscussionofhistheoryofthe
PrincipleofHeaven(tianlib)andhistheoryofnature(xingc).
ZhuXi'sTheoryofthePrincipleofHeaven
ThePrincipleofHeaven
ThecoreandhighestphilosophicalcategoryofZhuXi'sdoctrineofprincipleishistheoryofthePrincipleofHeaven.HeinheritedthistheoryfromChengYid(1033
1107)anddevelopeditintoamoreconcise,precise,andprofoundconcept.
ZhuXibelievedthatprincipleorthePrincipleofHeavenistheoriginorfoundationoftheuniverse."Thesumofallcreationandtheuniversewhentakentogetherisbut
theoneprinciple."1"Beforeheavenandearthexisted,therewascertainlyonlyprinciple.Asthereisthisprinciple,thereforethereareheavenandearth.Iftherewere
noprinciple,therewouldalsobenoheavenandearth,noman,nothings,andinfact,nocontainingorsustaining[ofthingsbyheavenandearth]tospeakof.Asthere
isprinciple,thereisthereforematerialforce(qie),whichoperateseverywhereandnourishesanddevelopsallthings."2Clearly,accordingtoZhuXi,theprincipleisthe
originoftheuniverse.Theuniverseexistsbecauseofprinciple,asdomenandobjects.Theuniverseandallcreationintheuniverse,takenasawhole,comestothis
oneprinciple.
InhisintroductiontotheZhongyongzhangjuf(CommentariesontheDoctrineoftheMean),ZhuXicitedpassagesfromChengYiwhichsaidthattheDoctrineof
theMean"firstspeaksofoneprinciple,thenproceedstocoverallcreationandfinallyreturnsandgathersthemallunderoneprinciple.Thisprinciplesaturatesthe
universewhendiffusedcollected,itrecedesandlieshiddeninminuteness."3Thisprinciplereignsoverallcreationandallcreationunitesinoneprinciple.Regardedin
itsmacroscopicalaspect,theprinci

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plesaturatesthewholeuniverse,embracesandcoversthewholeuniverse,itsimmensityallowingnothingaboveorbeyondit.Regardedinitsmicroscopicalaspect,it
recedesintoseclusion,itsminutenessallowingnointerior.ThepassagescitedbyZhuXiprovideaprogrammaticdiscourseontheworldviewoftheChengZhu
SchoolofPrinciple:thetheoryofthePrincipleofHeaven.Itputsforwardprincipleasthehighestphilosophicalcategoryofhissystemofthought,andinelucidatingthe
relationshipbetweenprincipleandallcreationmaintainsthatprincipleisallcomprehensiveandomnipresent.ManyofZhuXi'sdiscoursesonprincipleareconnected
withthesepassages.
ZhuXisaid,"Afterall,thereistheprinciplebeforethereistheuniverse."4Thenagain,"Afterall,theprinciplewillremainevenifthemountainsandriversandtheearth
itselfallcavein."5Theprinciplehasnobeginningorending.Thereisabeginningfortheuniverse,butnotfortheprinciplethereisanendingfortheuniverse,butnot
fortheprinciple.Theprincipleexistsbeforetheuniverse.Aftertheuniversecavesin,theprinciplewillremain.Theprincipleexistsindependentlyandeternally,not
relyingontheuniverseorthecreationinit.
ZhuXidescribedtherelationshipbetweenprincipleandmaterialforce.Hemaintainedthat"thereismaterialforcesincethereisprinciple,butprincipleisthebasis."6
Headded,"Intheuniversetherehasneverbeenanymaterialforcewithoutprincipleorprinciplewithoutmaterialforce.Whenaformiscreatedbymaterialforce,
principleisfoundinthatformatthatverymoment."7"Itisasked:Mustprinciplethenprecedematerialforce?Theansweris:Fundamentally,principleandmaterial
forcecannotbespokenofaspriororposterior.Butifwemusttracetheirorigin,weareobligedtosaythatprincipleisprior.However,principleisnotaseparate
entity.Itexistsinmaterialforce.Withoutmaterialforce,principlewouldhavenothingtoadhereto."8
InlettersansweringHuangDaofugandLiuShuwen,hZhuXiexplainedtherelationshipbetweenprincipleandmaterialforce.
Throughouttheuniversetherearebothprincipleandmaterialforce.PrinciplereferstotheWay,whichisabovetherealmofcorporealityandisthesourcefromwhichallthingsare
produced.Materialforcereferstomaterialobjects,whicharewithintherealmofcorporealityitistheconcreteobjectbywhichthingsareproduced.Thereforeintheproductionof
manandthings,theymustbeendowedwithprinciplebeforetheyhavetheirmaterialforce,andtheymustbeendowedwithmaterialforcebeforetheyhavecorporealform.While
thisnatureandthisformareintegratedwithinoneandthesamebody,thedistinctionbetweentheWayandconcreteobjectsisverymarkedandmustnotbeconfused.9

Whatarecalledprincipleandmaterialforcearecertainlytwodifferentthings.Butconsideredfromthestandpointofthings,thetwothingsaremergedonewiththeotherand
cannotbeseparatedwitheachinadifferentplace.Butwedonotsaythatthetwothingsareeachasinglething.Whenconsideredfromthe

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standpointofprinciple,beforethingsexistedtheirprinciplesofbeinghadalreadyexisted.Onlytheirprinciplesexisted,however,butnotyetreallythethingsthemselves.
Generallyspeaking,wemustmakedistinctionswhenexaminingsuchmatters,andtakeinthewholeprocesslestweerr.10

"WhentherealityoftheUltimateofNonbeing(wujii),"saidMasterZhou(ZhouDunyi,j10171073),"andtheessenceofyink(passivecosmicforce)andyangl
(activecosmicforce),andtheFiveAgents(Water,Fire,Wood,MetalandEarth)comeintomysteriousunion,integrationensues."Whathecalls"reality"isprinciple,
andwhathecalls''essence"ismaterialforce.11
CommentingonthisstatementfoundinZhouDunyi's"AnExplanationofthe'DiagramoftheGreatUltimate'"(Taijituyishuom),ZhuXiwrote"'Reality'isprincipleand
'essence'ismaterialforce.Becauseprincipleandmaterialforcemerge,aformiscreated."12FromthisandtheseveralcitationsfromhisClassifiedConversationswe
cansummarizeZhuXi'stheoryofprincipleandmaterialforceintofivemainpoints:
1.Principleandmaterialforceexistintheuniverse,principlebeingthebasisofthetwo.
2.PrincipleistheWay,whichexistedbeforephysicalformandistherootfromwhichallthingsareoriginated.Materialforceismaterialobjects,whichexistedafter
physicalformitistheinstrumentbywhichthingsareproduced.Thedistinctionbetweenprincipleandmaterialforceisverymarkedandmustnotbeconfused.
3.Theprincipleofanobjectexistsbeforetheobjectitselfdoeswhatexistsisonlytheprinciple,notyettheobjectitself.Thisistosaythatprincipleprecedesobject
anditalsoprecedesmaterialforce.
4.Principleandmaterialforceareintermingledandcannotbeseparated.Wecannotsaywhichofthetwoprecedestheother.Butifoneweretoinsistuponsequence,
wemustsaythatprincipleprecedes.
5.Takethecomingintobeingofmanandthingsasanexample.WhentherealityoftheUltimateofNonbeing(principle)andtheessenceofyinandyangandtheFive
Agents(materialforce)comeintomysteriousunion,integrationensues."Principleandmaterialforcecombine,andthusaformiscreated.""Yinandyangarematerial
forceandtheFiveAgentsarephysicalsubstances,andtheexistenceofthesephysicalsubstancesmakesitpossibleforthingstocomeintobeing."13
ZhuXi'sdiscourseonprincipleandmaterialforceisthemaincontentofthistheoryofthePrincipleofHeaven.Aclearexpositionoftheessenceandformof
expressionofthisdiscourseisthereforeofgreatimportanceinelucidatingthePrincipleofHeaven.
ZhuXibelievedthattheGreatUltimate(taijin)istheultimateprincipleofthemyriadthingsofheavenandearth."Withrespecttoheavenandearth,

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14

thereistheGreatUltimateinthem.Withrespecttothemyriadthings,thereistheGreatUltimateineachandeveryoneofthem." "ShouldtherebenoGreatUltimate,
wouldnottheheavenandearthturnupsidedown?"15InZhuXi'ssystemofphilosophytheGreatUltimateissynonymouswithprincipleorthePrincipleofHeaven.
WithouttheGreatUltimate,therewouldbenoPrincipleofHeaven,andtheuniverse,heavenandearth,wouldturnupsidedown.By"theGreatUltimateisthe
principleoftheuniverse,andallcreation,"16ZhuXimeantthatitistheorderoftheuniverseandofallcreation.
"ChengYichuano[ChengYi]expresseditverywellwhenhesaidthatprincipleisonebutitsmanifestationsaremany(liyifenshup).17Whenheaven,earthandthe
myriadthingsarespokenoftogether,thereisonlyoneprinciple.Asappliedtoman,however,thereisineachindividualaparticularprinciple."18Thatistosay,thereis
oneprinciplefortheuniverseyetthereisstilloneprincipleforeveryindividualbeing,which,joinedtogether,incarnatetheonePrincipleofHeaven.Thisoneprinciple
isthegeneralnamefortheprinciplesofthemyriadthingsinheavenandearth,whichistheGreatUltimate,thatis,theultimateprinciple.
Accordingtotheabove,ZhuXi'sprincipleorPrincipleofHeavenisendowedwiththefollowingcharacteristics:
1.Principleexistsindependentlyofanythingormatter.Ithasnobeginningorendingandexistseternally.Thecomingintobeinganddestructionoftheuniverseandall
creationdoesnotapplytoprinciple.
2.Principleistheoriginandfoundationoftheuniverse,theoriginandfoundationofallcreationoftheuniverse,andthegeneralprincipleofallcreationoftheuniverse.
3.Principleandmaterialforcearerelated."Wherethereisprinciplethereismaterialforce,whichoperatesandbringsintobeingallcreation."19Principleistheorigin,
whilematerialforceisthematerialsubstanceformingheavenandearthandallcreation,whichmustoperatedependingonprinciple.Yetifthereisnomaterialforce,
principlewillhavenothingtoadhereto.Principleisonlya"clean,empty,andboundlessspace,"20havingnoshapeortrace,anddoingnothing.Itembraceseverything
andisomnipresent.
4.PrincipleissynonymouswiththeGreatUltimateaspresentedbyZhouDunyiin"AnExplanationoftheDiagramoftheGreatUltimate"basedonthe"Appended
Remarks"(CommentaryontheBookofChanges).21
Thereis,apartfromthematerialworld,aprinciple,oraPrincipleofHeaven,whichdoesnotdependonthematerialworldandwhichexistsindependentlyand
eternally.Itistheoriginandfoundationofthematerialworld.Itisa"clean,empty,andboundlessspace"yetitcontainsandcoversallcreationoftheuniverseandis
incarnatedineachandeveryoneofthemyriadthingsintheuniverse.SuchaprincipleorPrincipleofHeavenisnotalawabstractedfromtheobjectiveworldandhas
nomaterialbasis.Itshouldbe

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noted,however,thatconceptsinfactmirrorthematerialworld.Conceptsthatexistindependentlyanddonotrelyonthematerialworldcanonlybefabricationsofthe
imagination.
Ifprinciple,orthePrincipleofHeaven,isinterpretedasanobjectivelaw,suchalawshouldbederivedfromthedevelopmentofallphysicalandspirituallife.Ifwe
believethatsuchalawembodieslife,thenitisundoubtedlytrue.ButthatisnotZhuXi'sview.Hethoughtjusttheopposite,holdingthatthedevelopmentofphysical
andspirituallifeembodiesthePrincipleofHeaven.ThusthePrincipleofHeaven"becomesthecreatorofNature."InthiswayZhuXi'stheoryofthePrincipleof
Heavenisendowedwiththecharacterofobjectiveidealism.
PrincipleIsOnebutItsManifestationsAreMany
AccordingtoZhuXi,theideathatprincipleisonebutitsmanifestationsaremanymeansthatthereisonegeneralprinciplegoverningallthespecificprinciples.He
likenedittotheonesinglemoonsendingdownitsbeamstothemyriadrivers,lakes,streams,andseas,producingmyriadreflections22thisisonesideofthepicture.
Ontheotherside,alltheprinciplescometogethertomakeuptheonegeneralprinciple,justasthemyriadreflectionsallfindintheonesinglemoontheircommon
origin.ThusasingleGreatUltimateramifiestobecometheGreatUltimateofeachandeveryspecificbeing,which,intheirtotality,gobacktomakeuptheoriginal
GreatUltimate.ZhuXisaid,"TheGreatUltimateissimplytheprincipleofthehighestgood.EachandeverypersonhasinhimtheGreatUltimateandeachandevery
thinghasinittheGreatUltimate."23ThisGreatUltimate,whichisfoundineverybodyandeverything,isconnectedwiththegeneralGreatUltimate,thatis,theone
principle.Itclearlyinterpretstherelationshipbetweenonegeneralprincipleandthespecificprinciplesofthings.
ZhuXi'sideathatprincipleisonebutitsmanifestationsaremanywaswritteninreferencetoZhouDunyi'sYitongq(Tongshur)(PenetratingtheBookofChanges).
ZhuXisaid,
AccordingtoMasterZhou,"TheFiveAgentsconstitutesthedifferentiation[ofthings],whilethecosmicdualforcesyinandyangconstitutetheactivitythetwoforcesare
fundamentallyone.Thesubstanceisexpressedinthemyriad,andtheonesubstanceandthemyriadthingsallbecomecorrect,whilethelargenessorsmallnessofeachhasits
owndefiniteness."24Tracingfrombottomtotop,theFiveAgentsarenothingbutthetwomaterialforces[yinandyang],whichintheirturnarenothingbuttheprinciple.Tracing
fromtoptobottom,thereisonlythisoneprinciplewhichthemyriadobjectssharetoserveastheirsubstance.Themyriadobjectsembodyinthemselves,eachandeveryone,
theirownprinciple.Thisiswhatismeantbythe"changesinHeavenlyWayresultingineachpossessingitscorrectnature,life,anddestiny."25Butatalleventsthereisonlyone
principlethatpermeateseverybeing.Itislikeagrainofmillet,whichgrowstobeaseedlingwhichproducesaflower.Whentheflowerbearsseeds

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whichbecomemilletagain,theoriginalfigureisrestored.Oneearwillbear100grainsandeachgrainisintegraltoitself.Havethe100grainssownandeachintimewillproduce
again100grains.Theywillgoonproducinglikethiseternally.Atthebeginningthereisonlyonegrain,whichkeepspropagating.Everyobjecthasitsprinciple,butallofthese
principlesareoneandthesameprinciple.26

"Theonesubstanceisexpressedinthemyriad"means"oneprinciplewithmanymanifestations.""Theoneandthemyriadareallintegraltothemselves"means''every
objectpossessesoneGreatUltimate."Whenonegrainofmilletbecomes100grains,theonegrainisintegralandeachofthe100grainsisalsointegraltoitself.
"Tracingfromtoptobottom"signifiesoneprincipleramifyingtoformthesubstanceofthemyriadobjects."Tracingfrombottomtotop"signifiestherestoringofthe
principlefromthebodiesofthemyriadobjectstobecomethisoneprinciple.
ZhuXirelatedhistheoryofoneprinciplewithmanymanifestationstoChengYi'sexplanationofZhangZai'ss(10201077)"WesternInscription,"(Ximingt).27Cheng
Yiheldthatthethesisofcosmicbrotherhooddescribedinthe"WesternInscription"hadelucidatedthelogicofoneprinciplewithmanymanifestations.28ZhuXisaid
thatinthe"WesternInscription""everysentencesignifiesoneprinciplewithmanymanifestations."29"Readingthetextasawhole,wefindoneprincipleperusingthe
textsentencebysentence,wefindthemanymanifestations."30InrelatingthetheoryofoneprinciplewithmanymanifestationsofZhouDunyi'sPenetratingtheBook
ofChangestoZhangZai's"WesternInscription"andChengYi'sinterpretation,ZhuXiheldthatallthesefamousNeoConfucianistsoftheNorthernSongdynasty
(9601126)wereearlyadvocatesofthistheory.
ZhuXialsousedthistheorytoannotatetheFourBooks.31HiscommentontheDoctrineoftheMeanreads,
Theskycovers,thegroundbears,andallcreationarebredinbetweentocoexistandnottoharmoneanother.Thefourseasons,thesunandthemoon,alternatelyreplaceone
anotherinrotationandarenotmutuallyexclusive.Thattheyarenotmutuallyharmfulormutuallyexclusiveisbecausethesmallvirtuesrunincessantlylikestreams.Thatthey
coexistandfunctionsidebysideisbecauseoftheworkingofthegrandvirtue.Thesmallvirtuesarethemanymanifestationsofthetotality,andthegrandvirtueistheoriginof
themyriadmanifestations.32

ZhuXi'sdiscussionhereof"theWayofHeaven"citedfromtheDoctrineoftheMeanisanexpositionofhisownphilosophyofnaturebythetheoryof"oneprinciple
withmanymanifestations."Thegrandvirtue,thatis,theoriginofthemyriadmanifestations,signifiestheoneprinciple.Thesmallvirtuesarethespecificmanifestations
derivedfromthetotalityoftheuniverse,signifyingtheramificationsofthetotality.Theseconceptsthegrandvirtueandthesmallvirtues,theoriginofthemyriad
manifestationsandtheramifi

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cationsofthetotalityarenothingbutthetheoryofoneprinciplewithmanymanifestations.CommentingonthechapterintheAnalectsthatbeginswiththesentence
"Mydoctrineshaveonethreadwhichrunsthroughthemall"(4:15)inhisLunyujizhuu(CollectedcommentariesontheAnalects)ZhuXisaid,"Absoluteandconstant
sincerityistheentityoftheWay,whichexplainswhythereisonlyoneoriginforthemyriadmanifestations.Thatthemyriadobjectsallfindtheirproperplacesisthe
functionoftheWay,whichexplainswhytheoneoriginshouldhavemyriadmanifestations."Theoriginofthedifferentmanifestationsofthemyriadobjectsisthus
tracedandrecognizedtobetheoneprinciplethisistoprovethatthesemanifestationsarederivedfromthisoneprinciple.Thedifferentmanifestationsofthemyriad
objectsareunderstoodfromtheoriginaloneprinciple.Thisistoprovethatthisoneprinciplestipulatesthemanifestationsofthemyriadobjects.
Inthissense,mankind,grass,trees,birds,andanimalswithalltheirdifferentmanifestationsarederivedfromoneorigininthisisfoundtheiridentificationwithone
another:theysharethesameorigin,thesameoneprinciple.Yetatthesametimetheydifferfromoneanotherintheirmanifestations,thedifferencelyinginthateach
hasitsparticularshareoftheprinciple,andeachhasitsspecificquality.Therefore,ZhuXiadded,"Whenmankind,grass,trees,birds,andanimalscomeintobeing,
eachdoessowithitsownseed."33"IfHeavenandEarthhadnointention,thenacowwouldgivebirthtoahorseandpeachflowerswouldblossomonplumtrees.
However,theyeachhavetheirownstipulations."34Itisthis"seed,"this"stipulation,"whichhascausedthemanymanifestations.
ZhuXi'stheoryof"theprincipleisone,butthemanifestationsaremany"isanimportantcomponentofhisphilosophyofnature.Itelucidatestherelationshipbetween
theentityanditsvariousramifications,betweentheuniverseandallcreation,andbetweentheoneprincipleandtheprinciplefoundineachandeverybeing.The
theoryisoriginatedfromthetheoryofprincipleandmanifestationpreachedbytheHuayanvSchoolofBuddhism.Itisofimportanttheoreticalsignificanceinthehistory
oftheNeoConfucianismoftheSongandMingdynasties(13681644).
MovementofTransformationandNourishment
"Movementoftransformationandnourishment"(huayuliuxingw),otherwisetermedmovementofthePrincipleofHeaven(tianliliuxingx),signifiestheoperatingof
thePrincipleofHeaventobringallthingsintoexistence.IntheDaxuehuoweny(QuestionsandanswersontheGreatLearning)ZhuXisaid,"AsIamtold,allare
objectsthatpossesssound,colorandshape,andareproducedandbroughtintobeingthroughtheoperationoftheHeavenlyWay"(2:10a).TheHeavenlyWayisthe
PrincipleofHeaven,ortheWaywhichisabovetherealmofcorporeality.By"objects"ismeantallcreation,allthebeingsthatpossesssound,color,andshapeand
thatinhabittheuniverse.TheWay,whichisabovetherealmofcorporeality,operates,producingandbringingintobeingallobjectsintheworld.

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WhyisitthattheoperationofthePrincipleofHeavencanproduceandbringintobeingallcreation?TheQuestionsandAnswersontheGreatLearningprovides
thefollowinganswer:
TheHeavenlyWayisabletocreatethemyriadthingsinitsoperationsofproducingandnourishingbecausethereareyinandyangandtheFiveAgents.Withregardtoyinand
yangandtheFiveAgents,theremustbeprinciplebeforethereismaterialforce.Whenthingsareproduced,thematerialforcemustfirstintegratebeforeaformiscreated.
Therefore,whenmanisborn,hemustfirstbebestowedwiththeprinciplesothathewillpossessthenatureofstrengthandobedienceandthoseofhumanity,righteousness,
propriety,andwisdom.35Hemustalsobebestowedwithmaterialforcebeforehewillpossessinhispersonaspirit(orsoul),theviscera,andtheskeleton.ThisisjustwhatZhou
Zicalled"whentherealityoftheUltimateofNonbeingandtheessenceofyinandyang,andtheFiveAgentscomeintomysteriousunion,integrationensues."36

Hereisdiscussedthelawbywhichmankindandanimalsandplantscomeintobeing.AccordingtoZhuXi,whenthematerialforcesofyinandyangandtheFive
Agentsgathertogetherandcoagulate,thefiguresandbodiesofmankindandanimalsandplants,andthemind,theviscera,andtheskeletonofanimalsareformed.As
materialforceaccompaniesprinciple,asmaterialforcegathersandcoagulatesinthecreationofmanandthings,itmusthavebeenendowedatthesametimewith
principle,andpossessstrengthandobedienceaswellashumanity,righteousness,propriety,andwisdom.Andso,movementoftransformationandnourishmentor
movementofthePrincipleofHeavenmeanssimplythatthematerialforcesofyinandyangandtheFiveAgentsaccompanyprincipleinproducingandbringinginto
beingallcreationintheuniverse.
Forthesameconcept,ZhuXisometimesusedanotherexpression,"movementofmaterialforceintransformation"(qihualiuxingz).CommentingontheBookof
Mencius,6A:8,onthebeautifultreesonOxMountaininhisMengzijizhuaa(CollectedcommentariesontheBookofMencius)ZhuXinotes,"Thematerialforce
operatestotransformandnourishwithoutevenstopping,andsoobjectskeepgrowingdayandnight."Thisistosaythattheuninterruptedoperationofthematerial
forcesofyinandyangandtheFiveAgentsisthebasisforallcreation(treesonOxMountain)tokeepgrowingdayandnight.
"Movementoftransformationandnourishment"signifiestheuninterruptedmovementoftheuniverse.ZhuXi'scommentintheCollectedCommentariesonthe
Analects,9:16,reads,"Theoperationoftheuniversegoesonwithoutamoment'sinterruptionnosooneristhepastgonethanthecominghasarrivedtocontinuethe
movement.SuchisthefundamentalnatureoftheessenceoftheWay.Thebestexamplethatcanbothbedesignatedandeasilyseenistheflowofastream.Therefore,
Confuciusmadeuseofittogivehisinstruction,callingonscholarsalwaystoscrutinizeandreflectintheirheartswithoutamoment'sinterruption."Followingthis,Zhu
XicitedChengYi:

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"ThisistheessenceoftheWay.Heavenoperatesceaselessly.Whenthesungoesdown,themoonrises.Winterpassesbyandsummerfollows.Thestreamflows
continuously.Objectscomeintobeingwithnoend.AllthesetaketheWayfortheiressence,andareinmotiondayandnightwithoutstop.Andso,thesuperiorman
takesthisforhismodelandmakesceaselesseffortstoaspireafterthesublime."
ZhuXitooktheconstantmovementoftheuniverseandallcreationfortheinnatefunctionoftheessenceoftheWayofNature,thatis,fortheinnatefunctionofthe
PrincipleofHeaven.ZhuXi'sthinkingwouldbeveryclosetomaterialismifthiscommentcouldbestrippedoftheidealistsystemofhistheoryofthePrincipleof
Heaven.However,thesewordsweresaidwithinthecontextofhissystemofhistheoryofthePrincipleofHeaven.The"Way"inthefundamentalnatureoftheessence
ofthe"Way"isakindofHeavenlyPrinciplesuspendedintheair,notalawabstractedfromtheobjectiveworld.ThesediscoursesofZhuXiandChengYiare
actuallyforcingconjecturesofthePrincipleofHeavenonthemovementofthetrueessenceoftheuniverseandallcreation.Suchasystemisinvertedmaterialism.
ThepurposeofthesetheoriesofChengYiandZhuXiistoborrowthesocalledunceasingmovementintherealmofNaturetogivetheinstructionthatsuperiormen
shouldmodelthemselvesonNatureandmakeconstanteffortstoaspireafterthesublime."Scholarsshouldalwaysscrutinizeandreflectintheirheartswithouta
moment'sinterruption."TheyshouldceaselesslyperceiveintheirinnerheartsthePrincipleofHeaven.
TheultimatepurposeofrecognizingthetransformationoftheuniverseistorequiretheindividualtohavethePrincipleofHeavenoperatingwithinhisinnerheartsothat
hewill"beatpeacewiththeworldandflowinthesamecurrentwithallcreationandtheuniverse."AcommentinhisCommentontheAnalects,11:25,about
ConfucianpupilsZilu,abZengXi,acRanYou,adandGongxiHuaaesittingbytheMasterreads,"ZengDianaf37holdsthatHeaven'sprincipleoperatesatthepointwhen
[selfish]humandesiresarecompletelyeradicated.Itsaturateseverywhere,leavingnoemptyspace....Suchapersonhaspeaceinhisinnerbosomandisabletoflow
inthesamecurrentwithallcreationandtheuniverse."Upward,allcreationandtheuniverseflowinthePrincipleofHeaven.Downward,theinnerheartsofmenflow
alsointhePrincipleofHeaven.Thatiswhatismeantby"flowingupwardanddownwardinthesamecurrent."Whenhumandesiresarecompletelyeradicated,their
subjectiveworldwillbesaturatedfullywiththePrincipleofHeavenandflowinthesamecurrentwithallcreationandtheuniverseoftheobjectiveworld.Thisisa
mysteriousrealm,elusiveanddifficulttoappreciate.
Howcanthisbeachieved?ZhuXimaintainedthatitdependson"tacitunderstanding."HisCommentaryontheDoctrineoftheMean,chapter32,reads,"The
virtueofthesageisextremehonestyandfreedomfromfalsehood.Heisintacitunderstandingwiththetransformationandnourishmentoftheuniversebecauseofhis
extremehonestyandfreedomfromfalsehood,

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whichisnotrestrictedtowhathehasgainedfromhearingandseeinginperson."AccordingtoZhuXi,thesageisabletoreachatacitunderstandingwiththework
andfunctionoftheuniversebyvirtueofhisextremehonestyandfreedomfromfalsehood,whichrealizesentirelyhisnatureunmixedwiththeleastbitofthehypocrisy
ofhumandesires.Andwherehumandesiresarecompletelyeradicated,thePrincipleofHeavenwillprevail.Likewise,the"transformationandnourishingofthe
universe"intheobjectiveworldisalso"extremelyhonestanduncontaminatedbyfalsehood."Andsinceboththesubjectiveandtheobjectiveare"extremelyhonest
andfreefromfalsehood,"itisbutnaturalthatatacitunderstandingoccurs.Suchanunderstanding,existingaboveandbeyondtheworldofthesensesandindependent
ofwhatcanbeseenorheard,issomethingmysterious,visionaryandnonexistent.TheoriginofthistheorycanbetracedtothecreedofHuayenthattheprincipleand
thephenomenonidentifytacitlyanddonotdifferfromeachother.38
Further,ZhuXi'stheoryoftheoperationofthePrincipleofHeavenstressesthathumanethicsandpracticecannotdepartfromthisoperationofthePrincipleof
Heaven.HesaidinhisQuestionsandAnswersontheDoctrineoftheMean,chapter2,
TheoperationoftheWayisfoundbetweenheavenandearthitisomnipresent.Above,itisfoundinthekite'sapproachingtheskyinitsflightbelow,itisfoundinthefish's
leapingoutofthedeep.Intheworldofman,itisfoundinhisdailypracticeandhisrelationshipswithhisfellowbeings,inwhatcanbelearnedandpracticedbetweenhusband
andwifeyetnotnecessarilyknownordonebythesage.Onecansaythatallthese,whicharefoundbetweenheavenandearth,arequiteconspicuous.

Insum,thetheoryoftheoperationofthePrincipleofHeavenmaintainsthatmanmustpracticeintrospectionandselfscrutinyinhisdailypracticeandrelationships
withhisfellowmentoeradicatecompletelyhumandesiressothatthesamePrincipleofHeavenwilloperatewithinhim.
ZhuXi'stheoryofthetransformationandnourishmentofthePrincipleofHeavenisrelatedtohistheoryontheformationoftheuniverseinhistheoryofthePrincipleof
Heaven,andconstitutesanimportantpartofhisphilosophyofNature.Itcomplementsthetheoryofoneprinciplewithmanymanifestations.Thetheoryofthe
transformationandnourishmentofthePrincipleofHeavenelucidatesthecomingintobeingoftheuniverse,whilethetheoryofoneprinciplewithmanymanifestations
elucidatestherelationshipbetweenthetotalityandtheramifications.AcleardescriptionofthetwoprovidesuswithalucidsketchofthebasiccontentsofZhuXi's
philosophyofNature.
NoStartingPointforActivityandTranquillityandNoBeginningforYinandYang
ChengYisaidinhisJingshuo(ExplanationoftheClassics),"Thereisnostartingpointforactivityandtranquillityandnobeginningforyinand

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39

yang. OnlyhewhoknowstheWaycanrecognizeit."ZhuXisystematizedanddevelopedChengYi'stheory.ClassifiedConversationsreadsasfollows:
Question:ThereareactivityandtranquillityintheGreatUltimate.Whichofthetwoprecedestheother?
Answer:Thereareendlesscyclesformovementandquietude.Therewouldbenotranquillitywithoutmovement,andnomovementwithouttranquillity.Thisisjustlikethebreath
ofmanwhichgoesoninandoutatalltimes.Breathinginstartswhenbreathingoutends.Breathingoutstartswhenbreathinginends.Thisisjustasitshouldbe.40

ZhuXifurthersaid,
TheGreatUltimatethroughmovementgeneratesyang,andthroughquietudegeneratesyin.Itisnotthecasethatyangisproducedaftermovementandyinaftertranquillity.It
onlymeansthatthemovementoftheGreatUltimateitselfisyangandthetranquillityoftheGreatUltimateitselfisyin.Whenitmoves,tranquillityisnotseen,andwhenitisquiet,
activityisnotseen.However,tosaythatmovementgeneratesyangisjustbywayofdescribingthecirclesincethereisanotherlinkbeforemovementandyang.Fromthisitcan
readilybeseenwhatChengYimeantwhenhesaid"nostartingpointforactivityandtranquillityandnobeginningforyinandyang."41

Againhesaid,
Whenitisnotmoving,itistranquilwhenitisnottranquil,itismovingagainwhenitisnotmoving,itistranquilagain.Yichuansaid,"Nostartingpointforactivityand
tranquillityandnobeginningforyinandyang.OnlyhewhoknowstheWaycanrecognizeit."Whenactivityreachesitslimit,thentranquillitycomesintobeing.When
tranquillityreachesitslimit,thenactivityresumesinitscourse....Asamatteroffact,beforeactivitythereexiststranquillitybeforetranquillity,activitygoeson.Thisisjustlike
thesituationwhendaytimehaspassedaway,nightensues.Afternighthaspassedaway,thedaytimeoftomorrowwillcome.Thatistosay,thereisnightbeforedaytimetoday,
andthereisdaytimebeforelastnight.42

TheideaofnostartingpointforactivityandtranquillityandnobeginningforyinoryangexpoundedinYichuan'sremarksthesocalledinitialthrustandthesocalled
beginningoftheuniverse.IntheMiddleAgesofChina,thiswasveryvaluablethinking.Thisthinkingiscertainlynotunrelatedtotheconceptsofyinandyangandof
activityandtranquillityaspresentedbyZhouDunyiinhis"ExplanationoftheDiagramoftheGreatUltimate,"buttheformerwasclearerthanthelatter.Inhisanalysis
ZhuXiobviouslyintegratedChengYi'sthinkingwithZhouDunyi's,believingthatChengYi'sthinkingconformedwiththelatteritinheritedandgeneralizedthetheories
ofyinandyangandactivityandtranquillityexpressedinthe"ExplanationoftheDiagramoftheGreatUltimate."ThisisacontributionofZhuXiinthehistory

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ofthedevelopmentofNeoConfucianism.ItalsorevealshispainstakingeffortstolinkthethinkingofZhouDunyiandChengYi.
ThefollowingpointscanbededucedfromZhuXi'sdiscourse:
1.Movementhasnosocalledinitialbeginning."Beforemovementthereexiststranquillityandbeforetranquillity,activitygoeson."Fromactivitytotranquillityendless
cyclesrepeatthemselves.Thereforewesaythat"thereisnostartingpointforactivityortranquillity."Activityandtranquillityarethemovement.
2.Activityandtranquillityarenotisolatedfromeachother."Therewouldbenotranquillitywithoutmovementandnomovementwithouttranquillity."Thisisjustlike
materialforce.Breathinginstartswhenbreathingoutexpires.Breathingoutstartswhenbreathinginexpires.Theycannotbearbitrarilydividedintotwo.
3.Yinandyangarematerialforcesandhavenobeginning.TheGreatUltimatepossessestheprincipleofactivity,whichproducesyang,andtheprincipleof
tranquillity,whichproducesyin.ThattheGreatUltimatethroughmovementproducesyangandthroughtranquillityproducesyindoesnotmeanthatitproducesyang
afterithasmovedandproducesyinafterithasbecometranquil.Activityisyang,andtranquillityyin.Thus,yinandyang,activityandtranquillity,arenotseparated.
Sincethereisnostartingpointforactivityandtranquillity,sothereisnobeginningforyinandyang.
4.TheGreatUltimateistheoriginalfundamentalprinciple(PrincipleofHeaven),andactivityandtranquillityarethemechanismundertakenbyit.Theexistenceof
activityandtranquillityinthematerialforcesofyinandyangoriginatesfromactivityandinactivityoftheGreatUltimate.
5.Thereismovementbeforetranquillityandtranquillitybeforemovement.Tracingbackward,thereisnobeginning.Tracingforwardtothefathomlessfuture,therewill
benoending.
IfwetakeZhuXi'smaterialforcesofyinandyangassubstance,andactivityandtranquillityasmovement,thenhistheoryofactivityandtranquillityhavingnostarting
pointandyinandyanghavingnobeginninghastouchedupontheproblemoftherelationshipbetweenmovementandsubstance.Movementistheformofthe
existenceofsubstance.Itisanextremelyimportantandindispensablecharacteristicofsubstance.Theworldisaneternallymovingsubstance.Thesourceof
movementliesinthesubstanceitself.ButZhuXibelievedthatboththetransformationandtheriseandfallofyinandyanghavenoending.Thisisaneternaland
unfailingtruth.ThesourceofmovementofyinandyangliesinthatthereareactivityandtranquillityintheprincipleoftheGreatUltimate.ZhuXisaid,
TheGreatUltimateisnothingotherthanprinciple,andyinandyangarematerialforces.Principledoesnottakeform,butmaterialforceleavestraces.Sincethereareactivityand
tranquillitynow,howcantheprincipleoftheGreatUlti

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matenotbeinvestedwithactivityandtranquillity?IformerlyperceivedtheGreatUltimateassubstance,andactivityandtranquillityasfunction.Thereareflawsinthisexpression
andIhavelatelychangedtosay:TheGreatUltimateisthewonderasitisoriginally,andactivityandtranquillityarethemechanismthroughwhichitoperates.Suchadescription
maybeapproximatelytothepoint.43

Thefirsthalfoftheabovepassageiscomparativelywellwrittenandclear,andshineswiththebeamsoftruthofmaterialism.Butthesecondhalfisdifficultto
understand,andtheexpression"activityandtranquillityarethemechanismthroughwhichitoperates"isratherobscure.ZhuXiwantedtoattributetothemovementof
yinandyangtheinevitabilityofthePrincipleofHeaven,butthisprincipletranscendssubstance,time,andspace,andisonlya"clean,emptyandspaciousworld."So
heagainturnedtowardidealism.ThisisthetragedyinwhichZhuXi'stheorysankintothemireofobjectiveidealism.
Inthefieldofphilosophyofnature,ZhuXielaboratedhistheoryofthePrincipleofHeaven,whichembracestheconceptsdiscussedabovesuchastherelationship
betweenprincipleandmaterialforce,principlebeingonebutitsmanifestationsmany,movementoftransformationandnourishment,nostartingpointforactivityand
tranquillity,nobeginningforyinandyang,andsoon.InsodoingheaimedatrenderingNatureintothePrincipleofHeaven.
ZhuXiclaimedthatfeudalmoralcodes,rites,music,andjusticeallcamefromthePrincipleofHeaven.Forinstance,inthefieldofethicalrelationsZhuXimaintained
thatmoralcodes,suchasfilialpietyandloveforbrothers,comefrom"theprincipleofwhatshouldbe"inone'snature.Andfeudalrites,music,andjusticeresultfrom
embellishing,tailoring,andfabricatingthe"principleofwhatshouldbe,"andthusalsoarisefromthePrincipleofHeaven.ZhuXithussubsumedtheyokeoffeudalism
withinhisPrincipleofHeaven.InthesociopoliticalfieldZhuXialsoappliedthePrincipleofHeaventoexplainhistoricaldevelopmentandcontemporaryhuman
society.ThisistheentirecontentofZhuXi'sPrincipleofHeaven.
ZhuXisaid,
Thereisonlythisoneprincipleintheuniverse.Beingendowedwithit,heavenbecomestheheavenbeingendowedwithit,earthbecomestheearth.Whenthosewhichexist
betweenheavenandearthareendowedwithit,theytakeitfortheirnature.Withmankind,itisextendedtobecometheThreeBonds(sangangag)theproperrelationsbetween
rulerandministers,betweenfatherandson,andbetweenhusbandandwifeandregulatedtobecometheFiveConstantVirtues(wuchangah)[humanity,righteousness,
propriety,wisdom,andfaithfulness].Alltheseconstitutethemovementofthisprinciplewhichisfoundeverywhere.Comingandgoing,ebbingandsurging,itkeepsonmovingin
endlesscyclesfromthetimewhennothingexisted,uptothetimewhenmankindvanishesandobjectsareexhaustedallthewhileanendisalwaysfollowedbyabeginninganda
beginningbyanendwithoutanyinterruption.Sinceschol

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arshavealreadybeenendowedwiththisprincipleintheiroriginalhearts,thenamoment'snegligencewillnotbetoleratedbetweeninteriorandexteriorandbetweenfinenessand
coarseness.Theyshouldcultivatetheirownmoralcharacterandguideothers,serveasmodelsfortheworldandinstitutedoctrinetoteachotherswithoutallowingtheleastbitof
selfishnessorhypocrisy.Thereforebydintofthisnaturalprinciple,theywillnaturallyaccomplishthelast.Thus,theyareinapositiontostandinlinewithHeavenandEarthand
participateintransformationandnourishment.Accordinglynotasingleobject,obscureorconspicuous,largeorsmall,isleftuncaredfor.44

Theprincipleisthebasisoftheuniverseandallcreation.ItisalsothebasisofhumansocietyandtheThreeBondsandFiveConstantVirtues.Selfcultivation,guiding
others,servingasmodelsandestablishingschoolstoteachmoralcodes,andpoliticsallarebasedonthis"PrincipleofNature(Tianai)(PrincipleofHeaven),
wherebytheworkofNatureisaccomplished.Principleisthesolebasisoftheuniverseandallcreation.Humansocietyisalsoembracedintheuniverseandall
creationandissubjecttothecontrolofthisprinciple.Ifscholarswillabidebythis"PrincipleofNature"tofulfillthe"workofNature,"theywillbeabletorealize"the
grandeuroftheentireprincipleintheuniverse"through"standinginlinewithHeavenandEarthandparticipatingintransformationandnourishment.''
ZhuXi'sTheoryofNature
TheNatureofManandtheNatureofThings
ZhuXiholdsthatnature(xingaj)isthePrincipleofHeavenembodiedinalllivingthings,suchasgrassandtrees,birdsandanimals,insectsandmankind.ThePrinciple
ofHeavenbestowedbyHeaventoalllivingthingsistheprincipletheydependonforliving.InhisCollectedCommentariesontheBookofMencius,4b:26,hesaid,
"Natureistheprincipleonwhichmankindandthingsdependforliving."Mankindandthingsareoftwodifferentcategories.Thingsrefertobirds,animals,andinsects,
withgrassandtreessometimesincluded,sometimesnot.
ZhuXiheldthatnatureistheprinciplebywhichmankindandthingscanliveinthisrespectmankindisnodifferentfromthings.Forinstance,mankindandobjectsare
similarinphysicalfunctionslikeconsciousnessandmovement.Yetintermsofsocialmorality,thenatureofmankindandthatofthingsarenotsimilarinallrespects.In
commentingon6A:3,ZhuXisaid,
NatureistheprinciplemankindhasacquiredfromHeaven.Lifeisthebreath(qiak)mankindhasacquiredfromHeaven.Naturereferstowhatexistedbeforephysicalform,and
materialforcereferstowhatexistsafterphysicalform.Incomingintobeing,manandthingsareallimbuedwithsuchnatureandsuchmaterialforce.Intermsofmaterialforce,man
andthingsarenotdifferentin

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consciousnessandmovement.Intermsofprinciple,couldthingsbefullyendowedwithallthehumanity,righteousness,propriety,andwisdom?Thatiswhythenatureofmanis
alwaysperfectandwhymanisthemostintelligentofallcreatures.NowGaozial45didnotknowthatnatureisprincipleandtriedtoreplaceitwithmaterialforce.Hemerelyknew
thatininnateconsciousnessandmovementmanandthingsaresimilarbutdidnotknowthatinthepurityofhumanity,righteousness,propriety,andwisdommanandthingsare
different.

InthiscommentZhuXidemonstrates,byopposingprincipletomaterialforce,thesimilarityanddifferencebetweenthenatureofmankindandofthings.Asinnate
endowment,natureconsistsoftwofactors:principleandmaterialforce.Manreceivesacompleteendowmentofprinciplewhereasbirds,animals,andinsectsdonot.
Thereforemanhascomprehensivelyacquiredtheessenceofvirtue,namely,humanity,righteousness,propriety,andwisdom,whilebirds,animals,andinsectshavenot
acquiredthemcompletely.Thismarksthedifferencebetweenthenatureofmankindandthatofthings.Thereisnodifferencebetweentheendowmentofmaterial
forceinmankindandinbirds,animals,andinsects.Thus,ininnateconsciousnessandmovement,theunderstandingofmankindissimilartothatofbirds,animals,and
insects.Mankindhasconsciousnessandmovement,whichbirds,animals,andinsectsalsoshare.ThisisthecoreofZhuXi'stheoryofnature.
Similarstatementscanbefoundinhiscommenton4B:19:
Manandthings,incomingintobeingsimilarlyacquiretheprincipleofHeavenandEarthtoconstitutetheirnature,andsimilarlyacquirethematerialforceofHeavenandEarthto
constitutetheirphysicalforms.Thedifferenceliesinthatmanalonehasacquiredthecorrectmaterialforceandphysicalformandiscapableofrenderingperfecthisnature.Thisis
wheremanissomewhatdifferent.Althoughthedifferenceissomewhatsmall,yetthedistinctionbetweenmanandthingsreallylieshere.

ZhuXimaintainsthatmankindandmaterialobjectsaresimilarin"acquiringtheprincipleofHeavenandtakingitfortheirownnature"and"acquiringthematerialforce
ofHeavenandtakingitfortheirphysicalform."Thedifferencebetweenthemliesinthatwhilemanhasacquiredthepositiveofmaterialforceforphysicalform,andis
thereforecapableofrenderingperfecthisnature,birdsandanimalshavenot,andthereforearenotcapableofrenderingperfecttheirnature.Thisiswheremankind
andobjectsaredifferent.TheClassifiedConversationscontainspassagesthatcorroboratethisview.Forinstance,beesandants"observejusticebetweenrulers
andsubjects."''Thisisonlybecausethereisonepointoflightintheir'righteousness.'"Tigersandwolves"observetheparentallovebetweenfathersandsons.""Thisis
onlybecausethereisonepointoflightintheir'humanity.'"Inthemotherpointsofvirtuesareentirelyabsent."Thisislikenedtoamirror.Withtheexceptionofonly
oneortwopointsoflight,allotherplacesonitssurface

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46

aredark." Thisistosaythatthehumanity,righteousness,propriety,andwisdomofbirds,animals,andinsectsareallpartialandincomplete.Onlymankindcanhave
allthesevirtuesandattainperfectioninnature.
Inaclasssocietyhumannatureisofaclassnature.Humanity,righteousness,propriety,andwisdomareclassvirtues.Inhisdiscourseonnature,ZhuXitookthe
differencebetweenman'sacquisitionofclassvirtuessuchashumanity,righteousness,propriety,andwisdom,andtheacquisitionofthesevirtuesbybirds,animals,and
insects,asdifferencesincompletenessofendowment.Obviouslyhisexplanationiswrong.
WorthyofnoteisthatZhuXidescribedheretheinfluenceofprincipleandmaterialforceuponhumannature.HedevelopedZhangZai'stheoryofthenatureof
Heavenandthephysicalnature.WeshouldnotunderestimatethetremendousinfluenceonhumanethicsandeducationwhichZhuXi'sthoughtsonthesemattershad
uponsubsequentgenerations.
ExpansionofZhangZai'sNatureofHeavenandPhysicalNature
ZhangZaidiscussedthenatureofHeavenandthephysicalnatureinZhengmengam(Correctingyouthfulignorance).Inthechapter"EnlightenmentResultingfrom
Sincerity"(Chengmingpianan)hewrote,"Onlywithphysicalformistherephysicalnature.Ifonecanskillfullyreturntohisnature,thenatureofHeavenandEarthwill
bepreserved.So,menofvirtuewilldenythatthephysicalnatureistheoriginalnature."
ChengYiandZhuXiespeciallyapprovedZhangZai'sstatementaboutthenatureofHeavenandthephysicalnature.ChengYisaid,"Todiscussnaturebutnot
materialforcewillnotbecomplete.Todiscussmaterialforcebutnotnaturewillnotbeclear.Itisnotcorrecttoseparatethetwo."47ZhuXifurtherexplainedthis
conceptinaccordancewithChengYi'scomment.
Ifweonlysaythathumanity,righteousness,propriety,andwisdomarenature,howcanweexplainthattherearemanywhoareborndeprived?Thisismerelyduetothe
endowmentofmaterialforce.So,ifwedonottakeintoconsiderationmaterialforce,theargumentwillnotbecomprehensive.Hence,itisnotcompleteifweonlytalkaboutthe
endowmentofmaterialforce,thatsoandsoisgoodandsoandsoisevil,butdonottalkabouttheoneoriginwhichisthesameprinciple,ortheargumentwillnotbeclear.48

ZhuXimaintainedthatsinceZhangZaiandChengYi"discoveredthenatureofmaterialforce,"they"madeatremendouscontributiontotheConfucianSchooland
wereofgreathelptolaterscholars."49
ZhuXiapparentlydevelopedhisthinkingonthePrincipleofHeavenandthematerialforceofHeavenfromZhangZai'snatureofHeavenandthenatureofmaterial
force.InhisCollectedCommentariesontheFourBooks,ZhuXistated,"NatureistheprincipleofHeaven."AcommentinhisCollectedCommentariesonthe
BookofMencius,6A:2,reads,"Natureistheprincipleof

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Heavenithasneverbeenevil."Againhesaidin6A:1,"NatureisthePrincipleofHeavenwithwhichmankindhasbeenendowedinlife."Acommentin7A:4says,
"Largethingsliketherelationshipbetweenrulersandsubjects,andfatherandson,smallthingslikefineandtinythings,areallfurnishedwiththeprincipleofwhatthey
shouldbewithintheirnature."Acommentin6B:2reads,"Withinthenature,themyriadprinciplesareembodied.''ZhuXireiteratedhisargument:"Humannatureis
noneotherthanthePrincipleofHeaven."HeinheritedMencius'theoryofthegoodnessofhumannature.ThisisagainadevelopmentofthetheoryofthetwoChengs
that"natureisnoneotherthanthePrincipleofHeaven"andofZhangZai'sbeliefthatitis"thenatureofHeavenandEarth"andthat"natureisgoodineveryone."
Startingfromthistheory,theconclusioncanbedrawnthat"lettingnatureworkonitsownisfollowingtheprincipleofHeaven."AgaininhisDaxuezhangjuao
(CommentaryontheGreatLearning)ZhuXicalledthe"natureofHeaven"the"naturefromHeaven'smandate,"whichisa"commandfromHeaven,"thusattributing
asacredcharactertothenatureofman.
ZhangZaimaintainedthatonewoulddowelltofightagainstphysicalnature.Thisistosay,oneshouldapplyselfcultivationtorestorethenatureofHeavenfrom
physicalnatureconsequentlythesaying"Astophysicalnature,therearecaseswhengentlemendonottakeitasnature."
ZhuXi,however,recognizedthenatureofmaterialforceasnatureandofferedmanyargumentstosustainhisview.Menwereclassifiedintofourcategoriesin
Analects16:9:thosewhoarebornwithknowledge,thosewholearntogetknowledge,thosewholearnwhentheyarehardpressed,andthosewhodonotlearneven
whentheyarehardpressed.Commentingonthis,ZhuXisaid,"Thesefourcategoriesofmenderivefromthedifferenceintheirphysicalnature."Heattributedthis
classificationtothedifferencesinphysicalnature.PhysicalnaturesignifiesthephysicalnatureofHeavenandEarth.Itwasalsosaidthatyinandyangarethematerial
forceandtheFiveAgentsarephysicalstuff.Man'sspiritualcharacterandbehavioraredeterminedbyyinandyangandtheFiveAgentstheyareendowedwith.Those
whoarecompletelyequippedwiththeFiveAgentsandwithharmonizedyinandyangwillbecomesages.Ifamanlackssomeofthesethings,hisspiritualcharacter
andbehaviorwillnotbeproper.TherearedetailedexplanationsofthispointinhisClassifiedConversations.
Natureisprincipleonly.However,withoutthematerialforceandphysicalstuffoftheuniverse,principlewouldhavenothinginwhichtoinhere.Whenmaterialforceisreceivedin
itsstateofcleannessandclearness,therewillbenoobscurityorobstruction,andprinciplewillexpressitselffreely.ThePrincipleofHeavenwilldominateiftheobstructionis
small,andselfishdesirewilldominateiftheobstructionisgreat.Fromthisweknowthatoriginalnatureisperfectlygood...Itisonlysometimesblurredbytheturbidsubstance
ofthephysicalnature.50

ZhuXiadded,

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Thenatureofallmenisgood,andyettherearethosewhoaregoodfromtheirbirthandthosewhoareevilfromtheirbirth.Thisisbecauseofthedifferenceinmaterialforcewith
whichtheyareendowed.Whenthesunandmoonareclearandbrightandtheclimatetemperateandreasonable,themanbornatsuchatimeandendowedwiththematerialforce
thatisclear,bright,wellblended,andstrong,wouldbeagoodman.Butifthesunandmoonaredarkenedandgloomy,andthetemperatureabnormal,allthisisevidenceofviolent
materialforce.Thereisnodoubtthatifamanisendowedwithsuchmaterialforce,hewillbeabadman.Sincemynatureseemstobegood,whyisitthatIhavenotbeenableto
becomeasageandamanofvirtue?ItisbecausethatIhavebeenimpairedbythismaterialforceIhavebeenendowedwith.Iftheendowedmaterialforceinclinestowardbeing
sturdy,thenIwilltendtobetough.Ifitinclinestowardbeingsoft,thenIwilltendtobeirresolute....Wemustknowtheharmdonebyendowedmaterialforceandtryourbestto
overcomeit.Itisadvisabletosuppresstheaggressivenessandstopatthemean.51

Hesaidmoreover,
Thoseendowedwithrefinedandbrilliantmaterialforcewillbecomesagesandmenofvirtue,andwillbeenabledtoacquireacomprehensiveandcorrectprinciple.Thoseendowed
withclearandbrightmaterialforcewillbecometalentedandforthright.Thoseendowedwithsimpleandrichmaterialforcewillbecomemild.Thoseendowedwithpureandlofty
materialforcewillbecomenoble.Thoseendowedwithfullandthickmaterialforcewillbecomerich.Thoseendowedwithlonglastingmaterialforcewilllivelong.Thoseendowed
withthinandturbidmaterialforcewillbecomefoolish,unworthy,poor,humble,andshortlived.52

Hesaidfurther,
Althoughnatureisthesameinallmen,itisinevitablethatinmostcasesthevariouselementsintheirmaterialendowmentareunbalanced.InsomementhematerialforceofWood
predominates.Insuchcases,thefeelingofcommiserationisgenerallyuppermost,butthefeelingofshameanddislike,ofdeferenceandcompliance,andofrightandwrongare
impededbythepredominatingforceanddonotemanateintoaction.Inothers,thematerialforceofMetalpredominates.Insuchcases,thefeelingofshameanddislikeisgenerally
uppermost,buttheotherfeelingsareimpededanddonotemanateintoaction.SowiththematerialforcesofWaterandFire.Itisonlywhenyinandyangareharmonizedandthe
FiveMoralNatures[ofHumanity,Righteousness,Propriety,Wisdom,andGoodFaith]areallcompletethatmenhavethequalitiesoftheMeanandcorrectnessandbecomesages
andmenofvirtue.53

AccordingtoZhuXi'stheory,thenatureofHeaven(naturefromHeavenlymandate)determinesthatthenatureofmankindshouldbeperfectlygood.Yetbecauseof
theendowmentofmaterialforce,therewillbegoodandevil.Moreover,thefirmnessandsoftnessofmenisalsoinfluencedbymaterialforce.Likewiseiswisdomand
stupidity,highandlowstation,longevityand

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shortlife.Materialforceinfluencestemperament,intelligence,socialstatus,andthelifespanofmen.Weatherconditionsandthestateofthesunandmoonatthetime
ofbirthandthedispositionofyinandyangandtheFiveAgentsconstitutetheconditionsunderwhichmenreceivetheendowmentofHeaven.Theseaffectcertain
aspectsofmenaswellastheirwholelives.Thisassertionisinnowaydifferentfromthehumbugofafortuneteller.OnecommentinhisClassifiedConversationsis
moreplainanddirectinthisrespect.
Question:HowdoyouexplainthefactthatafatherlikeYaoapbegotasonlikeDanzhu,aqandafatherlikeGunarbegotasonlikeY bs?54
Answer:ThisisagainduetotheoperationofyinandyangandtheFiveAgents.Theirtransformationandmovementoftenvarysometimestheyarebrightandsometimesturbid.
Theseconditionscausehumanqualitiestovaryfrommantoman.Justlikeafortunetellerconjecturingonthefivestarsandthematerialforcesofyinandyang,ifapropitioussign
ishitupon,thecharacterofthemanortheobjectwillbegoodotherwiseitwillbeevil.Thisiscertainlybeyondthecontrolofthematerialforceofmen[meaningheredity].55

ZhuXiheldthatthequalitiesofthephysicalnatureareconnectedwithman'smaterialdesires.Hesaid,"Yangisgoodandyinisevil.Thereforeyangimpartsclearness
andbrightnessandyindarknessandturbidity.""Ifthebrightnessofyangprevails,thenthenatureofmoralitywillfinditsapplication.Iftheturbidityofyinprevails,
materialdesireswillhavetheirway.""Ifman'smindissoberandquiet,itwillnaturallybecomeclearandbright.Ifitisblurredbymaterialdesiresitwillbecomedark
andturbid."Sincematerialdesiresarethesourceofdarknessandturbidity,theirsuppressionwillbeanefforttotransformthephysicalnature.
ZhuXi'sstatementsonphysicalnatureareadevelopmentofthetheoryofhumannatureunderfeudalhierarchy.Hetriedtoattributemen'ssagacity,stupidity,
goodness,andeviltothedifferencesinendowmentofinbornmaterialforce,withaviewofexplainingthatthereareinnategroundsforstandardsofgoodandevil,and
forthejudgmentofrightandwronginfeudalsociety.IwouldliketopointoutthatZhuXi'sthesisongoodandevil,firmnessandsoftness,andotherqualitiesinhuman
naturewasinheritedfromZhouDunyi'sYitonginwhichhumannaturewasclassifiedintofivetypes:firm,soft,good,evil,andmean.56
AnotherproblemraisedbyZhuXiisthatconcerningthepureorstainedstateofhumannature.Hemaintainedthatnatureisinnatelypure,butafterithasmingledwith
miscellaneousdesiresandhabits,itcannothelpbeingstained.Therefore,itisnecessarytocleanseittorecoveritsoriginalnature.ZhuXiheldatthesametimethatthe
natureofmaterialforceisthesourceofmaterialdesires.IfthePrincipleofHeavenistobemaintained,itisnecessarytorestrainlust.Allofthisconstitutesthe
evolutionofatheoreticalbasisforZhuXi'sadvocacyofselfexaminationandselfmastery.ZhuXi'stheoryof

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naturealsoincludessuchaspectsofmindasfeeling,desire,will,aspiration,andtalents.Hisstatementscrystallizehispredecessors'theoryofhumannature,and
developthetheorytoahigherplaneintermsofdepthandprecision.
ZhuXibuiltacomprehensivesystemofNeoConfucianismcenteringonthetheoryofHeaven.HissystemembracesthetheoriesofthePrincipleofHeaven,nature,
extensionofknowledgeandinvestigationofthings,philosophyofhistory,politics,education,andthetraditionoforthodoxtransmissionoftheWay(Daotongat).
TheoriesofthePrincipleofHeavenandnaturebelongorarerelevanttocosmology.Extensionofknowledge,investigationofthings,andreverencebelongtothe
theoryofknowledgeormethodofselfcultivation.Philosophyofhistoryandeducationareapplicationsofhisphilosophicalthoughttosociopolitics,history,and
education.Thetraditionoforthodoxtransmissionseekstodefendthedominantpositionofhisphilosophicalthoughtintheideologicalfield.ZhuXi'sPrincipleof
Heavenisthecoreoftheideologicalsystemofhisphilosophy.Thetheoriesofnature,extensionofknowledge,investigationofthingsandreverencearealsovery
important.TogetherwiththePrincipleofHeaven,theseformthemainstayoftheideologicalsystemofZhuXi'sphilosophy.Thesearethecategoriesandtopicsthat
mostconcernedtheNeoConfucianistsandwereconstantlyelaboratedanddiscussedbythem.TheypermeatethewholehistoryofNeoConfucianism.
Notes
1.Zhuziyuleiau[ClassifiedconversationsofMasterZhu],(1603ed.),1:2a.
2.Ibid.,1:1b.
3.Yishuav[Survivingworks],7:3b,14:1a,18:30a,intheErhChengchuanshuaw[CompleteworksofthetwoChengs],(SPPYed.).
4.Zhuziyulei,1:1b.
5.Ibid.,1:4a.
6.Ibid.,1:2a.
7.Ibid.
8.Ibid.,1:3a.
9.Zhuziwenjiax[CollectionofliteraryworksofMasterZhu],(SPTKed.),58:5a,"InanswertoHuangDaofu."
10.Ibid.,46:26a,"InanswertoLinShuwen."
11.Ibid.,58:5a,"InanswertoHuangDaofu."
12.Ibid.,46:27a,"InanswertoLinShuwen."
13.Zhuziyulei,1:9a.
14.Ibid.,1:1a.
15.Ibid.,1:1b.
16.Ibid.,1:1a.
17.Yichuanwenjiay[CollectionofliteraryworksofChengYi],5:12a,intheErhChengchuanshu.

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18.Zhuziyulei,1:2a.
19.Ibid.,1:1b.
20.Ibid.,1:3b.
21.BookofChanges,"AppendedRemarks,"pt.1,ch.11.
22.Zhuziyulei,94:49a.
23.Ibid.,94:8a.
24.Yitong,ch.22.
25.BookofChanges,thefirsthexagram.
26.Zhuziyulei,94:11ab.
27.Zhangzichuanshuaz[CompleteworksofMasterZhang],ch.1.
28.Yichuanwenji,5:12a,"InanswertoYangShibaonthe'WesternInscription.'"
29.Zhuziyulei,98:19b.
30.Ibid.,98:20a.
31.TheGreatLearning,theAnalects,theBookofMencius,andtheDoctrineoftheMean.
32.Zhongyongzhangju,commentontheDoctrineoftheMean,ch.30.
33.Zhuziyulei,1:3b.
34.Ibid.,1:4b.
35.Strengthandobediencereferringtothefirsthexagram,qianbb(Heaven,male,strength),andthesecondhexagram,gunbc(Earth,female,weakness),oftheBook
ofChanges,andtheFourVirtuesofhumanity,etc.,aretaughtintheBookofMencius,2A:6.
36.Taijituyishuo,intheZhouZichuanshubd[CompleteworksofMasterZhou],ch.1.
37.Zilu's(c.542480B.C.)familynamewasZhongbeandprivateYou.bfNotedforcourage,hewasonlynineyearsyoungerthanConfucius.Zengxi(c.505436B.C.)
wasZengZi'sbgfather.RonYou's(c.522462)privatenamewasZiubhandcourtesynameRonji.biGongxiHua(b.c.509B.C.)wasknownbyhiscourtesyname
JihuabjandprivatenameChi.bk
38.Dazengjing,blch.45,pt.2,Huayanyichengfajietubm[DiagramoftheLawoftheGreatVehicleoftheHuayanSchool].
39.Jingshuobn[CommentaryontheClassics],1:2a,intheErhZhengchuanshu.
40.Zhuziyulei,94:6b.
41.Ibid.,94:10a.
42.Ibid.,94:10a.
43.Zhuziwenji,45:11a12a,1stletterinanswertoYangZishi.bo
44.Ibid.,70:5ab,"ReadingtheGreatHistoricalRecords."
45.Gaozi(c.420350B.C.)wasMencius'opponentinthetheoryofhumannature.Tohim,whatisinbornisnature,whichisneithergoodnorevil,andrighteousness
comesfromtheoutside.SeetheBookofMencius,6A:14.
46.Zhuziyulei,4:2b.
47.Yishu,6:2a.
48.Zhuziyulei,4:18a.
49.Ibid.
50.Ibid.,4:13a.
51.Ibid.,4:16ab.
52.Ibid.,4:26a.
53.Ibid.,4:23a.

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54.AccordingtoancientChineselegend,Yaowasanidealemperor.HebegotDanzhu,whowasaverybadman.Forthatreasonhedidnotpasshisthronetohis
sonbutaskedanableandvirtuousministerShunbptosucceedhim.Yu,asageking,wasthesonofGun,averybadfather.Hencethequestion.
55.Zhuziyulei,4:23b.
56.Yitong,ch.22.
Glossary

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10
WhatWasNewintheCh'engChuTheoryofHumanNature?
A.C.Graham
AtthetimeoftheriseofNeoConfucianismtherewasonephilosophicalproblemthathadlongobsessedConfuciansanduponwhichtheyseemeddestinedneverto
reachagreement,thegoodnessorbadnessofhumannature.Man'snaturebeingwhatheisbornwithandcandonothingabout,itmust,likeeverythingelse
independentofhiswill,betheworkofHeaveninthewordsoftheopeningsentenceoftheChungyunga(DoctrineoftheMean),"ItisthedestinedbyHeaventhat
ismeantbythe'nature.'"ShoulditnotfollowthenthatitisbyfollowinghisownnaturethatmanobeysHeaven,hishighestauthority?Ifso,eitherhumannatureis
good,ormoralityisbaseless.Howthendowereconcilethedemandformoralitywiththeevidenceofcommonexperiencethattheevilinmanisatleastasnaturalto
himasthegood?WhenMencius(372289B.C.)defendedthegoodnessofhumannatureinthelatefourthcenturyB.C,threeotherdoctrineswerealreadycurrent:that
itisneutral,canbecomegoodorbad,isgoodorbadindifferentindividuals.1InthenextcenturyHsntzub(313238B.C.)pronounceditbad.Later,YangHsiungc
(53B.C.A.D.18)thoughtitamixtureofgoodandbad.Thisprofoundlytroublingissue,athreattothefoundationsofConfucianmoralism,continuedtobediscussed,
urgentlyandfruitlessly,evenatthetimeswhenConfuciansshowedleastinterestinphilosophicalabstractions.ThusduringtheT'angdynasty(618907)HanYd
(768824)arguedthattherearethreegradesofhumannature:good,intermediate,andbadhisdiscipleLiAoe(fl.792)sidedwithMencius,TuMuf(b.803)with
Hsntzu.2
ThecontroversycontinuedrightuptotheSung,evenamongtheearlierofthoselaterclassedasNeoConfucians.ChouTunyig(10171073)treatedhumannatureas
mixed.3ChangTsaih(10201077)andCh'engHaoi(10321085)approximatedtheMenciandoctrine,butbothseemtohavesharedapositioncommonlyheldinthe
earlySung,forexamplebySuShihj(10361101)andearlyinthetwelfthcenturybyHuHungk(11061161)thatalthoughitisgoodtoactaccordingtothenature,
theterm"good"cannotproperlybeappliedtothenatureitself.4ButwithCh'engYil(10331107)somethingfundamentallynewenteredthediscussion.Indefending
thegood

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m5

nessofhumannature,heelevatedli, thepatternwhichrunsthroughallthingsandjoinsmantotheuniverse,tothecentralplaceamongConfucianconcepts,the
reinterpretedHeavenandNatureasaspectsofli.ChuHsiinheritedthisnewconceptualizationoftheMenciantheoryofhumannature,andwiththevictoryofhis
schoolitbecameConfuncianorthodoxy.Henceforth,whatevernewissuesarosetodivideConfucians,theproblemofhumannaturewasgenerallyassumedtobe
solved.
Howarewetoexplainthissuddendecisiveresolutionofacontroversythathadcontinuedwithoutresultforamilleniumandahalf?Itwouldseemthattherestatement
oftheproblemintermsofliwasaneventcomparablewiththoseparadigmshiftsthatThomasS.KuhnhasdemonstratedinthehistoryofWesternscience.6Scientists
goonarguinginconclusivelyoveraprobleminsolublewithinthecurrentconceptualframeuntil,quitesuddenly,thereisaconceptualrevolution,andtheproblemis
seenfromanewdirectionanddefinitivelysolved.Not,ofcourse,thatitissolvedforeternity,therebeingnoreasontosupposethatwecaneverreachaperfect
systemofconceptsthatfitseverythingaccordingtoKuhnascientificrevolutionmayevenreopenquestionsalreadysatisfactorilyansweredyettriumphovertheold
systembecausethequestionsitdoesenableonetoanswerarethosethatatthetimehavecometotheforefront.AWesternerinterestedinoriginalsinornatural
goodnesscanseethatConfuciansarenotdealingwithexactlythesameproblemasAugustineorRousseau,andthataChinesesolutionmightbewhollysuccessfuland
yetnotabletobetransplantedtoourownculture.ItisnonethelesspossibleforustoaskwhetherandwhytheCh'engChunsolutionwasdefinitiveinitsownterms.
Ifnothingelse,suchquestionsareofgreathelpinpenetratingtheconceptualstructuresofChinesephilosophy.
Theproblemofhumannature,andmoregenerallyoftherelationbetweenHeavenandMan,isoneoftheplaceswhereoneismostconsciousofelusivedifferences
betweenWesternandChinesepreconceptionsthatfrustrateunderstandingfromdeepdowninthefoundationsofthought.AsaWesterner,oratanyrateasaWestern
postKantian,Iexploremyownnaturebytryingtodetachmyselffromspontaneousdesiresandaversionsandtoexaminethemobjectively,asIwouldanyother
naturalphenomenon.ItrytoshrinkmyselftoapointofobservingEgo,whichisperhapsonlyafiction,butifsoseemstobeafictionnecessarytoobjectivethinking.
However,necessaryornot,MenciusandChuHsidonotseemtoshareit,ortobedoingthiskindofthinkingaboutman.Nor,ifIlookbackintomyoriginsasan
infantasspontaneousasananimal,isiteasytounderstandhowIcametobedoingsomyself.
Supposeweimagine,asthefirstdawningofobjectivethought,achildwantinganotherhelpingatdinner,rememberinghavingbeensick,andtellinghimselfwhathehas
oftenbeentoldbyhismother,"Don'toryou'llbeill."Previouslyhewouldhaveimmediatelyactedoutspontaneousimpulsenowheisbeginningtochooseinthelight
ofobjectivefactscombinedwithimperatives.Butwehavetheproblem,familiartoWesternerssinceHume,ofhow

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theimperativeseemssomehowtodrawitsauthorityfromthefactsofthecase.WhenIapplytheexampletomyself,indetachmentfrommyinfantgreedandnausea,it
isasthoughIcouldvalidlyarguelikethis.
ShallIeatitornot?
Youdon'tlikebeingsick.
Anotherhelpingwillmakeyousick.
Thereforedon'teatit.
Then,asthesituationrecurred,Icouldgeneralizetheimperativeto"Nevereattoomuch,"whichappliedtoeveryoneisequivalentto"Oneoughtnottoeattoomuch,"
andmyprudentialvaluejudgmentswouldbesafelylaunched.Thetroubleis,ofcourse,thatitisafallacytodrawanimperativeconclusionfrompurelyfactual
premises,andthenauseathatcouldhavemovedmespontaneouslytorefrainisnowdetachedfrommeinthefactualstatementthatIdon'tlikebeingsick.Toescape
thefallacyoneseemstobedriventoR.M.Hare'ssolutionthat"Youdon'tlikebeingsick"isitselfalogicalimperative("Don'tgetsick")disguisedbythegrammatically
indicativemood,aclaimwhichimpliesthatinadvancingfromspontaneitytorationalchoicethechildmysteriouslyfindshimselfconfrontedbyimperativestopursue
everygoaltowhichhealreadyspontaneouslyinclines.7
DoMenciusandChuHsilookaswedoatthesituationthatgivesrisetothispuzzle?Nowtheretrospectionthathastrappedmeinthedichotomyof"is"and"ought"is
cruciallydifferentfrommyviewingofthesituationasaninfant.Infirstwakingtothepressuresofunwelcomefact,Iwasstillbeingspontaneouslypulledbetween
nauseawhenIrememberedbeingsickanddesirewhenIforgot.Totakethestepfromspontaneitytodeliberatechoice,Iwouldhaverequiredonlyoneobjectivefact,
thatovereatingmakesmeill,andonlyoneimperative,"Facefacts,"whichwouldbegintoexertitsauthorityfromthefirstrecognitionoftheobstinateresistanceof
externalcircumstancetomydesires.Theformofmythoughtwouldhavebeensomethinglikethis:
OverlookingthefactIammovedtoeatfacingthefactIammovedto
refrain.
InwhichdirectionshallIletmyselfbemoved?
Facefacts.
Thereforeletyourselfbemovedtorefrain.
"Facefacts"isanimperativethatmoralphilosopherswouldacknowledgebutdismissastrivial,sincenoprescriptiveconclusionscanfollowmerelyfromthefactstobe
faced.Buttosupposeittrivialistoassumethehighlyartificialmodelofanideallyrationalagentwhointhinkingisnotalreadyrespondingtothesituationinwhichhe
findshimself.Inthecaseofthechild,appetiteishinderingawarenessofthefactthatwouldmovehimtorefrainto

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forcehimselftoobey"Facefacts"istolethimselfbemovedtorefrain.Sotherewerenoneoftheconsequencesthatseemedtoemergeinretrospect,nojumpfrom
"is"to"ought"andnofallacyherequirednoimperativebut"Facefacts"tochoosebetweenhisspontaneoustendencies.Itisbynomeansthecasethenthatfroman
imperativetofacefacts,preferrealitytoillusion,bewisenotfoolish,nofurtherprescriptiveconsequencescanfollow.ProvidedthatIamcontenttoappealtoreason
alonewhenconflictarisesbetweenspontaneousinclinationsalreadyinmotion,asimple"Know!''willtellmewhattodo.Ifthechildsuccumbsafteralltotemptation
anddoesgetsick,asufficientscoldingwouldbe"Yououghttohaveknownbetter"or"Youshouldhavehadmoresense."Asforgeneralizingtoastandardof
conduct,verylikelyitwouldbeintheformof"Sensiblepeopledon'teattoomuch"itwouldbeafactualgeneralizationwhichassumesimperativeforcebecausewe
cannotdenythevalueofactingsensiblyratherthanfoolishly.
ItseemsthenthatinadvancingfromspontaneousanimaltoreasoningmanIwasatfirstchoosingonlybetweenspontaneousinclinations,inthelightofanimperativeto
dealwiththingsastheyreallyare,andthatinduecourseIderivedfurtherimperativesafterthemodelof"Oneoughtnottoeattoomuch"("Sensiblepeopledon'teat
toomuch").Thesphereofreasonwasatfirstatinyislandintheoceanofthespontaneous.ItwasonlylaterthatIgottothepointofshrinkingmyselftothatidealEgo
detachedfromdesireandaversion,fromwhichreasoncanradiatetoexplainandpredicteventhespontaneousinmyself.OrdidIinfactevergettothatpoint?That
wouldbeaninterestingquestionifwewerediscussingthefoundationsofethicsingeneral.Sinceinpracticewearealwaysbeingpulledinreconcilableorconflicting
directionsbyspontaneoustendenciesthatvaryfrommomenttomomentwithfluctuatingawareness,whynotbuildanethiconone'sspontaneousreactionsin
awarenessofoneselfandexternalconditions,andsidestepthewholeproblemofgettingfrom"is"to"ought"?IndiscussingChuHsi,however,allthatmattersisthat
Westernphilosophyhasassumedthatweshouldgettothatpointofperfectobjectivityandstartagainfromzerotodevelopimperativesindependentofspontaneity,
whileinthecaseoftheChinesetraditionnothingobligesustotakeitforgranted,exceptinthemostrationalizingschools,theSophistsandLaterMohistsbeforethe
Handynasty(206B.C.A.D.220),thattheidealwouldevenbeconceivable.Itisacommonplacethatinallotherschoolsreasonispractical,confinedwithinthesame
limitsasitiswithourselvesintheconductofordinaryliferationalitydoesnot,asinWesternphilosophysincetheGreeks,expanduntilintheoryitpermeates
universally,throughoutallthatisspontaneouseveninthereasonerhimself.
MightwethinkofChinesephilosophyasatraditioninwhichreasonstillfunctionsinsidespontaneousprocess(whichisfromour"Nature"andbeyonditfrom
"Heaven"),choosingbetweenonetendencyandanother,butneverexceptperhapsinabriefepisodeabout300B.C.,expandingtopulleverythingspontaneouswithin
itsrange?Letusexplorethispossibility,put

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tingasidethequestionwhetheritwastheChineseorourselveswhogotoffonthewrongfoot.Inthefirstplace,itdoesseemtobeareasonablegeneralizationabout
moralphilosophizinginChinathatitstartsfromthespontaneousreaction.Thetermskanoandying,psooddlysimilartoPavlov's"stimulate"and"respond,"areas
prominentinConfucianismasinTaoism,fromnotlaterthanthethirdcenturyB.C.Confucians,unlikeTaoists,disciplinetheresponsebyrules,buttherulesareto
ensurethatwearenotmovedinappropriatelyortoomuchorlittle.ToquotewhatisforNeoConfuciansacrucialpassagefromtheChungyung,"Beforepleasureor
anger,grieforjoy,emerge,onespeaksofthe'Mean'when,emerging,allaccordwithmeasure,onespeaksof'Harmony.'The'Mean'istheultimaterootofthe
world,'Harmony'istheuniversalwayoftheworld."8Asfortherulesthatbringspontaneityintoaccordwithmeasure,althoughtherearewordssuchaspreverbal
tangqthatcorrespondto''ought,"thetendencyistosaynot"OneoughttodoX"but"Thegentleman/wiseman/sagedoesX."Ifonewantstoknowwhetherthe
child'sfirstruleofconductwouldbeexpressedintheform"Oneoughtnottoovereat"or"Sensiblepeopledon'tovereat,"theanswerisintheveryfirstchapterofthe
Analects:"Thegentlemanineatingdoesnotseekrepletion."9Theauthorityoftherulederivesfromthewisdomofthesageorthegentleman,whoregularlybehavesin
thismannerwhatthemanwhoknowsinfactdoes,allwhorecognizeknowledgeasbetterthanignorancemustrecognizeisbettertodo.Itwillbeobjected,perhaps,
thatthewisemanknowsnotonlywhatisbutwhatoughttobe,sothattheappealtowisdomsmugglesinotherimperativessurreptitiously.Butthatdoesnot
necessarilyfollowontheargumentwearepursuing,evenknowingwhatheoughttodowouldbereducibletoselfawarenessastohowheisinfactspontaneously
movedwhenmostawareofhiscircumstances.
Onthisapproach,thegroundsforpreferringone'sunselfishtoone'sselfishreactionswouldhavetobetheclaimthatthewisestmen,withthewidestinformation,most
balancedjudgment,deepestunderstandingofmankind,dorespondunselfishly.Theissueformoralphilosophywouldbeposedasthequestionwhythemanwho
knowsrespondstothemisfortunesofothersashedoestohisown,andbeansweredbytryingtoshowthateachindividualisinsomesenseonewithothers.Nowit
doesappearthattheChinesetraditionfollowsthisline.TheearliestformulationisperhapstheSophistHuiShih'sr(380305B.C.)tenththesis:"Lovethemyriad
creaturesindiscriminatelyheavenandearthareonebody."10Theparadoxesintheprecedingtheses,whichshowthatdividingleadstoselfcontradiction,are
apparentlyintendedasproofsthateverythingisone,sothatthemanwhoknowswillrespondtoallwiththesamelovethathefeelsforhimself.Thethemeofoneness
iscontinuedinTaoismandinNeoConfucianism,whereCh'engHaocomparesinsensitivitytootherstonumbnessinamember,individualsbeinglikelimbsofasingle
body.11Bythisanalogy,tobeselfishistorespondinignoranceofone'sunitywithothers,asthoughignoringinjurytoanumbedlimbbecauseone

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doesnotfeelit.Butinfullawarenessoftheunity,onehasonlytotrusttospontaneity."Nothinginagentleman'slearningisasimportantastobecompletelyimpartial
towardseverything,andrespondinaccordancewiththingsastheycome."12
ObviouslyIaminnopositiontodemonstratemygrandgeneralizationaboutadifferencebetweenChinaandtheWestwithinthespaceofthispaperinanycase,the
wholepointofsuchgeneralizationsistoopenupstimulatingprospectsbeforefinallysinkingundertheweightofcriticismsandqualifications.However,attheriskof
seemingtogoalongwayroundbeforereachingChuHsi,Ishallbrieflytryouttheproposalontheperiodabout300B.C.,whentheLaterMohistsontheonehandand
Chuangtzus(c.369c.256B.C.)ontheotherwerecarryingrationalismandantirationalismtotheirfarthestpointswithintheChinesetradition.TheMohistethic,which
resemblesUtilitarianismintestingallmoralprinciplesbytheirpracticaleffects,issystematizedintheCanonsoftheLaterMohistsbyderivingdefinitionsofthemoral
termsdirectlyorindirectlyfromlit'benefit'andhaiu'harm,'themselvesdependentontheundefinedyv'desire'andwuw'dislike.'13Theprocedureissimilartothatby
whichthedefinitionofthecircleisderivedbystagesfromtheundefinedjox'like'(distancesfromthecenterbeingalike),thelikenessofobjectscalledbythesame
namebeingthebasisofthenominalisttheoryofnamingintheCanons.Fromacoupleofstrayreferencestothecircleas"knownbeforehand"(hsienchiny)andto
thegoodandthebadas"whatthesagedesiresanddislikesbeforehandonbehalfofmen"(shengjensohsienweijenywuz),itappearsthattheMohistswere
quiteconsciouslytreatingsuchconceptsasderivableapriorifromthosechosenasbasicandunimpugnable.14Ingroundingtheirhighlyrationalizedethicintheactual
desiresanddislikesofmen,theMohistsseematfirstsighttoprovideanactualexampleoftheconfusionof"is"and"ought''forwhichWesternUtilitarianismis
criticized.CertainlyitistheMohists,ifanyone,whocamenearenoughtoourselvestomakethesamemistakes.ButtheCanonsdonotinfactuseanynormativeverb
comparableto"ought,"andtheyprescribethevirtuesnotaswhateveryonedesiresbutaswhatthesagedesiresonbehalfofmen.Itseemsthenthatevenforthe
Mohistsactionbeginsfromthespontaneityofdesire,andthegoodiswhatthewisestdoinfactdesire,thevalueofchoosingwiselybetweendesiresbeingtakenas
selfevident."
TurningnowtoChuangtzu,thegreatTaoistrejectsallthegroundsuponwhichConfuciansandMohistsjudgebetweengoodandbad,andrecommendsustoact
withoutpremeditationinaccordwiththeTao.aaItseemsatfirstsightthatindiscardingalltraditionalimperativeshesubstitutesanewone,"Bespontaneous."However,
cantherebeanysuchthingasarecommendationofspontaneityassuch,simplytoletthingsslide,ratherthanofonekindofspontaneityagainstanother?Western
romanticismextolsintensityofspontaneousemotion,withoutregardforitsdistortionsofrealitybysubjectivityTaoismontheotherhandinsistsontheclearheaded
responsewhen

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reflectingthesituationobjectivelyasthoughinamirror.OnemightsaythattheTaoistagreeswiththeConfucianinassumingthatactionstartsfromspontaneitybut
insteadoflayingdownrulesbywhichthewisemanadjustshisspontaneitytoduemeasure,hereduceswisdomitselftoitsessence,thedispassionatemirroringof
thingsastheyobjectivelyare.Themetaphorofthemirror,introducedinthe"InnerChapters"attributabletoChuangtzuhimself,15ismostfullydevelopedinoneofthe
"OuterChapters,"''TheWayofHeaven:"
Whenthesageisstill,itisnotthatheisstillbecausehesaystohimself"Itisgoodtobestill"heisstillbecausenoneamongthemyriadthingsissufficienttodisturbhisheart.If
waterisstill,itsclaritylightsupthehairsofbeardandeyebrows,itsevennessisplumbwiththecarpenter'slevel:thegreatestofcraftsmentaketheirstandardfromit.Ifmerewater
clarifieswhenitisstill,howmuchmorethestillnessofthequintessentialanddaemonic,theheartofthesage!Itisthereflectorofheavenandearth,themirrorofthemyriad
things.
Emptinessandstillness,calmandindifference,quiescence,DoingNothing,aretheevenlevelofheavenandearth,theutmostreachoftheWayandthePowerthereforeemperor,
king,orsagefindsrestinthem.Atrestheempties,emptyingheisfilled,andwhatfillshimsortsitselfout.Emptyingheisstill,instillnessheismoved,andwhenhemoveshe
succeeds.16

Reflectingwithperfectclarity,thesageallowshimselftobemoved"andwhenhemoveshesucceeds."Onemightaskhowsuccessisjudgedunlessinrelationtoan
endapprovedbysomestandard.Butthatwouldbetomissthepoint.TheTaoistsagehasonlythefluidgoaltowhichhespontaneouslyinclinesinhisperfect
awarenessofthesituationofthemomentandtheonlyimperativeneededforpreferringitatthatmomentis"Mirrorwithperfectclarity."
InwritingsoftheschoolofChuangtzuwefindsomeoftheearliestsignificantusesofthetermli'pattern'whichlongafterwardsbecamecentralinNeoConfucianism.
The"Autumnfloods"dialogue,ofthethirdifnotthesecondcenturyB.C.,whichisperhapsthefullestandclearestofallexpositionsofChuangtzu'sformofTaoism,at
onepointactuallyformulatesthequestionthatareadersinkinginitsmorassofscepticismandrelativismwillhavebeenlongingtoask,"Ifso,thenwhatistheretovalue
intheTao?"Theanswerisatfirstsightdisappointing:"ThemanwhoknowstheTaoissuretofathomtheli,themanwhofathomstheliissuretobeclearsightedin
weighing,themanwhoisclearsightedinweighingwillnotuseotherthingstohisownharm."17Oneistemptedtoaskbywhatstandardthesagejudgesadvantageand
harmtohimself,andtofeelfrustratedwhenthediscoursealmostatoncemeandersoffintoaphorismsaboutHeavenandman:"Heaveniswithin,maniswithout,and
thePower(teab)goesonresidinginwhatisfromHeaven."Butthiswouldbetolosetrackofalineofthoughtthathasbeenfairlyeasytofollowuptothispoint.Ithas
beenassumedrightfromthestartofthisbeauti

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fullyorganizeddialoguethatoneisalreadybeingmovedbyHeavenonacourseofspontaneouschange.Intheprecedingexchange,whentheLordoftheRiverasked
"'onwhatfinalconsiderationamItorefuseoraccept,preferordiscard?'"theseagodhadansweredbyshowinghowto"sortouttheliofthemyriadthings,"and
concludedbysaying,"'Whatshallwedo?Whatshallwenotdo?Itisinherentineverythingthatitwilltransformofitself.'"18Thepointisthat,havingsortedouttheli,
thepatternsinwhichthingsareorganized(whichisthethinkingthatbelongstotherealmofman),IhaveonlytorespondtothemintheirinterrelationsasIam
promptedbyHeavenfromwithin.The"weighing"islikethatofthechildhesitatingwhetherornottoeatanotherhelping.Havinggraspedali,therecurringpatternin
affairsthatexcessregularlyleadstonausea,heismovedbyHeaventostopeating.Ontheotherhand,"Oneoughtnottoovereat''wouldpresumablynotbealifor
theTaoist,asitwouldbeforaNeoConfucian.Thepatternsmentionedinthe"AutumnFloods"thatmaybepresumedtocomeundertheheadingofliinclude,for
example,therelativepositionsofheavenandearthandthealternationsofyinacandyangad(passiveandactivecosmicforces),riseandfall,birthanddeaththeydonot
includestandardsofconduct,whichaTaoistdeniesinprinciple.
ComingatlasttotheSungphilosophyasperfectedbyChuHsi,itreinterpretstraditionalformulaebyregroupingthemaroundtwoconcepts,whicharebothcomplex
andcoherent:ontheonehandli,theuniversalpatternbranchingbydivisionfromtheSupremeUltimate(T'aichiae),settingthelinesalongwhichthingsmoveonthe
otherch'i,aftheuniversalfluidoutofwhichthingscondenseandintowhichtheydissolve,freelymovingwhenfineorinertwhencoarse,activeastheyangorpassiveas
theyin.Inanimatethingsareimmobilizedbythedensityoftheirsolidifiedch'i,theanimatevitalizedbythelightandpurecirculatinginsidetheminmantheactivating
ch'iathiscenter,fromwhichallhisbehaviorstarts,attainsadegreeoftenuityasmind(hsinag),whichatitsutmostceasestobedistinguishablefromthepatternedvoid
thatispureli.
HowfardoesNeoConfucianismfitourproposaltotreatChineseethicalthinkingaspursuitofthewisdomthatimposesmeasureonspontaneity?Wemaynoteinthe
firstplacethefundamentalimportanceforallNeoConfucianschoolsofthefamoussentencesequenceintheTahsehah(GreatLearning)derivinggoodorderin
state,family,andpersonfrom"extendingknowledgetotheutmost"(chihchihai),itselfdependentonthateternalcruxkewu,ajunderstoodbyChuHsiaschihwuak
'arrivingatthething.'Ifwelookfortheimperativeatthebasisofthevaluesystem,itmuststillbe"Know!"Knowingisidentifiedwithcomprehensionofthepatterns
thatregularizethingsandevents,theirli:
Whatismeantby"Extendingknowledgetotheutmostdependsonarrivingatthething"isthattheenterpriseofextendingtotheutmostmyownknowledge

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dependsonexhaustingtheliinthethingitself.Thepointisthatman'smindneverlackstheefficacyforknowing,andthethingsintheworldareneverwithoutliitisonly
becausethelihavenotyetbeenexhaustedthattherearegapsinhisknowledge.ThatiswhytheTahsehstartsitsteachingbyinsistingthatthelearner,inallthethingsofthe
worldthemselveswhatevertheymaybe,proceedprogressivelyfromthelihealreadyknowstowardexhaustingthemall,seekingtoreachtheultimateinthem.Whenefforthas
beensustainedforalongtime,andquitesuddenlyIburstthroughtotheinterrelations(kuant'ungal'threadingtogetherandpermeating'),therewillbenothingoutsideorinside
themultitudinousthingshowevercoarseorfinethatIshallnotreach,andnothinginthetotalsubstanceanduniversalfunctionofmymindthatwillnotbeplain.Thisiswhatis
meantby"arrivingatthething,"thisiswhatismeantbytheutmostofknowledge.19

Itisstillassumed,however,asinearlierphilosophy,thattheknowerisalreadyinspontaneousinteractionwithotherthings.Thefamiliarpassagewequotedfromthe
Chungyungabouttheharmoniousemissionofthepassionsremainstheclassicaccountofthespringsofhumanbehavioranditsadjustmenttonorms,andman's
reactionstohiscircumstancesareseenasbelongingwithphysicalinteractionswithintheuniversalprocessofkanying'stimulationandresponse.'
Ch'engHaosaidthat"betweenheavenandearththereisnothingbutasinglestimulationandresponse"20thepointbeingthatthealterationsandtransformationsofyinand
yang,theengenderingandcomingtocompletionofthemyriadthings,theinterchangesofthetrueandthefalse,theendandstartofenterprises,iffromonesidetheyare
stimulationfromtheothertheyareresponseturningincirclestheyalternate,whichiswhytheygoonforever.21

AlthoughChuHsiinsistsontheimportanceofendeavorinextendingknowledge,forhimonedoesnottrulyknowuntilonedoesspontaneouslywhatoneoughttodo.
"Spontaneity"(tzujanam'beingsoofitself'),whichforTaoistsdiscreditslearning,isforChuHsitheproofofsuccessinlearning.
Ineverythingthesage'slearningdependsonthemindtoexhausttheli,andaccordswiththelitorespondtothings,likethebodyemployingthefingers.ItsWayissmoothand
everywhereaccessible,itsdwellingisbroadandsafe,itsliarerealanditsexercisespontaneous.22

WhyisitthatIhavetostrugglebeforethislucidspontaneityisattainable?TotheextentthatIremainignorant,thedensech'iofmyorganismrunsblindlyinthebroad
channelsoftheliwhereithappenstobebutbymoraltrainingIrefinemysubstancetogreatertransparencyandpenetrateintothefinerveinsoftheuniversalpattern,
sothatmyspontaneousreactionschangeastherarifiedch'ioutofwhichthedensergoesonbeinggeneratedadjuststonewlyperceivedli.TheassumptionisthatifI
stillfailtorespondinthefulllightofmy

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knowledge,itisbecausealihaspermeatedjustfarenoughtoawakenaspontaneousinclinationalongitspathbutnotyettoarticulatethemotionsoftheorganismasa
whole.Thevaryingpermeabilityofthech'iisthewholeexplanationoftheignoranceofanimalsandthevaryingdegreesofknowledgeinman.
Thereforeinthegeneratingofmenandotherthingsthereisadifferenceofcoarseandfine.Speakingintermsofthech'iasone,bothmenandotherthingsaregeneratedby
receivingthisch'i.Speakingintermsofthecoarseandthefine,mengetch'ithatiswelladjustedandpermeable,otherthingsch'ithatisilladjustedandimpeding.Becauseman
alonegetsthewelladjusted,theliinpermeatinghimarenowhereimpededbecauseotherthingsgettheilladjusted,thelibeingimpededtheyknownothing....Butspeakingin
termsofman'sownendowment,heretoothereisadifferenceofdullandbright,clearandmurky.Thereforethehighestinknowledge,whoknowfrombirth,aresoconstitutedthat
thech'iisclear,bright,pure,choice,andwithoutatraceofthedullandmurky.Asforthenextindegree,beingsecondarytotheknowersfrombirth,theyhavetolearnbeforethey
know,havetopracticebeforetheyattain.23

Toreturntothatimplicitimperative"Know!"itisonlywhenalishowsupthroughtheobstructingdensenessofmych'ithatItrulyknowit.Idonotgenuinelyknow,
howevergliblyIrepeatthewords,untilIdospontaneouslyreact.Ch'engYihadavividillustrationofthispoint.
Genuineknowledge(chenchihan)isdifferentfromeverydayknowledge(ch'angchihao).Ioncesawafarmerwhohadbeenmauledbyatiger.Someonesaidatigerwasmauling
peopleeveryonewasstartled,butonlythefarmerhadanexpressiononhisfacedifferentfromtherest.Thatatigercanmaulpeopleeveryoneknows,evenalittleboy,butthey
havenevergenuinelyknownitisonlygenuineknowledgeifitislikethefarmer's.Sowhenmengoondoingwhattheyknowtobebad,theytoohavenevergenuinelyknownif
theydidgenuinelyknow,decidedlytheywouldnotdoit.24

TheimportancetoChuHsiofChouTunyi's"DiagramoftheSupremeUltimate"(whichtheCh'engbrothershadignored)isasaplanforinterrelatingthemultipleli,
showinghowtheyramifybybinarydivisionfromone(theSupremeUltimate)totwo(yinandyang),andthentofourconstellatedaroundafifthinthemiddle(wu
hsingap'FivePhases'),25andsoontothetenthousandthings.TotheextentthatNeoConfuciansgointothedetailofthecosmicscheme,theyretainthesymmetries
andcorrespondencesofthetraditionalcosmology.Theaspiration,asintheoldersystems,istoelucidateanorderinwhichtheindividual'sspontaneousjoyand
sorrow,pleasureandanger,thebehavioroffatherandson,rulerandminister,thecyclesofdayandnightandthefourseasons,aresoorganizedastoavoidconflict
andtostrengthenmutualsupport.Inmodernterms,thisresemblesnotunificationbytheexplanatorypredictivelawsofphysicsbutratherbythatmanoriented
coordinationofecology,biology,andpsychologywithwhichmanypeople

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nowadaysseekthelinesalongwhichtoharmonizethemselveswithcommunityandwithnature.Theanalysisofcomplexinterrelationsinthesemodernsciencesand
quasisciencesisofcourseaveryrecentachievementinearlierthought,WesternandEastern,theinterdependenceofthingsisapproachableonlybylayingoutsimple
schemesthatseparateandputinsequencetheconflicting(spring,summer,autumn,winterWood,Fire,Earth,Metal,Water)andjuxtaposethemutuallysupportive
(spring,wood,green,Benevolence[jenaq]autumn,Metal,white,Duty[yiar]).Theeffectistoestablishforeachpersonbothsymmetrieswithinwhichhefitsand
rhythmswithwhichheisinstep,implantingthatassuranceofbelongingwithinacosmoswhichmodernsciencedeniesus.Theassurancecomes,asitdoesfor
ourselvesinthecaseofbelongingtoacommunity(wherehowevercarefullyoneobeystherulesaninvoluntarygesturecanmarkoneasanoutsider),notsimplyfrom
knowingwhatoneoughttodo,butfromtheharmonyofone'sownspontaneitywithcommunityandcosmos.Thustheprescriptionthattheemperorwearsgreenand
pardonsinspring,wearswhiteandpunishesinautumn,doesnot,asaWesternmoralphilosophermightsuppose,dependonafalselogiccombiningfeeblearguments
fromanalogywithagiganticleapfrom"is"to"ought."Theemperorwillspontaneouslybemostinclinedtopardoninthemildnessofspring,topunishinthechillof
autumn,andthecolorofhisrobesisoneofthesignalsalertinghimselfandtheempiretothisandotherseasonalchangesifhebreakstherhythmitwillbelesseasyfor
himtorespondfullytoboththeconflictingpulls,tobebothperfectlybenevolentandperfectlydutiful.
SystemscurrentsincetheHanhadtriedtobuildacosmosupwardsfromrigidsetsofcountableunits,twos,fours,fives,ormore.TheCh'engChusystem,onthe
otherhand,byworkingdownwardsfromliasawhole,escapesdependenceontheseartificialsimplificationsandallowsamorefluidapproachtoplacingmaninsidea
complexanddynamicorderofchanginginterrelationships.Itis,asNeedhamsays,theculminationofwhathecallstheChinese"philosophyoforganism"(adescription
which,asDonaldMunrohasrecentlyshown,hadbetternotbeusedwithoutthecaveatthattheChinesemetaphorsforcosmicrelationsderivefromthefamilymuch
morethanfromthebodyanditsorgans).26AlthoughChuHsifindsplacesintheramificationsofliforolderclassificationssuchastheFivePhaseswhichtheCh'engs
seldomfindoccasiontomention,evenforhimtheonlyonecrucialtohisthinkingisthebasicbinarydivisionofyinandyang.ChuHsioftenremindsusthatinthe
universalpatternitislargelyamatterofconveniencehowonedividesupandcountssubpatterns.27Moreover,sincelirunsthroughathreedimensionalworldofthings
condensingoutofch'i,itisitselfconceivedasavastthreedimensionalstructurewhichlooksdifferentfromdifferentangles.Inlayingdownthelinesalongwhich
everythingmoves,itappearsastheWay(Tao)inthatthelinesareindependentofmypersonaldesires,itimposesitselfonmeasHeaven(T'ienas)asapatternwhich
frommyownviewpointspreadsoutfromthesubpatternofmyownprofoundestreactions,itappearsasmyownbasicNature(hsingat).Lookingdownfromthe
Supreme

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au

av

Ultimate,theapexatwhichitsbranchesjoin,itfirstdividesastheWayofthefirsttwodiagramsoftheBookofChanges,ch'ien (heaven,male)andk'un (earth,

female),patterningthech'iinitsyangandyinphasesbutfrommyownviewpoint,themajorlinesthatconnectmewiththewholearetheprinciplesofconduct:
Benevolence,Duty,Manners,Wisdom.Eachperson,peeringintothevastwebfromhisownlittlecornerofit,may,ifhisch'iisperfectlytransparent,seealltheway
totheSupremeUltimateatitsfarthestlimits.InthewordsofourveryfirstquotationfromChuHsi,28heproceeds"fromthelihealreadyknowstowardsexhausting
themall,seekingtoreachtheultimateinthem"(chiofT'aichi'SupremeUltimate').TothequestionwhethertheSupremeUltimatecouldbelongtotheNatureof
everyonewithoutbeingdivided,ChuHsianswers,
It'sjustthatatbottomitisonlythesingleSupremeUltimate,buteachofthemyriadthingshasanendowmentmoreover,eachinitselffullycomprisesthesingleSupremeUltimate,
justasthereisonlyonemooninthesky,butwhenitisscatteredintheriversandlakesitisvisibleeverywhere.Itcan'tbesaidthatthemoonhasbeendivided.29

Theconceptionoftheuniversalstructureofliasbothpervadingeverythingandpotentiallyvisibleinitsentiretyfromeveryviewpoint,everywherediscoverableby
usingitsregularitiestoinfer(t'uiaw)fromtheknowntotheunknown,enablesChuHsitogiveacoherentaccountofthatunityofselfandothersthat,wehave
suggested,hastobepostulatedinsomeforminanyphilosophicaljustificationofmoralitythatstartsfromspontaneityguidedbyanimperativetoknown.
Ch'engHao'spassagetotheeffectthatfromthe"Handsandfeetbeingunfeeling(pujenax)"ofmedicalbooksonecangettothesubstanceofBenevolencedrawingoutits
implications,thepointheismakingisthatifBenevolenceisthemindwithwhichheavenandearthgeneratethings,andwhichmenandotherthingsget(teay)astheirownmind,it
followsthatheavenandearth,menandotherthings,allwithoutexceptionsharethismind,andthemind'spowers(te,'capacitytoget')neverfailtointerrelate(kuant'ung).
Although,asheavenorasearth,asmanorasanotherthing,eachhasitsdissimilaritiesfromtherest,inrealitythereisasinglevein(moloaz)threadingthemtogether(kuanba).
Thereforeifyoucanacknowledgethismindasembodiedinyourself,andhavethemeanstopreserveandnurtureit,theliinthemindwillreacheverywhere,andspontaneously
(tzujan)youwillloveeveryone.Assoonasyouhavetheleastselfishdesireobscuringit,youarebrokenofffromtherest,andlovefailstoreachall.Thereforethecallousness
andungenerosityintheworldresultssimplyfrombeingblinkeredandcloggedupbyselfishdesires,sothatoneneverrecognizesthelibywhichone'sownmindinterrelateswith
themindsofheavenandearthandthemyriadthings.30

Asanindividual,Ifindfromthebeginningofconsciousnessregularitiesinmyspontaneousreactionsthatbelongtoliandwitheveryadvanceinpene

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tratingmyturbidch'ifartherintothenetworkofinterrelations,thereactionsthemselveschange.Mysubjectivepursuitofthelito"extendknowledgetotheutmost"can
reachasfarastheSupremeUltimate,sothateverythingfallsintoplaceasinterconnected,anddownagainintootherbranchestotheliinotherpersons,sothatI
empathizetheirwoesandrespondfromtheirviewpointswithcompassion,shame,orreverence.Thisselfeducation,beginninginmyownsubjectivity,relatesmeto
othersubjectiveviewpoints,tothemindsofotherpersonsandthings,andtothatmysterious"mindofHeavenandEarth"(t'ientichihhsinbb)mentionedintheBook
ofChanges,31whichwouldbethefinalsubjectwhichseeseverythingasinsideitself.IfonthecontraryIusealisimplyasanobjectivizedabstraction,toexplainand
predictanotherperson'sbehaviorforpurposesofmyown,IarbitrarilyexcludeitfromthesubjectivelyexperiencedinterrelationswhichguidemyreactionsIcannot
besaidevengenuinelytoknowit,sincetherecanbenogenuineknowledgewithoutreactinglikeCh'engYi'speasantmauledbythetigeror,totakeanotherillustration
thatheborrowsfromtheAnalects,32"seeingevilasthoughyouweredippinginhotwater."InrelationtotheobjectivityofWesternscience,wemayseeChuHsias
justasmuchasubjectivistasLuHsiangshan(LiuChiuyan,bc11391193)andWangYangming(WangShoujen,bd14721529).Hedemandsinvestigationoftheli
inexternalaffairsratherthanawakeningtothembyselfsearching,buthedeniesthatonehasfullygraspedthemuntiltheybegintoshowthroughone'sprogressively
clarifyingch'iandmakeonereactdifferently.ThatforChuHsiknowledgeoftheliinanotherpersonimplies,touseEnglishidioms,''puttingoneselfinhisplace,"
"seeinghispointofview,"maybeillustratedfromthecommentsinhisLunychichube(CollectedcommentariesontheAnalects)onthelastepisodeofAnalectsch.
6.
Confucius:TheBenevolent,wishinghimselftostandhelpsotherstostand,wishinghimselftosucceedhelpsotherstosucceed.
ChuHsi:Touseone'sowncasetoarriveattheotherman'sbelongstothemindoftheBenevolent.Byobservingithereinhisowncase,hecanseetheuniversalflowofHeaven's
liandnolongerbeseparatedfromit.TherecouldbenomorepointeddescriptionofthesubstanceofBenevolence.
Confucius:BeingabletopickananalogycloseathandmaybecalledthesecretofBenevolence.
ChuHsi:Pickingitcloseathandinyourownperson,youfindinwhatyoudesireyourselfananalogyforwhatisintheotherman,andknowthatwhathedesireswillbethesame.
Asforproceedingtoextendwhathedesirestomankind,thatisthepracticeofConsideration(shubf)andthesecretofBenevolence.Ifyoumaketheefforthereinyourself,you
havethemeanstoconquerthepartialityofyourhumandesiresandkeepintacttheimpartialityofyourlifromHeaven.[ChuHsicontinuesbyagainquotingCh'engHao.]"The
Benevolentregardsheavenandearthandthemyriadthingsasonesubstance,sothatnothingisnothimself.Ifyoucanrecognizethemasyourself,whichofthemwillbe

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beyondyourrange?Ifyoudonothavetheminyourself,ofcoursetheydonotconcernyourself,aswhenhandsandfeetareunfeeling(pujen),andthech'ihasfailedtocirculate,
sothattheyallceasetobelongtooneself.33

Inintroducinganewconceptualizationofknowledgeaspermeationofch'ibyli,itmayseemthatNeoConfuciansfailtodistinguishwithinlithephysicalprinciplesby
whichoneexplainsandpredictsandthemoralprinciplesonwhichoneacts.ImyselfalwayssupposedthemconfusedonthispointuntilIembarkedonthepresent
study.ButiftheChineseassumptionhasbeenthat"OneoughttodoX"isequivalentto"ThewisemanisspontaneouslyinclinedtodoX,"wemustchangeourangle
ofvision.Letusgobacktoouroriginalexample,ofthechildatthedinnertable.Heismovedtoeatanotherhelping,butthentheregularityinthepatterningofthings
bywhichovereatingisfollowedbynauseaburststhroughhisobscuringch'i,andheisimpelledintheoppositedirectionbytheimpulsetorefrain.Insoreactinginfuller
knowledge,heisbeingspontaneouslymovedalonganotherli,thatthewisedonotovereat.Butitmightbethateveninforeseeingtheconsequenceshestill,because
ofunevennessinthequalityofhisch'i,findsithardtoresisthisgreed.Thenthenewliimposesitselfasthepathheoughttofollow,becausenottodosoisunwise.
Formerly,whenhewasstillignorantofthesetwolinesinthepatternofthings,hisdensech'iblindlyflowedinthechannelofthefirstofthem,sothathesimplyateand
vomitedbutnowthatbothpermeatethefinerch'ioutofwhichhiscoarsersubstanceisbeinggeneratedandvitalized,hereactsahead,awareofthepatternof
interrelations.Onthisanalysis,thereisnoconfusioninNeoConfucianthoughtbetweenphysicalandmoralprinciples,whichitsterminologyinanycaseclearly
distinguishesassoyijanchihlibg(patternbywhichsomethingisso)andtangjanchihlibh(patternbywhichsomethingshouldbeso)."Thewisemandoesnot
overeat"verbalizesthepatternassoyijanchihli,whichatabanquetattendedbyConfuciusmightbeusedtoexplainortopredicthismoderationbutforanyone
whoacknowledgestheauthorityof"Bewise!''or"Know!"thepatternisalsoatangjanchihli,verbalizableas"Don'tovereat."i
Sofarourexamplehasillustratednotmoralitybutprudence.Thenextstepwillbeforthewisechildtodiscoverthatthesamelirunsthroughothersandhimselfall
tendtovomitwhentheyovereatandtoeatmoremoderatelywhentheyknowthat.Henowhastwoalternativecourses,whichintermsofthegrandsimplificationwe
aretryingoutinthispaper,aretheWesternandtheChinese.
Objectivizing,Western
Hethinksoftheknowingofaliasdetachablefromthereactionsitpatterns.Thenhecanknowthateveryonetendstoavoidovereatingwhenawareofthe
consequences,butasanobjectivefact,irrelevanttohisactionsunlesscombinedwithanimperative,indealingwithhimselfprudential("Don'thurtyourself"),indealing
withothersmoral("Don'tstandbyandletothershurtthemselves").

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Subjectivizing,Chinese
Hethinksoftheknowingofaliasinseparablefromthereactionsitpatterns.Theninknowingthatsomeoneiseatingtoomuchhefeelsnauseaandismovedtoabstain
orwarn,thenauseabeingimmediateiftheeaterishimselfandempatheticifitissomeoneelse.Hecanchoosetoabstainortowarnwithoutapplyinganyimperativeto
himselfexcept"Knowtheli."
Eitherapproachisselfconsistent.Whatisnotconsistentistoapplythelattertooneself,ortooneselfandthosenearesttoone,buttheformertoeveryoneelse.That
wouldbefailureto"interrelate,"selfseparationfrom"theuniversalflowofHeaven'sli."ItmaybeseenfromthisanalysisthatChuHsi'sparalleltoSt.Paul's"weare
membersoneofanother"isbynomeansarhetoricalappealtosympathizewitheachotherthatisfinallyunsupportedbythephilosophy,asmightperhapsbeurged
againstCh'engHao'sstrikinganalogyofcallousnesstoparalysisofalimb.ChuHsi'sconceptionoftheonenessofselfandotherasthefoundationofmoralityisfirmly
rootedinthelogicalstructureofhisentiresystem.
WenowarriveatlastatChuHsi'stheoryofhumannature.Herecognizesthatthetermhsing'Nature'isoftenappliedtotheindividual'sinnateendowmentofch'i,
bothaspure,freelycirculatingandvitalizing,andinthedense,inertstateinwhichitisspecifiedaschihbi'matter.'Hedistinguishesthisendowment,whichvariesfrom
persontopersonandmaybegood,mixed,orbad,byatermborrowedfromChangTsai,ch'ichihchihhsingbj(naturewhichisch'iandmatter).Thebasicnature
(penhsingbk),ontheotherhand,istheliasitisprogressivelydiscoveredinsideoneself,startingfromthepatternofone'sownspontaneousreactions.Oneofthe
fullestexpositionsofthebasicnatureisinalettertoapupil.
ThenatureisthesubstanceoftheSupremeUltimateasawholeitisfundamentallyunsayableintermsofnames.Butitcontainswithinitallthemyriadli,ofwhichthegreatestof
thearterialli(kanglibl'largeropeofnetli')amounttofour,whichthereforehavebeengivennames,Benevolence,Duty,Manners,Wisdom(jenyilichihbm).34Thedisciplesof
ConfuciusneversaidalltherewastosayaboutitthatnoonedidsobeforeMenciuswasbecauseinthetimeofConfuciustheprinciple(li)ofthegoodnessofthenaturewas
takenforgranted,andeveniftheydidnotdetailitsramifications(t'iaobn)therewasnothingwhichneededexplanation.BythetimeofMenciusheresieswereteeming,anditwas
commontodeemthenaturebad.Menciuswasalarmedthattheprincipleremainedunclear,andponderedhowtoclarifyit.Ifheweremerelytosaythatitis"thecomplete
substanceasawhole,"hewasafraidthatitwouldseemlikeasteelyardwithoutgradingmarks,afootmeasurewithouttheinches,andwouldneverbeadequatetoenlightenthe
world.Sohemadedistinctionsinspeakingaboutit,splittingitupintofourdivisions,andthedoctrineoftheFourBeginnings(ssutuanbo)35wasestablishedasaresult.For
beforetheemergenceoftheFourOutcomes,althoughinitsquiescenceitdoesnotstir,ofitselfithasinsideitramifyingli,ofitselfithasinsideitastructure(chienchiabp'rooms
andhouseframe'),itisnotthatitishomogeneouswithnothinginitatall.Thereforeassoonasitisstimu

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latedfromoutsideitrespondsfromwithin.Iftheoccurrenceofachildfallingintoawellstimulates,theliofBenevolenceresponds,andthen[fromamongtheFourBeginnings]a
compassionatemindismanifestediftheoccurrenceofpassingthroughshrineorcourtstimulates,theliofMannersresponds,andareverentmindismanifested.Thepointis
thatthemultitudinousliarewhollyatourdisposalfrominsideit,everyoneofthemclearlydistinct.Hencetheyrespondastheyarestimulatedbywhatevertheyhappenon
outside,withtheconsequencethatwhentheFourBeginningsemergeeachisdifferentlyexpressedonthesurface.ThisiswhyMenciusbreaksupintofour,inordertoshow
scholarsthat,iftheyknowthatinsidethecompletesubstanceasawholethereissuchavarietyoframifications,thegoodnessofthenaturebecomesevident.
ButbeforetheFourBeginningsemerge,whatwecalled"thecompletesubstanceasawhole"hasnodescribablesoundorsmell,novisibleshapeorimagehowdoweknowthatit
hassuchavarietyoframifications?Because,whenitcomestotheverifiabilityofacertainli,itcanbeverifiedinthesamewaythroughtheemergenceitself.Thingsmustallhave
rootstothem,andalthoughtheliinthenaturearewithoutshape,theactualemergenceisfullyverifiable.Hencethroughsomeone'scompassiononeknowsforsurethatthereis
Benevolenceinhim,throughhisshamethatthereisDutyinhim,throughhisreverencethatthereareMannersinhim,throughhisapprovalanddisapprovalthatthereisWisdom
inhim.Supposingthatattherootofittherewerenotthisliwithin,howcouldtherebethisBeginningoutside?ThroughhishavingtheBeginningontheoutsideoneknowsfor
surethathehastheliwithin,withoutpossibilityofdeception.HenceMenciussaid,"Asfarasthepassionsareconcerned,theyhavethepossibilityofbecominggoodthatis
whatismeantbyitsbeinggood,"36whichshowsthatwhenMenciusspeaksofthegoodnessofthenatureitissimplythatheknowsitbytracingittothesourcebygoingback
throughthepassions.37

Thispassagemorethanoncementionsthegoodnessofhumannatureasitselfali,inwhichcaseswetranslateby"principle."But"principle"asaregularequivalent
throughoutwouldgetusintodifficultieswhenChuHsireferstoliasstimulatedandresponding.Even"pattern"wouldbeinadequate,sincewhatisstimulatedand
respondingmustbe,notabstractedpattern,butpatternedch'iinitsultimatepurity.AmongChuHsi'sregularassumptionsarethatliisnotdetachablefromch'i,that
thereisnovoidotherthantheperfectlyrarifiedch'ioutofwhichthesolidcondensesandintowhichitdissolves,andthatthefinerthech'ithemoredelicatelyit
stimulatesandresponds.Theseassumptionsexplainwhyheeverywheretreatsthepassionsasdisturbancesofthenature(howwouldaprinciplebedisturbed?),how
hecanacceptwithoutdemurthestatementinChouTunyi's"ExplanationoftheDiagramoftheSupremeUltimate''39thattheSupremeUltimate(whichforhimselfisli)
generatestheyinandyang(whicharech'i),andwhyNeoConfuciansingeneraltendtobevagueorinconsistentastowhetherthemindandthepassions,whichare
ofahighdegreeoftenuity,shouldbeclassedasliorasch'i.40Heresimilarlythenature,whichisli,respondsastheFourBeginnings,passions(ch'ingbq),whichin
showingoutwardlyenableustoinferthepresenceofthecorrespondingliinsidetheman.Wemustthinkofthemas

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generatedinresponsetothestimulatingoccurrencebythefinestch'iinsidetheman,sothatincondensingoutofittheyarestructuredbyitsdistinctivepattern,whichin
thecaseofcompassionwillbeBenevolence,ofshameDuty,ofreverenceManners,ofapprovalanddisapprovalWisdom.Itisthisstructuredtenuity,inwhich
Benevolenceandtherestarethemainlinesleadingoutwardfromselftotherestoftheuniversalpattern,whichisman'snature.
Letusnowtrytoidentifythat"paradigmshift"bywhichtheCh'engChudoctrineestablisheditselfasthedefinitiveChinesesolutionoftheproblemofhumannature.
Historically,thecreativemomentwasinthethoughtofCh'engYi,whoreinterpretedtheproblemintermsofliwhilehisbrotherCh'engHaostayedstuckinconfusions
andcontradictionsinheritedfromtheolderschemeofthought.41Earlierthinkershadunderstoodnatureasthespontaneoustendencyofhumanreactions,andhad
wanderedroundincircleswithoutreachingaformulathatwouldreconcileitsderivationfromHeavenwiththedemandformorality.Asfarasspontaneoustendencyis
concerned,Ch'engYiandChuHsiabandonthesearchforsuchaformula,andadmitthesimplefactthatindividualshavenaturesthataremixturesofalldegreesof
goodandbad."Nature"inthatsense,however,istheconstitutionofanindividual'sch'i,ChangTsai's''naturewhichisch'iandmatter."Behinditisthebasicnature,
thestructuralpatternofhumanreactionsingeneral,theirli.Butmanisabeingwhosereactionschangewithknowledgethepatternofeachperson'sownreactionsis
justacorneroftheuniversalpattern,whichentershisknowledgeandmodifieshisreactionsfromselfishtoimpartialtotheextentthathesucceedsinpenetratingthe
obscuringcloudofhisch'itowinacomprehensiveviewofthewhole.Thedecisivenoveltyinthenewconceptualschemeistheequationofknowledgewith
permeationofthech'ibyli."Know!"wehaveargued,isthestartingpointofChineseethicalthinking,theultimatelyunchallengeableimperative,imposingonlythat
obligationtorecognizethingsastheyarewithoutwhichwecannotlive.Thenfromthepermeabilityofch'ibyliasthefirstgooditfollowsthatreactingalongthe
patternthatfrommyownviewpointismynaturewillalsobegood,andthattheunselfishnessthatcharacterizesitwhenyou"extendknowledgetotheutmost"willbe
goodaswell.Atthesametimethevaryingpermeabilityofpeople'sch'iexplainswhythespontaneoustendencyoftheirreactionsissooftenbad.Itwouldstillhave
beenpossibletodecide,withSuShihandHuHung,that"good"isnotproperlyapplicabletoliornature,onlytoactioninaccordancewiththem.Butthatisa
sophisticatedvariationontheMenciantheory.Withthereorganizationofthetraditionalconceptsaroundthepolesofliandch'i,isanyotherthanabasicallyMencian
solutionpossible?
Notes
1.BookofMencius,6A:6.
2.HanCh'anglichibr[CollectedwritingsofHanY],(Kuohsuehchipents'ungshubs[BasicSinologicalseries]ed.),3:6465LiWenkungchibt[Collected
writingsof

Page155
bu

LiAo],(SPTKed.),ch.2Fanch'uanwenchi [CollectedliterarywritingsofTuMu],(SPTKed.),6:11b12b.
3.T'ungshu,ch.7.ChuHsi'scommentthatChouTunyimeansby"Nature"theendowmentofch'iassumeshisowndistinctionbetweenthebasicnatureandthe
"naturewhichisch'iandmatter,"alreadymadebyChangTsaiandCh'engYi,butnotyetattestedinthewritingsofChouTunyi.
4.Cf.A.C.Graham,TwoChinesePhilosophers:Ch'engMingtaobvandCh'engYich'uanbw(London:LundHumphries,1958),pp.4547,131140,forthe
evidencethattheearlyNeoConfucianswerenotcommittedtotheMencianposition.ForSuShihandHuHung,seeSushihyichuanbx[Su'scommentaryonthe
BookofChanges],(Ts'ungshuchich'engbyed.),pp.159,1.13and160,1.6Hutzuchihyenbz[HuHungbeingknowledgeablewithwords],(Yehyat'ang
ts'ungshucaed.),Yiyicb[Questionsraised]p.7b,11.48.
5.Theuseof"principle"forliinTwoChinesePhilosophershasconsiderabledisadvantages."Principle"suggestsatruthformulatedinwordsinordertomake
deductions,whilelisuggestsratherapatternrunningthroughthings,evensharingtheirthreedimensions,andvariouslydescribableinwords.Inmorerecent
translations,whenhavingtochooseanequivalentforliIhavepreferred"pattern.''
6.TheStructureofScientificRevolutions(Chicago:UniversityofChicagoPress,1962).
7.TheLanguageofMorals(Oxford:OxfordUniversityPress,1952),Vol.I,ch.3,p.2.
8.JamesLegge,TheChineseClassics(Oxford:OxfordUniversityPress,1893),TheDoctrineoftheMean,ch.1,pp.384385.
9.Analects,1:14.
10.Chuangtzu[HarvardYenchingsinologicalindexseries],p.93,1.7374.
11.HonanCh'engshihyishucc[BookofremainsoftheCh'engs],(Kuohsehchipents'ungshued.),pp.15,ll.5734,l.281,ll.14132,ll.1114.
12.Ch'engHao,"Tinghsingshu"cd[Letteronstabilizingthenature],inMingtaowenchuce[CollectedliterarywritingsofCh'engHao],ch.3.
13.IhavearguedthisclaiminLaterMohistLogic,EthicsandScience(HongKongandLondon:ChineseUniversityofHongKongPress,1978),pp.4750.It
maybenoticedthatIthenassumedthattheMohistethicisopentotheobjectionthatit"confusedvaluewiththepsychologicalfactofdesire"(p.52),wronglyasit
nowappears.
14.LaterMohistLogic,pp.5758,188189.
15.Chuangtzu,ch.21,p.7,ll.3233.IhavetriedoutthepresentapproachtoChuangtzuin"TaoistSpontaneityandtheDichotomyof'Is'and'Ought'"inVictor
H.Mair,ed.,ExperimentalEssaysonChuangtzu(Honolulu:UniversityofHawaiiPress,1983).
16.Ibid.,ch.13,p.33,ll.26.
17.Ibid.,ch.17,p.44,l.48.
18.Ibid.,ch.17,p.44,l.47.
19.Tahsehchangchcf[CommentaryontheGreatLearning],onkewu.
20.HonanCh'engshihyishu,ch.15,p.168,l.1,fromachapterattributablerathertoCh'engYi(TwoChinesePhilosophers,142).
21.Chutzuyleicg[ClassifiedconversationsofMasterChu](1872ed.),95:23a.
22."Kuanhsinshuo"ch[Explanationofobservingthemind],inChutzuwenchici[CollectionofliteraryworksofMasterChu],(SPPYed.entitledChutzuta
ch'ancj[CompletecollectionofChuHsi]),67:19b.

Page156

23.Chutzuylei,4:10b.
24.HonanCh'engshihyishu,16:24.
25.Thewuhsing,traditionallytranslated"FiveElements"(Wood,Fire,Earth,Metal,Water),serveforexplainingcyclicchangesratherthanphysicalconstitutionI
thereforefollowNathanSivininpreferringasEnglishequivalent"FivePhases."
26.JosephNeedham,ScienceandCivilisationinChina,Vol.II(Cambridge:CambridgeUniversityPress,1956),p.465ff.DonaldJ.Munro,"TheFamily
NetworkandtheStreamofWater:PicturingPersonsinSungConfucianism,"paperdeliveredattheIndividualismandWholismConference,BreckinridgeCenter,
York,Maine,June2429,1981.
27.Cf.ourlastquotationfromChuHsibelow,andTwoChinesePhilosophers,pp.5758.
28.Seeabove,n.19.
29.Chutzuylei,94:41b.
30.Ibid.,95:10a.
31.BookofChanges,commentaryonthetwentyfourthhexagramfuck(toreturn).
32.HonanCh'engshihyishu,p.163,1.1.Cf.Analects,16:11.
33.Ssushuchangchchichucl[CollectedcommentariesontheFourBooks],commentingontheAnalects,6:28.
34.BookofMencius,2A:6.
35.The"FourBeginnings"(Mencius2A:6)arethefouremotions(compassion,shame,deference,approval/disapproval)correspondingtothevirtuesBenevolence,
Duty,Manners,andWisdom.ChuHsiunderstandsthemasthe"beginnings"inperceptiblebehaviorfromwhichonetracesthevirtuesthatliebehindthem.
36.BookofMencius,6A:6.
37.Chutzuwenchi,58:21a22b,secondlettertoCh'enCh'ichih(Ch'enChihcm).
38.Seeabove,n.5.
39.Choutzuch'anshucn[CompleteworksofChouTunyi],ch.1.
40.IfailedtoappreciatethispointinTwoChinesePhilosophers,whereIsupposedthattheSungphilosopherswereconfusedbydifficultiesinimposingthedualism
ofliandch'iontoolderconcepts(TwoChinesePhilosophers,pp.5053,6466,162164).ThismaybetruetosomeextentofCh'engYi(whodidnotidentifyli
withtheSupremeUltimate),butChuHsi'sapplicationofthedichotomynowseemstobeconsistenteveninthesemarginalcases.
41.Cf.theaccountsofthetheoriesofhumannatureofthetwoCh'engbrothersinTwoChinesePhilosophers,pp.4460,131140.
Glossary

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Page158

11
TheSystemofChuHsi'sPhilosophy
TomoedaRyutaro*
WhatistheSystemofChuHsi'sphilosophy?InthisessayIshalltrytoelucidateitsoutlinebyreexaminingmypaststudies.
TheGroundprovidingPrinciple
Atfortyyearsofage,ChuHsiestablishedhistheoryof"diffusionandconvergence(ifaweifaa)ofmind,"andthenstartedwritingacommentaryonthe"Explanation
oftheDiagramoftheGreatUltimate,"whichhecompletedattheageoffortyfour.1Tracingtheprocessofhistheoreticaldevelopment,weseethathefirstasserted
theidentityofmanandnature,andlatercametorecognizethattheyarebothcontrolledbythesameprincipleofwuchierht'aichib(theUltimateofNonbeingand
alsotheGreatUltimate).InalettertoWuI(WuHuishu,c11291177)hestates,"Change(id)meanstransformation,denotingmovementquiescenceanddiffusion
convergence.T'aichi(GreatUltimate)istheprincipleofmovementquiescenceanddiffusionconvergence."2
TheT'aichicontrolsthetranquillityofthepassiveprinciple(yinchinge)andtheactivityoftheactiveprinciple(yangtungf)ofnatureandtheifaweifaofthehuman
mind.Itisthegroundprovidingprincipleofmanandnaturewhichismaintainedorderlyandharmoniously.ElucidatingChouTuni's(ChouLiench'i,g10171073)
conceptofwuchierht'aichi,ChuHsistates,"TheoperationofHeavenisdevoidofsoundorsmell.Itisindeedthepivot(shuniuh)ofcreationandtheground
(kentii)ofeverything."3
Shuniumeansacentralpointonwhichsomethingturnskentimeansaground,basis,orfoundation.IntheChuTzuyleij(ClassifiedconversationsofMaster
Chu),ChuHsisaidthattheheavenlybodywasroundingthelineoftheSouthandNorthpoles,andsohecalledthatline"apivotofheaven"4andintheLunychi
chuk(CollectedcommentariesontheAnalects),hecalledtheNorthpole(peich'enl)"apivotofheaven."5
Ithinkthattheheavenlybodycannotbebornfromthepivotofheaven.Soether(ch'im'materialforce'),yinyangn(passiveandactivecosmicforces),and

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everythingcannotbeformedfromtheprincipleoftheGreatUltimate.Thephrase"thepivotofcreationandthegroundofeverything"showsthattheGreatUltimateis
neithernilnornonbeing,butratherthepivotofheavenandearthandthegroundofdifferentspeciesintheworldofmanandothercreatures.
TheintentionofChuHsiisnottodistinguishtheprinciplethatcontrolsmanassollen(becoming)andtheprinciplethatcontrolsnatureassein(being).ForChuHsi,
theGreatUltimateorprincipleisdevoidofvolition,plan,orcreativepower,beingapure,empty,andvastworld,butch'i'ether'hasafunctionofcondensationand
production.6Theprincipleofwuchierht'aichiitselfisnotafixedentitybutisratherindefinite.Inhis"Commentaryonthe'ExplanationoftheDiagramoftheGreat
Ultimate'"(T'aichit'uchieho)ChuHsistates,"Wuchierht'aichiisthesubstancewithwhichyinpremainsquietandyangqmoves,butitcannotexistseparatelyfrom
yinyang.TheGreatUltimatepointstotheentityofyinyangandisexpressedinconformitywithyinyangbutisnotmixedwithyinyang."7IthinkChuHsiusedthe
phrasewuchierht'aichitopointoutthegroundandpivotoftheactualworldofyinyang,andsoitisundoubtedlyamisunderstandingforLoCh'inshun8(Lo
Chengan,r14651547)andTaiChen9(TaiTungyan,s17231777)toregarditasonethingwhichexistsbeforeyinyang.
ChuHsisaidinapoem,
Yinandyangneverceasetofunction,
Chillandheatreplaceeachother,
Oneprinciple(lit)harmoniouslycontrols,
Aprinciplenotobscurebutclear.10
Ilookonthechangingmovementofyinandyang,
Upanddowninheavenandearth.
Lookingbehind,thereisnobeginning.
Lookingahead,thereisnoending.
Thefinestprincipleexistshere,
Thepresentiseternal.11

TheGreatUltimateisoneprinciple,isthefinestprincipleinyinyangandchillheat,andisapivotoftheactualworld.Thepresentworldhasthefinestpivotandsoitis
eternal.Inthepoem,ChuHsidoesnotsaythatprincipleproducesyinyangandthechillorheat.
Inthepostscriptofhis"Commentaryonthe'ExplanationoftheDiagramoftheGreatUltimate'"ChuHsistates,
WesurelycannotsaytherearetwoprinciplesbetweenyinyangandtheGreatUltimate,buttheGreatUltimatehasnoshapeandyinyanghasether.Thereforethereisadifference
betweenthemetaphysicalandthephysical.12Whenwe

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talkaboutprinciple,weexpresssubstancefirstandfunctionsecond,becausewhensubstanceismentioned,theprincipleoffunctionisinherentinit.Thatiswhysubstanceand
functionhavethesameorigin.Whenwetalkaboutaffairs,weexpressphenomenonfirstandnoumenonsecond,becausewhenphenomenonismentioned,wecanfindthe
substanceofprincipleinherentthere.Thatiswhythereisnogapbetweenphenomenonandnoumenon.13

ThereisadialecticrelationshipbetweentheGreatUltimateandyinyang,andprincipleandetherareneitherseparatenormixed,neitheronenortwo.Itissurethat
thereisnoonethingthatprecedesyinyang,ether,andaffairs.Thispostscriptwaswrittenwhenhewasfortyfouryearsoldperhapsthepoemwaswrittenatabout
thesametime.
ChuHsi'stheoryoftheGreatUltimatebecameclearinhisletterstotheLuubrothers.Whenhewasfiftysevenyearsold,hesentalettertoLuChiushao(LuSo
shan,vfl.1150)stating,"Unlesstheterm'theUltimateofNonbeing'(wuchi)isused,theGreatUltimatewillloseitsqualificationasthebasicprincipleofmyriad
beingsandbecomemerelyoneofthem.Iftheexpressiont'aichiisnotused,wuchiwillbereducedtonaughtandwillnotbeabletoserveasthebasicprincipleof
allbeing."14
Thecharacteristicsofthegroundprovidingprinciplecannotbedescribedwithoutusingthefivecharacterswuchierht'aichi.Wuchirepresentstheallembracing
andtranscendentaspectofthegroundprovidingprinciple,whilet'aichishowsitsgroundprovidingaspect.Sinceprincipleisindefiniteandyetdefinite,itisableto
embraceallbeingsandtoprovideafirmgroundforthem.ThusChuHsiunderstoodthemeaningofwuchierht'aichi.ItwasnecessaryforChuHsiindefiningthe
characterofthegroundprovidingprincipletousetheexpressionwuchierht'aichi.
AtfiftynineyearsofageChuHsisentalettertoLuChiuyan(LuHsiangshan,w11391193),youngerbrotherofChiushao,stating,"WhydidMasterChouusethe
term'theUltimateofNonbeing'?ItisbecausetheGreatUltimatehasnoplaceorshape,existswherethereisnothingandwherethereissomething,isbothinsideand
outsideofyinyang,isinthewholeexistence,andhasneithersound,norsmell,norshadoworiginally."15Incontrasttoyinyang,theGreatUltimateistranscendentand
immanent.ThismeansthereisadialecticrelationshipbetweentheGreatUltimate(principle)andyinyang.ItisimpossiblethattheGreatUltimateproducesyinyang
andallthings.ItisnotatheorythatyinyangandeverythingemanatefromtheGreatUltimate,butastructuraltheoryoftheGreatUltimateandyinyang.
TheprincipleoftheGreatUltimate,accordingtotheLubrothers,iscontainedintheactualworldwhichisdescribedasbeing"withinshapes"(hsingerhhsia),andit
isdevoidofthepowertotranscendtheactualworld.ChuHsi,ontheotherhand,postulatedthegroundprovidingprincipleasanentitypertainingtothemetaphysical
worldwhichisdescribedasbeing"aboveshape"(hsingerhshang),whichprovidesgroundfortheworld"withinshapes."

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WhencomparedwiththeconceptoftheGreatUltimateoftheLubrothers,thecharacterofChuHsi'swuchierht'aichibecomesclear.
Nature
Howhaveheaven,earth,andnaturebeenformed?Howisthenonexistentgroundprovidingprinciplemanifestedinthem?ChuHsiregardedtheoriginalstateof
heaven,earth,andnatureasafluxofether,whichisanendlessactionofethercharacterizedbythecycleofactiveandpassiveyinandyangandcoldandheat.To
him,thegenerationofheaven,earth,andnaturewasentirelyduetothemovementandthecondensationofsuchether.Whereasetherhasafunctionofcondensation
andproduction,principleisdevoidofsuchamaterialfunction.
Principlemanifestsitselfontheoperationofetherasthelatterflowsupanddownandconglomerates.Whenexpressedintermsofthecycleofthefourseasonsofthe
year,therearetheetherofWoodofspring,theetherofFireofsummer,theetherofMetalofautumn,andtheetherofWaterofwintertheirprinciplesarethe
principleofOrigination(yanx),theprincipleofFlourish(hengy),theprincipleofAdvantage(liz),andtheprincipleofFirmness(chenaa).Theindefiniteground
providingprincipledisplaysitselfinthenaturalworldoffourseasonscorrespondingtoOrigination,Flourish,Advantage,andFirmness.16
LetusseeChuHsi'sownviewsaccordingtothedescriptionintheClassifiedConversationsofMasterChu:
Inthebeginningofheavenandearth,thereexistedonlytheyinetherandtheyangether.Thisetherunderwentrotarymovement.Asitsspeedincreased,agreatdealofsediment
wassealedinside,andhavingnoplacetogo,thesedimentcametoformtheearthatthecenter.Theclearerpartofether,ontheotherhand,cametoformthesky,sun,moon,and
stars.Stayingoutsideoftheearth,theyperpetuallygoroundit.Theearth,lyingatthecenter,doesnotmove.Nevertheless,itdoesnotlieunderheaven.17

AlthoughthisviewofChuHsiwasgreatlyinfluencedbyChangTsai(ChangHengch',ab10201077),itischaracteristicinthathepropoundsakindofnebular
hypothesisbymaintainingtherotationoftheearthandcentripetalforce.Hefurtherstates,
Inthebeginningofheavenandearth,whentheywerestillundifferentiatedandinstateofchaos,therewereonlywaterandfire.Presumablythepartwherethesedimentsfrom
waterpiledupcametoformtheearth.Ifoneclimbstoahighspotandviewsthemountains,theyinvariablyrepresenttheformofwaves,whichundoubtedlysuggestthatthe
waterhaddriftedinthisway.However,wedonotknowwhensolidificationofearthtookplace.Atfirstitwasexceedinglysoftwhereaslateritcametobesolidified.18

Page162

ThisimageofthebeginningofheavenandearthconceivedbyChuHsiwasexceedinglyvivid.Hethoughtthattheearthdriftedinthecenterwhilewatersurroundedit
anditsoutskirtsconjoinedwithheaven.Accordingtohim,theonlyreasonwhytheearthstaysinthecenterwithoutfallingisthatthewholeskysurroundingitis
constantlyrotating.ChuHsifurthercomparedthecelestialspheretotwobowlsjoiningtogether,callingthejointtheredpath(ch'ihtaoac'equator')andthepathofthe
suntheyellowpath(huangtaoad).Moreover,heavenwasthoughttorotatewithboththeSouthandNorthpolesasaxes.19
Furthermore,ChuHsicalculatedindetailthemovementsofthesun,moon,andfixedstars,andsupportedthetheoryofsevenintercalarymonthsinnineteenyears.
TheformulasofcalculationareshowninFigure1.
ChuHsialsomadedetailedobservationsonthewaxingandwaningofthemoonbyadoptingShenKuo'sae(10291093)theory,touchingalsoontheproblemofsolar
andlunareclipes.21
InalettertoTs'aiYan(Ts'aiPoching,af11561236),ChuHsivirtuallydevisedaplanetarium.
Openholesonalargeglobesoastomakethemlooklikestars,andcutthepartoftheglobethathidesthosestars(theportioninsideacircledrawnwitharadiusat
1rotationofthesun(1solaryear)

1rotationofthemoon(1lunaryear)

1rotationofthemoon12(1lunaryear)

intercalarydays

intercalarydaysin19years

7intercalarymonthsin19years20

Figure1

Page163
36fromtheSouthPole)likethemouthofanearthenpot.ThenattachashortaxistotheNorthPoletomakethegloberotateandashortrodonthenorthsideoftheSouthPoleto
sustainthemouthofthepot.Finally,placeafourleggedladderatthemouth,andenteringinsidetheglobe,layaboardattheendoftheladderhorizontallytothenorthandlook
upattheholesonthewalloftheglobeandtheyareopenedinsuchawayastoresembletheactualstars.22

Asitisevidentfromtheabove,ChuHsiclearlyperceivedthatmovementsofthecelestialbodymaintainedorderandharmonyaccordingtoperpetualprinciplesand
laws,whicharenothingbutthemanifestationofthegroundprovidingprincipleoftheGreatUltimate.Preciselybecauseofitsindefinitecharacter,itmanifestsitselfas
theprinciplethatgivesordertothenaturalworld.ChuHsidefinedthegroundprovidingprincipleoftheGreatUltimateassoijanchihkuag(thebasicprincipleofall
thingsandtheirlaws)andperpetualprinciplesandlawsassotangjanchihtseah(theprinciplethatmakesthingswhattheyshouldbe).Thelatter,accordingtoChu
Hsi,ismanifestedinthehumanaswellasthenaturalworld.
Man
Howdidmancometoexist,andwhatformofexistencedoesheassume?ChuHsimaintainedthatmanwasfirstformedbyevolutionsoftheether,butonceformed,
hepropagatesgenerationaftergenerationinthesameimagebymeansofgerms.23
ManisendowedwiththegroundprovidingprincipleoftheGreatUltimateatthetimeheisbornintotheworld.Thisprinciplebecomeshisnature,determininghis
strength(chienai),obedience(shunaj),humanity(jenak),righteousness(ial),propriety(liam),andwisdom(chihan).Theetherofmanconglomeratesintohisbody
equippedwithorgans,withthedistinctionofmaleandfemale,andpossessingvariousfeelingssuchascommiseration,shameanddislike,deferenceandcompliance,
rightandwrong,pleasure,anger,sorrow,joy.Manbecomesasageoramediocritydependingonwhethertheetherhereceivesatthetimeofhisbirthispureor
impure.24
Metaphoricallyspeaking,justasagemstoneinclearwaterglitters,whereasthatincontaminatedwaterisinvisible,man'snature,althoughthesamewhenendowed,
differsaccordingtothedispositionofthosewhoreceiveit.Thequalitiesofhumanity,righteousness,propriety,andwisdom,forinstance,areproperlymanifestedin
somepeopleandnotdirectlyinothers.Thisiswhatcausesmaneithertobeasageoramediocrity.25
Aswehaveseenbefore,themovementsofcelestialbodiesareexceedinglyregular,conformingtoperpetualprinciplesandlaws.Evennaturalphenomenaofheaven
andearth,however,arenotalwaysreliable,occasionallyviolating"theprinciplethatmakesthingswhattheyshouldbe"inminutepointsasexemplifiedbythecasualties
anddamageswroughtbynaturaldisasterssuch

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26

asanunusualchangeofweather. Thisbeingthecase,althoughsaintsandsagesmayfullymasterandpractice"theprinciplethatmakesmanwhatheshouldbe,"
mediocritiesarealwaysexposedtothedangerofviolatingthatprinciple.Thatis,however,bynomeanstheproperstateinwhichmanshouldbe.
ChuHsithereforeseeks"theprinciplethatmakesmanwhatheshouldbe,"andconcludesthat"theprinciplethatmakesthingswhattheyshouldbe"manifestedinthe
naturalworldisalsoapplicabletothehumanworld.Forinstance,justastheprinciplesofOrigination,Flourish,Advantage,andFirmnesscorrespondtotheethersof
Wood,Fire,Metal,andWaterinnature,sodothenatureofhumanity,righteousness,propriety,andwisdomcorrespondtothefeelingsofcommiseration,shameand
dislike,deferenceandcompliance,andrightandwronginman.27Here,too,wediscoverthatnatureandmancanbeunderstoodaccordingtothesamepattern.Thus,
humanity,righteousness,propriety,andwisdomarethefundamentalsoftheprinciplethatmakesmanwhatheshouldbe.Besidesthese,however,therearecertain
subsidiaryprinciplessuchasclearnessinseeing,distinctivenessinlistening,respectfulnessinappearance,agreeablenessinspeech,aswellasrighteousnessbetween
rulerandtheruled,affectionbetweenparentandchild,attentiontoseparatefunctionsbetweenhusbandandwife,orderamongseniorsandjuniors,andtruthfulness
amongfriends.Theseareallregardedastheprinciplethatmakesmanwhatheshouldbe.Thereare,ofcourse,subsidiaryprinciplesgoverningdailyconductsuchas
dressing,eating,acting,andresting.28
Theprinciplesthatmakemanwhatheshouldbe,whichincludehumanity,righteousness,propriety,wisdom,andsoon,arethekeytomaintainingorderandharmony
inthehumanworld.Ifso,"theprinciplethatmakesmanwhatheshouldbe"musthaveabasisthattranscendshumantemper,feeling,anddesires.Thatisthenatureof
man,whichunifiesalltheprinciplesthatmakesmanwhatheshouldbe,andthisnature,understoodmetaphysically,istheGreatUltimate.Theindefiniteground
providingprincipleoftheGreatUltimateismanifestedinthehumanworldastheprinciplethatmakesmanwhatheshouldbesuchashumanity,righteousness,
propriety,wisdom,andsoon.
Ifman'snatureandemotionswerealwaysinharmony,cultivationofmindwouldbeunnecessary.Inreality,however,theyfrequentlycontradicteachother.Thus,the
methodofcultivatingthehumanmindistorestoreharmonybetweenhumannatureandemotionbyovercomingallthecontradictionsbetweenthem.
Whatistobenotedhere,however,isthattheconsciousnessoforiginalsinasseeninChristianityismissinginChuHsi'stheoryorChinesethoughtingeneral.
Furthermore,thereisnogapbetweenmanandthegroundprovidingprincipleoftheGreatUltimateasthereisinthecasebetweenmanandGodinChristianity.Itis
notthatadivinebeingcalledtheGreatUltimatecreatesmanandthemyriadbeings.

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SincethegroundprovidingprincipleoftheGreatUltimate,whentheemotionsofpleasure,anger,sorrow,andjoyarenotactivated,isinherentinthehumanmindas
nature,itissufficient,incultivatingone'smind,justtograspandholdthisnaturewithoutexercisingthesenses.Furthermore,whentheemotionsareabouttobe
activated,itisnecessarytoconsiderconsciouslyanddiscernwhethersuchemotionalmovementcomplieswiththeprinciplethatmakesmanwhatheshouldbe.
Althoughman'snatureandemotionsmayconflictwitheachotheratthisstage,mancanultimatelyachieveharmonythroughthecultivationofhismind.29
Aregrasping,holding,anddiscerningsufficient?Inordertomaketheemotionsconformwithone'snature,itisnecessarytoknowthecriteriafordiscerningthegood
fromevil.Hence,ChuHsi,interpretingtheinvestigationofthings(kowuao)intheGreatLearningastheinvestigationofprinciples(ch'iungliap),proposedthe
learningofch'iungliasasciencetostudytheprinciplesthiswastobedoneobjectivelybyreviewingtheknowledgethereof.30Suchpursuitoftheprinciplesofall
thingsandmattersthroughreflectionanddiscernment,whichhasascientificcharacter,wasapowerfulweaponagainsttheMeditationSchoolofBuddhismsincesuch
aprinciplewasunknowntothem.
ItwasprobablyimpossibleforChuHsi,asagovernmentofficial,tocarryouthisofficialdutieswithoutthismethodofinvestigationofprinciplethroughreflectionand
discernment.Hisaccomplishmentsinestablishinggranariesforfaminerelief,settingapatternforcultivatingpaddyrice,organizingmeasuresagainstfamine,formulating
aplanforlandreform,andrecommendingvariousmeasuresindomesticandforeignaffairswerecloselyrelatedtothescienceoftheinvestigationofprinciple.31Asa
scholar,hisspiritoftheinvestigationofprinciplewasanessentialelementinhisstudyoftheClassics.
Wemustinvestigatetheprinciplesthatmakethingswhattheyshouldbeinthedailyworldofmanandnaturesuchinvestigationbelongstothereflectivecognizanceof
ourmind.Thenwecangraspthebasicprincipleofallthingsandtheirlawssuchunderstandingbelongstotheenlightenmentofourmind.Atthispoint,weattaina
pure,emptyandvastworldwhichisfilledwiththeGreatUltimateorgroundprovidingprinciple.Inhisepistemology,ChuHsipropagatedthegroundproviding
principleasthebasicprincipleofallthingsandtheirlaws,whileinhisontology,hepropagateditastheGreatUltimate.TheGreatUltimateorthebasicprincipleofall
thingsandtheirlawsmanifestsitselfinallthingsandmattersastheprinciplesthatmakethingswhattheyshouldbe.Thisisthedualcharacterofprinciple(li)inChu
Hsi'sphilosophy.Manyscholars,includingLoCh'inshun,WangYangmingaq(WangShoujen,14721529),andTaiChen,couldnotunderstandthisdualcharacter
ofprinciple.
MatteoRicci(15521610),theauthoroftheT'ienchushihiar(TrueideaofGod),assertedthatGodwastheoriginandthefoundationofallthings,32and

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thattherealbodiessuchasheaven,earth,spirits(kueishen ),andmanwereindependent,whiletheformsorprinciplessuchasthefivecardinalvirtues,thefive
colors,andthefivemusicalscalesweredependent.IfwethusinterprettheGreatUltimateasprincipleorform,theGreatUltimatewasnottheoriginandthe
foundationofallthings.33Furthermore,RicciacceptedtheHeavenlyGod(Shangt'ien,atShangtiau)intheClassicsofancientChinaandequatedtheChristianGod
withthisHeavenlyGod.34ForthisreasonRicciupheldhisCatholictheology.TheChristianGodhaspersonalityandcreatedeverything,hethought,whileChuHsi's
groundprovidingprincipleoftheGreatUltimatehadnopersonalityanddidnotcreateeverything.Instudyingcomparativephilosophy,werecognizethedifferential
charactersofthethoughtbetweenEastandWest,butmyreligiousexperiencetellsmethattheChristianGodandtheGreatUltimate,whethertheyhavepersonalityor
not,areallthesame,sincetheprinciplesofourdailyconductintheactualworldarecontrolledbythem.
Conclusion
Letmeconcludebybrieflyrestatingmymainpoints.
Theprincipleofwuchierht'aichiispostulatedasthefoundationofnatureandman.Thisgroundprovidingprinciple,althoughindefinitebyitself,ismanifestedin
manandnatureassotangjanchihtseor''principlesthatmakeman(nature)whathe(it)shouldbe"preciselybecauseofitsnonexistentcharacter.Inshort,lior
principlepossessesadualcharacterofsoijan(foundation)andsotangjan(principleandlaw).
WhileChuHsi'stheoryresemblesMeditationBuddhism,ontheonehand,inthatitteachescultivationofthemindbeforetheemotionsarearousedandenlightenment
throughsuddenpenetration,ithas,ontheotherhand,aprogressiveandintellectualcharacterinthatitproposesascientificmethod,encouragingtheinvestigationofthe
principlesthatmakethingswhattheyshouldbe.
AlthoughChuHsiemployselaboratelogicbecauseofhislongsecludedlife,hisphilosophyispracticalinnaturebecauseofhispositionasagovernmentofficialofthe
Sungdynasty.
ComparingEasternandWesternphilosophyweseedifferencesincharacterbetweenGodandtheGreatUltimate,butmyreligiousexperienceteachesmethatthey
arethesame.
Notes
1.Postscriptto"T'aichit'ushuochieh"av[Commentaryonthe"ExplanationoftheDiagramoftheGreatUltimate"]inChouLiench'ichiaw[CollectedworksofChou
Tuni],(Kuohsehchipents'ungshuax[BasicSinologicalStudies]ed.1937,)p.29.

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ay

2.ChuTzuwenchi [CollectionofliteraryworksofMasterChu],(SPTKed.),42:14a.
3.ChouLiench'ichi,p.4.
4.ChuTzuylei(Taipei:ChengchungazBookCo.,1970),2:6b,p.30.
5.Lunychichuba[CollectedcommentariesontheAnalects],(Taipei:IwenbbPress,1978),1:8a,commentaryontheAnalects,1:2.
6.ChuTzuylei,1:3a,p.5.
7.ChouLiench'ichi,p.2.
8.Kunchihchibc[Knowledgepainfullyacquired],(Kyoto:ChubunbdPress,1975),ch.8,pt.1,6a.
9.Mengtzutzuisuchengbe[CommentaryonthemeaningsoftermsintheBookofMencius]inTaiTungyanHsienshengch'anchibf[CompleteworksofTai
Chen],(Taipei:TahuabgBookCo.,1978),p.289.
10.ChuTzuwenchi,4:10a.
11.Ibid.,4:10b.
12.ChouLiench'ichi,p.27.
13.Ibid.ThesentencesaboutthesameoriginandnogaparequotationsfromCh'engI'sbh(10331107)prefacetohisIchuanbi[CommentaryontheBookof
Changes].
14.ChuTzuwenchi,36:3b.
15.Ibid.,36:10ab.
16.TheFourVirtuesofthefirsthexagramintheBookofChanges.Lunyhuowenbj[QuestionsandanswersontheAnalects](Kyoto:ChubunPress,1977),
1:7bChuTzuwenchi,67:22b.
17.ChuTzuylei,1:4b,p.8.
18.Ibid.,1:5b,p.10.
19.SeeTomoedaRyutaro*,Shushinosisokeiseibk[TheformationofMasterChu'sthoughts],(Tokyo:Shunjusha,bl1969),pp.303304.
20.Ibid.,pp.309310ChuTzuylei,2:4ab,pp.2526.
21.Shushinosisokeisei,pp.311313.
22.ChuTzuwenchi,supplementarycollection,3:7b.
23.ChouLiench'ichi,pp.312.
24.Tahsehhuowenbm[QuestionsandanswersontheGreatLearning],(Kyoto:ChubunPress,1977),3atheprefacetotheTahsehchangchbn(Taipei:I
wenPress,1978),1a.
25.ChuTzuylei,4:15ab,pp.117118.
26.Chungyungchangchbo[CommentaryontheDoctrineoftheMean],(Taipei:IwenPress,1978),12:8a.
27.ChuTzuwenchi,67:22b23a,"Jenshuo"bp[Treatiseonhumanity],74:20ab21aand"Yshanchiangi"bq[LectureatYshan]Lunyhuowen,1:7b.
28.Tahsehhuowen,19ab,commentaryonch.5oninvestigationofthingsandextensionofknowledgeShihchichanbr[CollectedcommentariesontheBook
ofOdes],(SPTKed.),18:24b,commentonodeno.260,Chungyunghuowen,9a.
29.ChuTzuwenchi,67:12ab,"Ifaweifashuo"bs[Treatiseontheemotionsbeforeandaftertheyarearoused].
30.Tahsehchangch,2ab,6ab.
31.SeeTomoeda,Shushinosisokeisei,ch.3,sec.2,"TheoryofkowuandPoliticalPractices."

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32.T'ienchushihi(Taipei:Kuofangyenchiuyanch'upanpu, 1967),pt.1,7a.
33.Ibid.,pt.1,15b16a.
34.Ibid.,pt.1,20ab.
Glossary

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12
ChuHsi'sMethodologyandTheoryofUnderstanding
ChungyingCheng
SignificanceandMethodologyof"InvestigatingThings"
AlthoughChuHsi'sphilosophyistraditionallycalledthephilosophyorlearningofprinciple(lihseha),thegoalofhisphilosophyistorealizethepotentialnatureof
mindandeventuallytorealizethetruenatureofheavenandearthortheWay(Taob).Inthissensehisphilosophyshouldbemoreproperlytitledphilosophyorlearning
oforiginalsubstance(pent'ichihhsehc).Butthereisneverthelessgreatsignificanceincallinghisphilosophythatoflid(principle).Thissignificanceliesinmarkingout
bothamethodologicalinvolvementandanontologicalcommitmentasdesignatedbytheterm"principle."Aswehaveseen,liisnodoubtontologicallydenotative:itis
theorderingandtheresultingorderedstructureofathing.Butwealsopointoutthatthereisasubjectorientedmeaningforli:liistheorderingactivityofmind,and
consequentlyinthissensewecansaythatmindexhibitsliasafunctionandasacapacity.Wemaynaturallyconceiveliinthissenseasrationalityorintelligence.Itis
theinvestigatingpowerofmind.Itiscomposedofperceptive,discernmental,judgmental,andthinkingactivitiesofmind,andyetitremainsaunityofallthese.This
irreducibleunityofmindiswhatprovidesmindtheinexhaustibleresourcestocontinueitsmanymentalactivities.Wemaysimplyregardmindashavingboththe
analyticalandthesyntheticcapacities:intheemploymentofthesecapacitiesorderandstructurearerevealedandtheirsignificancesandrelevancesrecognized.Lican
bethereforesaidtobethelogicalscientificoranalyticalsyntheticactivityandcapacityofmind.
Athirdsignificanceofliisthis:Liistheresultingconceptorsystemofconceptsofintellectualactivitiesofmind,whichnotonlyrevealtheorderandorderedstructures
ofthings,butprovideclarityforwhatevercorrespondingideasthereareinone'smind.Aswehaveseen,mindinitsontologicaldimensionhasliasitsnature,ormore
precisely,hasprincipleandvitality(lich'ie)asitsnature(hsingf).Thusliinherentinmindcanbesaidtobeclarifiedinlightoftheresultingconceptualsystemsfromthe
mindactivities.Thislatentli,however,asweshallsee,ismorecomplicated.Itmustbedialecticallycon

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ceivedasitisrelatedtotheultimateliortheGreatUltimate(T'aichi )inChuHsi'sphilosophy.Itistheinternalli,capableofbeingdeveloped,realized,madeexplicit,
andfullyintegratedonbothconceptualandontologicallevels.
Fourth,wemayintroduceanothermeaningofli:liasthepatternofdesignor"patternoforganization."Inthissenseliistheprotoideaformantoconstructanartifact
suchasafanorabed.Inthissenseliisthetechnologicaldesignthatunderliesallscientificandtechnologicalortechnicalinventions.1Liinthissenseisanintentional
planandaprocedureforcreatinganorderorastructure.
Finally,thereisliinthesenseoforderingandorganizingourconductandsociety.Liinthissenseisthevalueandnormthatwerecognizeasessentialtofulfillingthe
ontologicalgoalofhumanlifeandthelifeofsociety.Itconsistsofthosenomologicalaxiologicalprinciplesthatweusetoshapeandtransformourlifeandsociety.Liin
thissensehasbothanontologicalandapragmaticdimension:itisontologicalasitpresupposesrecognitionofanultimateorderandstructureintheontologicalsense.
Itispragmaticasitcanapplythroughtheagencyofmindtopracticeforguidanceoflife.ThereisnodoubtthatChuHsiandinfactallNeoConfucianistshave
conceptionofliinthissense.Forthemliisconsideredthelioflifeandthereforemoralandethicalprincipleparexcellence.Theyalsoconceivemoralnormsand
principlesofconductasallrootedintheontologyofthegreatultimateortheTao.
If,followingChuHsi,weaddthenotionofliasindicatingthetotalandultimaterealityandthesourceofallthings,wemaysaythatthereistheultimateontological
notionofli.Thenwemaysummarizethemeaningsandtypesofliasfollows:
1.ontologicallioftheGreatUltimate
2.objectiveliofthingsorder,structure,andlawsofthings
3.rationalliofmindtheorderingandanalyticalsyntheticactivitiesofmind
4.latentliofmindtheideasandconceptsinmind
5.thetechnologicalliofmindandthingsdesignofartifacts
6.nomologicalliofmindconductpatternofmoralconductandcorrectsocialbehavior
Thesesixmeaningsandtypesofliarerelatedinafundamentalnetworkthatcanbesaidtobearchitechtonic.Inthefirstplace,allliareultimatelyrootedinthe
ontologicalli,whichprovidestherationaleforthedistinctionsofli.Inthismodeofontologicalunderstanding,liistheobjectiveprinciplesinherentinthings,andyetis
conceivedbyChuHsiasultimatelyone.Thisisthedoctrineofliifenshuh(liisoneandisdistributedindifferentthings).ChuHsiarticulatedthisdoctrineinthe
followingstatements:"liifenshu.Ifwespeakofheaven,earthandtenthousandthingstogether,thereisonlyoneli.Whenwecometoindividualpersons,thereis
oneliforeachperson."2Askedabout

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i

whethereachoftenthousandthingshasaliandiftenthousandlicomefromthesamesource,ChuHsisaid,"Onegeneraltaoli isonetaoli.Itislikerain.Thebig
holecontainswaterinthebighole,thesmallholecontainswaterinthesmallhole.Thewoodhaswateronthewoodthegrasshaswateronthegrass.Thoughin
differentplaces,itisthesamewater."3Thesetwostatementsseemtoidentifytheonenessofliintwodifferentsenses:liasuniversalconcreteandliasuniversal
abstract.Inthefirstsense,liistheprincipleaccordingtowhichthetotalityofthingscomesintobeing,andeachthinginthetotalitypartakesofthisprinciple.Inthis
sensetheliisindividuatedineachthingandyetitisthesamelithatindividuateseachthinginthesecondsense,liistheuniversalpropertyeachthingexemplifies:thus
onecanspeakofthe"samewater"forallwaters.Whatindividuatesindividualwatersisnotthewateritself:Itissomethingelse,namelythech'i,jasweshallsee.It
seemsthatChuHsihasconceivedlisometimesasconcreteuniversalandsometimesasabstractuniversal,andthiscreatesunexpecteddifficultiesforhismetaphysics
ofli.Insofarasheconceivedliasbasicallyone,yetnotdivisibleandinrest,heconceivedliasbasicallyauniversalabstractbutinsofarashewantedtotreatlias
logicallyprimaryandpriortoch'iastheprincipleofchangeandtransformation,heseemedtoconceiveliasaconcreteuniversal,namelyassomethingontologically
selfsubsistentandselfcontained.Ineithercaseitisclearthatliisconceivedastheprincipleofunityandidentitybywhicheverythingcanbesaidtosharethesameli.
Evendifferentthingsmayhavedifferentli,buttheontologiesofthesedifferentliarethesametheyhavethelinessofliandthereforeareabstractlythesamebutthey
arealsoconcretelythesame,foreachliisthesameultimatelithatgivesrisetoeachindividualli.ChuHsiappealedtotheCh'ankBuddhistimage"onemooncaststhe
sameprintintenthousandwaters"(Yehyinwanch'uanl).ThisimageoccursintheCh'anpoemYungchiachengtaokom(YungchiasongofvindicationofTao):
"Onemoonuniversallyappearsinallwaters,allwatermoonsareabsorbedinonemoon(inthesky)''toillustratethedoctrineof'liifenshu.'4Thegistofthisimageis
thatoneprincipledividesintomanyprinciplesyetretainsthesameidentityoftheoneprinciple,andthusmanyprinciplesareunifiedinoneprinciple.Itleadstothe
Huayennconclusionthatonepenetratesmanyandmanyunifiesintoone,sothatthereisinterpenetrationofoneandmany.Buttheimageleavesnodoubtthatthe
manyretainingthequalitativesamenessastheonearenotqualitativelymanybutonlynumericallymany.Thusalldifferencesinthingsaremerelynumericaldifferences
intermsofli,andthereishomogeneityofliamongallthings.
Itisinthissenseofprincipleofultimateidentityforallthings,aswellasinthesenseofprincipleofonenessoftotalityofallthings,thatliistheT'aichi(theGreat
Ultimate).Hesays,"TheT'aichiisnotathing,itisinyinyango(passiveandactivecosmicforces)whereyinyangisitisinwuhsingp(theFivePowers,Metal,
Wood,Water,Fire,andEarth)wherewuhsingisitisinallthingswhereallthingsare.Itisonlyali.Butinsofarasitreachestheulti

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5

mate,itistheT'aichi." Therefore,theultimateliistheT'aichi.Itistheultimateidentityofthingsandtheultimateunitywhichthingsshare.Itisinthissensethat
"everypersonhasaT'aichiandeverythinghasaT'aichi,"6becauseeverypersonandeverythinghasalithatmakesitwhatitisandthatrepresentsthesameultimate
li.
Fromthedialecticalpointofview,mindandthingsmayberegardedastheyangandyinoftheT'aichiwhichcontainstheontologicalli.Therefore,theobjectiveliof
thingsandthelatentliofmindcanbesaidtobemutuallyoppositeandyetmutuallycomplementarytoeachotherandinthissensemutuallydependent.Tosaythat
theyareoppositeistosaythatonebelongstotheobjectiveorderofthingsexternaltomindandtheotherbelongstothesubjectivestructureofmindapartfrom
externalthings.Yettheyarecomplementary,foreachrequirestheotherformakingpossibletheactualityofknowledgeofthingsinmindwhichcorrespondstoreality.
Thustheyareorganicallyinterrelatedasifbelongingtoastructuredtotality.Ontologicallyspeaking,itmightbesaidthattheyshareonestructureincommon,andthis
shouldexplainwhymindmaydevelopknowledgeofthingsandthingscanbeunderstoodbymind.Althoughthereissomethingthatmindandthingsmaybesaidto
share,ittakestheactivityofmindtomanifestthissomethingandthustoextendandelaborateit.Thisactivityofmindcanbesaidtobetherationalliofthemind,
whichissubjectivelytherationallogicalmethodologicalormethodologizingfunctioning,andwhichresultsinthecreationofthelogicandmethodologyofthinkingand
sciences.Whenthisintellectualactivityofmindappliestothings,itgivesrisetoknowledgeofthingsandthereforerealizestheobjectiveliofthings.Whenitappliesto
mindinreferencetotheobjectiveliofthings,mindcomestounderstandingintermsofacquiringideas,concepts,andviews.Butmustmindapplytothingsinorderto
haveunderstandingofmind?Ormustmindapplytominditselfinordertohaveunderstandingofthings?Ifwerememberthedialecticalstatementthat"motionandrest
hasnoinceptionandyinandyanghasnobeginning,"7thenwecanseethatitisfutiletopursuethisquestion,fortherecannotbeanydefiniteanswers.Thefactisthat
sincemindandthingshavesharedanunderlyingontologicalunityandanimplicitontologicalstructure,theyhavemutualinfluencesoneachother.
Followingacommonviewofcontemporaryphilosophicalhermeneutics,8wemaysaythatmindhasapreunderstandingofthingssothatitmayhavedeeper
understandingofitselfandbecauseofthisdeeperunderstandingofminditself,itcanfurtherapplytothingsandacquireadeeperunderstandingofthingsandthiscan
continueadinfinitum.Similarly,themindcanhaveapreunderstandingofitselfthatneedstobedevelopedthroughthepreunderstandingofthingsbymind.This
interactiveandmutuallyreinforcingprocessbetweentheobjectiveliofthingsandthelatentliofmindindeedformsahermeneuticalcircle.9Asaresultknowledgeand
truthasrealizedbymindisindeedaninterplaybetweenmindandthings.Thishermeneuticalinterplayis

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madepossiblebytheontologicalunityunderlyingboth,andtheinterplaybecomesnecessaryinlightoftheontologicallioftheGreatUltimate.Hencethehermeneutical
circlebetweentheliofmindandtheliofthingsisbasicallyontohermeneutical,thatis,hermeneuticalormeaningdeterminingandmeaninginterpretiveonthebasisof
ontologicalunderstanding.Forontohermeneuticsisnothingbutthepossibilityofontologicalinteractionandthepossibilityofmeaning,truth,andunderstandingbased
onontologyandontologicalinteraction.Itisclearthattheontohermeneuticalunderstandingofmindbywayofthingsandtheontohermeneuticalunderstandingof
thingsbywayofmindbecomeoneifmindcomestorealizetheontologicalsourceofthesetwo,andthuscomestounderstandingtheultimatetruthoftheultimate
realitythroughthedialecticsoftheunityanddivisionoftheGreatUltimate.Therationalliofmindbeginswiththeontohermeneuticalinteractionbetweenmindand
things,andbythisprocesstransformsitselfintoontologicalunderstandingoftheultimatereality.Thetechnologicalliofmindconsistsintheapplicationofknowledgeof
thingstothingsthemselves,whereasthenomologicalliofconductconsistsinapplyingknowledgeofmindtolifeandconduct.Botharepragmaticandpractical
aspectsoftheontohermeneuticalactivityofmindaswellastheontologicalinteractionbetweenmindandthings.
InlightoftheaboveanalysisofChuHsi'sunderstandingoftheontologicalliastheT'aichi,itisclearthatli(intheontologicalsenseoftheT'aichi)canbediversified
intodifferenttypesandordersofthings,whichconsequentlymanifestdifferenttypesandordersofli:theobjectiveli,therationalli,thelatentliofmind,the
technologicalli,andthenomologicalli.IfonequerieshowandwhythesefivetypesofliresultfromtheT'aichi,theanswercanonlybethattheyformtheverybasis
forunderstandingnaturalobjects,mind(mindactivities),knowledge,inventionofthings(materialcivilizationandtechnology),andcreationofmoralsociety(spiritual
civilizationandvalues),orinotherwords,thesefivetypesofliproviderespectivedefinitionsofthenaturalsciences,thepsychologicalsciences,humanscienceand
philosophy,technologicalstudies,andmorals.ThesefivetypesofliareunifiedintheontologicallioftheT'aichiandyetexhibitanarchitectonicinterrelationship
whichispresupposedinthehumanunderstandingofmanandhisworld.Itisclearthattheobjectiveliofthingsaredisclosedinthefindingsofnaturalsciencesandthat
therationalliofmindcanbeobtainedonlythroughaprocessofpersonalintrospectionandtheselfreflectionofanindividualmind.Whilephilosophyandscienceas
systemsofconceptsandideasareresultsofthinkingandspeculationofmind,whicharedistinguishablefromtheprocessandactivitiesofthinking,theyarenottobe
identifiedwithengineeringdesignsinarchitecturalplanning,whichareintendedforaspecialpracticalend.Finallythenomologicalaxiologicallisimplyreferstoliof
normsandvalues,whicharethevitalconcernsofmoralphilosophyandsocialethics.
Inlightoftheaboveabstractdiscussionontherelationbetweenthesix

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typesofli,wecannowcorrectlyandfullyappreciatetherenowneddoctrineofkowu (investigatingthings)ofChuHsi.Thisdoctrine,whichappearsinthe
supplementstothecommentaryonkowuintheGreatLearning,says,
Thepropositionthatextensionofknowledgeconsistsininvestigationofthingsmeansthatifwewanttoextendourknowledge,wemustexhaust(fullyunderstand)theliof
thingsrightatthings(chiwuerhch'iungch'ilir).Fortheintelligenceofmind,itcanhaveallknowledge,andforallthingsunderheaven,thereisnonewithoutli.Itisbecauseli
hasnotbeenexhausted(fullyunderstood)thatknowledgeisnotcompleted.ThusthebeginningteachingoftheGreatLearningmusturgescholarstodothefollowing:With
regardtoallthingsunderheaven,toalwaysexhausttheliofthemonthebasisofthelimindalreadyknows,sothatitmayreachunderstandingoflitotheutmost.Onceonehas
exercisedeffortsinthiswayforlong,onewillallofasuddenintegrate(huojankuant'ungs)allli.Thenone'sknowledgewillcovertheoutsideandtheinside,thefineandthe
rough,ofthethings,andthegreatfunctionofmytotalmind(ch'ant'itayungt)willnotbeunilluminated.Thisiscalledwuk ouandthisistheutmostofknowledge.

Severalobservationsareinorder.First,itistobenoticedthatChuHsifollowedCh'engIch'uan(Ch'engI,v10331107)ininterpretingtheinvestigationofthingsas
fullyunderstanding(exhausting)theli(ch'iungli).10ButChuHsiishighlyinnovativeinsuggestingthatonehastofullyunderstandtheliofthingsrightatthings(chi
wuw).Thismeansthatoneshouldnotthinkofliasapartfromthingsnoronecanfullyunderstandtheliofthingswithoutcloselyinvestigatingthings.Toconfrontthings
isthebeginningofunderstandingtheliofthings.Thisagainimpliesthatoneshouldnotlookforthingsfarawayforinvestigation.Thingsathandthataregiveninlifeare
agoodstartingpointofinvestigation.ThusChuHsi'sproposalcontainsaneffectiveandconcreteprocedurewhichCh'engIch'uan'soriginalinterpretationlacks.
Second,ChuHsistressesexplicitlytheinnatecapacityforunderstandingandknowinginhumanmind,andsuggeststhatitisonlywhenthelihasnotbeenfully
understoodthattheknowledgeofmindisnotcomplete.Thissuggestionmeansthatch'iungliisnotsimplyfullunderstandingofli,butunderstandingofthefulllior
completeliofallthings.11Thequestioncanberaisedastowhetherfullunderstandingofliisthesameasunderstandingoffullli.Theanswerseemstometobethat
forChuHsitofullyunderstandliistohaveunderstandingoffullliandviceversa.Infact,ChuHsiemphasizestheimportanceoftheempiricalscopeofinvestigation,
forhesuggeststhatoneshouldinvestigateallthingsunderheaven,andthereforebelievesthatthelargerthescopeofone'sinvestigation,thebetterunderstandingof
thingsonewillhaveandthemorecompletetheknowledgeofmindwillbe.Thismeansthatch'iungliistowidenanddeepenone'sunderstandingofli.12ChuHsi
furtherstressestheimportanceofcontinuityofinvestigationandknowledge.Heurgesseekingunderstandingoftheliofthingsbasedonthelithatonecomestoknow.

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Knowledgeisthereforeconceivedasanevergrowingcircleofknowingtheli,andallliarelinkedtogethertoformaholisticunity.Thismeansthatknowledgeofliis
basicallyintegrationalandshouldbedevelopedasaninteractionandinterplaybetweenwhatoneknowsandwhatonecomestoknowintheprocessofinvestigation.
Thehermeneuticalcircleisimplicitlysuggested,butunfortunatelyithasnotbeenelaboratedonotheroccasions.
Finally,thenotionof"suddenintegration"(huojankuant'ung)ishighlysignificant.13Itsuggeststhattheeverenlargingcircleofinvestigatingandknowingisnota
matterofmechanicalandarithmeticalgrowthbutamatteroforganicandgeometricaldevelopment:Thelionehasdiscoveredintheprocessofinvestigationwill
soonerorlaterdawnuponthepotentialstructureofmindsothatmindmaycometoafullunderstandingofliaswellasanunderstandingofthecompleteliofallthings.
Thisalsosuggeststhattheimportantmatterofkowuisknowledgeinquality,notknowledgeinquantity,andthatthequantityinknowledgeinduecoursewithdue
backgroundwillleadtoqualityinknowledgesothatonecanreachapointoffullunderstandingofli.Thepossibilityofthisintegrationapparentlyisconditionalontwo
considerations:Allliareinterrelatedinanorganicunitybyunderstandingmoreandmoreofliinthings,onewillnaturallyreachapointofunderstandingtheunderlying
organicunityofliforallthings,furthermore,themindwithitslatentstructureoflicanbesaidtobeinclinedtoaholisticunderstandingofthings,andthereforeempirical
andparticularinvestigationswillforceadawningonthemind.Inthissensethelatentstructureofliwillbecomeawakenedtomindmindcanbesaidtopresentan
integratedpictureoftheli.
Apartfromthefirstorganicandthesecondaprioristicinterpretationofthisnotionofsuddenintegrationofli,wemayalsotakeathirdviewaconservativescientific
interpretation.Thesuddenintegrationoflicanbeconsideredasanaturaltheoreticalsystemizationongeneralizeddataonehascollectedandstudiedintheprocessof
inquiry,andthissystematizationwillnotonlyhavetheexplanatorypowertorelateallscatteredobservations,butwillprojectapervasiveexplanationofallthingsunder
intendedsurvey.Ineitheroftheseinterpretations,whatisclearisthatsuddenintegrationofliisadeepexperienceofmind,aswellasdeepexperienceofallthings,for
ChuHsi.Forinlightofthisexperience,notonlyarethesubtletiesoflifullygrasped,butthegreatfunctionofmindisfullyrealized.Thereisasenseofselfcontentand
selfsatisfactionforthisexperienceofsuddenintegration.ForthisreasonIwouldconsiderthisexperienceasresultingfromthefullinterplaybetweentheliofthings
andtheliinnateinmindorasatleastcontributingtosuchaninterplay.Thusinsofarasthisexperiencegivesrisetotheknowledgethatintegratesallliofthings,italso
givesrisetoanunderstandingofmindthatilluminatesthemind.ThereforeIwouldcallthisknowledgenotonlyintegrationalbutilluminational.Whenknowledgeisfully
integrated,andthusilluminating,knowledgewouldbecomplete.Sincethiscompletenesscannotbeunderstoodinaquantitativesense,itmustbeunderstoodina
highlyqualitative

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sense.Itisnolongerempiricalknowledgeorscientificknowledge,butknowledgeoftheGreatUltimateorthedialecticalknowledgeoftherealasthedialecticsof
unityanddivisionsuggests.Itistheontologicalknowledgeofliandliistheontologicalliofthings.Thesuddenintegrationofliinmindmaybesaidtorepresenta
dialecticaljumpanddialecticaltransformationofboththeliofthingsandtheunderstandingofit.Ontohermeneuticallyspeaking,onemaysuggestthatthe"sudden
integrationinmind"isadialecticalintegrationofmindandthingsinlightoftheirunityanddivisionasrootedinunderstandingoftheGreatUltimate.
InviewoftheaboveanalysisofthedoctrineofkowuofChuHsi,wecanseethatkowuasarationalactivityofmindactsasalinkbetweentheliofthingsandtheli
ofmind,whichmakesunderstandingpossiblebybringingtheliofthingstouncoveringtheliofmindandbringingtheliofmindtoilluminatingtheliofthings.This
activityofmindthereforecreatesanontohermeneuticalcirclebetweenmindandthingsthatinthecontinuingactivityofmindwilleventuallygrowandmaturetoafull
objectiveintegrationofliofthingsandafullsubjectiveintegrationofliinthings,andconsequentlyafullontologicalintegrationofliinthingsandliinmind.Thisisthe
ultimatepointwhenthekowureturnstotheontologicalunderstandingofthetotalandultimatetruththetruthoftheGreatUltimate.AsitistheGreatUltimatethat
givesrisetothekowuactivityofmind,14thekowuofmindandthepotentialinfluenceoftheGreatUltimatealsoformarelationthatcanbeonlyunderstoodasthe
ontohermeneuticalcircleofunderstanding.Inthisview,kowuhasasitsgoaltherealizationoftheontologicalunderstandingoftheGreatUltimatebywayofthe
integrationofknowledgegeneratedbytheontohermeneuticalcirclebetweenmindandthings,whichisrooteddialecticallyintheGreatUltimate.Thusifwecallthe
GreatUltimatetheoriginalsubstance(pent'ix),andlithesubstanceofthings(wut'iyorshiht'iz),andtheliofmindthesubstanceofmind(hsint'iaa),thenkowuis
theontologicallyrootedlogosofmind,whichleadstoafullintegrationbetweensubstanceofthingsandsubstanceofmindinthefullawarenessandilluminationofthe
originalsubstance.Allrelationsamongthembecomeontohermeneuticalcircles.Wecanthenrepresentthisontologicalstructureofkowuandthisontohermeneutical
activityofmindasshowninFigure1below.
MyanalysisofthemethodologyofkowuinChuHsiisobviouslybasedonmyunderstandingofthestructureofthekowusituationandtherelationofmindtothings:
itneednotbewhatChuHsiactuallyhasinmind.Myanalysisisthereforeinevitablyontohermeneuticalanddialectical,butthisisneverthelesswhatacloseand
intimateunderstandingcannotavoidbeing.Furthermore,myanalysiscanbesaidtoilluminatewhatChuHsisaysonkowu,ashisstatementsonkowuequally
exemplifymyfullanalysisofkowu.
ThroughouttheChuTzuyleiab(ClassifiedconversationsofMasterChu)ChuHsistressestheorganicunityofallli,whicharescatteredoverallthings.Forexample,
hesaysthat"Forallthousandsofaffairs,theyallbelongtoone

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Figure1
15

li." Healsopointsoutthatforallthingsintheworldoneshouldtrytofirstunderstandtheliofthem,andthenonewillunderstandtheunityofli.16Heusestheterm
"lihui"acforunderstandingtheliofdifferentiatedthingsandusestheterm"huit'ung"adforunderstandingtheorganicunityandinterrelatednessofliinthings.17He
stressestheformerasrequiringgreatefforts,18butconsidersthelatterasnaturallytakingplaceaftergreateffortsaremadeandaccumulatedforindividual
investigationsofthings.Inthismanner,ChuHsifollowstheConfucianidealof"broadscholarshipfirstandsimpleideaslater"(hsienpohouyehae)andtheConfucian
mottooflearningfrombelowsothatonewillreachthe''Taoabove"(hsiahsehshangtaaf).ThestressChuHsiputsoninvestigationofexternalthingsistruly
remarkable.Heurgesstudentstoseethe"actualsubstanceofthings"(shiht'i),andthismeanstoseelightsintermsofthingsheevensuggestsexperimentingwith
boatsandcarriagesinordertounderstandhowboatsmaynotmoveonland.19Followingthisline,ChuHsi'skowunotionmightbesaidtoembodysomegermic
seedsofscientificexperimentalismandpositiveempiricismfromwhicharigorousobjectivemethodologyofsciencecanbedeveloped.Inprovidinghisempirical
explanationofnaturalphenomena(suchaseclipses,fossilization,thunderingrain),20ChuHsihasdemonstratedanaturalisticmind.Heisabletousedialecticalthinking
onthingsingeneraltodrawinferencesandhypothesesregardingthepossibilityofthemovementoftheearthaccordingtothemovementofheaven.21Heconceivesthe
movementofheavenassimilartotheturningofagrinder(moag)andrendersanaturalisticpictureoftherelationbetweenheavenandearth.22Mostfrequently,
however,ChuHsiseemstostressunderstandingliinalogicalandmentalisticsense.Hesaysthat"Regardinggeneralthingsintheworld,thereareinfinitesubtle
meaningsandreasons(iliah)itishardtomakeajudgmentoftheirbeginningsandendingsinonestatementoneshouldseethemcrystalclearasnotobstructingeach
other.Thisisthetestofinvestigatingthings."23
Apparently,ChuHsispeakslikealogician.Hewishestoseetruthsasasys

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tembothconsistentandcomplete.Hewantstoconsiderliinallaspectsandtoreachastateof"centrality,correctnessandpeacefulness"(chungchenghop'ingai).24
Healsogivesmoreexamplesofkowuintermsoflearningmoralvirtuessuchasbenevolence,righteousness,25loveforone'sparents,propriety,anddistinction
betweenrightandwrong.26Intermsofreadingbooks,thethingsinvestigatedbecomementalfeelingsandnaturalpromptingsofthehearttheyareinternalthingsof
themindsubstance,notthemoreexternalthingsoftheworld.Inthisspirit,kowuiseventuallyconceivedas"illuminatingthemind"(minghsinaj).Hesays,"Kowuis
forilluminatingthismind."27"Liresidesinthings,buttheirfunctionactuallyresidesinthemind.''28Thus,kowuleadstoanextensionofknowledgeinthesenseof
"fulfillingthepotentialnatureofmind"(chinhsinak)ofMencius.29Itbecomesameansofunifyingmindandli,andliinthemindbecomes"themoonwhichprojectsits
imageintoallthings."30Thisisthestateoftheintegrationofliwhichisatotalmentalexperience.ThatChuHsifollowsthislineofthought(particularlyinhislaterlife)
perhapsisduetohiseffortstoavoidtheexternalizingtendencyofkowu.ThisisperhapsaresultofhisencounterwithLuHsiangshan(LuChiuyan,al11391193).
Butheforgetsthatindoingsolialsobecomesinternalizedandthestudyoftheliinthingsbecomesastudyoftheliinmind.Arationalsystemoflogicandscience
cannotbedevelopedonthisground.Thismeansthatthecurtailmentoftheexternalizingtendencyinkowuandtherationalizingtendencyinfullyunderstandingli
(ch'iungli)haspreventedChuHsifromevolvingscienceandlogiconthebasisofthetotalmethodologyofkowu.Yetthismethodologycontainstheseedsforsuch
anevolution.31
Methodologicallyspeaking,twomoreobservationscanbemadeonChuHsi'stheoryofkowuasamethodforreachingtruthandunderstandingli.First,ChuHsi
stressestheimportanceofthepriorityofinvestigatingthingscloseathand.Hesays,"Kowumustbeginwithunderstandingthingscloseathand(ts'ungch'iehchich'u
lihuicham).Onceonehassettledonthingscloseathand,thenonecangraduallyextendoverotherthings.Thisisthekowu."32Healsostresses"seeingtheoutline
(takangan)andseeingthelargemodel(tap'eit'aiao)andthengoingtothedetails.Thus,notlosingsightoftheoutline,understandingmovesonlayerbylayer,layer
bylayer."33Thissuggests,nodoubt,animplicitworkingofthehermeneuticalcirclethecirclebetweenthelargeandthesmall.
Second,likeallConfucianphilosophers,ChuHsiisverymuchconcernedwithcorrectunderstandingoftherightandwrongthings.Hesays,"Confuciandoctrineis
suchthatinreadingonefindsgainsandlossesinmanagingaffairsonediscernsrightandwrongs.Thisisthematterofkowuandtheextensionofknowledge."34He
alsosays,"Notseparatedfromdailyactivities,one'skowuenablesonetodiscernrightfromwrongandexamineoughtsandoughtnotsthus,understandingfullythe
subtletiesofmeaningsofthingsonewillextendtheirapplicationtolifeandpractice."35ForChuHsi,oneofthegreatpurposesofkowuistounderstandthemoral
relationshipsofmensothatonemayactcorrectly.Butinthecontextofinvestigatingthingstogether

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withone'sfeelings,onemaysuggestthatChuHsihassucceededinputtingmoralvaluedistinctionsonanobjectivebasisnamely,onthebasisofknowinglior
understandingli.ButonemayalsosuggestthatChuHsidoesboth,whichneednotbeconsideredincompatible.InlightofourontohermeneuticalanalysisofChuHsi,
weseethathewantstointegrateknowledgeofexternalthingswithknowledgeofinternalfeelingsinordertogaininsightintotheontologicalunderstandingofTaoand
inordertoreachjudgmentsofrightandwrongasguidanceforlifeandpractice.Infact,itisinanefforttostrengthenthepossibilityoffulfillingthisgoalthathesuggests
andworksonothersupplementaryaspectsofmindactivitybesidethekowuactivity.Thisisthedoctrineofhanyangap(immersivenourishing)andch'ihchingaq
(holdingsteadfasttomind,aseriousmindedness,centralmindedness,masteryofmind).Wemayregardthisasamoveofmindtoreachpragmaticorpractical
wisdomoflifeandaction,andthuscompletekowuinageneralway.
Methodologyof"ImmersiveNourishing"and"Mindmastering"
PerhapsundertheinfluenceofTaoistBuddhistphilosophy,theNeoConfucianistsstresstheimportanceoftranquillity(chingar)andtheontologicalpriorityofmind.
Thus,ChouTunias(10171073)speaksofconcentratingontranquillityintheT'aichit'ushuoat(DiscourseonthediagramoftheGreatUltimate)andShaoYungau
(10111077)speaksofmindastheT'aichi,thatis,asthesourcefromwhichallthingscome,intheHuangchichingshihav(Thegreatnormforregulatingworld
affairs).36Theyconsiderthatitisthroughtheconcentrationofmindintranquillitythatonewillbothhaveknowledgeofrealityandtransformoneselfintosagehood.
ShaoYungspeaksofthesageascapableof"unifying(reflecting)thetruthsofallthings,"becauseheisabletoseethingsasthingsthemselves(iwukuanwuaw)37and
seethingswithliinone'smind.38
ChouTuniexplainstranquillityasdesireless,andinspeakingofonenessasthekeytothelearningofsagehood,explainsonenessalsoasdesirelessness.Hesays,
"Desireless,onewillremainvoidwhenatrest,andupright,wheninmotionifvoidatrest,onewillbeclearbeingclear,onewillunderstandtheultimatetruthifupright
inmotion,onewillbepublicminded(nonselfish),andbeingpublicminded,onewillbecomprehensiveinone'sunderstanding."39AlthoughChangTsaiax(1020
1077)doesnotstressmindandtranquillity,hestillconceivesmindashavingitsowninnateknowledge(knowledgefromvirtuousnature,tehsingchihchihay),
independentofexperience(knowledgefromseeingandhearing).Hesays,"Whatthevirtuousnatureknowsisnotrootedinseeingandhearing,butrootedinthe
natureofHeavenandEarth."40Tobecomeasage,onehastouncoverone'snatureofHeavenandEarthandcultivatetheknowledgefromvirtuousnature.
InresponsetoChangTsai'squeryonhowto"settleonone'snature"(tinghsingaz),Ch'engHaoba(10321085)speaksofbeing"notselfishlyconcerned

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41

withthings"asakeyto"settleonone'snature."Hegivesthemotto:"Openoneselfandbenotselfish,respondnaturallytothingswhentheyhappen." Thereisa
strongtendencytoapplytheTaoistvisionofremovingfeelingsandartificialknowledgeinthisidealofcultivatingone'snatureandmind.WhenwecometoCh'engI,
thesametraditionofconcentratingonone'snatureandmindcontinues.Heproposestheideaofresidinginchingbb(mindmastery,asweshallsee).Hesays,"Theso
calledchingistohavemasteryofoneselfinoneness(chuibc)."Onenessisdefinedas''noparticularlearning"(wushihbd).42Withthis,Ch'engIsuggeststhat"ifone
holdsthisandnourishesandpreserves(hanyang)it,induetimetheliofHeavenwillbecomeclear."43This,nodoubt,istheanswerforCh'engIonhowtoreach
sagehood:itisthemethodofcultivatingsagehood,thatis,forreachingtheultimatetruthandtransformingoneselfintocorrectconduct.Althoughhepointsoutthe
parallelimportanceofimmersivenourishingandfullyunderstandingtheli(hanyangandch'iungli),44theemphasis,nevertheless,fallsonimmersivenourishing,as
indicatedinhisearlydiscussionon"whatYenTzubelikestostudy."45Hesaysthere,"Alllearninghasitswayinrectifyingone'smindandnourishingone'snature,so
thatonewillremaincentralandcorrectandsincereandthusbecomesagely."46Hepointsoutthatone"hasunderstandinginone'smindandknowshowtonourish,
thenmakestheefforttopracticeandaccomplish(one'svirtues),andthisistoreachsincerityfromunderstanding."47Inshort,tocultivatesagehood,oneneedsto
cultivateknowledgeofone'struenature(chihhsingbf)andfulfillingone'smind(chinhsin),whicharenotionsfromMenciusandtheDoctrineoftheMean.48
Giventheabovebackground,aNeoConfucianistbelievesthataperson'smethodologicaltaskistoenvisionhowonemayreachthesubstanceofmindsothatone
mayhavefullknowledgeoftheGreatUltimateorTaoandthefullabilitytorespondcorrectlytoanythingintheworld.ChuHsiconfrontedthisproblemwhenhe
becameadiscipleofLiYenp'ing(LiT'ung,bg10931163)inhisearlyyears.ForYenp'ing,thesolutiontotheproblemistoexperiencethesubstanceofmindand,
therefore,theoriginalsubstanceinmeditatingonone'smind.AlthoughnoneoftheNeoConfucianthinkersmentionedabovespecificallymentionsmeditation(ching
tsobhormotsobi)asthemethodforunderstandingthesubstanceofmind,49itneverthelessappearsnaturaltosuggestmeditationasaformalproceduretoreach
tranquillityofmindandtocometo"settlingonone'snatureormind."Theimportantthingaboutmeditationisnotthatonemustsitinquietness,butthatbysittingin
quietnessonewillmakeeffortstoclarifyone'smindbyclearingselfishdesiresandprejudicialthoughts(followingthedoctrinesoftheCh'engbrothers).Itisassumed
thatinthisway,onewillnotonlyclarifyone'smind,butwillcometoafullrecognitiononthesubstanceofmind.
Ofcourse,therearemoredifficultquestionsconcerningthisprocedure.Howisitpossibletorecognizethetruenatureofmindifmindisontologicallyvoidand
tranquil?Ifmindisactiveandmovedwithfeelingsanddesires,how

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canonediscoverthetruenatureofmindamidstitsactivities?Thesequestionsarephilosophicallymostserious.Fortheyrequireanexaminationnotonlyofthenature
ofmind,butofthemethodsneededtoascertainthetruenatureofmind.Thedifficultyofanysuchexaminationisthatonehastousemindtodotheexamining,and
therefore,toactivatemindforseeing(whichisaformofactivityofmind),yetseektranquillityofthemindsubstance.Thedifficultyisaparadoxicalsituation:Ifmindis
active,thenitcannotbeseenasinactiveandifthemindsubstanceisinactive,onehastoseemindbeforeactivity.Onecannotseeitwhenmindactivatesitself,and
thereforeonecannotseeitwiththemind.
ChuHsiwasawareoftheradicallyidealisticBuddhistdoctrineofconsciousnessandspecificallytheCh'anphilosophyofenlightenmentthroughunderstandingnature
ormind(chienhsingbjorchienhsinbk).Hewantedtoavoidthisdoctrineforthereasonthatitisguidedbytheselfishdesireoftranquillity.Healsoarguedthatthereis
nowaythatmindcanobservemind,forthereisnostaticmindtobeobservedortocontemplate.50Thus,howtoknowsubstanceofmindbecomesareal
methodologicalpuzzletohimapuzzlewithominousmetaphysicalsignificance.
Thisproblemhasbeenknownas"theproblemofseekingthecentrality(chungbl)ofmindbeforetheactivationofmind"thisproblemhasbeenmoreexactly
formulatedanddiscussedintermsofthedoctrineofcentralityandharmony(hobm)ofmindintheDoctrineoftheMean.TheDoctrineoftheMeandefinesthestate
ofmindbeforefeelingsariseascentralityandthestateofmindwhenallarousedfeelingsmeetrightoccasionsasharmony.ThentheDoctrineoftheMeansays,
"Centralityisthegreatrootoftheworldandharmonyisthegreatattainedwayoftheworld.Oncecentralityandharmonyarereached,heavenandearthwillbein
orderandallthingswillgrow."51ThereisnoindicationthattheDoctrineoftheMeanregardscentralityandharmonyasmerelyastateofmind.Infact,thestateof
mindknownaschungandhomayonlybeunderstoodinanontologicalsense,sincechunghomayberegardedashavingontological,ratherthansimply
psychological,properties.Inthislight,toreachcentralityandharmonyneednotmeantoreachtheminthemindorthroughthemind.Itcanbeadescriptivestatement
ofhowHeavenandEarthandallthingsareorientedinbeing.Inotherwords,onecantakethewellorderingofHeavenandEarthandthegrowthofallthingsasthe
signofcentralityandharmonyofworldrealityorevenasmeaningthecentralityandharmonyoftheworldreality.Whenthisconsiderationappliestoanindividual,the
individualwillleadanorderlylifeandactwithasenseoforder,andhislifewillhavewellbeing.Nodoubtthisexplanationofcentralityandharmonyisnotwhat
Ch'engIandChuHsiseekintheirsearchandqueryfortheontologicalunderstandingofmind.Norwillthisexplanationsatisfyanontohermeneuticalanalysisofmind
withregardtothedialecticalconceptionofT'aichi.Therefore,theproblemofunderstandingthecentralityofmindbeforeitsactivationisnotanoriginalproblemfor
theDoctrineof

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theMeantext,norcanitbedirectlyansweredinthecontextoftheDoctrineoftheMean.IthastobeansweredinlightoftheNeoConfucianmetaphysical
framework,wherethestructureoftheTaobecomesmorearticulated.
IfwesurveyChuHsi'swritingsonthisproblem,itisapparentthatChustruggledagreatdealwiththisproblemattheheightofhiscareer.Accordingtoadetailed
documentationinCh'ienMu'sbnChuTzuhsinhsehanbo(AnewstudyonChuHsi),52ChuHsidoesnotfollowthesolutionofhisteacher,Yenp'ing,tothisproblem:
Meditateonmindintranquillitysothatonecangraspthecentralityofmindbeforethemindisactivated.TherationaleforthepossiblerejectionofYenp'ing'sview
seemstobetheepistemologicaldifficultythatonecanonlyobservethemindwhenthemindisactivated:thereisnowayforthemindtoactivelyseemindinits
unactivatedstate.Ifonecan,indeed,seethemindsubstance(notitsfunctioning)byintrospection,onehastoadmitthenecessarypriorityofinspectionovera
postinspectiveorientationofmindtoward"preservingandnourishingthesubstanceofmind."Evidenceseemstopointtothelatter,ratherthantheformer,asthe
conclusionofChuHsireached,indealingwiththeproblemofseekingcentralitybeforemindactivation.ThisleadshimtothepositionofChangNanhsan(Chang
Shihbp,11331180).ChangShihholdsthatonemustsee(experience)tranquillityinmotionand,thus,recognizethemindsubstance.53Butthispositiondoesnot
satisfyChuHsi,forthispositionleavestherelationbetweentranquillityandmotiononlypartiallyexplained.Ifonecanseeorexperiencetranquillityinmotion,why
cannotoneseeorexperiencemotionintranquillity,asisevidentfromthedialecticalrelationofmotionandrestinT'aichi?
Second,if"perceptiveinspection"(hsingch'abq)istheonlywaybywhichonemaydetecttheactivityofmindandthebackgroundsubstance,thenonecannot
"preserveandnourish"(hanyang)themindsubstance(notmindfunctioning)wherethereisnosuchactivity.If,ontheotherhand,onecanindeed"preserveand
nourish"mindsubstance,and"preservingandnourishing''isadifferentformofexperiencingandrealizingthemindsubstancethanperceptiveinspection,thenwhy
doesoneneedtopreceptivelyinspectbeforepreservingandnourishingthemind?Thatis,couldnotonesimplypreserveandnourishthemindsubstance
independentlyofthepreceptiveinspectionofthemindfunctioningwhetherbeforeorafter?Thepressingproblem,hence,becomesoneofdefiningandrecognizing
anothermodeofexperiencingthemindtheexperiencingofmindbyunderstandingorgraspingthemindsubstance.Italsobecomesamatterofdefiningand
recognizingthenatureofthemindsubstance.Thefollowingconsequenceforsuchaqueryseemsnaturalandobvious:onehastosee"preservingandnourishing"asa
distinctiveandindependentmodeofexperiencing,54bywhichthemindsubstancewillbeexperiencedandseen.Mindsubstancecanberegardedaspreciselythe
resultofsuchamodeofperceiving.Unfortunately,ChuHsidoesnotgiveanylogicalormetaphysicalreasonfordrawingthisconclusionbuthedoesseemtoreach
thisconclusion,perhaps,asaresultofreflectingontheparallelismof

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theactivityofextendingknowledgeandtheeffortofpreservingandnourishingasinCh'engI'smotto:"Tolearn,onehastoextendknowledgetopreserveandnourish
mind,onehastoresideincentralmindedness(ching)."55
AccordingtotheChuTzuylei,56intheyearof1171,whenChuHsiwasfortyoneyearsold,hesaidthatwhenheadoptedtheChangShihpositionyearsbefore,
hewasunawarethatthereistranquillitywhenthereisnospecificthought(nienlbr),andthereismotionwhenone'smindrespondstothings.Hesays,"Whenin
tranquillity,ifthereisfeelingfortheli,thenthereismotionwheninmotion,iftheliisatrest(anbs),thenthereistranquillity."57This,ofcourse,showsasubtle
appreciationoftheinteractionandinterdependenceofmotionandrest.Thisconstitutesamoreadvancedphenomenologicalobservationofmind,foritcanbesaidthat
thebeginningofmotionisinthemidstoftranquillityandthebeginningoftranquillityisrootedinmotion.Astherecannotbeabsolutemotionorabsolutetranquillity,one
mustbeabletorecognizeapointwherethetranquillitybeginsinmotionandwherethemotionbeginsintranquillity.Torecognizethisistorecognizeatendencyanda
directionrelativetothefunctioningofmindasawholeinwhichmotionandtranquillityinteractandinterplay.Thisistorecognizethemindasasubstanceandasa
functionasthesametime.Itisassubstancethatthemindiscapableofbeginningtranquillityinmotinorbeginningmotionintranquillity.Inthusrecognizingmindasa
substance,onealsorecognizesthefunctionofmind.Thesetworecognitionsdefineanddetermineeachotherasthedialecticalmethodologydictates.Withthis
recognitionofmindassubstance,onewillseeandexperiencethesourceoftheinterplayandinteractionofmotionandtranquillityintheinterplaybetweenliandch'ior
yinandyangoftheUltimateReality.Finally,onecomestotherecognitionthatthemetaphysicalgroundofexperienceofmindsubstanceistheoriginalsubstance.In
thislight,themindsubstancecanbeseentoderiveitssignificanceandexistencefromtheoriginalsubstance.Mindisavehicleforrealizingtheultimatetruthofthe
originalsubstance,andhencetheterm"mindsubstance"merelyindicateshoworiginalsubstancebecomesunderstoodandexperiencedthroughmindfunctioningin
tranquillityandinmotion.
Withtheaboveanalyticalunderstandingofthemodeofexperiencing(hanyang)themindsubstance,wecanbetterunderstandChuHsi'sdevelopmentofthe
methodologyofhanyang(preservingandnourishing)orts'aots'unbt(holdingandpreserving)intermsofaphenomenologyofmind.Wemayexplicatethis
methodologyonthefollowingmajorpoints:First,topreserveandnourishistoseekcentralityorthesourceofactivitybeforeactivityofmindtakesplace.Thisrequires
bothinspectionbythemindandexperienceofmind.ChuHsi,followingLiYenp'ing,hasusedthetermt'ijenbu(experienceintimatelyandrecognize)toindicatethis.
Whatisintimatelyexperiencedandrecognizedisthegeneralfeelingofatotalitycalledch'ihsiangbv(likenessofch'i).Onemaysaythatthisisafeelingorastateof
mindfreefromanyspecificintentionalandreferentialinvolvementitcanbefurtheridentifiedasastate

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ofselfidentityofmind.Itisbelievedthatwhenthisstateiswellpreserved,themindwillbeabletoexerciseclarityoveritsperceptionsand,therefore,recognizeliin
clarity.Inthissense,theunactivatedstateofmindistrulyimportant.Itisthesourceofadequateunderstandingandthesourceofthepowerfordiscoveryofliand
knowledgeofthings.
Second,thisstateofmindnotonlyhasepistemologicalimportancebutisontologicallysignificantaswell.Ihavealreadyindicatedthattoexperiencethisstateofmind
istoleadtotheexperienceoftheoriginalsubstanceofreality.Astheoriginalsubstanceisthesourceofinexhaustiblecreativity,toexperiencethemindsubstancewill
leadtotheexperienceofcreativityoftheontologicalultimate,whichcanbe,nevertheless,experiencedfromtheobservationofthethingsorthingsubstances.ChuHsi,
infailingtoidentifytheunactivatedconsciousperceptionorperceptionsofmind,triestoseektheunperturbedcentrality(weifachihchungbw)andthetranquil(chi
janputungbx)indailygoingson.Hesays,"Amidstallthoseinstancesoffeelings,understandingsandperceptions,thereissomethingremainingasawholewhich
respondstoinfinitethings.Thisisthesourceofflowofheavenlynature(t'ienmingliuhsingbyandtheenduringlifecreativity(shengshengpuibz).Evenwithinone
dayinfiniteresponsesariseandsubside,thequietoriginalsubstanceremainsalwaysquiet.Thesocalledcentralityisjustthis.Isthereanotherthingconfinedtoone
timeandoneplacewhichcanbecalledthecentrality?"58AlthoughinthelaterstageofhisthoughtChuHsihimselfrejectedthisearlyview,thereisneverthelessa
lessontolearnfromthisdescriptionofthecentrality:Ifcentralityisuniversal,unifying,andasourceforall,thentheunderstandingofcentralityamongallthingsis
neverthelessthesameunderstandingofthesamecentrality.Thisimpliesthatthemindsubstanceandthingsubstanceshouldultimatelycoincide,andthatthereshould
notbeauniquewaytounderstandcentrality.WhatmarksoutChuHsi'smaturepositionisthatifoneseekscentralityinmind,oneshouldseekthroughmind,andthus
seekthroughtheprocedureofpreservingandnourishing.
Incharacterizingthemindsubstancethroughpreservingandnourishing,onehastoexperiencemindsubstanceinthewayoneexperiencestheoriginalsubstance.Tao
ortheGreatUltimatecanbedescribed:asatotality,asaharmony(consistency),asaprocessofcreativetransformation,astheultimategrounding,andasthe
consummatingandinitiatingvalue.Topreserveandnourishmindistorecognizeandexperienceandstrengthenthefeelingsofharmony,totality,creativity,well
groundedness,andpresenceofvalue.Withthisexperienceofthemindsubstance,onewillbeabletorelatetothingsinatotality,onewillbeabletorelateknowledge
topractice,onewilldevoteoneselftocreativeeffortsinlife,andonewillnotstopatonepointofseekingandimprovingbutwillseekandimprovetotheutmost,for
onewillrealizevalueineverythingoneunderstandsandacts.Thiswouldbetheidealwayofpreservingandnourishingthemindsubstanceandtheidealstateof
holdingandpreservingthemindsubstanceofaperson.

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Inlightofthisphenomenologicaldescriptionofthemethodologyofpreservingandnourishing,itisobviousthattheunactivatedstateofmindsubstanceandthe
activatedstateofmindfunctioningcannotbeseparated:thereisanintimateunityandnaturaloppositionbetweenthem.Theirdifferencecanberegardedasthat
betweentheinnerandouter,andthatbetweenliandch'i.Withthisontohermeneuticalunderstanding,thedialecticalunityofcomplementaryoppositesapplies,and
theunderstandingofmindsubstancetogetherwiththeunderstandingofthepreservingandnourishingasawayforunderstandingofmindsubstancecanbeseenas
derivedfromtheontologicalinsightintorealityingeneralaswellasfromtheontologicalreflectiononmindasawholeandasaunity.Topreserveandnourishis
thereforenotjusttoexperiencemindsubstancebuttorealizethetruthofthewayofheaven,theharmonyandgoodnessofnature,andtorealizethemasfoundations
ofone'sbehaviorandsourceofvalues.Topreserveandnourish,inthissense,istocultivatebothmotionandtranquillitytheinnerandtheouteratthesametime
withoutbeingmisguidedbythepriorityproblem.Bythismethodonewillcometofullyunderstandthemindastheunifying,commandingnature(asmindsubstance)
andfeelings(asmindfunctioning)asChangTsai'sdoctrineofhsint'unghsingch'ingca(mindcommandsandunifiesthenatureandthefeelings)suggests.59This
meansthereisnoneedtobeginwithperceptiveinspectioninconductingpreservingandnourishing,justasthereisnoneedtobeginwithpreservingandnourishingin
rationalperceptionoftheli.Yetinlightoftheinternalrelationshipbetweenthetwo,itisclearthatperceptiveinspectionwillbecomeunobstructedandefficient
becauseofthepreservingandnourishing,andpreservingandnourishingwillbecomeeffortless,stable,andprofoundinvirtueoftheperceptiveinspection.Onemay
evenregardpreservingandnourishingasprovidinganaturalcontextformoreperceptiveinspectionforreinforcingthemotiveanddirectiveforceformorepreserving
andnourishing.Thismutualorganicinterdependenceofthetwohasitsgreatmeritin"fulfillingthenatureofmind,""realizingone'splaceamongallthings,"and"fully
understandingtheli,"whichareultimategoalsoflife.Butviewingthetwotheontologicallyinseparableleadstostressinghumanaffairsandmorallifeattheexpenseof
theexternalphysicaluniverseandstressingvaluesattheexpenseofindependentknowledgeofphysicalthings.Thedialecticalunityofpreservingandnourishingand
perceptiveinspectionmaybesaidtodetertheautonomyofapurerationalsciencefromgrowingasitpreventstheindependenceofperceptiveinspectionfrom
preservingandnourishing.
Thisleadstoafinalobservationoftheunderstandingofthemindsubstancebywayofpreservingandnourishing.Themindsubstanceasrealizedbypreservingand
nourishingisoneinwhichmoraldistinctionsoriginateandmoralvaluesreside.Therecognitionofmindasthesourceofmoralvaluesandmoraldistinctionscanbe
tracedtoMencius.60ButintheNeoConfucianwritings,aswehaveseen,moralvaluesandmoraldistinctionsacquirean

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cb

ontologicalsignificance.TheyarederivedfromthenaturalactivitiesoftheTao.Theyarethemanifestationofthefundamentalnatureofheaven.Thusjen, theultimate
andidealvirtueofbothClassicalandNeoConfucianism,becomesuniversalizedandontologizedasthesourceoflifeandcreativityjenbecomesthejensubstance,
theoriginalsubstanceperceivedunderjenoruniversallifeandcreativity.Thisontologicaltransformationmaybealsoseenasanontohermeneuticalsearchforunity
andtotalityinrealitythereforeamethodologicalaccomplishment.Itmayalsobeontologicallyregardedasareflectionofthedeeperunderstandingofmindsubstance
andmindfunctioning.InboththesesensesChuHsihasmadegreatcontributionandhasdefinedjenas"theprinciple(li)oflove"and"virtue(tecc)ofmind."61Withthis
understanding,itbecomesalsoontohermeneuticallyclearthatasjenisontologicallyunderstandable,wemayspeakofthe"mindofHeavenandEarth"toaccentuate
thejennatureoftheoriginalsubstance.
Oncemindisrecognizedasthesourceofmoraldistinctionsandmoralvalues,allproceduresandmethodsforcultivatingmoraldistinctions,moralvalues,moral
visions,andmoralpracticeandbehaviorbecomemethodsandproceduresforpreservingandnourishing.Inthislightwecanseethattheeffortsandtechniquesfor
preservingandnourishingthemindsubstance(anoriginalmind)aredescribedbyChuHsiintermsoftheClassicalConfucianmethodof"discipliningoneself"(k'o
chicd)andCh'engI'sNeoConfucianprocedureandformulacalled"residinginsinglemindedness"(chchingce).62Inaretrospectiveview,thisishowWangYang
ming(14721529)wishestorecoverthemindsubstancebyfulfillingtheinnateknowledgeofgoodnessinmind.ThedifferencebetweenChuHsiandWangYang
ming,however,isadifferenceofrecognizingdifferentmethodsforrecoveringmindsubstance,andthisdifferenceisrootedinadescriptionofthedialectical
understandingoftheontologyofmind.ChuHsihasmoreofanawarenessofdialecticalunderstandingthanWangYangming.Itisclearthattheunderstandingof
mindsubstanceintermsofmoralunderstandingandtheconsequentontologicalintegrationofmindviamoralcultivationindicatesanimportantinsightintothenatureof
mind,namely,mindcanbeseenfromatleasttwopointsofview:aninnerontologicalpointofviewandanoutermoralconductpointofview.MindrevealstheGreat
Ultimatefromthefirstpointofviewandissuesinmoralbehaviorfromthesecond.Thismeansthatthepreservingandnourishingprocedureforrevealingand
structuring(inanepistemologicalsense)themindsubstancehastwodimensions:thedimensionofontologicalunderstandingoftheGreatUltimateviamindandthe
dimensionofthemoralapplicationofmindtoconductandlifeviamind.Wemaydescribethefirstdimensionasunderstandinganddiscoveringtheultimategrounding
ofmind,thatis,asdiscoveringthetaoandinternallyharmonizingmindwiththetao.Wemaydescribetheseconddimensionasthediscoveryofapplicablenormsin
practicallife,therebyexternallyharmonizingmindwiththingsandpeople.
Themethodologicalstructureofpreservingandnourishingisrepresented

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Figure2

inFigure2.Preservingandnourishingproducesanontohermeneuticalcirclebetweenmindandtheoriginalsubstanceontheonehandandanontohermeneutical
circlebetweenmindandtheconductorpracticeontheother.
ConcludingRemarks
ChuHsi'sphilosophyofliandch'iisdirectedtowardunderstandingTaoandembodyingtheactivatedTaowithintheindividual.Inthissensethisunderstandingis
practicalandtransformative,thatis,itfulfillsthemindsubstanceandentailscorrectactionandafulfillingsenseofcreativityandattainment.Thisultimategoaliscalled
sagehood.Relativetothisgoalalllearningandthinkingaremethodologicaltheycanbeconceivedasmethodstowardthecreativeunderstandingofsagehoodand
creativetransformationoftheindividual.ThisgoalhasbeendescribedbyChouTuniaptlyasfollows:"ThesageidentifieshimselfwithHeavenandEarthinvirtueand
identifieshimselfwithsunandmoonintheirbrightness."63ThisviewiscomplementedbyChangTsai:"EstablishmindforHeavenandEarth,representthewayofthe
people,continuethelostlearningofsages,andopenthepathofpeacefortenthousandyears."64ChangTsai'sstatementdiffersfromChouTuni'sstatementinone
importantaspect:ChangTsaiexplicitlyspeaksofanindividual'sbenefittingpeopleandtheworldbysagelylearning,whereasChouTunispeaksoftheembodimentof
Taoinanindividual,whichcould,butneednot,begivenamoralpoliticalmeaningaswellasanontologicalmeaning.Togethertheydefinetheultimategoaloflearning
asattainmentof"sagelinessinsideandkinglinessoutside"(neishengwaiwangcf)anidealstatewhichallConfucianistshaveaspiredtoachievesinceConfucius.

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BoththeGreatLearningandtheDoctrineoftheMeanmaybesaidtoelaborateonthisgoalbypresentingasystemofideasexplainingthisgoalandtheirmethods
forattainingit.Inthissense,everythingisamethodrelativetothisultimategoal.SincetheGreatLearningandtheDoctrineoftheMeanaredifferentintheir
approaches,havingoriginatedfromdifferentbackgrounds,methodologicaldifferencesreflectdifferentemphases.ItmightbesaidthattheGreatLearningstressesthe
externalsideofthegoaltheattainmentof"kinglinessoutside,"whereastheDoctrineoftheMeanstressestheinternalsideofthegoaltheattainmentof"sageliness
inside".Withthisunderstanding,wemaysaythatChuHsi'sphilosophyisanattempttocombineboth.ButinlightoftheNeoConfuciandevelopment,hesucceeds
moreintheartofcultivatingsagelinessinsidethanincultivatingkinglinssoutside.InthisrespecthefollowshispredecessorsChouTuni,ChangTsai,andthetwo
Ch'engs.ChuHsi'ssupplementarycommentaryonkowubespeaksthisemphasis.Butthiscommentaryisalsoimportantinprovidinganontologicallinkbetweenthe
DoctrineoftheMeanandtheGreatLearning,asitisintendedtoprovidealinkbetweeninternalcultivationandexternalcultivationofaperson.Aswehaveshown
inouranalysis,knowledgeandfullunderstandingoflienablesapersontoactrightlyandtotransformhimselfintoamorallyrightandpoliticallyrightperson.ChuHsi
hasprovidedanontologicalbasisformoralityandanontologicalmoralbasisforfamily,society,andgovernment.
InChuHsi'ssystemeverythingisamethodologyorhasmethodologicalsignificancefortheultimateend.Indeed,insofarasthereisagoal,thereisamethod.Inlight
ofwhatissaidintheDoctrineoftheMeanandtheGreatLearningonebeginswithsomethingverybasicandmovesontoahigherstageofcultivation.Thereare
basicmethodstohigherendsorgoalswhich,whencultivated,becomemethodstoastillhigherend.Insofarasallgoalsandendsarehierarchicallystructuredand
processed,methodsrelativetothemareanalogicallystructuredandprocessed.Thusastheinvestigationofthingsisthemethodtotheextensionofknowledge,the
latteristhemethodtotheauthenticationofintentions.Inonesense,aswehaveseen,investigationofthingsandmasteryofmind(ch'ihching)inChuHsiseemtobe
directlyrelatedtotheultimategoalofsagelinessinsideandkinglinessoutsideandthusacquireasignificanceoutreachingallotherstepsintheGreatLearning.Butwe
mustneverthelessrecognizethepotentialhierarchicalstructureofChuHsi'smetaphysicalandmethodologicalthinking.Afterwerecognizeinvestigatingthingsasan
outstandingmethodforreachingsagelinessinside,wemayraisethequestion:Whatisthemethodfortheinvestigation?Orwhatdoesinvestigatingthingspresuppose
asamethodologicalbasis?Aswehaveseen,ChuHsimakestheinvestigationrelyonlearningfromdailylifeandexperience,onreflections,oninnerpromptingsof
heartandmind,onhistoricalexperiencesofthepast,andonwordsofsagesfromthepast.Thismeanswemustpresupposeawiderangeofexperienceand
cognitionanopenrangeofindividual,social,political,andhistoricalexperiencesfordoingtheinvestigation.The

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Figure3

conceptsofliandch'icomefromthiswiderangeofexperiencesandbecomerefinedwhenweseetheirintegrating,explanatory,organizing,andcriticalsignificance.
Inthisway,theseexperiencesleadtomorerefinedappreciationofwhatisbasictotheinvestigationofthings,whichinturnrefinesthemethodologyoftheinvestigation
towardextensionofknowledge.Inevitably,thereishermeneuticalinterplaybetweenelementaryinformalexperiencesandgradualformationofmethodology.This
hermeneuticalinterplayoccursoneverylevel,andachainofhermeneuticalinterplaysfinallytakeplacebetweentheelementaryexperiencesoflifeandthe
understandingoftheultimategoalofsagelinessinsideandkinglinessoutside,whichisalsotheultimatemethod.
Inlightofthisanalysis,wecanconcludethatthemethodologyimplicitinChuHsi'sphilosophyisalwaysastructureandaprocesswhichheraldsonemethodposterior
toitandderivesfromanothermethodpriortoit.Itservesthepurposesofknowingandacting,aselementaryexperienceoflifeisacombinationofknowingand
acting,knowingandbelieving,knowingandvaluing,ordeciding,asshowninFigure3.
SinceintheviewofthisontologicalunderstandingtheultimategoalandtheultimatemethodrequireandrevealanontologicalunderstandingoftheGreatUltimate,all
methodsaregivenmeaning.65Thusthehermeneuticalunderstandingofamethodinreferencetoanother,likeunderstandingoneideainreferencetoanother,isonto
hermeneutical,thatis,understandableinlightofanontology,andthereforeconstitutinganexplanationofthepresupposedultimateontology,whichistheultimategoal.
Thehermeneuticalcircleorinterplaybetweenexperiencesandontology,asbetweentheirmethodologicaldimensions,isessentiallyaninterpretationoftheunderlying
ontology,andthusontohermeneutical.ThisisanmetamethodologicalobservationonthemethodologizingprocessandmethodologicalstructureinChuHsi.
TheontohermeneuticalmethodologyinfactisclearlyreflectedinChuHsi'sown(togetherwithLTsuch'ien's,cg11371181)compilationandcommentaryonthe
earlierNeoConfucianwritings,theChinssulu.ch66Theorderandarrangementofthetopicsandtitlesforchaptersinthisbookexhibitthemethodologicalorderof
learningtowardsagelinessandkingliness,whichisontohermeneuticallymeaningful.Thebookbeginswiththechapteronthe

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ci

Taot'i (thesubstanceoftheWay).Becausethisistheontologicalfoundationforalllearningandacting,onehastohavesomeunderstandingofitbeforeonecan
employanymethodforperfectingtheunderstanding.Thesecondchapterontheessentialsoflearning(weihsehcj)maybesaidtolaythegroundfororientating
oneselftowardtheunderstandingandapplicationoftheTao,andthereforeservesasthemethodofknowingtheTaot'i.Thenexttwochapters,onextensionof
knowledge(chihchihck)andonpreservingmindandnourishingnature(ts'unyang),arenodoubtthecardinalmethodologiestowardrefinementoflearningand
perfectionoftheunderstandingoftheway.Theyareneverthelessalsomethodologicallyessentialforsuchlaterstepsasselfcultivation,familyregulation,political
service,andgovernmentadministration.Thesetwostepsarealsocloselyrelated,andtheirrelationshipismadeclearbyanimprovedunderstandingoftheTaot'iand
hencebytheimprovedunderstandingofthemindsubstanceandthingsubstance.ChuHsi'sownphilosophyofliandch'i,ch'iungliandch'ihchingexplicatesall
this.Thefifthchapteronselfdisciplineandselfimprovementandreturntopropriety(k'ochihcl)isanaturalconsequenceoftheimprovedunderstandingofmind,
whichinChuHsihasproducedindependentdiscussionofselfdiscipline.Thisreflectsthemethodologicalstageof"rectifyingone'smind"(chenghsincm)and
"cultivatingone'sperson"intheGreatLearningscheme.Hence,itisamethodologicalbasisforfamilyregulationandamethodologicalsequelandcomplementtothe
procedureofts'unyangandkowu.
AfterChapter5,alltheremainingchaptersareeithermethodologicalsequelstotheearliermethodologicalproceduresoraretheirapplications.Inthisregard,the
paradigmofsubstanceandfunction(t'iyungcn)isfullyemployed.Apriormethodologyisalwaysasubstancetothesucceedingmethodology,whichisafunctionof
thesubstance.Thus,kowuandts'unyangcanberegardedasthefunctioningorcofunctioningofthesubstanceoftheway,whereascorrectingone'smindand
cultivatingone'spersoncanberegardedastheextensionorcomplementation(alsoamatteroffunctioning)ofkowuandts'unyang.Alongthisline,itisclearthat
suchmattersashowtoregulatefamilyandhowtogovernastatebecomemattersofhowtofunctionaccordingtotheWayinqualitativelyandquantitativelydifferent
contexts.SincethesubstanceoftheWaypenetratesalllevelsandcontextsoflife,society,andtheworld,andsinceexperiencesandactionsonalllevelsandonall
contextsoflife,society,andtheworldrequireparticularattentioninkowuandts'unyang,andmakeparticularcontributionstowardfullerandfullerunderstandingof
thesubstanceoftheWay,methodologicallyspeaking,thereisobviouslyanhermeneuticalcircleandinterplaythroughoutthedevelopmentandintegrationofthe
conceptoftheTaot'iandallthelifeactivitiesofanindividualfromthefirstchaptertothelastchapteroftheChinssulu.
ThephilosophicalimplicationsofChuHsi'sontohermeneuticalmethodologyinhisphilosophyoflich'iandphilosophyofmindaremany.Wemaylimitour
observationstothreemajorimplications.First,wecannotunder

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standtheontologicaltruthembodiedinthephilosophyoflich'iinanynarrowsenseoftruth.OnemightsaythatChuHsi'sphilosophyandmethodologyhaveprovided
anewviewoftruthinvirtueofitsontohermeneuticalunderstandingofthewayinallhumancontexts.Truthisaprimitiverelation,whichlogichasshowntobenot
completelydefinable.Thismeansthatnocompleteconceptualizationandformalizationoftrutharepossible.Truthmustbethereforeilluminatedratherthandefined.
Theilluminationmaybeconceivedasanoeticawarenessofasenseofcompletionandintegration.TheontologicalunderstandingofthesubstanceoftheWayinChu
Hsiprovidesanilluminationaltheoryoftruth,ratherthanadefinitionaltheoryoftruth.InlightofChuHsi'sontohermeneuticalmethodologyofkowu,wemay
consideranyrelationbetweensubjectandobjecttoconstituteatruthrelationinsofarasadistinctionbetweensubjectandobjectcanbemade.Thentruthcouldbe
conceivedasarelationofintegration,illumination,andharmonization.67Itistobeexperiencedandwillbepragmaticallyeffectiveinmakingaharmonizationofactions
andthings,anintegrationofpersonality,andanilluminationofmind.Thisseemstobepreciselywhatthedoctrineofkowuandts'unyangsuggests.
Second,basedontheconceptionofontologicaltruthabove,ChuHsimaybesaidtosuggestanotionofknowledgethatisintegrative,dialectical,andhighly
pragmatic.ForChuHsiknowledgeisunderstandingofexperienceandprinciple.Italwaysinvolvesareferencetotheontologicaltruthandtheoverallunderstanding
andperceptionoftruth.Centeringonthisperceptionoftruth,knowledgeintegratesexperienceandgrowswithexperienceinscope,andbecomesmoreapplicable.
Thisisadialecticalprocesstobeunderstoodagainontohermeneuticallyaswehaveseeninthedialecticalmodelofunityanddivision.Theapplicabilityofknowledge
meansthatknowledgegeneratesredistributionofvaluesandrequiresaxiologicalevaluation.Thismeansthatwhatweknowraisesquestionsastowhatweoughttodo
andhowweundertaketodoit.Forknowledgecreatesnotonlynewviewsonthingsbutnewobligations,newrights,andnewvalues,andthusmakesadifferenceto
socialandpoliticallife.Yetknowledgeshouldnotbecomesimplyrelativeandtemporalizingitmustinsteadbeintegratedwithourperceptionoftheontologicaltruth
forgeneratingguidelinesfordeterminationofvaluesandguidanceofactions.Thisimpliesofcoursethattheontologicaltruthhasanaxiologicaldimension,which
producesstandardsofgoodandright.ChuHsi'sviewonthemindofheavenandearthandthevirtueofbenevolenceaslifecreativityprovidesbothametaphysical
foundationforlifeendsandmoraldistinctionsandamoralfoundationformetaphysicalunderstanding.ThisisthebestexemplificationoftheConfucianMencian
traditionofregardingmoralmindasontologicalmindandviceversa.
Onthebasisofthisobservation,wemaysaythatChuHsihasdevelopedanintegrationalnotionofknowledgethroughhisdoctrinesofching,whichsatisfiesthe
followingconditions:Thereisatotalinterrelationofallelements

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withoutconflictthereisanontologicalperceptionoftheWayandaconstantreferencetoitinknowingthereisanilluminationofmindthereisapracticalapplicability
toactionandlifethereisanaxiologicalevaluationimplicitineachitemofknowledgeandthereisafulfillingsenseofgrowthandcompletion.Knowledgeinthissense
remainsdialecticalandrequiresactiveparticipationoftheknowingindividualinhislife.InWesternphilosophy,onlySpinoza'snotionoftheintellectualloveofGod
seemstocomeclosetothisNeoConfuciannotionofknowledge.
Finally,inmodernhermeneutics,understandingandknowledgeareontologicallyunderstood.Thismeansthatunderstandingandknowledge,whichmaybesaidto
haveanontologicalrooting,arenobetterthanourexperienceofdailylifeandourpositionindailylife.Onemaythereforesaythatourunderstandingoftruthand
knowledgebeginswithourpositionalunderstandingoflife,whichcanbecalledpreunderstandingorpreknowledgeoftruth.Withthisbeginningandrootingknowledge
andunderstandingwillgrowanddevelopbytheprincipleofthehermeneuticalcircle.ItisclearthatinChuHsiwehavepreciselythisaffirmationofpreunderstanding
andpreknowledge.ButChuHsipointstosomethingevendeeper:thepreunderstandingandpreknowledgeisnotsimplyofdailylifebutinvolvesaperceptionof
ontologicaltruthoftheTao.Thiscanbemadeclearbylookingintonotjustthings,butone'sownmindandnature.Fromthis,anontohermeneutical(notmerelya
hermeneutical)processbeginsbetweentheinnermindandtheouterthings,eventuallyleadingtoafullunderstandingofandafulldisclosureoftruth.Infact,itis
becauseofaninterplaybetweenapreunderstandingofthetotaltruthandapreunderstandingofdailylifethatpossibilitiesarecreatedforafullunderstandingandafull
integrationoftruthandexperiences.Theontohermeneuticalprincipleworkstogetherwiththeprincipleofpreunderstandingtoachievetheilluminationofmindandthe
transformationofanindividualintoacquiringsageliness.Thepragmaticrelevancecannotbeignoredhere.Preunderstandingisrootedinpracticeandpractical
experienceoflifesoistheontohermeneuticalunderstanding,whichpermitsmutualilluminationbetweentheoryandpractice.Hence,wemayspeakoftheprincipleof
transformationaspartoftheontohermeneuticalmethodologyexemplifiedinChuHsi.
Notes
1.Asversuspurelyscientific,objectivediscoveries.
2.SeetheChuTzuylei[ClassifiedconversationsofMasterChu],(Taipei:ChengchungcoBookCo.,1970),ch.1,p.2.
3.Ibid.,ch.18,p.640cf.alsoch.6,pp.156160.
4.Ibid.,ch.18,p.640.
5.Ibid.,ch.94,p.3765.
6.Ibid.

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cp

cq

cr

7.SeetheErhCh'engchi [CollectedworksofthetwoCh'engs],(Taipei:Lijen BookCo.,1982),Bk.I,HonanCh'engshihchingshou [Explanationsofthe

ClassicsbytheCh'engsofHonan],ch.1,''Ishou"cs[ExplanationsoftheBookofChanges],p.1029.
8.SeeHansGeorgGadamer,PhilosophicalHermeneutics(BerkeleyandLosAngeles:UniversityofCaliforniaPress,1972).Cf.alsoMartinHeidegger,Discourse
onThinking(translationofGelassenheit),(NewYork:Harper&Row,1961).
9.ThetermisusedinthesenseofSchleirmacherandDiltheytoindicatethemutualdeterminingofmeaningandvalueofpartandwholeinaneverenlargingprocessof
evolutionanddevelopment.
10.SeetheErhCh'engchi,ch.25,p.316.
11.Thisisofcoursethestrongestsenseofch'iungli.
12.ThisisalsothepointofviewofCh'engI,forCh'engIalsosuggeststhatonehastoinvestigateonethingonedayandanotherthenextday,sothatwhenone
accumulatesmoreinvestigations,onewillquicklycometohaveintegrationofallli.Cf.theErhChengchi,ch.18,p.188.
13.AgainthisnotionisoriginallysuggestedbyCh'engI.Seeabove,n.12.
14.AlthoughChuHsidoesnotregardliasmovingandcreative,hedoessaythat"havingthisli,thisch'iiscreated,""thereisnoliwithoutch'iandthereisnoch'i
withoutli,"and"beforethereisheavenandearth,thereisthisli.Whenmovingyangiscreated,itisonlyduetothisli.Whenbeingatrest,yiniscreated,itisonlydue
tothisli"(ChuTzuylei,ch.1,p.2).Fromtheseandothersimilarstatements,itseemsclearthatChuHsidoesnotexcludeadynamicelementfromhisconceptof
primaryli,whichapparentlyheidentifieswiththeconceptoftheT'aichi,whichmustbeconsideredthecreativesourceofheavenandearthoryinandyang.He
says,"IfthereisnoT'aichi,therewouldbenoheavenandearth"(ibid.,p.2).
15.ChuTzuylei,ch.41,p.1673.
16.Ibid.,ch.117,pp.4502and4512ch.27,pp.10861087,1089.
17.Ibid.,ch.27,pp.10861087,1089ch.46,p.1863.
18.Ibid.,ch.46,p.1863.
19.Ibid.,ch.15,p.462.OfcourseChuHsididnotreallyexperimentwithboatsandcarriages,buthemerelysuggestedthatonecanimaginativelyexperimentwith
boatsandcarriagesinordertoknowandseethenatureofboatsandcarriages.
20.Ibid.,ch.2,pp.3439.
21.ForalltheseseetheChuTzuylei,ch.1,pp.810Ch'ienMu,ChuTzuhsinhsehan,5vols.(Taipei:SanminctBookCo.,1971),Bk.1,pp.215219and
YungSikKim,cu"TheWorldviewofChuHsi(11301200):KnowledgeaboutNaturalWorldinChuTzuCh'anshu"(Ph.D.dissertation,PrincetonUniversity,
1979).
22.ChuTzuylei,ch.1,p.11.
23.SeeChuWenKungwenchicv[CollectionofliteraryworksofChuHsi],(SPPYed.),ch.44,p.746,answertoTs'aiChit'ung.cw
24.ChuTzuylei,ch.8,p.208.
25.ChuWenKungwenchi,ch.39,p.648,answertoCh'enCh'ichung.cx
26.ChuTzuylei,ch.15,pp.494496.Cf.alsoCh'ienMu,ChuTzuhsinhsehan,Bk.II,p.514.
27.Ibid.,ch.118,p.4561.
28.Ibid.,ch.18,p.669ch.60,p.2323.

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cy

29.SeetheSsushuchichu [CollectedcommentariesontheFourBooks],(Taipei:WorldBookCo.,1977),theBookofMencius,ch.7,p.187.
30.ChuTzuylei,ch.18,p.640.
31.AfairpictureofChuHsi'sdoctrineofkowucanbeobtainedbyexamininghisdetailedandincisivecriticismsofvariousotherpositionsofkowu.Forthissee
Ch'ienMu,ChuTzuhsinhsenan,Bk.II,pp.521534alsoBk.I,pp.130132.
32.ChuTzuylei,ch.15,p.454.
33.Ibid.,pp.456457,p.480.
34.ChuWenKungwenchi,ch.72,p.1333,onL'sczexplanationoftheGreatLearningalsoch.77,p.1426,NanchienchouYuhsihsienshehchida
[RecordofthefoundingofaschoolintheYuhsiCountyofNanchienPrefecture].
35.Ibid.,ch.38,p.628,answertoChiangYanshih.db
36.SeethefollowingpassagesintheChuTzuyleiforChuHsi'sdiscussionoftranquillity(ching)andquietsitting:ch.12,pp.325,345351.Inthefirstplace,Chu
Hsiisnotopposedtoquietsittingrather,heconsideredquietsittingas"holdingback"(shouliendc)one'smind,notasfallingintoaCh'aniststateofthoughtlessness
(seepp.347348).Healsoregardstranquillityasthesourceofnourishingmovement(chingche,yangtungchihkendd)andmovementasactingoutone's
tranquillity(soihsingch'ichingde)(seep.349).
37.Huangchichingshih(Taipei:Chungkuotzuhsehmingchuchich'engpienyinchichinhui,dfreprintof1606ed.),ch.12,"Ontheobservationofthings,"p.
277.
38.Ibid.,p.275.
39.SeeChouTuni,ChouTzuch'anshu[CompleteworksofMasterChou],T'ungshu[ThecomprehensivebookontheBookoftheChanges](Taipei:
CommercialPress,1978),ch.20,p.165.
40.ChangTzuch'anshudg[CompleteworksofMasterChang],Chengmengdh[Correctingyouthfulignorance],(Taipei:CommercialPress,1979),ch.2,treatise
7,"Tahsin'di[Wideningthemind],p.45.
41.ErhCh'engchi,Bk.I,HonanCh'engshihwenchidj[CollectionofliteraryworksbytheCh'engs],MingtaoHsienshengwenchi[Collectionofliterary
worksbyMasterMingtao],ch.2,p.460,answertoHengch'.dl
42.Ibid.Ch'engshihishudm[SurvivingworksoftheCh'engs],ch.15,p.143.
43.Ibid.
44.Ibid.,ch.18,p.118.
45.SeeSsushuchichu,commentontheAnalects,6:11.Cf.n.46.
46.ErhCh'engchi,Bk.I,HonanCh'engshihwenchi,Ich'uanHsienshengwenchidn[CollectionofliteraryworksbyMasterIch'uan],ch.8,p.577.
47.Ibid.
48.SeeSsushuchichu,theBookofMencius,op.cit.,pp.187188(forMencius),pp.2021(fortheDoctrineoftheMean).
49.Ofcoursetheydidmentionanddiscussquietsitting,aswehaveseeninthecaseofChuHsi(seeabove,n.36).Buttheydidnotspecificallyassignanontological
significancetoit.
50.SeeChuTzutach'an[CompleteliteraryworksofMasterChu],(Taipei:Chunghua'doBookCo.,1969),ch.67,"DiscourseonMeditatingonMind,"pp.19
20.
51.DoctrineoftheMean,ch.1.
52.Ch'ienMu,ChuTzuhsinhsehan,Bk.II,pp.2382.

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dp

dq

53.Cf.MouTsungsan, Hsint'iyhsingt'i [Mindsubstanceandnaturesubstance],(Taipei:ChengchungBookCo.,1968),foradetailedstudyofthemind

substanceinNeoConfucianism.
54.ChuTzuylei,ch.103,pp.41914192.
55.ErhCh'engchi,Ch'engshihishu,ch.18,p.188.
56.InthisIfollowCh'ienMu.
57.Asweshallsee,itinfactformsarelationshipofinterdependencewiththeperceptiveinspectionofthemindfunctioningjustasthefunctionofmindandsubstance
ofmindformssucharelationship.
58.SeeYlei,ch.62,pp.24112412.
59.SeetheChinssuluchichiehdr[CollectedexplanationsoftheReflectionsonThingsatHand],comp.byChangPohsingds(Taipei:CommercialPress,1967),
ch.1,p.28.Cf.alsoChangTzuch'anshu,ch.14,p.290.
60.BookofMencius,2A:6.Menciusthinksthatbasicvirtuesofmoralityarerootedintheinceptivemovementsofhumannature,whichisinnatelygood.Thus
Menciussays,"Thefeelingofsympathyisthebeginningofbenevolence(jen)thefeelingofshameandhatingevilisthebeginningofrighteousness(idt)thefeelingof
modestyisthebeginningofpropriety(lidu),thefeelingofdistinctionsbetweenrightandwrongisthebeginningofmoralwisdom(chihdv)."
61.SeeLunychichudw[CollectedcommentariesontheAnalects],intheSsushuchichu,ch.6,p.77.
62.Ich'uanHsienshengwenchi,ch.71,p.1245.
63.SeeChouTuni,"T'aichit'ushuo,"p.23.
64.ChangTzuch'anshu,ch.14,p.292.
65.Aswehaveseen,thisontologicalunderstandingismethodologicallyformulatedasdialecticsofunityanddivision.
66.TranslatedasReflectionsonThingsatHandbyWingtsitChan,dx(NewYork:ColumbiaUniversityPress,1967).
67.Morecanbesaidabouttruth.Anyrelationbetweensubjectandobjectinsofarasthedistinctionismadeconstitutesatruthrelation,whichisarelationof
harmonizing,corresponding,andcohering.Truthcanbeunderstoodintwodifferentsenses.Intheobjectivesenseitisarelationonlytobecharacterizedinareflective
moodofmindinthemetametalanguage.Itisanobjectofanorderhigherthanobjectsofanyrecognizedrealityofobjects.Inthesubjectivesenseitisthe
consciousnessandacknowledgmentofthetruthrelation.Itisaffirmativegestureofmindwithregardtotherelationexistingbetweenobjectandsubject.Itisafeeling
ofauthenticity,sophistication,andstability.Inbothsensestruthisfreedomfromconflictandcontradiction.Itisintegrationofacomprehensivescope.Understanding
canbedefinedtobeacknowledgementoftruthinboththeobjectiveandsubjectivesenses:tobegivenandexperiencedratherthandefined.Therearesixidealized
formsoftruthandknowledge:totalintegrationofelements,totalilluminationofmind,totalgraspofontologicalroot,totalapplicabilitypracticalmeaningfulness,total
axiologicalevaluation,andtotalguidanceonlifeandcontributiontolifefulfillment.
Glossary

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13
ChuHsiandWisdomAsHiddenandStored
OkadaTakehiko
I
Asisuniversallyknown,ConfucianismintheHan(206B.C.A.D.220)andT'ang(618907)periodsdeterioratedintoamerelearningofcommentsandrecitations.
Furthermore,aftertheWei(220265)andChin(265420)periods,thethoughtofTaoistsandBuddhistscametobedominant.Confucianismhadtoundergoa
periodofspiritualvacuumforaconsiderablylongtime.However,thewillofHeavencircles,andneverpasseswithoutreturning.Fortunately,duringtheSungperiod
(9601279),SacredLearning,onceconsideredtobeextinctwiththedeathofMencius(372289B.C.?),wastakenupagainbythinkersanditsublimatedold
ConfucianismbywayoftranscendingthethoughtoftheBuddhistsandTaoists.Thus,thedefectwhichhadlongbeenleftuncorrectedwasfinallyrectified.
ThisNeoConfucianismwasadvocatedbyConfuciansoftheNorthernSung(9601126).Bycomprehensivelyorganizingtheirthoughts,ChuHsiestablishedagrand
philosophicalsystemthatisinfiniteinsignificanceandprofoundindepth.TheappearanceofChuHsimarked,finally,asharpchangeofdirectionintheworldof
thought,whichhadlongbeendominatedbytheBuddhistsandTaoists.Fromthisperiodon,Confucianismwasatthecenteroftheworldofthoughtforalongtime,
eventuallyspreadingtoneighboringKoreaandJapan.WemayreasonablyaverthatChuHsi'scontributiontoandaccomplishmentintheworldofthoughtwasas
greatasthatofMencius.
NeoConfucianismcameintobeingnotsuddenlyorabruptlybutasaresultofhistoricaldevelopmentsinthoughtandagainstthebackgroundofthespiritofthetime.
HermitsandCh'anamasterswhohadlongclungtoemptylearning(hshsehb),advocatingeithertheWayofhermitsoratranscendentalandnaturalwayofno
practicaluseintheworld,begantoconcernthemselveswithConfucianism,foritemphasizedpracticallearning(shihhsehc)which,basedonhumanethics,
prescribedthewaybywhichtosupportcommunitylife.Theyalsostartedtoshowatendencytobeinvolvedandconcernedwithpoliticsandeconomy.

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Confucianscametoregardastheiraimandgoaloflearninganinclinationandwishtowardbecomingsagelybecausetheyheldthatthelearningofhumanethical
relationswasthetrueorthodoxlearning.Inaddition,suchlearningreturnedtothestudyofmindandnature.Toacquirethepurityandabsolutenessofone'smindand
naturesoastorealizethesubstanceandfunctionoftheWayistheonlywaytobecomeasageafterhavingmasteredsacredlearning.
Atthistime,correspondingchangestookplaceintheliterarycirclesaswell.Theideathatthingshadavaluebydintoftheirmereexistencecameundercriticism.It
wasassertedthatthingsdonothaveavalueuntiltheyhavesecuredtheiroriginorrootthathelpsmaketheirexistencereal.Consequently,theinclinationtowardthe
sensualandthesuperficialwasspurned,withthelogicalresultthatmenoflettersbecameconcernedwiththespiritualandinnerrichness,andwereaccordedmore
valueandsignificance.Asaresult,menoflettersbegantoreturntoClassicalstyles.
Likewise,ceramicartistsproducedplain,monochromaticobjects.Paintersalsobegantodrawwashdrawings,whichweremorespiritualintermsofsignificancethan
sensualintermsofaestheticeffects.Inotherwords,anyoutwardexpressivenesswasavoided.Thatis,anattempttosuppressovertexpressivenessandtoimply
covertrichnessthroughsimplicitywasthoughtofhighly,and"unrevealedsignificance"wasardentlysoughtafterbythoseinvolvedinartisticactivitiesinmanydifferent
fields.1
Inthishistoricalcontext,itshouldbenoted,"wisdomashiddenandstored"(chihts'angd),whichChuHsiadvocated,hadanimpactonandwasinfluencedbythe
spiritofhistime.
II
Inrecentyears,ChuHsi'slearninghasbeenvigorouslystudiedindetailinquiteafewfieldsofintellectualpursuit.NotonlyscholarsofConfucianism,Buddhism,and
Taoism,butalsothoseofthehumanitiesandnaturalsciencesengageinresearchrelatedtoChuHsi'slearning.Thereasonsforsuchrevivalofresearchinterestand
activitiesmaybeascribednotonlytothefactthatChuHsi,whostandssecondonlytoConfucius(551479B.C.),isagreatmanofthoughtwhowassuccessfulin
buildingupaprofoundandcomprehensivephilosophicalsystem,butalsotothefactthatscholarsinonefieldalonecanhardlymanagetocompileawholeandexact
pictureofChuHsi'sphilosophyanditsimplications.
Inspiteofallsuchactivity,however,inmyopinionresearchonChuHsi'slearningseemstohaveoverlookedtwoimportantpoints:"totalsubstanceandgreat
functioning"(ch'ant'itayunge)and"wisdomashiddenandstored."AlthoughtheformerwasstudiedindetailinreferencetoitsessencebyKusumotoMasatsugu,f2
thelatterhasrarelybeenasoftendiscussedandstudiedindepthasitshouldhavebeen.

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ChuHsi's"totalsubstanceandgreatfunctioning,"whichdealswiththefunctioningofthemind,isacomprehensivesummaryofsubstanceandfunctionasadvocatedby
ConfuciansintheNorthernSungperiod.AccordingtoChu,thesubstanceofthemindisemptyinitselfbutpossessedofmanyprinciples.And,preciselybecausethe
substanceisempty,itisofunmeasurableuseitcontrolsprinciplesoftheworld,andis,consequently,capableofjudginghappeningsintheworld.Therefore,ChuHsi
said,thesubstanceiscompleteandthefunctioningisofgreatuse.3IfChuHsi'streatiseendedhere,itwouldnotbesodifferentfromWangYangming's(WangShou
jen,g14721529)substanceandfunctioning.4Thedifferenceslieinthedifferenteffortsproposed.AccordingtoChuHsi,theprincipleofthemindisnotdifferentfrom
theprincipleofthings,andtheprincipleofthingsistheprincipleofthemind.
Theprinciplehasneithersuchdistinctionsasbeingintheinsideorontheoutsidenorsuchdistinctionsasbeingintricateorcoarse.Unlesseffortismadetopreservethe
mind,itwillbecomeunintelligibleandchaotic.Ifsubtletiesofmanyprincipleshavenotbeeninvestigated,themindwillbecomeinsulatedandinflexible,andonewillnot
beabletorealizethewholenessofthemind.
Thepreservationofthemind,therefore,shouldberegardedasthebasisoftheinvestigationofprincipletotheutmost,andtheinvestigationofthingsandprincipleto
theutmostshouldberegardedaseffortforafulldevelopmentofthemind.Andifoneaccumulateshiseffortsintheconcomitantuseofthem,onewill"awakenallofa
sudden"towhatisharmoniousandunified.Thetotalsubstanceandgreatfunctioningofthemindwillmanifestitself.5Sayingthattherewasneitheranyprinciplenorany
matteroutsidethemind,WangYangmingconsideredtheeffortdevotedtothemindtobetheroot,6andcametothinkthattheintelligenceofthemindorthe
extensionofknowledgewasthebasisoflearning.Everythingwould,hethought,besettledifonedevotedhimselftotheextensionofknowledge.7
Incontrasttothisstand,ChuHsimaintainedthattheextensionofknowledgewoulddeteriorateintotheemptylearningofCh'anmastersoruselesslearningifthe
extensionofknowledgewerenotprecededbytheinvestigationofthingsandmind.UnlikeWangYangming,ChuHsiconsideredtheinvestigationofthingstobethe
basisoflearning.8AmarkedfeatureofChuHsi'sthoughtoftotalsubstanceandgreatfunctioningisthatitextendedtoandinvolvedpoliticsandeconomy.Ideasin
scientifictechnologiesinlateragesareinasenseadevelopmentoutofthisconceptofChuHsi'sphilosophy.ThusthespecialcharacterthatdifferentiatesChuHsi's
learningfromthatofYangmingbecomesobvious.
Ifknowledgeisfullyinvestigated,everythingintheworldwillresolveitselfasifbythetouchofasword,9forknowledge,beingspiritualintelligenceofthemind,isthe
mostlivelyworkofthemind.ButitmustbeadmittedthatthereexistsomedifferencesinregardtoknowledgebetweenChuHsiandWangYangming.Knowledgeis
anoperationofthemind,andChuHsi

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regardedknowledgeasafunctioningofwisdomandthemindasthatofprinciple.Thusheconsideredwisdominseparablefromknowledge,althoughhehadtoadmit
thattherewassomesubtledifferencebetweenthetwo.10Healwaysmentionedprincipleindiscussingknowledge.AsAsamiKeisaih(16521711)hasdescribedit,
knowledgeforChuHsiis"anactivityofprinciple,"thatis"alivingprinciple."11
Furthermore,ChuHsi'sconceptofknowledgemaybesaidtobedifferentfromWangYangming's,whichdidnotpointtoprincipleinparticular.ChuHsi'sideason
wisdomashiddenandstoredespeciallyputhisconceptofknowledgeinsharpcontrasttoWang'sideaoninnateknowledgeofthegood.Forthisreason,itis
appropriatetoagreewithMiyakeShosai'si(16621741)assertionthatWang'sconceptofknowledgeseemstobesimilartoChuHsi'sbutisactuallydifferent.12
ChuHsi'sprinciplecomprisesboth"thenormgoverningthingsastheyshouldbe"(sotangjanchihtsej)and"thereasonforthingsbeingastheyare"(soijanchih
kuk).Knowledgeisthemindandheartofprinciple,becauseitisthespiritualintelligenceofthemind.Itembodiesmanyprinciplesandrespondstoallthings.Ifitis
shownthatforChuHsiknowledgehasthesefeatures,thenitbecomesclearthatitssimilaritytotheknowledgeoftheBuddhistsandTaoistsisalsoonlyapparent,
because,asAsamiKeisaimaintained,theirconceptofknowledgedoesnotincludetheessenceofprinciple.13
ChuHsi'sideaofwisdomashiddenandstoredisacomprehensivesynthesisnotonlyofideasonitbeforetheCh'inperiod(221206B.C.)andthosehandeddown
throughtheHanandT'angperiods,butalsoofopinionsofNorthernSungConfucianscholarsinregardtowisdom.Heexaminedalloftheseideasindetailand
clarifiedtheessenceofwisdom.His"wisdom,"whichisbasedonrealizationthroughpersonalexperience,shouldbedifferentiatedfromtheliteralandphilological
interpretationsoftheHanandT'angscholars.ByrejectingtheBuddhistandTaoistideasofwisdom,ChuHsiraisedthetraditionalunderstandingofwisdomtoa
higherlevel.
Unlikehistheoryoftotalsubstanceandgreatfunctioning,whichcontinuedtodevelopbecauseofitstransmissionanddiscussionbyhissuccessors,his"wisdomas
hiddenandstored"wasappreciatedbyonlyacoupleofhisdisciples.NotonlyinYan(12771368),Ming(13681644),andCh'ing(16441912)China,butin
KoreaandJapanaswell,onlyafewscholarshavereallyunderstooditsgreatsignificance.OneofthosescholarswasYamazakiAnsail(16181682),who
understoodChuHsi'sideaofwisdomashiddenandstoredandappreciateditsfullimplications.Thankstohim,ConfucianscholarsoftheKimonmSchoolofLearning
showedgreatinterestinthispartofChuHsi'sphilosophyandhandeditdownfromgenerationtogeneration.
TheideaofwisdomashiddenandstoredoriginatedintheBookofChanges.Beingabookofgreatwisdom,withagrandandprofoundworldview,ithasbeen
valuedhighlyinChinasinceancienttimes.ItmaybesaidtoconstitutethenucleusofChinesethought.Asthetheoryofwisdomashiddenandstored

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hasbeenhandeddownfromgenerationtogeneration,ithasoccupiedanimportantpositioninthehistoryofChinesethought.ChuHsideservesthecreditfor
comprehensivelyorganizingallrelatedideasonthesubjectintoagrandsystemandbyidentifyingitsessence.Itwasnot,however,untilhisthoughtasawholecameto
fullmaturityinhisoldagethatChuHsibegantodealwithwisdomashiddenandstoredhetoucheduponitforthefirsttimeinhislecturesatYshann14attheageof
sixtyfive.Conciselyheclarifiedtheessentialcharacteristicsofwisdomashiddenandstoredinaletter15inresponsetoquestionsraisedbyCh'enCh'ichihoaboutthe
Yshanlecture.MoredetaileddiscussionsarefoundintheChuTzuwenchip(CollectionofliteraryworksofMasterChu)and,inparticular,intheChuTzuyleiq
(ClassifiedconversationsofMasterChu).
III
TheBookofChangesgivesanaccountofallthephenomenainvolvedinhumanaffairsandthenaturalorderintermsofcirculation,comingandgoing,andgrowthand
decline.Accordingtothebookthesingularmaterialforce(ch'ir)alternatesbetweenyin,sthepassiveandstaticprinciple,andyang,ttheactiveanddynamicprinciple.
Suchanalterationpenetratessharplyintoman'slifeanddestinyandrevealswaystocopewiththem.Induetimepeopleincreasinglyrealizedtheimportanceofan
ethicalstanceinsociety.TheBookofChangesdidnotmerelyproclaimamechanisticworldviewonthebasisofNatureanditsinevitability,butpropoundeda
teleologicalworldviewbywhichonecanattainone'sgoalinlifeandinnatureinconformityto,andnotinseparationfrom,amechanisticworldview.
Inthe"AppendedRemarks"intheBookofChangesitissaid,"ThesuccessivemovementofyinandyangconstitutestheWay."16Itisalsosaid,"Thegreatvirtueof
HeavenandEarthiscalledlife,"17and"TheendlessproductionofthingsiscalledChange."18ItwasthroughthealterationofyinandyangthattheBookofChanges
sawthewillofHeavenandEarthtoproducethings.Similarly,itaccountsforallthephenomenaintheworldintermsofsuchanalteration.However,whatiscalledyin
oryangisnotafixedthing.Therootofthenegativeprincipleispositive,andtherootofthepositiveprincipleisnegative.Accordingly,thenegativecontainsthe
positiveandviceversa.Inotherwords,thenegativeproducedthepositive,andthepositiveproducedthenegative.Thephenomenaintheworldarethusafacetof
constantalternationsbetweenthenegativeandthepositiveprinciples.TheBookofChangesclarifieditsoverallcontentintermsofsixtyfoursignsofdivination,which
aresynthesizedinthech'ienuorHeavenlyHexagramofpureyang,andthekun,vorEarthlyHexagramofpureyin.
ThevirtueoftheHeavenlyHexagramistoproducethings,andthatoftheEarthlyHexagramistobeobedientandtherebytohelpthingstocompletion.19Theformeris
yang,whosevirtuefunctionsexternally.Thelatteris

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20

21

yin,whosevirtueis"laidupinstore." ThustheBookofChangessawawillforpreservationintheEarthlyHexagram. ItequatestheactivevirtueoftheHeavenly

HexagramtoproducethingswiththehumanvirtueofhumanityandthepassivevirtueoftheEarthlyHexagramwithwisdom.22Onthebasisofthis,humanityis
regardedastheriseofthewillforlife,andwisdomthecompletionofthewillforlife.Butsinceyinandyangandtheiractivityandtranquillityrotateendlessly,wisdom
istherootofthewillforlifeafterall.
ChouTuniw(10171073)didnotcutthegrassoutsidehiswindow23becausehesawinthegrassawilltolive.Itmaybesaidthathesawinitthemeaningof
benevolenceorthemeaningofwisdom.Also,asMasterCh'eng(Ch'engI,x10331107)said,"Activityandtranquillityhavenobeginningandhavenostarting
point."24AlthoughtheBookofChangesvaluestheactiveprinciplemorehighlythanthepassive,wemustwaitforthenourishingoftranquillity,whichconstitutesthe
root,inordertoanticipatethepureoperationofactivity.Inorderforchehuyoraspanwormtostretchitself,itneedsfirsttobend.25Collectingisimpossiblewithout
scattering.
TheBookofChangescallsfordiscretionandrecuperationonthewintersolsticewhentheactiveprincipleisonthevergeofgettingintomotionandthepassive
principlereachesitslimit.26Accordingtoit,heavenlydutyisfullfilledbymeansofclarifyingtheperiodbetweenmotionandquietude,or,inotherwords,bymeansof
clarifyingsubtletieswhichareabouttomovebuthavenotyetbegun.SucharestputsinmotionaprofoundmeaningofHeavenandthushelpsachieveagreattask.27
Inhis"PoemontheWinterSolstice,"ShaoYungz(10111077)sawthisrevelation28andinhisvaluingofchiaa(incipientforce),ChouTunishowedperfect
understandingofthisprocess.29
"Wisdomashiddenandstored"intheBookofChangesismadeclearerbyequatingchenaborfirmness,aheavenlyvirtue,withwisdom,ahumanvirtue.Sincethe
BookofChangesisabookofdivination,thecommentaryontheHeavenlyHexagrams,asChuHsisaid,mustoriginallyhaveread,"Ifoneobserveswhatisjust,
everythingwillworkouttoone'sadvantage."30
Inthecommentaryonthetextsofthechienhexagram,divinationisinterpretedintermsofmorality,andorigination,flourish,advantage,andfirmness(yanhengli
chenac)areregardedastheFourVirtuesofHeaven.Thesearerespectivelyassignedtohumanity,righteousness,propriety,andwisdom(jenilichihad).
Consequently,originationandflourishacttowardtheoutsidewhenaheavenlywillforlifegoesinmotion,andadvantageandfirmnesshideandstorethemselveswithin
thewillforlife.Atthesametime,advantageandfirmnessarethoughtofasvirtuescompletingthewillforlifebecausethewillforliferepeatsitselfandcirculates
incessantly.Also,theyarethoughtofasphysicalqualitiesofthewillorthesubstanceoforiginationandflourish.
Ch'engI,therefore,thoughtthatitwasbyvirtueofthepowerofadvantageandfirmnessthatthewillforlifeoforiginationandflourishneverstopsforamoment.31This
showsthatCh'engIcomprehendedthatoriginationwas

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32

basedonfirmness. ItisclearthattheBookofChangesholdsthatfirmnessishiddenandstored,and,sincewisdomcorrespondstofirmness,itishiddenandstored.
AsChuHsisaid,thereclearlyliesawillforthecycleofbeginningandendinthestorageoffirmnessbecausefirmnessisavirtuewithattainsanendingofthings,andis,
atthesametime,therootfromwhichthingsareproduced.Thesameistrueofwisdom.OfcoursetheBookofChangesdoesnotclearlystatethatthereisthecycle
ofbeginningandendinfirmnessorinwisdomitmerelymentionsthemeaningofthecycleinconnectionwithhumanity.33
Originally,theauthorsoftheBookofChangeswitnessedsuchnaturalphenomenaasthecirculationsoftimeandtide,rotationofthesunandthemoon,alterationsof
nightsanddays,andchangesofthefourseasons,andtheycametorealizethatthenaturalphenomenawerenothingbutthecycleofriseandfallofyinandyang.They
appliedsuchprinciplesaswerededucedfromnaturalphenomenatohumanaffairs,bywhichprinciplestheyattemptedtopredictthefateofmankind.Therefore,it
seemsjustifiablethattheybegantoassigntheFourVirtuesofHeavenandmantothefourseasons,thefourdirections,andtheFiveElements.34
SimilarviewsarereadilyfoundintheBookofRitesandtheKuanTzu.ae35LiTingtsoafoftheT'angperiodclaimedthatfirmnesswasanevidenceofwisdom.He
equatedthevirtueofhumanity,whichisthespiritoflifeinthespring,withtheeastandWoodthevirtueofpropriety,whichgovernsnourishmentofthingsinthe
summer,withthesouthandFirethevirtueofrighteousness,whichgovernsthematuringofthingsintheautumn,withthewestandMetalandthevirtueofwisdom,
whichgovernsthepreservingoflifeinthewinter,withthenorthandWater.HealsoquotedConfucius'saying,36''Themanofhumanityenjoysthemountainwhilethe
manofwisdomenjoyswater."37
Whenwintercomes,thingscontractthemselvesintostorageandpreservationand,asaresult,becomequiet.Likewise,awillforlifealsocontractsitselfintosuch
preservationthatitleaveshardlyanytracesonthesurface.ButthewillofHeavenandEarthforlife,whichisreadytoactivateitselflimitlessly,canbeseenlyingdeep
there.Thenatureofwisdomashiddenandstorediseasytounderstandintermsofthepreservationoflifeinthewinter.
IV
Asitisknown,ChuHsiequatednaturewithprinciple,regardedprincipleaslawsandnormsgoverningthingsandtheirroot,andlookedupontherootastheGreat
Ultimate(T'aichiag).Thenatureiscompleteinthemind,throughwhichitworkswonderfully.Beforethefeelingsarearoused,thenatureisundifferentiatedandhasno
formbutpossessesmanyprinciples.Ithasregularitieswhenitfunctions.ThegeneralfeaturesofsuchnatureweredescribedbyChuHsi,followingMencius,asthe
fourvirtuesofhumanity,righteous

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ness,propriety,andwisdom.MenciushaddescribedtheFourBeginningsasthefeelingofcommiseration,thefeelingofshameanddislike,thefeelingofmodestyand
complaisance,andthefeelingofrightandwrong.38ButChuHsiidentifiedtheFourBeginningsasfunctionsofnature.Thus,ChuHsidifferentiatednaturefromfeelings,
andsubstancefromfunction.Bydoingso,hethoughtthatthesubstanceofundifferentiatedunitycouldbeappreciated.Hedistinguishedbetweennatureandfeelings,
andsubstanceandfunction,becausehefeltthatthereweredefectsanddrawbacksinBuddhistlearningwhich,indealingonlywithundifferentiatedsubstance,had
deterioratedintovacuity.SincetheHandynasty,theFiveConstantVirtues,namely,humanity,righteousness,propriety,wisdom,andtruthfulness,hadbeenpresented
aselementsofnatureChuHsi,however,consideredthathumanity,righteousness,propriety,andwisdomwerealltrueanddeclaredthatitwasunnecessarytoinclude
truthfulnessinparticular.HefollowedMenciusinthisrespectandexpoundedtheFourVirtuesofhumanity,righteousness,propriety,andwisdom.39
UnlikeformerConfucianscholars,ChuHsiconsideredthattheFourVirtuesofhumanity,propriety,righteousness,andwisdom,andtheFourBeginningsofthefeeling
ofcommiseration,thefeelingofmodestyandcomplaisance,thefeelingofshameanddislike,andthefeelingofrightandwrongweretheresultsofgrowthanddecline
inthecycleofthepassiveandtheactiveprinciplesjustasorigination,flourish,advantage,andfirmnesswere.Asaresult,ChuHsisaidthatwisdomwasdeeplyhidden
andprofoundlystoredmoralprinciple,andthatMenciuswasthefirsttoadvocatewisdomashiddenandstored.40AccordingtoChuHsi,ashumanity,propriety,and
righteousnessaremanifestedasthefeelingsofcommiseration,complaisance,andshameanddislike,respectively,theiroperationinaffairscanbeseen.Wisdom,on
theotherhand,merelyhasthepowerofdiscretionbetweenrightandwrongandisdevoidofsuchoperationinhumanaffairs.Thusitishiddenandstored.41
Fromthepointofviewofprinciple,withreferencetoitswillforlife,humanityisthecreationoflife,proprietyisthegrowthoflife,righteousnessisthematurityoflife,
andwisdomisthestoringoflife.42Wisdomis,thereforesymbolizedaswinterintermsofthefourseasons,thelimitofquietudeofyinintermsoftheactivityand
tranquillityofyinandyang,orthehouroftzuahatmidnightintermsofaday.Itisinwisdomashiddenandstoredthatallthingsarestoredandpreservedandallforms
orphenomenahidethemselves.43ThusitbecomesclearthatforChuHsi,wisdomhasthemeaningof"beinglaidupinstoreandpreservation."Butviewedintermsof
theprincipleofcirculationintheBookofChanges,wisdomforMenciushasthemeaningnotonlyof"beinglaidupinstoreandpreservation,"butalsoof"embracing
thestorageandpreservation"andofthecycleofbeginningandend.
Fromtheviewpointofthewillforlifeofprinciple,ChuHsielucidatedMencius'doctrineoftheFourVirtuesandcharacterizedhumanityasbeing

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mild,proprietyasbeingoutwardlyfunctional,righteousnessasbeingstrictandjudgmental,andwisdomascontracting.Thisisexplainedintermsofbirthinthespring,
growthinthesummer,collectingintheautumn,andpreservationinthewinter.AccordingtoChuHsi,thoughthewillforlifemayriseorfallinthespring,thesummer,
theautumn,andthewinter,itpenetratesthroughhumanity,propriety,righteousness,andwisdomjustasitpenetratesthrougheverything.Eveninseverefrostorsnow
duringautumnorwinter,thereisthewilloflife,whichneverstops.
Inlightofthegrowthanddeclineofthewillforlife,ChuHsiregardedhumanityastheriseofthewillforlife,proprietyasitsgrowth,righteousnessasitsmaturity,and
wisdomasitspreservation.44Also,fromthestandpointoftheriseanddeclineofthewillforlife,humanityisitsbeginning,andwithoutit,thegrowthofpropriety,the
maturityofrighteousness,andthepreservationofwisdomwouldbeimpossible.HencehumanityisthemostimportantoftheFourVirtues.IntermsoftheFour
Beginnings,humanity,beingthefeelingofgentlenessandkindness,resultsinthefeelingofcommiseration,andwhenitexpressesitself,givesrisetothefeelingsof
complaisance,shameanddislike,andrightandwrongwhenitoperates,andthisoperationbringsthingstocompletion.Evenafterthingshavebeenbroughtto
completion,gentlenessandkindnessremainunchanged.Therefore,thefeelingofcommiserationembracesthefeelingsofmodestyandcomplaisance,shameand
dislike,andrightandwrong.
Thus,ChuHsidecidedthathumanityincludespropriety,righteousness,andwisdom.LikeCh'engI,hethoughtthathumanity,spokenofseparately,stoodinparallel
withpropriety,righteousness,andwisdom,butspokenofcollectivelyembracesallfour.45Confucius'humanity,accordingtoChuHsi,washumanityincollective
termsandwhenMenciustalkedaboutpropriety,righteousness,andwisdominadditiontohumanity,hedidnotsetupanotherhumanityasidefromthatof
Confucius.46ChuHsigavehumanitytoppriorityovertheotherthreevirtues47andsaidthattheSchooloftheSagewasanxioustoseekhumanity.48
BecausehefathomedtheprincipleofriseandfallintheBookofChangesandinMencius'teachingofhumanityandwisdom,ChuHsinotonlyattachedgreat
importancetohumanityamongtheFourVirtues,buthealsoregardedwisdomasavitalvirtueandsaidinanalogythathumanitywastheheadoftheFourVirtuesand
wisdomtheirtail.Heconsideredtheheadandtailtobeequallyessential,andattachedasmuchimportancetowisdomastohumanity.Hismotivefordiscussing
wisdomashiddenandstoredmayhaveoriginatedinhisdesiretoclarifyitsimportance.
ChuHsicalledhumanityandwisdomthegreatestamongtheFourVirtuesandsaidthatitisjustasimpossibletoexpectoriginationwithoutfirmnessastoexpect
humanitywithoutwisdom.49Asoriginationrisesfromfirmness,notfromoriginationitself,50sohumanityrisesfromwisdom,notfromhumanityitself.Forthisreason,he
alsothoughtthathumanityandwisdom,origination

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51

andfirmness,beingthebeginningandendofthecycle,wereofspecialimportance. Inlightoftheprincipleofthewillforlife,humanityisthevirtueinwhichthewill
forlifebegins,anditshouldbegivengreatimportance.Wisdomisthevirtueinwhichthewillforlifebringsitselftoperfectionwithoutwisdomitwillbeimpossiblefor
humanity,propriety,andrighteousnesstobringtheirtasktocompletion.Justashumanityembracesthethreeothervirtuesandenablesthecycletocomplete,so
wisdomconstitutesavirtuethatembracesthethreeothervirtues,andenablestheprocessofbeginningandendingtocomplete.Thuswisdomcanbespokenof
separatelyandcollectively.
ChuHsitookspecialnoteofthefactthatwisdomhasameaningofthebeginningandending,andtriedtoexplainitbycomparingittostorageandpreservationin
winter,which,inturn,possessthemeaningofthebeginningandending.Accordingtohim,wisdombelongstowinter.Itisaseasonwhenthewillforlifeisfinally
fulfilled.Becauseitcontainstheforceofactivation,wisdomthereforehasthemeaningofthebeginningandending.52
KusumotoTanzanai(18281883)said,"Knowledgebelongstobothwinterandfirmness.Itiswonderfulbecauseitssubstanceistranquil,inwhichthepastis
contained,andwhenitsfunctionbecomesactive,helpsustopredictthefuture.Itisaprinciplewhichgeneratesallthingsandcontrolstheirbeginningandending."53
ThisstatementmaybesaidtohaveclarifiedChuHsi'smeaningofembracement,preservation,andbeginningandend.ChuHsi,whohaddiscernedthatwisdom
possessedthemeaningofthebeginningandend,understoodthatinwisdomlieslatentagreatfunctionthatgivesrisetothetransformationofallthings.Hesaid,"The
transformationscannotdisperseunlesstheyhavebeencollected.Thatisanaturalprinciple.Thepointofalltransformationsliesinthecontactbetweenhumanityand
wisdom."54ChuHsisawthemindofHeavenandEarthproducingthingsintheinteractionbetweenhumanityandwisdom.
AccordingtoChuHsi,humanity,propriety,righteousness,andwisdom,beingvirtuesofthenatureandalsoofHeavenlyPrincipleareallmetaphysicalrealities.They
functionthroughthemind,and,accordingly,natureandvirtuescanbeknownonlythroughit.Therefore,wisdomashiddenandstoredshouldhavebeenconsidered
throughthemediumofthefeelingofdiscreteapprovalanddisapproval,inwhichwisdomactsuponthemind.Inasense,thisfeelingisaperceptionofprinciple.It
leavesnotracesofanyactualoperation,butithasthefunctionthathelpsthemyriadprinciplestoperformwonderfullyandcauseallthingstogrowandtransform.
Inthiswaywisdombecomesthefundamentalprinciplethatembracesthemyriadprinciplesandhelpsthemtofunctionwell.Forthisreason,wisdomashiddenand
storedmaybesaidtobetheGreatUltimate,becauseChuHsiheldthatthemyriadprinciplesarelaidupinpreservationintheGreatUltimate.55
AsamiKeisaimaybesaidtohaveexpressedthetruemeaningofChuHsi's

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conceptofwisdomashiddenandstoredwhenhecalleditalivingprinciple.HesaidthattheillustriousvirtueintheGreatLearningisalsowisdom,andthattheGreat
Ultimateiswherewisdomisstored.56Wisdomashiddenandstored,ifviewedintermsof"beingquietandactedupon,"isthecriticaljunctureofbeingandaction.In
theanalogyofthefourseasons,itisthehouroftzuofthewintersolstice,whichisthetimewhenwisdomashiddenandstoredismostquietanditswonderfulfunction
isonthevergeofgoingintoaction.Justasallthingsremainincompletequietudeinthewinter,wisdomislaidupinpreservationandhasnooutwardtraces.Ithas
neithersoundnorsmell.
However,withinwisdomashiddenandstoredthemindofHeavenandEarthtoproducethingsisactive.ItisnothingbuttheGreatUltimateandthesubstanceofthe
Waybecauseitexistsinsilence.AsitistheGreatUltimateandthesubstanceoftheWay,itisalsothenaturemandatedbyHeavendescribedintheDoctrineofthe
Mean.Therefore,ChuHsisaidthattheDoctrineoftheMeandealsessentiallywithwisdom.57ItwasYamazakiAnsaiwhoshowedaperfectunderstandingofthe
implicationsofthisstatementbyChuHsi.58AccordingtoKusumotoTanzan,thisisanunprecedentedlyclearsightedview,andveryfewConfucianscholarsinthe
YanandMingdynastieshadbeenconsciousofitssignificance.59
Ifwefullyrealizethemeaningofwisdomashiddenandstored,wecanappreciatewhyChuHsiattachedgreatimportancetotheextensionofknowledge.Whenwe
havereachedthisprofoundwisdomafterourpersistentquestforit,wewillbeabletosolveanything.60ChuHsiconsiderstheinvestigationofthingstobeessentialfor
theextensionofknowledgeandthinksthatonewillfindallprinciplessuddenlyunfoldbeforeone'seyesifoneperseveresinhisquest.Obviously,itwillnotbe
necessarytotalkaboutbeingawakenedallofasuddenifonecultivatesthisprofoundwisdomwiththeunderstandingofitashiddenandstored.Indiscussingthe
meaningofthebeginningandendofwisdomashiddenandstoredChuHsisaid,"Howcantherebeabeginningwithoutanend?"Andheemphasizedtheimportance
oftheefforttocultivatethesubtlepositiveprincipleinquietude,citingthecommentaryonthefuaj(toreturn)hexagramintheBookofChanges.61
Themoreprofoundwisdombecomes,thefewertraceswillbeleft,justasinthewinterallthingswithdrawthemselvesinstorageandleavenomarkofactual
operation.Whilewisdomremainsquietandsilent,itcontainsinfinitepossibilitiesofmovementsandactivities.Alltheactivitieswillbeabletoshowtheirrealfeature
onlyiftheyaresupportedbytheeffortatquietude.Forthispurpose,therefore,one'sselfcultivationbymeansofquietsittingbecomesindispensable.If,bydoingso,
themindisintenselyconcentratedandbecomesclear,wisdomwilldeepenandbecomeprofound.Andifwisdombecomesmoreandmoreprofound,whatislaidup
inpreservationwillexpanditsextentanddimensions.Onewillthenreachaclearunderstandingofthereasonforthingsbeingastheyare.Alltheaffairsthathavearisen
infrontof

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one'seyeswillresolvethemselvesasifbythepowerofasword.Ifthisisthecase,itwillnotbenecessarytostresstheneedof"beingawakenedallofasudden."
LiuTzuhui(LiuP'ingshan,ak11011147)said,
Treesdigintothedarknessoftheearth
Tobringforththesplendorofspringgrowth.
Mandigsintothedarknessofhisself
Tobringforththepurelightofmaturewisdom.62

ThisiswhatChuHsicalled"TheTeachingoftheTree"(muhuial).Later,LiYung(LiErhchu,am16271705)said,
Withoutenduringthechillingcoldofwinter
Howcouldtheplumblossomsreleasetheirfragrance?63

Ifwefollowthepreceptsandlessonssetforthbythemandbearinmindtheinvestigationofthingsandtheextensionofknowledge,wemayrestassuredthatwewill
certainlygettothecoreandessenceof"wisdomashiddenandstored."
HerewehaveoutlinedtheessenceofChuHsi'sconceptof"wisdomashiddenandstored"anditsimplications.His"wisdom"sublimatedthewisdomofancient
Confucianismbynegatingthe"light"oftheTaoistsandthe"enlightenment"oftheBuddhistsitisanimportantconceptcomparabletoWangYangming's''theinnate
knowledgeofthegood."ItismyearnesthopethatChuHsi'swisdomashiddenandstoredwillbereexaminedfromtheglobalpointofviewbyscholarswhose
academicconcernrelatestoConfucianism.
TranslatedbyYoshitakeToshikazuan
Notes
1.OkadaTakehiko,Somintetsugakujosetsuao[IntroductiontoSungMingphilosophy],(Tokyo:Bengensha,ap1977),ch.3.
2.KusumotoMasatsugu,"Zentaitaiyonoshiso"[Thephilosophyoftotalsubstanceandgreatfunctioning],intheChugokutetsugakukenkyuaq[StudiesonChinese
thought],(Tokyo:KokushikanarUniversityLibrary,1975),pp.353391.
3.Tahsehchangchas[CommentaryontheGreatLearning],commentonthetext.
4.SeetheCh'uanhsiluat[Instructionsforpracticalliving],sec.108,112,212,andSatoIssai,auDenshurokurangaishoav[NotesandcommentsontheCh'uan
hsilu],(Tokyo:KeishinShoin,aw1905),pt.1,p.14a.
5.Tahsehhuowenax[QuestionsandanswersontheGreatLearning],(Japaneseed.printedbyYamazakiAnsai,1647),commentonthe"Amended
Commentary"onthefifthchapter,pp.20a21b.

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6.Ch'uanhsilu,pt.1,p.14a.
7.WangWench'engKungch'anshuay[CompleteworksofWangYangming],ch.7,"PrefacetotheancienttextoftheGreatLearning."
8.ChuTzuylei[ClassifiedconversationsofMasterChu],(Kyoto:Yamagataya,az1688),126:13bKusumotoMasatsugu,SoMinjidaiJugakushisono
kenkyuba[StudiesonConfucianthoughtintheSungMingperiod],(Chibabb:Hiroikegakuen,bc1962),pp.56.
9.ChuTzuylei,19:16b.
10.ChuTzuwenchi[CollectionofliteraryworksofMasterChu],(Junbundobded.),55:la,letterinreplytoP'anCh'ienchih.be
11.MiyakeShosai,Chizoronhitsusatsubf[Notesonthetheoryofwisdomashiddenandstored],manuscript.
12.Ibid.
13.Ibid.
14.ChuTzuwenchi,74:18a22a,"LectureatYshan."
15.Ibid.,58:21a23asecondlettertoCh'enCh'ichihonthelectureatYshan.
16.BookofChanges,"AppendedRemarks,"pt.1,ch.5.
17.Ibid.,pt.2,ch.1.
18.Ibid.,pt.1,ch.5.
19.Ibid.,pt.2,ch.12.
20.Ibid.,pt.1,ch.5"RemarksontheHexagrams,"ch.3.
21.Ibid.
22.Ibid.
23.Ishubg[Survivingworks],intheErhCh'engch'anshubh[CompleteworksofthetwoCh'engs],(1670ed.)3:2b.
24.Ch'engI,Chingshuobi[ExplanationsoftheClassics],intheErhCh'engch'anshu,40:15b.
25.BookofChanges,"AppendedRemarks,"pt.2,ch.5.
26.Ibid.,commentaryonthefu(toreturn)hexagram.
27.Ibid.,"AppendedRemarks,"pt.1,ch.10pt.2,ch.5.
28.Chijanchibj[Poemsofstrikinganeartheninstrument],(1969ed.),5:33b.
29.T'ungshubk[PenetratingtheBookofChanges],ch.3.
30.ChuTzuylei,68:6b.
31.Ichuanbl[CommentaryontheBookofChanges],ch.1,commentonthecommentaryonthech'ienhexagram.
32.Chizoronhitsusatsu.
33.Ichuan,ch.1,commentonthecommentaryonthefirsthexagram.
34.Metal,Wood,Water,Fire,andEarth,Earthbeinginthecenter.
35.BookofRites,ch.19,"RecordofMusic"ch.49,"FourSystemsofFuneralDresses"ch.45,"CommunityDrinkingFeast"KuanTzu,secondtreatise,
"ConditionsandCircumstances.''
36.Analects,6:21.
37.LiTingtso,Chouichichiehbm[CollectedexplanationsoftheBookofChanges].
38.BookofMencius,2A:6.
39.ChuTzuwenchi,ch.74,"LectureatYshan,"58:21a23a,secondlettertoCh'enCh'ichihonthelectureatYshan.
40.ChuTzuylei,32:11b.

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bn

bo

41.ChuTzuwenchi,45:23ab,fifthreplytoLiaoTzuhui supplementarycollection,10:6a7a,letterinreplytoLiChishan's questions.

42.Ibid.,ch.67,"Treatiseonorigination,flourish,advantage,andfirmness."
43.ChuTzuylei,6:13b.Seealsoabove,n.15.
44.ChuTzuwenchi,74:18a22a,lectureatYshan38:12b,fifthreplytoYanChichungbpChuTzuylei,6:7a,8a,11b.
45.Ch'engI,Ichuan,ch.1,commentonthefirsthexagram,ch'ien.
46.Seeabove,n.15.
47.ChuTzuylei,6:9a.
48.Ibid.,6:13a.
49.Ibid.,60:2b.
50.Ibid.,6:11b.Seealsoabove,n.15.
51.Ibid.,6:10a.
52.Ibid.,68:18a.Seealsoabove,n.15.
53.KusumotoTanzanishobq[SurvivingworksofKusumotoTanzan],ch.6,"Gakushuroku"br[Recordsoflearningandpractice],pt.1,p.17a.
54.Seeabove,n.15.
55.ChuTzuylei,94:8b.
56.Seeabove,n.11.
57.ChuTzuylei,6:11b.ThereferencetotheDoctrineoftheMeanistoch.1.
58.YamazakiAnsaizenshubs[CompleteworksofYamazakiAnsai],pt.2,"Bunkaihitsuroku"bt[Recordsofaliterarygathering],p.504.
59.KusumotoTanzanisho,ch.6,"Gakushuroku,"pt.2,p.27b.
60.ChuTzuylei,19:16b,53:14b.
61.Ibid.,53:15ab.
62.P'ingshanchibu[CollectedworksofLiuTzuhui],(1901ed.),6:1b.
63.LiErhch'uch'anchibv[CompletecollectionofLiYung],(Hsienfeng,bw18511861,ed.),6:1b,"SelfreflectiononreadingtheFourBooks."
Glossary

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Page212

14
ChuHsi's"TreatiseonJen"
SatoHitoshi
TheissuesmostactivelydiscussedbyscholarsinrecentyearsconcerningChuHsi'sthought,inparticularhisweltanschauung,arehisviewsont'aichia(Supreme
Ultimate),whichexploretheoriginalsubstanceofthecosmos,andonlich'ib(principleandmaterialforce),whichexplaintheoverallstructureofthecosmos.These
issueshavegenerallybeenregardedasthemostphilosophicalaspectofChuHsi'sthinking.Yetthereis,inthetraditionalthinkingoftheChinesepeople,thenotionof
theunityofHeavenandman(t'ienjenheic).InthelonghistoryofChinesethought,thisideahasmanifesteditselfinvariousforms.Thisisaconceptthatassertsthe
continuitybetweennatureandmanaswellastheidentitybetweentheprinciplesofthenaturalworldandthatofthehumanworld.Furthermore,itisaconceptthat
maintainsthatifsomethingspiritualdoesexistinthenaturalworld,thisspiritualityisbestmanifestedinthehumanmind.TheMencianstatementthat"whentheoriginal
natureofmanisunderstood,thenHeavenwillalsobeunderstood"1ispremiseduponthisideaoft'ienjenhei.Concerningthisstatement,ChuHsioffersthe
followingexplanation:
Nature(hsingd)istheallotmentthatisendowedtoman.Heaven(t'iene)istheprinciplethatissharedincommonbythemyriadthings.Heavenisthusanenlargedversionofman,
whilemanisaminiaturizedversionofHeaven.TheFourMoralQualitiesofHumanity(jenf),Righteousness(i g),Propriety(lih),andWisdom(chihi)inherentinhumannatureare
identicalwiththeFourQualitiesofOrigination(yanj),Flourish(hengk),Advantage(lil),andFirmness(chenm)intrinsictoHeaven.Allthingspossessedbyhumanbeingscome
fromHeaven.Thusifweunderstandourownnature,wewillunderstandHeavenaswell.2

AccordingtoChuHsi,therefore,eventhoughtheremaybeavastdisparitybetweenHeavenandman,theirbasicstructuresareessentiallyidentical.Thisbeingthe
case,itfollowsthatwhenmanisunderstood,sowillbeHeaven.Indeed,therewerethinkerswhoarguedpreciselyfromthisstandpoint.Ch'engIch'uan(Ch'engI,n
10331107)madethefollowingobservation:

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o

"FormerlyYangHsiung [53B.C.A.D.18]remarkedthatwhenHeavenandEarthareobserved,thesagewillbeknown.Idisagree.Rather,Ithinkitismoreaccurate
tostatethatwhenthesageisobserved,HeavenandEarthwillbeunderstood."3
Asthequotationindicates,thisprioritygiventotheunderstandingofmanrepresentsthemainlineofConfucianthinking.Consequently,inordertoanalyzethe
characteristicsofChuHsi'sideas,itisofprimaryimportancetofocusonhisviewsofman.InChuHsi'sviewsofman,nothingismoresignificantthanhistheoryon
mindandnature(hsinhsingp).ThistheoryillustratesChu'sconceptionoftheoverallstructureofthemindandthismindhasbeenfondlyreferredtobyhimas"the
masteroftheselfandtherootofallaffairs."4ThecornerstoneofChuHsi'stheoryofmindandnatureisnoneotherthanhiscelebratedJenshuoq(Treatiseonjen).
ItiscommonknowledgethatjenisthehighestidealinConfucianism.Asthesourceofmoralityandthebasisofallmoraldeeds,ithasbeenregardedasatoncethe
rootandthestemofallethicalvirtues.Consequently,itwillnotbeanoverstatementtonotethatforallConfucianists,thegreatestmissioninlifeisthepursuitofjenin
boththecognitiveandthepracticalsense.ChuHsihasmadeitclear.
Inthepursuitofknowledge,itisimpossibletolearnexhaustivelyabouttheFiveConstantVirtues(wuch'angr)andthehundredmoraldeeds.Inman'soriginalnature,theFive
ConstantVirtuesofHumanity,Righteousness,Propriety,Wisdom,andFaithfulness(hsins)aremostbasic.Ofthefive,jenisthemostfundamental.Inthecultivationofthewayof
jen,holdingontoseriousness(ch'ihchingt)isthemostimportant.Whenoneiseverwatchfulandalertinthepursuitofthelostmind,withoutamomentoflaxness,theneven
whenoneisincapableofknowingexhaustivelythemyriadprinciples,thevirtuesofrighteousness,propriety,wisdom,andfaithfulnesswillnaturallybecomemanifestedinone's
handlingofaffairs.Itisimperativethatwetakenoteofthisfact.Thepursuitofjenthroughseriousnessisthekeytolearning.AllfollowersofConfuciusaregiventhisprinciple
instructioninthepursuitofjen.5

Inwhatfollows,IshallfocusmydiscussiononChuHsi'sviewonjenasanintegralpartofhisthinking.Beforedoingso,however,Ishallprovideabriefhistoryofthe
variousviewsonjenpropoundedbyscholarsbeforeChuHsi.
Accordingtothelatestinterpretationbyetymologists,theChinesecharacterofjensymbolizesapersoncarryingaheavyburdenandwalkingbentbackedunderthe
load.Thusoriginallyjenisawordthatsignifies"bearingandenduring."6ItwasConfuciuswhoattachedaprofoundphilosophicimplicationtothisword.InConfucius'
view,oneattainsmaturityinone'ssocialinteractionwithotherswhenonecanactuallymasterorconqueroneself.InAnalects,12:1,itisstatedthat"tomasteroneself
andreturntoproprietyis

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jen."Thisassertionconfirmsthateventhoughselfmasteryorselfconquestisnottheattainmentofjenitself,itiscertainlyanimportantconditionintherealizationofit.
Menciushasalsonotedthat"allmenhavethemindwhichcannotbeartowitnessthesufferingsofothers."7Thisshowsthatthemindwhichcannotbeartoseethe
miseryofothers,namelythefeelingofsympathy,aswellasthemindthatharborsfondnessforothers,namelythefeelingoflove,arealsoimportantdimensionsofjen.
Themasteryoftheselfontheonehandandtheloveforothersontheotherthusform,respectively,theinnerandouteraspectsofjen.Regrettably,Confuciushimself
didnotprovideaclearandunequivocalexplanationofthemeaningorcontentofjen.ThemajorityofthereferencestojenintheAnalectsofferonlyanindirect
explanation.Inresponsetoadisciple'scomplaintthatwhileMenciuswasclearinhisexpositionofjen,Confuciuswasdecidedlynot,ChuHsianswers,"Confucius
alsoexplainswithclarity.Itisonlythatyouhavefailedtounderstandit.Takethecaseofsugar,forinstance.Menciuspointsoutthatsugarissweet.YetConfucius
directlyinstructspeopletotasteitthemselves.Whentheydotasteit,theyknowthatsugarisindeedsweet,withoutanyexplanationatall!''8ElsewhereChuHsifurther
observes,"Ineducatinghisdisciples,Confuciuselucidatesvariouslyonjen.Yethedoesnotofferacleardefinitionoftheterm.Thisisprobablybecausetheprinciple
ofjencannoteasilybeconveyedwithwords.Ifafixeddefinitionisgiven,thenviolencemightbedonetotheallencompassingnatureofjenitself.Ifoneexertsoneself
toexperiencejen,itstruemeaningwillnaturallybegrasped."9.Thus,accordingtoChu,thereasonsforConfucius'failuretoprovideaclearcutexpositionofjenare
twofold.Thefirstisthatjenshouldbeultimatelyappreciatedexperientially,notcognitively.Thesecondisthatitisdifficulttoprovidearigiddefinitionofjen.Sucha
rigiddefinitionwillfreezethemeaningofjeninanarrowsense,thusdoingviolencetotheallinclusivenessandtotalityofjen.LeavingasidethequestionwhetherChu
Hsi'scommentsareaccurateornot,itisevidentthatscholarsthroughtheageswereverymuchfrustratedbyConfucius'lackofaclearcutexplanationofjen.The
reticenceonthepartofConfuciuswasalsoresponsiblefortheproliferationofinterpretationsofjeninlatertimes.
Thesevariousinterpretationsofjenhavebeenpainstakinglycollectedintonumerousvolumes,oneofwhichisentitledJinsetsuyogi*u(Essentialsofthetheorieson
jen),aworkcompiledbyOta*Kinjov(17651825).Otawas,tobesure,ascholarwithanantiSungLearning,antiChuHsibent.Thisfactnotwithstanding,his
Jinsetsuyogiprovidesacomprehensiveaccountofthevariouswaysinwhichjenwasunderstoodbygenerationsofscholars.Itscontentistoodetailedandtedious
toberecountedhere.Statedbriefly,however,itshowsthatjenhasbeengenerallyunderstoodbyConfucianistsbeforeSungtobethelovethatisextendedtoward
othersaswellasthedeedsthatarebasedonsuchlove.Theobjectofone'sextensionofjencanbeone'sbloodrelativesortotalstrangers,oritcanbethemonarch
orthesubject,thecommonpeopleortheanimalsandplants.Aswillbedemonstratedlater,Sung(9601279)

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scholars,ChuHsiincluded,weregenerallydissatisfiedwiththisinterpretationofjenaslove.Itwastheirdissatisfactionwiththisinterpretation,whichwasdominant
sincetheHanperiod(206B.C.A.D.220),thatpromptedthemtoofferadifferentunderstandingofjen.
TheSungperiodwasanerainwhichtheidealsofancientChinawererevived.Fromamongtheliteratithereemergedthebeliefthatthewayoftheancientsages,the
socalledprinciplesof"monarch/subject,father/son,humanity,righteousness,propriety,andmusic"wereultimatelyimmutable.10Thisnewthinking,knownasSung
Learning,representedarestorativemovementthatattemptedtorevivethespiritofancienttimes.TheseSungscholarstookituponthemselvestoreexaminethe
traditionalunderstandingofjenasloveandtoproposeanewinterpretationbefittingthisnoblestidealinConfucianism.InwhatfollowsIshalltrytodiscussthevarious
viewsofjenespousedbytheSungscholarsbeforeChuHsi.
WestartwithChouTuniw(10171073),whowasaccordedthehighestrespectbyChuHsiastheprecursorofSungLearning.Chouplacesthefundamentalsof
humanityontheprinciplesof"centrality,rectitude,benevolence,andrighteousness(chungchengjenix)."11Furthermore,heassertsthatthevirtueofloveisjen.12At
thesametime,heregardsasjentheproductionofthemyriadthingsbyHeaventhroughthebreathofyangy(male,activeprinciple),andmaintainsthatitisthetaskof
thesagetocultivateandnourishthepeoplethroughtheHeavenlywayofjen.13Thefamousepisodeofhisrefusaltocutthegrassoutsidehiswindowsoastoletit
growluxuriantlyisreflectiveofhisacuteappreciationfor,andtotalidentificationwith,thelifesustainingandlifenurturingcapacityofnature.14Itisclearlyindicativeof
theSungscholars'preoccupationwithproductionandgrowthintheirexplanationofjen.
The"WesternInscription"ofChangTsaiz(10201077),atextexemplifyingtheboundlessspiritofthefellowshipofhumanityasawhole,hasbeengiventhehighest
accoladebyCh'engHaoaa(10321085),whohailsitasone"completewiththeprinciplesofjenandfilialpiety."15Thisessay,longhonoredbygenerationsof
ConfucianistsasthebestexpressionofthefundamentalessenceofConfucianmorality,providesclearelucidationonthetwinaspectsofjen.Theyaretheboundless
lovewithwhichHeaven,Earth,andourparentsendowuswithlife,andfilialpiety,theabsolutesenseofattachmentandbelongingwithwhichwereciprocateand
repaytheirlove.
Ch'engHaoalsointerpretsjenasthelifegivingqualityofnature,16andarguesthatthemanofjenformsonebodywiththeuniverseandthemyriadthings.17His
youngerbrotherCh'engIlikensthehumanmindtoaseedofgrain.Thequalityoflifeandgrowthinherentintheseed,hedeclares,isthejeninhumanbeings.18
Moreover,sinceheagreesthatthewayofjencannotbeadequatelyconveyedwithwords,heproposesthewayofthepublicgood(kungtaoab)tobean
approximationofit.19Alltheseviewsofjen,fromChou

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TunitoCh'engI,contributetoChuHsi'sformulationofhisownideaonthesubject.ThefollowingstatementbyCh'engIisparticularlysignificant:
BecauseMenciussaidthat"thefeelingofcommiserationisjen,"laterscholarshaveregardedloveasjen.Butloveisfeeling(ch'ingac),whereasjenisnature(hsingad).Itis
thereforeerroneoustoconsiderloveasjen.ItiswrongforHanY ae[768824]tohavesaidthatuniversalloveisjen.Themanofjenofcourselovesuniversally,yetonemaynot
thereforeconfusejenwithuniversallove.20

ThisargumentischaracteristicofallSungscholars'interpretationofjenandlargelydeterminesthedirectionoflaterdebatesonthesubject.Ch'enCh'unaf(1159
1223),oneofthemostprominentdisciplesofChuHsi,clearlydisplaystheinfluenceofCh'engIinthefollowingremark:
AfterConfucius,noonecorrectlycomprehendedthetruemeaningofjen.ScholarsintheHanperiodusedjentomeanfavororbenefit.Jenwasdeeplyentangledwiththefeeling
oflove.Asaresult,itwasbelievedthatsomethingloftierandnoblerthanjenexisted.Inturnjenbecameaninferiorandcrudeconcept.IntheT'angdynasty(618907),HanY
upheldjenasuniversallove,yetbasicallyhestillfollowedthetraditionalunderstandingoftheterm.ItwasstartingwithMasterCh'eng[Ch'engI]thatjencametobeunderstood
asnature,whilelovewasinterpretedasfeeling.Jenandlovethusbecameclearlydifferentiated.Unfortunately,thedisciplesofMasterCh'engwentoverboardinthis
differentiationandforgotaboutlovealtogether.Intheirattempttolookforsomethingvastandlofty,theylostsightofthefactthatjenisthenatureoflove,andloveisthefeeling
ofjen.Eventhoughwemaynotregardloveasthecorrectlabelforjen,thetwomustneverbecompletelyseparatedfromeachother.21

Ch'enCh'unfurtheraddresseshimselftoHsiehShangts'ai's(HsiehLiangtso,ag1050c.1120)viewofjenasconsciousness,22YangKueishan's(YangShih,ah
10531135)interpretationofthesubstanceofjenastheunityoftheselfwithallthings,23andLYshu's(LTalin,ai10461092)explanationofjenassetforthin
his"InscriptiononSelfmastery,"24andcriticizeseachofthemforhavingtotallyseparatedlovefromjen.
ChuHsishareshisdisciple'sassessmentthatafterCh'engIdefinedloveasfeelingandjenasnature,someofCh'eng'sstudentsdiscoursedonjenwithoutmentioning
love.Thisrigiddifferentiationofthetwois,inChu'sopinion,thecausethathasmadetheirscholarshipemptypursuitswithoutauthenticityandgenuineness.ChuHsi
comments,
ThescholarsbeforeMasterCh'eng[Ch'engI]showednoconcernforjen.Wheretheancientsagesusedthewordjen,theyreadaslove.AfterMasterCh'eng,scholarsfinally
cametoseetheimportanceofjenandstoppedinterpretingitaslove.ButtherearoseabusesamongsomelaterfollowersoftheMaster.Preoccupiedonlywiththeexpositionof
jen,theywereremissintheefforttoholdontotheessentialsandtoimmersethemselvesincomprehensiveness.Forthisreason,

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theymissedthejoyoftherelaxedappreciationofthings,andfailedtoaccomplishanyconcreteresultsinmasteringtheselfandreturningtopropriety.Theynotonlysufferedthe
illsofignoranceproducedbywhattheAnalectshasreferredtoastheresultofbeingfondofjenbutnotoflearningtheyalsoremovedtheirpursuitsentirelyawayfromlove.
Theyengagedthemselvesonlyinemptyprinciplesandemptydiscourses,andfailedtoarriveatanytrueunderstanding.Theirscholarshipconsequentlylackedclarityand
commonsense,andtheirshortcomingsweremostnoticeable.Theyendedupnothavinganycomprehensionofjenatall.Thissituationwasworsethantheearliercaseoftreating
jenonlyaslove.Inmyopinion,whenonereallyfocusesone'smindonthepursuitofjen,themosteffectivewayisofcoursetoputitintopractice.Butunlessoneestablishesa
definiteideaonthemeaningandcontentofjenthroughlearning,oneencountersthedangerofbeingmiredinaimlessconfusion.Thedefectofthelackoflearningisignorance.If
onecanexerttheeffortofdwellingonseriousnessandextendingknowledge,andmakethemcomplementeachother,thenthisdefectwillbeeliminated.Whenonewantstogaina
clearunderstandingofthemeaningandcontentofjen,onewilldowellifoneusestheconceptofloveasaid.Whenonerealizesthatjenisthesourceoflove,andthatlovecan
neverexhaustjen,thenonehasgainedadefinitecomprehensionofjen.Thusitisabsolutelynotnecessarytosearchforjeninobscureplaces.25

Whenonereadstheabovepassagewithcloseattention,oneshouldbeabletodetectalltheessentialpointsofChuHsi'sviewonjen.Inhiscritiqueofsomedisciples
ofCh'engI,Chuclearlyshowsthattheyhavedeviatedintothesidetracks.Hecriticizesthemwhereheseesfit,butretainswhathedeemsvaluable,andarrivesathis
ownperceptionofjen,onethatheregardsasthemostappropriateunderstandingofthenoblestidealinConfucianism.Hisperceptionofjencanbesummarizedas
"theprincipleoflove,andthecharacterofthemind(aichihli,hsinchihteaj)."26
ItiscommonknowledgethatChuHsi'sthinkingistheculminationofthephilosophicinquiriesundertakenbythefiveNorthernSung(9601126)mastersChouTun
i,ChangTsai,Ch'engHao,Ch'engI,andShaoYungak(10111077).ItisalsowellknownthatscholarssuchasChangNanhsan(ChangShih,al11331180)and
LTsuch'ienam(11371181)haveplayedanimportantroleintheformulationofChuHsi'sideas.Ofcourse,thecontributionofLiT'ungan(10931163)inguiding
ChuontotheorthodoxlineofConfuciantraditionmustalsobementioned.ItisonlynaturalthatintheformationofChu'sviewonjen,thesamekindofinfluencesare
atwork.Inparticular,Chu'sdiscussionswithChangNanhsanonthenatureofjenprovidethefinishingtouchtohisthinkingonthesubject.Furthermore,theyalso
enableChutobrushoffanearlierinfluenceexertedonhimbytheHunanSchoolthroughChang.Thescopeandpointsofcontentionofthesedebatesarefullyrevealed
inthecorrespondencebetweenthetwomen.
Thesedetailsofthediscussionsaside,itsufficestopointoutthatthemostintenseperiodofdiscussionisbelievedtohavetakenplacearound1172,

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whenChuHsiwasfortythreeyearsold.Theheatedexchangetooktheformatofeachmancomposinghisown"TreatiseonJen"andsendingittotheotherfor
commentandcriticism.Afternumerousrevisions,ChuHsi'sown"TreatiseonJen"wascompletedandincludedinch.67ofhisCollectedworks.Sincethereare
indicationsthatChuHsirevisedhis"TreatiseonJen"atleastonemoretimeatagefortyfourapparentlyaroundthesametimehefinishedanotheressayentitled
"K'echaichi''ao(Recordofthestudioofselfmastery)27thecompletionofthe"Treatise"musthavebeenaccomplishedslightlyafterthen.28
InJapan,abookcompiledbyYamazakiAnsaiap(16181682)entitledJinsetsumondo*aq(Questionsandanswersonthe"Treatiseonjen")29constitutesan
importantcollectionofmaterialsonthedebate,seenfromChuHsi'spointofview.AsamiKeisai,araleadingdiscipleofYamazaki,laterlecturedonthisJinsetsu
mondo,andtherecordofhislecturesformedthebasisforhisJinsetsumondoshisetsuas(TheMaster'sviewsonJinsetsumondo).30Togetherthesetwoworks
greatlyenhanceourunderstandingofthecontentofjenasconceivedbyChuHsi.
ChangNanhsan'sown"TreatiseonJen"iscollectedinch.18ofhisNanhsanwenchiat(CollectedliteraryworksofChangShih).AsaresultofChuHsi's
relentlessassault,thisessayrevealstheunqualifieddefeatofChang'sHunanscholarshipaswellashistotalsubmissiontoChu'sviews.Thisworkfurthermoreshows
thatChang'snotionofjenremarkablyresemblesthatheldbyChu.AnotebytheeditorsattachedtoChuHsi's"TreatiseonJen"actuallyconcedesastartlingpoint:"In
theChekiangedition,the'TreatiseonJen'byChangNanhsaniserroneouslyconsideredtobebyMasterChuandMasterChu's'Treatise'isconsideredtobea
prefacetoChang'sessay."Thisclearlyindicatesthatthetwoessaysaresosimilarintonethattheyareeasilyconfused.EvenChuHsi'sdiscipleCh'enCh'unisnot
immunefromsuchconfusion.Atonepointhestatesthat"mylateMastercomposedtwotreatisesonjen.OnewasmistakenlyincludedintheCollectedliterary
worksofChangShih."31HsiungChiehau(1199cs),anotherfollowerofChu,istheauthorofHsinglich'nshuchchiehav(Punctuationandannotationonthe
variousbooksonnatureandprinciple)andcollectsinthisworkthe"TreatiseonJen"thatappearsintheNanhsanwenchi,treatingitashismaster'sownessay.It
isthusapparentthatevenamongChuHsi'sdisciples,confusionabouttheauthorshipofthetwotreatisesdoesoccur.Itismostdefinitelycausedbythealmostidentical
natureofthetwoessays.
Ofparticularinteresttous,ofcourse,isthecontentofthediscussionbetweenthetwomen.Amongtheseveralpointsofcontention,oneisespeciallysignificant.Itis
ChangNanhsan'scritiqueofthefirstsentenceinChuHsi's"TreatiseonJen"andChu'srebuttal.Thesentenceinquestionis:"HeavenandEarthtreattheproduction
ofthingsastheirmind."ThissentenceisoriginallyastatementmadebyoneoftheCh'engbrotherstoexplainthephrase"through'return'oneunderstandsthemindof
Heavenand

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aw

32

Earth,"whichistakenfromCh'engI'scommentaryonthefu (return)hexagramintheBookofChanges. InhisessayChuHsisimplyadoptsthisstatementwithout

modification.Nanhsan,however,disagreeswithit.Hedoes,however,approveofanotherphrase,whichfirstappearsintheCh'engBrothers'Commentaryonthe
BookofChangesandisadoptedbyChuHsiinhis"RecordoftheStudioofSelfmastery."Thephraseis:"themindofHeavenandEarththatproducesthings.''
InhisrebuttalChuHsiarguesthatbothstatementsexpressanidenticalmeaning,andthattheapparenttrivialdifferenceisonlyoneofsentencestructurein
composition.33ButthereasonbehindChangNanhsan'smakingthisamajorissueliesintheparticularthinkingoftheHunanphilosophictradition,towhichChang
himselfbelongs.Tobeginwith,theHunanschoolhasthetendencytoemphasizethewondrousworkingsofthemind,whichisregardedasonethat"comprehendsall
underHeaven,andhasdominionoverallthemyriadthings."34HuWufeng's(HuHung,ax11061161)notionofjenas"themindofHeavenandEarth"35clearly
reflectsthispropensitytounderstandjenasthewondrousmind,atoncemobileandcomplete,broadandinexhaustible.Consequently,ChuHsi'sviewofthemindof
HeavenandEarthasonethatproducesthingsisseenbytheHunanscholarsasanarrowviewthatlimitsandunderminestheallpervasivenessofthesubstanceofjen.
ThislineofreasoningissimilartoChuHsi'scritiqueofChouTuni's"ExplanationoftheDiagramoftheSupremeUltimate,"inwhichChumaintainsthat"sincejenis
theunifiedsubstance,itiswrongtoregarditonlyasthemovementoftheyangforce."36
InresponsetothisHunanchallenge,ChuHsicomments,
Scholarsoflatedonotuselovetodefinejen.Theythereforefeeldissatisfiedwiththeancientscholars'efforttointerpretthemindofHeavenandEarththroughtheworkingsof
thesingleyangtoproducethemyriadthings.TheyestablishtheoriesdifferentfromthoseoftheancientsandportraythemindofHeavenandEarthassomethingtranscendental
andlofty.TheydonotunderstandthatwhatHeavenandEarthfocusonastheirmindisnoneotherthantheproductionofthings,thatifoneinterpretsthismindanyotherway,
onewillinvariablybedrownedinemptinessandsubmergedinquietude,andwillfailtoattaintheproperconnectionbetweensubstanceandfunction,rootandbranch.37

Inotherwords,ChufirmlybelievesthatthemindofHeavenandEarthrestspreciselyontheproductionofthings.Anyinterpretationofthismindwithoutthisfocuson
productivenesswillbesimilartoWangPi'say(226249)interpretationofthefuhexagram,whichperceivesthemindasanentityofquietudeandemptiness,38thus
degeneratingintothetranscendentalismofLaoTzuaz(6thor4thcenturyB.C.)andChuangTzuba(c.369286B.C.).Itwillfurtherjeopardizeone'sabilitytoattain
properconnectionsbetweensubstanceandfunction,rootandbranch.WhatChuHsiattemptstoaccomplishistheresto

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rationofloveintheunderstandingofjen.Thisisunequivocallyillustratedinthefollowingtwopassages.Thefirstreads:
WhenHeavenandEarthproducethings,thatwhichiswarmandgentleisjen.Henceallhumanbeingsandthings,whichinheritthemindofHeavenandEarthwhentheycome
intobeing,areendowedwiththemindofcompassion,love,andcommiseration.39

Thesecondiscitedfromhis"TreatiseonJen":
Whatisthemindofjen?InHeavenandEarthitisthemindtoproducethingsinabundance.Inhumanbeingsitistoloveotherswarmlyandtoprovidethemwithbenefits.

Asmentionedabove,ChangNanhsan'sdisapprovalofChuHsi'sassertionthat"HeavenandEarthregardasitsownmindtheproductionofthings"canbeattributed
totheHunanSchoolofscholarship.YetChangagreeswithanotherstatementmadebyChu,whichreads,"WhenHeavenandEarthendowhumanbeingsandthings
withthemindofproductiveness,thisbecomesthemindofhumanbeingsandthingsaswell."40Thisagreement,however,doesnotmaskthefactthatChang's
understandingistotallydifferentfromChuHsi's.IncontrasttoChuHsi'sfocusonthemindofHeavenandEarthasbeingwarmandgentle,Changchoosesto
concentratemoreonitsbeinguniversallypossessedbyhumanbeingsandthingsalike.Takingtheposition,whichtranscendsthecontrastbetweentheselfandother
things,namely,theviewwhichseesHeavenandEarth,theselfandthemyriadthingsasformingonebody,Changcontendsthatthisisthesubstanceofjen.Inhis
understandingofloveaswell,Changseemstoputemphasisontheallpervasive,indiscriminatoryuniversalityofitsextensionratherthanitsempathizingand
commiseratingquality.41InthiscasealsotheHunanSchool'sperceptionofjenasanallencompassing,allinclusiveentityismademanifest.Incidentally,theHunan
traditionwasinfluencedsignificantlybythethinkingofHsiehShangts'aiandYangKueishan.Theideathattheunityofmanwiththemyriadthingsrepresentsthe
substanceofjenischaracteristicofYangKueishan'sviewofjen.42ToChuHsi,suchaviewisplausiblewhenoneexplainstheuniversalityofjen,thatis,whenthe
spreadofloveencompassesallthings.Butthis,accordingtohim,recallsConfucius'statementinhisreplytohisdiscipleTzukung'sinquiry,whichmaintainsthat
"spreadingcharitywidelytosavethemultitudes''43isnotjen.Loveandcompassionrepresenttheeffect,nottheactualsubstance,ofjen.Furthermore,accordingto
Chu,thetheoryoftheunityofallthingsshackleshumanbeingstoanunenlightened,ignorantstate,anddiscouragesthemfromkeepingapersistentandvigilantwatch
overthemselves.Thedefectofthisview,inshort,isto"treatthingsastheself."44TreatingthingsasoneselfimpliestheBuddhist

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notionofuniversalidentity,whichseestheentirecosmosasbeingidenticalwithoneself.Tobesure,suchaviewisbreathtakinglybroadandnoble,yetwhenone
considersitsnegativeaspect,onerealizesthatitmayleadtoacontemptuousattitudetowardaffairsthatpertaintotheself.Inotherwords,itcarriesadangerous
potentialityofdegeneratingintoselfnegation.TheBuddhisttraditionaboundswithreferencesto"giveuponeselftofeedthestarvingtiger"andtopractice
"compassionwithnoorigination."Inallthesereferencesthebodybestowedupononeselfbyone'sparentsiscarelesslyandcontemptuouslyabused.45Theseactions,
whichmayindicatealoftyreligiousconvictionorideal,areneverthelessregardedbyConfucianistsconcernedwithhumanethicsasincomprehensibleandnonsensical
behaviorthatdestroysthecommunalbondofsocialinteraction.AnanecdoteaboutCh'engItellsthatthemasterwasoncequestionedbyacertainCh'enChing
cheng,bbwhoclaimedthattrueselfliberationwaspossiblethroughtheBuddhistidealoftheunityofallthings.Ch'engI'sterseresponsewas:"Whenotherpeoples'
stomachsarefull,canyoudowithouteating(sinceyouareidenticalwiththem?"46Thisisasharpobservationwhichincisivelywarnshoweasyitisfortheconceptof
theunityofthingstofallintoempty,delusiveideationandselfcontempt.
OnthequestionofChuHsi'sdefinitionofjenas"theprincipleoflove,"numeroustheorieshavebeenproposedtodetermineitsorigin.Butultimatelytheyallagreethat
ChuHsihimselfwasprobablytheinventorofthisdefinition.47WhenChuHsiandChangNanhsanwereengagedindebate,thelatter,whoconceivedofjenasan
allencompassingentity,wasinitiallyopposedtothisdefinition.AsaresultofChu'spersistentargumentation,Chang'soppositiongraduallysoftenedandheendedup
embracinghisrival'sdefinition.BeforehereachedfullagreementwithChu,however,hisappreciationofthephrase"principleoflove"wassomewhatdifferent.When
addressingtheissuewhyhumanbeingsmustloveothers,Changinitiallysoughtforanexplanationinthetheoryoftheunityofallthings.Hethusemphasizedthe
universalextensionoflovetowardsallthings.Incontrast,ChuHsi's"principleoflove"isnotadefinitionofjenpredicatedontheassumptionoftheunityofallthings,
nordoesitemphasizeonlytheuniversalisticextensionofjen'slovingquality.Chuexplains,
Naturallyweshouldnotlabelloveasjen.Yetthisdoesnotmeanthatloveshouldbeseparatedfromjeneither,forthesubstanceofjenistheprincipleoflove.Thatthereisunity
betweentheselfandthemyriadthingsisthereasonforlovingallthings.However,thisprincipleoflovedoesnotexistfor,orispremisedupon,thetheoryoftheunityofall
things.Jen,i,li,andchihthesefourarethecharacterofnatureandtheaprioriprinciples.Itisnotforthesakeofanythingthattheycomeintoexistence.Thisfactmustbe
understood.Amongthefour,jenistheprincipleofloveandthewayoflife.Thusbydwellingonjenallfourvirtueswillbecovered.Thisiswhythepursuitofjenistheprincipal
taskinscholarship.48

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Theconcretebasisthatformsthesourceofloveistheaprioriprinciples,ortheintrinsicnature,whichexistinthedepthofone'smind.Thisistheprincipleoflove,and
thisisjen.Henceloveisatruefeelingwhichisirrepressivelyissuedforthfromthebasicnatureofhumanbeings.Therangeofitsextensionis,inthefinalanalysis,only
asecondaryconsideration.
Asindicatedinthesecondhalfoftheabovequotation,ChuHsi'sideaofhumannatureontheonehandregardsjen,i,li,andchihasfourequallyimportant
characteristicsofnatureandaprioriprinciples.Ontheotherhand,however,itconsidersjenaloneasinclusiveofallfour.Suchaviewofjenandhumannatureisalso
adumbratedinthefirstpartofChuHsi's"TreatiseonJen."Thisview,bytheway,hasbeentransmittedfromCh'engItoChuHsi.49Wemustkeepthesethingsin
mindwhenwestudythecharacteristicsoftheSungscholars'viewsofjen.Becauseofthelimitationofspace,thedetailsofthissubjectwillnotbediscussed.ButifI
weretoofferoneshortsummaryonthissubject,IwouldpointoutthatChuHsiinsistsuponthecleardistinctionbetweenjen,i,li,andchihasapreconditionforany
discussionoftheinclusivenessofjen.50Thisdistinction,togetherwiththeemphasisonselfmastery,isconsideredbyChutobethemostcrucialaspectoflearning.The
methodologyheadvancesinthepursuitofjenispromptedbyhisdesiretoeschewwhattheAnalectshaslabelledthemistakeof"ignorancecreatedbyafondnessfor
jenbutdislikeforlearning."51Hisinterpretationofjenalsorevealsfullytherationalandanalyticalaspectsofhisthinking.
ThecharacteristicsofChuHsi'sideaofjencanbefurtherillustratedbyanothercontrastwiththeHunanSchool.Thisishisobjectiontothedefinitionofjenas
consciousness,aviewheldbytheHunanscholars.TheimmediatemotivationforhiscritiqueofsuchaviewishisdesiretosurpasstheHunanSchool'sownhighly
emphasizedmethodofpursuingjen,whichfirstaimsat"thedetectionoftheseedofconscienceamidstprofitanddesire,thenmovesontowarditscareful
preservation,nourishment,andextension."52AsanexampleofthisdivergenceinopinionbetweenChuHsiandtheHunanSchool,letmeciteaHunaneseinterpretation
ofonesentenceintheAnalectsandChu'scritiqueofthisinterpretation.ThesentenceinquestionistakenfromAnalects,4:7,andreads:"Byobservingthefaults,jen
maybemadeknown."Numerousmeaningshavebeenproposedforthissentence.ChuHsi,followingCh'engI'sexample,readsitas"observingaman'sfaults,one
candeterminewhetherornotheisamanofjen."53TheHunanscholarsdisagreewiththisreadingandarguethatthissentenceisultimatelydirectedtowardtheself.
Theymaintainthatthroughtheawarenessofthemistakescommittedbyoneself,onerealizesthewondrous,ingenious,andactivefunctionsofthemind.54Thisisto
themthecorrectinterpretationofthesentence.ItisevidentthatthispointofviewisderivedfromHsiehShangts'ai'stheoryofconsciousnesswhichregardsthe
incipient,active,andlivelyfunctionsofthemindasjen.55
ChuHsi,however,criticizesthisinterpretationasanerroranalogousto

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56

bc

mistakingtheunicornforthelion. Accordingtohim,therewasacertainWangJihhsiu wholivedduringthetransitionalperiodbetweenNorthernandSouthern

Sung(11271279).CommentingonapassageinMencius2A:2whichproclaimsthat"theunicornisthemostsuperioramongallbeasts,"Wangassertedthatthe
unicornwasbutadifferentnameforthelion.ThoughthereisnoapparentrelationshipbetweenWangJihhsiuandtheHunanscholars,Chuishereusingtheobvious
blunderoftheformertoridiculewhatappearstohimtobeananalogousmistakeofthelatter.Theunicornhasbeenknownastheanimalofjensinceancienttimes,
andhasbeenidealizedbytheChinesepeopleasananimalwithasentientspiritaswellasamessengerofpeace.Thatitiscalledtheanimalofjenandthekingamong
beastsisduetothebeliefthatitneverstepsongrowinggrassandnevereatslivingthings,andthatitisanoncombative,gentle,andtranquilanimal.Itisdefinitelynota
fierce,wild,andthreateningbeastlikethelion.Asrecitedinthe"AirsoftheStates"sectionoftheBookofOdes,thegentleandharmoniousdispositionoftheunicorn
issymbolicoftheoriginalnatureofjen.InChuHsi'sopinion,ifjenisindeedasfearsomeandaweinspiringasthelion,thentheancientsagesandworthieswouldnot
havefelttheneedtocontrastjenwithi,thelatterconceptbeinglikenedtoasharpswordthatdispelsthedeviantandmakesmanifestwhatisproper.
BothHsiehShangts'ai'stheoryofjenasconsciousnessandtheHunanSchool'sprescribedmethodofdetectingjenasconscienceshareacommontendency.This
tendency,simplystated,istousethemindinpursuitofthemind.Theresult,accordingtoChuHsi,isthelossofasenseofeaseandcomposureamongthescholars.
Hiscriticismisbitinglyincisive.ConcerningtheHunanscholars'readingofthesentenceinAnalects,4:7discussedabove,ChuHsinotesthatwhileitisniceto
considerthesentenceasaninjunctiontomastertheself,thisinterpretationleavesthemindinaconstantstateofanxietyandtension,withnoroomforreposeand
relaxation.Furthermore,thisinterpretationtendstodriftintoempty,loftytonesanddrivespeopletofallfarshortoftheserene,tranquilstateofmindthatbelongsto
whattheAnalectsdescribesas"themanofjenwhodelightsinmountains."57ChufurtherarguesthatifindeedthisviewoftheHunanSchoolistenable,thenitimplies
thatthemind,whichoriginallyisonesingleentity,hastoperformthreedifferentfunctionsinasplitsecond,namely,tocommitamistake,toobservethemistakebeing
committed,andtorealizethatitisjenwhichobservesthismistake.58
InthismannerChuHsichastisestheHunanSchool'spursuitofjenasamethodthatemploysthemindtosearchforthemind,whichinvariablyresultsinitsbeing
rushed,pressed,vexed,andconfounded.SuchachastisementissubtlyreminiscentofChuHsi'sownideasaboutthemindandseriousness.Itisalsorelatedtohis
critiqueofCh'anbdBuddhismandthephilosophyofLuHsiangshan(LuChiuyan,be11391193).Butbecauseoftheconstraintofspace,Ishallrefrainfromprobing
thisrelationshipfurther.

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IntheprecedingparagraphsIhavehighlightedthemajorpointsofChuHsi'scriticismoftheHunanSchool,inparticularitsperceptionofjenasaseparateentityfrom
love.Hisdefinitionofjenas"theprincipleoflove"ispreciselytheproductofthiscriticalview.Fromthefourvirtuesofjen,i,li,andchih,andfromtheFour
Beginningsofcommiseration,shameanddislike,respectandreverence,andrightandwrong,ChuHsi'sdefinitionofjensinglesoutjenandcommiserationandtreats
theirrelationshipasonebetweennatureandfeeling,orsubstanceandfunction.Thisisjenspokenofseparately(p'ienyenbf).59Inthisconnectionloveassumesan
evenmoregenuineandstablestatus,anditsformerexaltedpositionisrestored.
ChuHsihasanotherdefinitionofjen,whichis"thecharacterofthemind."Jenisunderstoodtobe"theprincipleoflove"becauseofitsembodimentofthefourvirtues
ofjen,i,li,andchih.Yettherearetimeswhenjenisreferredtoas"thecompletecharacterofthemind,""thecompletecharacterofthehumanmind,"and"the
completecharacteroftheoriginalmind.''60Thisisbecausejen,the"principleoflove,"isatthesametime"thesourceofallmoralityandtherootofallmoraldeeds."61
Inthisconnectionjen'sinclusivenessandcomprehensivenessareemphasized.ThisviewofjeniswhatCh'engIhaspointedoutasjenspokenofcollectively(chuan
yenbg).62ItisreminiscentofConfucius'owndiscussionofjen.Inexplainingjenasthe"characterofthemind,"ChuHsilikenshisunderstandingtoCh'engI'smetaphor
oftheseedofgrain.63It"comparesthemindtoaseed,forthenatureoflifeandgrowthinherentinthisseedisitsjen."64Thisintrinsicqualityforgrowththatlieslatent
intheinnercoreofaseedformsthebasisforitsfuturegerminationandluxuriantgrowth.Likewise,whenhumanbeingsgraspthemindofHeavenandEarthto
producethingsandregarditastheirownmind,whatliesinherentinit(thatwhichisknownasthewayoflife,orthepotentialforgrowth,ortheprincipleoflife's
dynamicactivity)ispreciselyChuHsi'sideaofjen.Becauseofthepresenceofthisjen,thevirtuesofjen,i,li,andchihareabletoactivatethemselvesandbecome
respectivelythefeelingsofcommiseration,shameanddislike,respectandreverence,andrightandwrong,anddevelopfurtherintoallmoralityandmoraldeeds.65Chu
Hsi'sdefinitionofjenasthecharacterofthemindisderivedprimarilyfromthisunimpededpotentialforgrowthinherentinallhumanbeingsandthings.66His
understandingofjenastheprincipleoflifeis,inthefinalanalysis,notverydifferentfromtheviewofjenasthegrowthpotentialinallthings,aviewthathasbeen
passeddownfromtheCh'engbrothersthroughHsiehShangts'aitotheHunanscholars.
TranslatedbyRichardShekbh
Notes
1.BookofMencius,7A:1.
2.ChuTzuyleibi[ClassifiedconversationsofMasterChu],(Tokyo:Chubnunbj

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bk

PressreprintoftheCh'enghua period,14651487,oftheMingdynastyed.),60:4b.TheFourMoralQualitiesarethoseintheBookofMencius,2A:6,and
theFourQualitiesarethoseofthefirsthexagram,ch'ienbl(heaven,male),intheBookofChanges.
3.Waishubm[Additionalworks],ch.11,intheErhCh'engchibn[CollectedworksofthetwoCh'engs],(Taipei:ChunghuaboBookCo.,1981),p.414.
4.Tahsehhuowenbp[QuestionsandanswersontheGreatLearning],(Tokyo:ChubunPress,1977),20b.
5.ChuTzuylei,121:17a,6:13a.
6.KatoJoken*,bqKanjinokigenbr[OriginofChinesecharacters],(Tokyo:KadokawabsBookCo.,1970),p.40.
7.BookofMencius,2A:6.
8.ChuTzuylei,19:3b.
9.Ibid.,20:21b.
10.Wuch'aomingch'enyenhsinglubt[Recordsofthewordsanddeedsofprominentministersofthefivereigns],(SPTKed.),10B:3a.
11.ChouTuni,T'aichit'ushuobu[ExplanationofthediagramoftheSupremeUltimate],intheChouTzuch'anshubv[CompleteworksofMasterChou],
(Shanghai:CommercialPress,1937),2:23.
12.ChouTuni,T'ungshubw[PenetratingtheBookofChanges],ch.3,intheChouTzuch'anshu,7:127.
13.Ibid.,ch.11,intheChouTzuch'anshu,8:150.
14.Ishubx[Inheritedworks],ch.3,intheErhCh'engchi,p.60.
15.Ishu,ch.2A,intheErhCh'engchi,p.39.
16.Ibid.,ch.11,intheErhCh'engchi,p.120.
17.Ibid.,ch.2A,intheErhCh'engchi,p.15.
18.Ibid.,ch.18,intheErhCh'engchi,p.184.
19.Ibid.,ch.3,intheErhCh'engchi,p.63.
20.Ibid.,ch.18,intheErhCh'engchi,p.182.ForHanY'stheory,seetheHanCh'anglich'anchiby[CompleteworksofHanY],ch.11.
21.Ch'enCh'un,Peihsitzuibz[Meaningofwords],pt.1,30a,inthePeihsich'anchica[CompleteworksofCh'enCh'un],(1831ed.).
22.HsiehLiangtso,Shangts'aiylucb[RecordedsayingsofHsiehLiangtso],(1756Japaneseed.),pt.1,2b,7b,12bpt.2,1a.
23.YangShih,YangKueishanHsienshengch'anchicc[CompleteworksofMasterYangShih],(1883ed.),11:1b.
24.Hsinglich'nshuchchieh(1668Japaneseed.),3:5b.
25.ChuWenKungwenchicd[CollectedliteraryworksofMasterChu],(SPTKed.),31:5a,sixthletterinanswertoChangChingfu.ce
26.Lunychichucf[CommentaryontheAnalects],commentontheAnalects,1:2.
27.ChuWenKungwenchi,77:16a.
28.Ibid.,separatecollection,6:9a,lettertoLinTsechih.cg
29.Nipponshiso*taikeich[CompendiumofJapanesethought],(Tokyo:Iwanamishoten,ci1980),vol.31,pp.244252.
30.Ibid.,pp.253304.
31.Peihsich'anchi,14:4b,fifthletterinanswertoCh'enPotsao.cj
32.Waishu,ch.3,intheErhCh'engchi,p.366.
33.ChuTzuylei,53:3b.
34.Chihyenck[Knowingwords],(Ssuk'uch'anshuchenpencled.),1:1aNanhsan

Page226
cm

cn

wenchi(Taokuang period,18211850,ed.),9:7b,anaccountoftheKueiyang PrefecturalSchool10:1a,anaccountoftheremodellingoftheYehluco

AcademyatT'anchoucp15:6a,farewelltoTsengCh'iufu.cq
35.Chihyen,1:8a.
36.ChouTzuch'anshu,2:3336,interpretationoftheT'aichit'ushuowithrebuttal.
37.ChuWenKungwenchi,42:19b,tenthletterinanswertoWuHuishu.cr
38.WangPichichiaoshihcs[ExplanationoftheCollectedWorksofWangPi],(Taipei:ChunghuaBookCo.,1980),pp.336337,commentaryonthefu
hexagramoftheBookofChanges.
39.ChuTzuylei,53:3b.
40.Nanhsanwenchi,21:5a,eighthletterinanswertoChuYanhuictChuWenKungwenchi,32:18a,firstletterinanswertoChangChingfuonjen32:22b,
fourthlettertoChangonjen.
41.Ibid.
42.Seeabove,n.23.
43.Analects,6:28.
44.ChuWenKungwenchi,67:21b23a,treatiseonjen.
45.ChuWenKungwenchi,43:24a,twelfthletterinanswertoLinTsechihChuTzuylei,126:21bNipponshisotaikei,vol.31,p.270.SeealsoChihyen,
2:4a.
46.Waishu,ch.11,intheErhCh'engchi,p.413.
47.TomoedaRyutaro*,cuShushinoshiso*keiseicv[FormationofChuHsi'sthinking],(Tokyo:Shunjusha,cw1969),pp.119120.
48.ChuWenKungwenchi,42:9a,fifthletterinanswertoHuKuangchung.cx
49.Ch'engI,Ichuancy[CommentaryontheBookofChanges],ch.1,intheErhCh'engchi,p.697,commentaryonthech'ienhexagram.
50.ChuWenKungwenchi,42:38b,twelfthletterinanswertoShihTzuchungcz56:14a,thirdletterinanswertoFangPinwang.da
51.Analects,17:8.
52.Chihyen,4:7bNanhsanwenchi,9:7b,anaccountoftheKueiyangPrefecturalSchool10:1a,anaccountoftheremodellingoftheYehluAcademyat
T'anchou.
53.Lunychichu,ChuHsi'scommentontheAnalects,4:7ChuWenKungwenchi,42:15a,sixthletterinanswertoWuHuishu.
54.ChuWenKungwenchi,42:15a,sixthletterinanswertoWuHuishu.
55.Seeabove,n.22.
56.ChuTzuylei,6:12b18a26:14b15a.
57.ChuWenKungwenchi,67:23a,treatiseonjen42:15a,sixthletterinanswertoWuHuishu.
58.Ibid.,42:15a,sixthletterinanswertoWuHuishu.
59.ChuTzuylei,20:15b17b.
60.Lunychichu,ChuHsi'scommentaryontheAnalects,7:5,8:7,12:1.
61.ChuWenKungwenchi,67:22a,treatiseonjen.
62.Seeabove,n.49.
63.ChuTzuylei,20:20b.
64.Seeabove,n.18.
65.Seeabove,n.61.
66.ChuTzuylei,20:17a.

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Glossary

Page228

15
MoralityandKnowledgeinChuHsi'sPhilosophicalSystem
YingshihY
MoralNatureVersusInquiryandStudy
InalettertoHsiangAnshih(HsiangP'ingfu,a11531208),ChuHsisays,
Generallyspeaking,sincethetimeofTzussub"honoringthemoralnature"(tsuntehsingc)and"followingthepathofinquiryandstudy"(taowenhsehd)havebeenthetwo
basicmethodsofinstructionaccordingtowhichpeoplearetaughttoexertthemselves.1Now,whatTzuching[LuHsiangshan,e11391193]talksaboutarematterspertaining
exclusivelyto"honoringthemoralnature"whereasinmydailydiscussionsIhaveplacedagreateremphasison"inquiryandstudy"...FromnowonIoughttoturnmyattention
inwardlytoselfcultivation.Thusbyremovingweaknessontheonehandandgatheringstrengthontheother,Iprobablywouldbeabletopreventmyselffromfallingintoone
sidedness.2

Thisletterwaswrittenin1183inresponsetoacriticismmadebyLuHsiangshan.However,whenLulaterlearnedabouttheletter,heremarkedpointedly,saying,
ChuYanhuif[ChuHsi]wantedtogetridofthedefectsandcombinethemeritsofbothsides.ButIdonotthinkthisispossible.Ifonedoesnotknowanythingabouthonoring
themoralnature,howcantherebeinquiryandstudyinthefirstplace?3

TheseexchangeshaveledlaterscholarstobelievethatthebasicdifferencebetweenChuandLuliesinthefactthattheformerstressedtheimportanceofinquiryand
study(taowenhseh)whereasthelatterthatofmoralnature(tsuntehsing).WuCh'engg(12491333)wasprobablymoreresponsiblethananybodyelseforthe
initialdisseminationofthisview.4BythetimeoftheMingdynasty(13681644),thisviewhadbecomesofirmlyestablishedthatevenWangYangmingh(14721529)
founditdifficulttoalter.5AlthoughWangYangming'spowerfulrefutationwasgenerallyacceptedbyhisfollowerswith

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6

outquestion, itneverthelessfailedtoeradicatethispopularviewcompletely.ThuswefindtheverysamedistinctionperpetuatedintheSungYanhsehan
(ScholarlyrecordsofConfuciansoftheSungandYandynasties)whereHuangTsunghsij(16101695)explicitlyremarksthatLuHsiangshan'steachingwas
focusedontsuntehsingandChuHsi'swasontaowenhseh.Whileneithersidecompletelyignoredtheemphasisoftheother,thedifferencebetweenthetwoin
termsofprioritywasneverthelessarealone.7
However,mypurposehereisnottodiscussthephilosophicaldifferencesbetweenChuandLu.Instead,Isetasmycentraltaskinthisstudytoexaminethe
relationshipbetweenmoralityandknowledgeinChuHsi'sphilosophicalsystem.Likelik(principle)andch'il(materialforce),T'ienlim(HeavenlyPrinciple)andjen
yn(humandesire),oryinandyango(passiveandactivecosmicforces),moralityandknowledgeformapolarityinChuHsi'sthought.8Becauseofitscentralposition
inhissystem,ChuHsiusedmanydifferentpairedconceptsintheConfuciantraditiontoexpressthispolarity.Apartfromtsuntehsingandtaowenhseh,whichare
clearlyanoverarchingpairinthiscategory,therearealsootherpolarizedpairssuchas"seriousness"(chingp)and"learning"(hsehq),"selfcultivation"(hanyangr)
and"extensionofknowledge"(chihchihs),''exerciseofseriousness"(chchingt)and"exhaustiveinvestigationofprinciples"(ch'iungliu),"essentialism"(yehv)and
"erudition"(pow),"asinglethread"(ikuanx)and"extensiveknowledge"(toshihy).Eachandeveryoneofthesepairsofpolarizedconceptsdescribesinitsownway
therelationshipbetweenmoralityandknowledge.Itisthereforenecessarytotreatthembelowas,intheterminologyofArthurO.Lovejoy,unitideas.
Tobeginwith,wemusttrytounderstandChuHsi'sstatement,quotedabove,abouthisemphasison"inquiryandstudy."Doesthismeanthatheassignedagreater
importancetoknowledgethantomorality?Needlesstosay,thiscouldnotpossiblyhavebeenthecase."Honoringthemoralnature"wasacentralandfundamental
assumptioninNeoConfucianismsharedbyallindividualthinkersirrespectiveoftheirdifferentviewsonothermatters.ChuHsiwascertainlynoexception.LikeLu
Hsiangshan,healsotook"honoringthemoralnature"tobetheprimaryandultimategoaltowardwhichall"inquiryandstudy"mustbedirected.Moralitynotonly
takesprecedenceover,butalsogivesmeaningtoknowledge.9
Thequestiontheninevitablyarises:Ifthisisthecase,whydidChuHsi,byhisownadmission,placeagreateremphasison"inquiryandstudy"?Firstofall,itis
importanttopointoutthatinthelettertoHsiangAnshihquotedabove,ChuHsiisnottalkingabouttherelativeimportanceofknowledgevisvismoralityin
Confucianlearningasawhole.There,itmayberecalled,heismerelyreferringto"honoringthemoralnature"and"followingthepathsofinquiryandstudy"astwo
"methodsofinstruction."Inotherwords,hisemphasison"inquiryandstudy"wasmade,notonthegeneraltheoreticallevel,butonthepractical,pedagogiclevel.10I
amnotsuggesting,however,thattheiroveralldifferencesarereducibletoapedagogicone.Asweshallsee

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z

below,ChuHsi'semphasison"inquiryandstudy"isverymuchareflectionofhisphilosophicalviewsonsuchkeyconceptsas"principle"(li)and"mind"(hsin ).AllI
amsayingisthatthetraditionaldistinctionbetweenChuandLuintermsoftsuntehsingversustaowenhsehismoreapparentthanrealitsvalidityisratherlimited
inscope.
Havingclarifiedthispoint,theabovequestionmustbemodifiedasfollows:WhywasitnecessaryforChuHsitosayagreatdealabout"inquiryandstudy"but
relativelylessabout"honoringthemoralnature"inhisinstructions?TheanswerisprovidedbyChuHsihimself.Hesays,
Theactualworkintherealmofinquiryandstudyinvolvesmanyitems,butthatintherealmof"honoringthemoralnature"israthersimple.Forinstance,Ich'uan[Ch'engI,aa
10331107]onlysaid:"Tobeseriousistoconcentrateonone"and"toconcentrateononemeansnottogoawayfromit."Thatisall["honoringthemoralnature"]isaboutand
thereisnothingelse.However,inthepastmydiscussionsonthesideof''honoringthemoralnature"havebeenratherlight.NowIfeelthistobeamistake.Thefirstpartofthe
phrase["honoringthemoralnature"]providesageneralframeworksothattheworkof"inquiryandstudy"canbecarriedoutmeaningfully.11

So,accordingtohim,while"honoringthemoralnature"isamatterofthefirstorder,thereisneverthelessverylittlethatcanbedirectlysaidabouttheformer.For,in
hisview,thesocalledhonoringthemoralnatureinvolvesmainlyestablishingaswellasmaintainingamoralstateofmind,whichisidentifiablewithCh'engI's
"seriousness"or"reverence"(ching).ThisbringsusnaturallytoCh'engI'sbestknownformula,"Selfcultivationrequiresseriousnessthepursuitoflearningdepends
ontheextensionofknowledge."12
SelfcultivationVersusExtensionofKnowledgeStrugglewithCh'engI'sFormula
Asweknow,throughouthislongintellectuallifeChuHsiplacedthisformulaattheverycenterofhisteaching.Asamatteroffact,heregardedthisformulaasamost
satisfactoryreformulationofthepolarityoftsuntehsingandtaowenhseh.13Althoughhediscussedagreatdealmoreabout"seriousness"or"reverence"than
about"honoringthemoralnature,"hisconceptionoftherelationshipbetween"seriousness"and"extensionofknowledge"bearsaremarkableresemblancetothat
betweentsuntehsingandtaowenhseh:"Seriousness"isnotaseparatetasktobeaccomplishedbeforeeverythingelsecanbecarriedout.Rather,itisastateof
mindormentalattitudeunderwhichknowledgecanbeeffectivelyextended.14Inotherwords,"exerciseofseriousness"and"extensionofknowledge"mustbegin
simultaneously.15Itisinthisreformulationthathisviewsoftherelationshipbetweenmoralityandknowledgearemostfullyrevealed.

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TherecanbenodoubtthatthefirstpartofCh'engI'sformula,"selfcultivationrequiresseriousness,"fallsexclusivelyintothecategoryofmoralityandtherefore
constitutesthekeytoConfucianlearning.16Butthesecondpart,"thepursuitoflearningdependsontheextensionofknowledge,"requiresawordofexplanation.Chu
Hsisays,
"Theinvestigationofthings"simplymeansthatinregardtoathingthatcomestoourattention,wemakeanexhaustivestudyofallitsprinciples."Theextensionofknowledge,"
ontheotherhand,meansthatafterwehavestudiedexhaustivelytheprinciplesofathing,ourknowledgeofitbecomescomplete.Weobtainthisknowledgeasifwehave
extendedit[fromourminds].17

"Theinvestigationofthings"(kowuab)and"theextensionofknowledge"(chihchih)are,inthiscase,takenastwodifferentdescriptionsofthesameoperationseeking
todiscoverthe"principles''ofthings:Weusethetermkowuwhenwespeakofthisoperationfromthepointofviewoftheobjectofinvestigationandthetermchih
chihwhenwespeakofitfromthepointofviewoftheknowingsubject.Inthelightoftheabovediscussion,Ch'engI'sformulaasunderstoodandinterpretedbyChu
Hsimaybeseenasinvolvingaltogetherthreeaspects:First,amoralattitudeof"seriousness"or"reverence"mustbeestablishedandmaintainedatalltimessecond,an
intellectualactivityofkowuorchihchihmustbepursuedinaspiritualstateof"seriousness"or"reverence"third,asaresult,"principles"(li)ofthingsbecome
known.InChuHsi'sviewthisoperationisanendless,everongoingprocessinthelifeofeverytrulyconfirmedConfucianist.Itisthroughthisspiritualjourneythata
Confucianistseekstobringhismoralnaturetoperfection.Thus,takenasawhole,thesethreeaspectsconstituteatotalsystemofmoralpractice.Buteveninsucha
systemofprimarilymoralcharacter,wefindthattheroleassignedtoknowledgebyChuHsiisessentialeventhoughitis,paradoxically,alsosecondaryatthesame
time.
Onthesurface,itistruethat"seriousness"and"reverence"aremorallanguageandthat"principles"arealsoprimarilyprinciplesofthemoralkind.Acloserexamination
shows,however,that"investigationofthings"or"extensionofknowledge,"thecentralandoperativepartoftheentiresystem,isclearlyareferencetoanintellectual
processbywhichknowledgeisgainedabout"principlesofthings."ThatthisprocessisnecessarilyintellectualcanbeexplainedbythefactthatinChuHsi'sconception
themind(hsin)isidentifiedwithmaterialforce(ch'i),thoughthemostintelligentandsensitiveofallthematerialforces.18Ininvestigatingthings,internalorexternal,the
mindonlyseekstoknowtheirconstitutiveprinciplesinanobjectivewayitdoesnotengageinmoralactivitiesofanykindonthislevel.Eventhoughtheinitialdecision
toinvestigateathingisamoraloneandtheknowledgethusgainedisonlytoservemoralends,thereisneverthelessnoindicationthatinChuHsi'ssystemmoralityis
everallowedtointerferedirectlywiththeintellectualoper

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ationofkowuorchihchih.Moralconsiderationsalwaystakeplaceonadifferent(fromtheNeoConfucianpointofview,however,higher)level.
ThroughouthislifeChuHsineverswervedfromtheviewthatknowledgemustprecedepracticeoraction(hsingac).Whilethiscannotbetakentomeanthathevalued
knowledgeaboveeverythingelseinlife,itdoesrevealnonethelesshiscentralconcernwiththeintellectualfoundationofmorality.Hesays,
Knowledgeandpracticealwaysrequireeachotherliketheeyesandlegsofaman.Withoutlegsamancannotwalkalthoughhehaseyes,butwithouteyeshecannotsee
althoughhehaslegs.Withrespecttoorder,knowledgecomesfirstwithrespecttoimportance,however,agreaterweightmustbeattachedtopractice.19

HereChuHsiisclearlytalkingabouttherelationshipbetweenknowledgeandmorality.By"knowledge"heisreferringto"extensionofknowledge"which,as
explainedabove,isbasicallyanintellectualoperationby"practice"or"action''heisreferringtomoralpracticepracticebasedonthe"principles"obtainedfromthe
"extensionofknowledge."Since,accordingtohim,thepursuitofknowledgecanbejustifiednotonitsowngroundbutonlyonthegroundofitsrelevancetomorallife,
itisthereforenaturalthatbetweenknowledgeandmoralityhisemphasislayultimatelyonthelatter.However,hisinsistencethat"knowledgemustprecedepractice"
revealsunmistakablythecrucialrolethatknowledgeplaysinhistotalsystem.
InresponsetoaquestionerChuHsisays,
Withregardtothequestionyouraisedyesterdayabouttheorderofselfcultivation,extensionofknowledgeandpractice,Ithinkselfcultivationshouldcomefirst,extensionof
knowledgenext,andpracticestillnext.Withoutselfcultivationyoucannotbecomeyourownmaster....Havingcultivatedyourselfyoumustextendyourknowledgeandhaving
extendedyourknowledgeyoumustputitintopractice.Knowledgewithoutpracticeisnodifferentfromhavingnoknowledge.Butallthethreethingsmustbedone
simultaneously.Theordershouldnotbetakentomeanthatyoucultivateyourselftoday,extendyourknowledgetomorrowandthenpracticeitdayaftertomorrow.20

Wecansensethathewasatpainstryingtoestablishtheorderofthistriad.Clearly,theorderhereisconceivedmoreasalogicalonethanatemporalone.Inthe
actualtemporalorder,healwaystookthe"extensionofknowledge"tobethestartingpointofConfucianlearning.Thus,whenreallyhardpressedhewouldnoteven
hesitatetoreversetheoriginalorderinCh'engI'sformulabyplacingthe"extensionofknowledge"before"selfcultivation."21Fromhispointofviewthisisnecessary
becauseselfcultivation,likepractice,mustalsobepredicatedonprinciplesoftherightkind.Withoutacorrectknowledgeoftheprinciplesinvolved,cultivationor
practicewouldbeblind.22

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TheRoleofBooklearning
TheaboveanalysisshowsthatalthoughChuHsiusedCh'engI'sformulaasaheuristicprinciplethroughouthislongteachingcareerandalwaysspokeofitwith
worshipfulreverence,inpracticehereinterpreteditinsuchawaythattheroleplayedbyknowledgewasclearlymoreactiveandcentralthanintheoriginal
formulation.InordertoclarifyChuHsi'sconceptionofknowledge,itisdesirablethatwenowturntohisviewsonbooklearninganditsrelationtomorality.Ofallthe
Sung(9601279)NeoConfucianphilosophers,ChuHsialoneemphasizedtheimportanceofbooklearningtotheattainmentoftheWayand,moreover,developeda
systematicmethodologyaboutit.Itwasthisaspectofhisthoughtthatledtothecriticismofaseventeenthcenturythinkerthat"MasterChu'slearningconsistswholly
ofbooklearningandnothingelse."23Whilethisisundoubtedlyanoverstatement,itneverthelessserveswellasanillustrationoftheinfluencethathisemphasison
booklearningexertedonthesubsequentdevelopmentofNeoConfucianism.Evenhisadmirerscharacterizedacentralpartofhisteachingas"Studytheprinciples
thoroughlythroughbooklearningsothatone'sknowledgemaybeextended."24
TobefairtoChuHsi,wemustbeginbypointingoutthatheneveradvocatedtheprimacyofscholarshipinConfucianlearning.Onthecontrary,hemadeitveryclear
inhisinstructionsthat"booklearningisonlyamatterofthesecondorder."25Butitisneverthelesstruethatonthewholehewasconvincedthattobeagood
ConfuciandoescommitonetoabasicunderstandingoftheoriginalConfucianteachinganditstradition.Inamemorialpresentedtothethronein1194,hesaid,
Withregardtothewayoflearning,nothingismoreurgentthanathoroughstudyofprinciplesandathoroughstudyofprinciplesmustofnecessityconsistinbooklearning....
Allprinciplesintheworldarewondrousandsubtle,eachperfectinitsownway,andeternallyvalid.However,onlyancientsageshadbeenabletograspthemintheirentirety.As
aresult,thewordsandthedeeds[oftheancientsages]haveallbecomepermanentandfundamentalexemplarsforthelatergenerationstoemulate.Thosewhofollowedthemwere
gentlemenandblessedthosewhocontradictedthemweresmallmenandaccursed.Themostblessedcanpreservetheempireandthereforeserveasapositiveexamplethemost
accursedcannotevenpreservehisownpersonandwouldthereforeserveasanegativeexample.Thesevisibletracesandnecessaryresultsareallcontainedintheclassicsand
histories.Apersonwhowishestohaveathoroughknowledgeoftheprinciplesintheworldwithoutfirstseekingforthem[intheclassicsandhistories]isonewhowishestogo
forwardbutendsupstandingrightinfrontofawall.Thisiswhywesay"athoroughstudyofprinciplesmustofnecessityconsistinbooklearning."26

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Inthisconnection,tworelatedobservationsmaybemadeaboutChuHsi'stheoryofbooklearning.First,itappearsthathehonestlybelievedthattheancientsages
hadnotonlydiscoveredmost,ifnotall,oftheprinciplesbutalsoembodiedtheminwhattheysaidandwhattheydid.Sincethewordsandthedeedsofthesagesare
preservedinbooks,booklearningnaturallyprovides"thestudyofprinciples"withamostlogicalstartingpoint.Littlewonderthatheidentifiedbooklearningasa
matterof"investigationofthings."27Infact,itformsthemostsubstantialpartofhisteachingof"investigationofthings."Inhisfamous"emendation"tothetextofthe
GreatLearning,hesays,"Thefirststepintheeducationoftheadultistoinstructthelearner,inregardtoallthingsintheworld,toproceedfromwhatknowledgehe
hasoftheirprinciples,andinvestigatefurtheruntilhereachesthelimit.''28Therecanbelittledoubthereheisprimarilytalkingaboutknowledgederivedinitiallyfrom
booklearningasabasisforfurtherstudy.
Second,booklearninginhissystemisalwaysmoralityoriented.Heneveradvocatedbooklearningforitsownsakeandwithoutamoralfocus.Hespecifically
singledout,intheabovememorial,classicsandhistoriesasthetwokindsofbooksforstudy.Thisisbecausehebelievedthatmoralprinciplesdiscoveredbythesages
areclearlyrecordedintheConfucianClassicsandtheiractualizationinthepastisamplyillustratedinhistoricalworks.AccordingtohisdiscipleYangChi,adChuHsi's
generaleducationalprogramrunsinthefollowingorder:TheFourBooks,theSixClassics,andhistories.AstotheliteraryartofthepostCh'inandHanperiod(221
B.C.A.D.220),hediscusseditwithstudentsonlyinhissparetime.29Thistestimonyconcerningtheorderofbooklearningnotonlyagreeswiththeabovememorialbut
isalsocorroboratedbyChuHsi'sconversations.Forinstance,heoncegavethefollowinginstructiontoastudent:"YoushouldfirstreadtheAnalects,Mencius,and
theDoctrineoftheMean.ThenyouturntostudyoneoftheConfucianClassics.Finally,youshouldreadhistories.Youwillfind[thisorderofbooklearning]easyto
follow."30ThecriterionaccordingtowhichChuHsiestablishedhisorderofpriorityinbooklearningwasknowledgeofmoralprinciples.StudyoftheAnalectsand
theBookofMenciusshouldprecedethatoftheSixClassicsbecause,inhisview,theformertakeslesstimebutyieldsmoreresultswhileinthecaseofthelatterthe
contraryistrue.31Historicalworks,ontheotherhand,reportmoralprinciplesinactualoperation.32However,historycanonlyrevealthechangesofthepastandthe
presentaswellasteachmoralandpracticallessons.Itisquiteirrelevantasfarasmoralcultivationoftheselfisconcerned.33So,whileChuHsifullyrecognizedthe
importanceofhistoryasasubjectofstudyinConfucianlearning,heneverthelessassigneditalowpriority.
InalettertohisfriendLTsuch'ienae(11371181),ChuHsiattributedtheestablishmentofthisorderofstudytheFourBooks,Classics,historiestoCh'engI.34
Thismaywellhavebeenthecase.However,acloselookattherecordedsayingsofthetwoCh'engbrothersdoesnotexactlybearoutChu

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35

Hsi'sstatement. ItwasinthehandsofChuHsithatthescopeofbooklearningwasgreatlyenlarged.Moreover,asweshallsee,healsodevelopedacomprehensive
methodologytocopewiththeproblemofhowtounderstandthemeaningofaConfuciantextonalllevels.Theintellectualfoundationofmoralitythusbecamefirmly
establishedintheNeoConfuciantradition.
ChuHsifurtherjustifiedbooklearningonthegroundthatthemoralmindisconstantlyinneedofthesupportofknowledgeobtainedfromthestudyofConfuciantexts.
Inthisrespect,heactuallyfollowedalineofthinkingfirstdevelopedbyChangTsaiaf(10201077).Changsays,
Ifonedoesnotreadenough,onewillnotbeabletoinvestigateandexaminemoralprinciplestotheminutestdetails.Booklearningcanalwaysgivesupporttoone'smind.The
momentonestopsreadingisthemomentone'smoralnaturelapsesintolaxity.Asonereads,one'smindisalwaysonthealert.Butoneissurelynottoseeanymoralprinciples
withoutengaginginbooklearning.36

ChuHsioftenquotedthispassagewithapprovalinpreachinghisgospelofbooklearning.Ononeoccasionheofferedthefollowingremark:
Theexpression"togivesupportto"isextremelywellsaid.Asisusuallythecase,whenthemindisnotoccupiedwithbooklearning,ithasnoplacetoapplyitself.Nowadays
therearepeoplewhoareunwillingtopursueprinciplesofthingswiththoroughnessoncetheyhavecaughtaglimpse[oftheWay].Asaresult,theyindulgetheirmindsinempty
speculation.37

ButwhatexactlydidhemeanwhenhepraisedChangTsai'sexpression"booklearninggivessupporttothemind?"Theanswermaybefoundinthefollowing
statement:
Inlearningonecannotaffordnottolearnfrombooks.Asforthemethodofbooklearning,itoughttoincludeintimatefamiliaritywith,deepreflectionon,andtotalimmersionin
[thetext].As[knowledge]accumulatesinchbyinch,theeffortwilleventuallycometofruition.Intheendnotonlytheprinciplesbecomeclearbutthemindalsonaturallygets
settled.38

Clearly,inhisview,aprofoundintellectualunderstandingofprinciplescankeepthemindinamoralstatetherebypreventingitfrombeingdisturbedbyselfishdesires.
Onthisproblem,however,ChuHsimustnotberegardedasaslavishfollowerofChangTsai.Asamatteroffact,hetookafurtherstepbygivingknowledgeamore
positiveroletoplayinthecultivationofmoralnature.ChangTsai'sviewintermsof"support"impliesthatthefunctionofknowledgeispassive:Itonly"supports"moral
naturefromcollapsebutdoesnotaddanythingtoit.ChuHsi,ontheotherhand,relatesknowledgetomoralityintermsofgrowth.Inoneplacehespeaksofbook
learningascapableofcultivatingtherootofmoralnature.39Inanothercontextheiseven

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moreexplicit,saying,"Athoroughstudyoftheprinciplesenunciatedbythesagesandtheworthiescannourishtherootsothatthebranchesandtheleavesmaygrow
luxuriantlybythemselves."40HerehisorganisticlanguagecontrastsvividlywithChangTsai'smechanisticlanguage.InChuHsi'sdeepconsciousness,knowledgedoes
morethanjust"givesupportto"moralityitprovidesmoralitywithnourishmentforitscontinuousgrowth.41
Inhisdiscussionofthepolarityof"erudition"(po)and"essentialism"(yeh),hesays,
Inlearningwemustfirstestablishabase.Itsbeginningisrathersimple,startingwithwhatisessential[tomoralpractice].Themiddlepartisverybroad.Intheend,however,it
returnstowhatisessential.Scholarsnowadaysarefondoftheessentialistapproachanddonotpursuebroadknowledge.Theproblemis:withoutanextensiveknowledgehow
canwetest[theauthenticityorfalsity]ofwhatweholdtobeessential...Thereareotherscholarswhoareonlyaftereruditionbutneverreturntowhatisessential.Theystudy
oneinstitutiontodayandanotherinstitutiontomorrow,exertingthemselvesonlyintheinvestigationofthefunctionalaspects[oftheWay].Theyareevenworsethanthe
essentialists.42

Obviously,ChuHsiwasfightingontwodifferentfrontsatthesametime.Moralessentialismwithoutintellectualbaseanderuditionwithoutmoralfocuswereboth
detestabletohim.Hisownpositionmaybedescribedasacentristone,alwaysseekingtocombine"essentialism"and"erudition"inamostcreativeway.Intherealm
ofknowledge,asheonceremarked,"essentialscomeentirelyfromerudition."43Thisconceptionoftherelationshipbetweenpoandyeh,itmustbeemphatically
pointedout,presupposestheautonomyofbooklearning.
Intheabovequotedpassage,ChuHsispeaksofamoralbeginningaswellasamoralendinlearning,buthisemphasisisclearlyplacedonthebroad"middlepart,"
whichisanautonomousintellectualrealm.Itisveryrevealingthat,withallhisadmirationforCh'engI,hewasneverthelessprofoundlydissatisfiedwiththelatter's
CommentaryontheBookofChangespreciselyforitsdisregardfortheautonomyoftheoriginaltext.Hesharplycriticizedthisworkasfollows:"Ich'uanintended
togivemoralinstructions[intheCommentary].Butheshouldhavesaidthemelsewhere,notinconnectionwiththeBookofChanges."44Thisisclearevidencethat
hewasverymuchconsciousoftheautonomyoftheworldofknowledgewithwhichmoralitymustnotbeallowedtointerferedirectly.
ChuHsialsoextendedhisrespectforautonomytotheworldofarts.TheAnalectscontainsthefollowingstatementofConfucius(551479B.C.):"Isetmyhearton
theWay,basemyselfonvirtue,leanuponbenevolenceforsupportandtakemyrecreationinthearts."45ChangShihag(11331180)explainedthemeaningofthelast
phrase,"takemyrecreationinthearts,"asfollows:"Theartsareonlytonourishourmoralnature."TothisexplanationChuHsiraisedastrongobjection,pointingout
that

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thisstatementisespeciallyfallacious,Althoughtheartsoccupythelowestplace[intheConfucianschemeofthings],theyneverthelesshavearaisond'trealltheirownand
eachfollowsitsownnaturalpattern.Theexpression"takerecreationinthearts"showsthat[Confucius]onlyintended,ineachandeverycase,torespondtothingswithout
goingcontrarytotheirprinciples.Bynotgoingcontrarytoprinciplesourmoralnatureisnaturallynourished.Butwedonot,inthebeginning,countontheartsforthecultivation
ofourmoralnature.Yourexplanationalsohasitsorigininacontemptuousattitudetowardtheartsbecauseoftheirlowplace.Itisprobablybecauseyouregarditasshamefulto
"takerecreationinthearts"thatyouofferthisinterpretationtojustifyyourpointofview....Buttheartsareentitledtotheirownrightofexistence.Wetakerecreationinthemnot
necessarilybecausetheycannourishourmoralnature.46

Theimportanceofthispassagecanhardlybeoverstated.HereChuHsicomesveryclosetotheviewof"artforart'ssake."EachoftheSixArts(ceremonies,music,
archery,carriagedriving,writing,andmathematics),inthisview,followsitsown"naturalpattern"or"principle"andeachistobeplayedaccordingtoitsownrules.
Altogethertheyconstituteanautonomousrealmwhichtoleratesnoexternalinterference,notevenmoralinterference.Theymayverywellproducemoraleffectsand
servemoralends,buttheirexistenceneedsnomoraljustification.Clearly,ChuHsi'sconceptionofhumancultureispluralisticandhierarchicalatthesametime.Itis
pluralisticbecausemorality,knowledge,andartsallhavetheirseparaterealmsitishierarchicalbecausetheWay(Taoah)holdsalltheserealmstogetherwiththe
highestonereservedformorality.
InterpretationandObjectivityChuHsi'sNeoConfucianHermeneutics
InChuHsi'sculturalorder,knowledgeisnextonlytomorality.Since,wehaveseenabove,knowledgeforhimisprimarilyknowledgegainedthroughbooklearning,
especiallytheConfucianClassics,itrequiresacomprehensiveandsystematicmethodologyfortheinterpretationandunderstandingoftexts.Thisispreciselythearea
whereinliesoneofhismonumentalcontributionstoNeoConfucianlearning.Theautonomyofknowledge,inhiscase,dependsalmostentirelyonhismethodologyof
booklearningthismethodologyledtoafullblowndevelopmentofwhatmaybecalledNeoConfucianhermeneutics.
ChuHsi'shermeneuticscoverspracticallyalllevelsofinterpretationrangingfromthephilological,thehistorical,theliteral,thereconstructive,totheexistential.To
interpretaClassicaltext,accordingtohim,itisnecessarytobeginwiththephilologicalandhistoricalexplicationsofearlyexegetes.Inadditiontothetext,hesays,a
studentmustalsobeabletofamiliarizehimselfwiththecommentarytosuchanextentthathecangraspallthedetailsinthecommentarythatbeardirectlyonthe
meaningofthetext.47Whatiseven

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moreimportantonthislevelistocomparecloselyallthedifferentinterpretationsofatextofferedbyvariousexegetesthroughtheages.Truthwillemergeonlythrough
crossexaminationandcomparisonofallthesedifferences.48Butphilologicalinterpretationinhishermeneuticalsystemisonlythefirststep.Althoughitcannotbe
bypasseditmustbetranscended.Attheendofthisstageoneseesnocommentariesatall,onlythetext.49
AccordingtoChuHsi,readingatextusuallyrequiresapersontoundergothreestages:Inthebeginninghelearnshowtosethismindattentivelyonthetext.Inthe
secondstagehepenetratesintothetextbyfollowingcorrectrulesoftextualanalysis.Beingboundbytheserules,hecandescribethetextinitsgeneraloutlines,butthe
descriptionislifeless.Onlywhenhereachesthefinalstagecanhebringthetexttolife.50Wecanignorethebeginningstageandproceeddirectlytosayawordabout
thesecondandfinalstages.
Thesecondstageinvolvesatleasttwolevelsofunderstanding,namely,theliteralsignificanceofthetextandtheoriginalintentionoftheauthor.Theliterallevelof
understandingisrelativelysimpleitconsistsmainlyofagraspofthelanguageofthetext.51Butthelinebetweentheliteralandtheintentionallevelsofunderstandingis
bynomeansclearcut.Asisoftenthecase,ourdeterminationoftheliteralsignificanceofatextverymuchdependsonourunderstandingoftheintentionalmeaningof
itsauthorandviceversa.Throughouthisnumerousdiscussionsontheproblemoftextualinterpretation,ChuHsi'scentralconcernisalwayswithhowtounderstand
the"originalintention"(peniai)oftheauthorofaClassicaltext,inhiscasetheauthorbeingeitherasageoraworthy.Inalettertoafriendhesays,"Tostudyatext
requirestheinterpretertobeopenmindedandcoolheaded.Hisunderstandingfollowscloselytheliteralmeaningofthetext.Hemustnotcometothetextwithhis
preconceivedideas...whichpreventhimfromseeingtheoriginalintentionsofthesagesandtheworthies."52Herewhatheisactuallysayingisthatthereadercannot
reachtheintentionallevelwithoutfirstgoingthroughtheliterallevel.Ontheotherhand,hewasalsoquiteawarethatthelatterisnoabsoluteguaranteeoftheformer.
Otherwisehewouldnothavecriticizedhisdisciplesforengagingonlyinliteralinterpretationbutneglectingtheintentionofthesages.53
Specialattentionmustbepaidtobothhispleafor"openmindedness"andhiswarningagainst"preconceivedideas"intheunderstandingofaclassicaltext.Abasic
principleinhistheoryofinterpretationisformulatedasfollow:"Toreadatextonemustnotforciblyimposeone'sownviewonit.Insteadonemustremoveone'sideas
andfindoutthemeaninginitexactlyastheancientsintended."54Inthisregard,ChuHsiisindeedveryclosetosomeofthemoderntheoristsofinterpretation,
especiallyEmilioBetti.ForChuHsi,likeBetti,wasalsocentrallyconcernedwiththeautonomyoftheobjectofinterpretation(text)aswellasthepossibilityof
objectiveknowledgederivedfromtextualinterpretation.55BecauseoftheuniquenatureofhisobjectofinterpretationtheConfuciantextChuHsialwaystookthe
problemofthe

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author'soriginalintentionveryseriously.Thisdoesnotmean,however,thathewastotallyunawareofwhatPaulRicouercallstheproblemof"distanciation."Onthe
contrary,hisgreatemphasisonthenecessitytocompareandcontrastallthedifferentinterpretationsofaclassicaltextand,indeed,hislifetimeworkintherealmof
exegesisfullytestifytothefactthathehadallalongbeengrapplingwiththedifficultiesarisingfromthedistancebetweentheautonomyofthetextandtheoriginal
intentionoftheauthor.56
ChuHsi'sconcernwiththeobjectivityoftextualinterpretationalsoledhimtostresstheimportanceofdoubtinbooklearning.ThisisequivalenttowhatBetticallsthe
"criticalmoment"withintheprocessofinterpretationamomentthat"iscalleduponincasesrequiringaquestioningattitude,suchastheemergenceofincongruences,
illogicalstatementsorgapsinalineofargument."57ChuHsisays,
Iusedtotellfriendsthatinbooklearningoneoughttothinkandseekpointsofdoubt.However,Ihavenowcometorealizethatitisbettertostudywithanopenmind.After
workingcloselyatatextforalongtime,youwillnaturallybenefitbyit,butatthesametimeyouwillalsoencounterpointswheredoubtnaturallyarises.Foraclosereadingwill
inevitablyleadtoplacesthatblockyourpathandcauseyouperplexity.Thusdoubtswillcometoyourconsciousnessandrequireyoutocompare,toweigh,toponderover.Itis
notfruitfultostartoutwiththeintentionoffindingthingstodoubt...WhenIstudiedtheAnalectsinmyearlyyears,mydoubtswereimmediatelyraised.Thesimplefactthatthe
samepassagehadbeengivenwidelydifferentexplanationsbyvariouscommentatorsledmetodoubt.58

ThelateDr.HuShihaj(18911962)mayhavesomewhatexaggeratedhiscasewhenhesaidthatChuHsi's"doubtwithanopenmind"hasledtothegrowthofa
"scientifictradition"inChina.59However,itmaynotbetoofarfetchedtosuggestthatChuHsi'semphasisontheimportanceofopenmindedness,removalof
"preconceivedideas,"and,aboveall,thecriticalspiritofdoubtintextualinterpretationdidleadhimtoestablishamethodologyofChineseGeisteswissenschaften
withwhichobjectiveknowledgeoftheConfucianmessagemaybefruitfullypursued.
NowletusturntoChuHsi'sfinalstageofinterpretationinwhichthetextcomestolife."Onceweobtainprinciples,"hesays,"wealsohavenoneedoftheClassics."60
ThisclearlymeansthattheClassicaltextitselfisalsoeventuallytobetranscended.Itisatthispointthatthetextcomestolifeinthesensethatwhatisinterpretedis
transformedintoanorganicpart,sotospeak,oftheinterpreter'sspirituallife.Hepointsout,"Thereasonthatwehavetolearnfrombooksistodiscovermoral
principles.However,oncewehaveunderstoodtheseprinciples,wewillfindthattheyareoriginallyinherentinourownnature,notimposedonusfromtheoutside."61
Hefurtherclarifiesthemeaningofthisstatementasfollows:"Inbooklearningwemustnotonlyseek

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moralprinciplesfromthetext.Insteadwemustalsoreversetheprocessbyseekingtheminourselves.Thereare[principles]thathadalreadybeenclearlystatedby
thesagesbutofwhichwearestillignorant.Inthelightofthewordsofthesageswewillbeabletoacquirethembyexaminingourselves."62Whatheissayinghereis
thatnotonlydoweinterprettheClassicsbut,moreimportantly,theClassicsinterpretus.Inthisregard,heisnodifferentfromhisphilosophicalopponentLuHsiang
shan,whohasbeenparticularlyknownforthestatement"AlltheSixClassicsaremyfootnotes."63ThusChuHsireachesthelevelofexistentialinterpretation,which
presupposessomekindofpreunderstanding.Inhisterminology,itisan"innerexperiencerelevanttotheself"(ch'iehchit'iyenak).Ultimately,asherepeatedly
stressed,alltheClassicaltextsmustbeunderstoodbeyondliteralismandasaninnerexperiencerelevanttotheinterpreter'sself.64Hetestifiedthatthiswasexactly
howhehadstudiedtheConfuciantextallalong.65Whatisactuallyinvolvedhereis,toborrowBultmann,"aprecedinglivingrelationshiptothesubjectmatterwhich
findsexpressioninatexteitherdirectlyorindirectly."Itisakindofinquirythat"isalwaysguidedbyapreexistingandpreliminaryunderstandingofhumanexistence,
i.e.,adefiniteexistentialunderstanding.''66However,Imusthastentoaddthat,inthecaseofChuHsi,"humanexistence"canonlybeunderstoodinamoralsenseof
theConfuciantype.Forhimwhatis"relevanttotheself"isalwaysmorallyrelevant.Althoughhis"innerexperiencerelevanttotheself"involvespreunderstandingofa
moralkind,thereisnoreasontobelievethatthismoralelementinterferesdirectlywiththeobjectiveinterpretationofatext.Whatitactuallyaffectsisratherthe
decisiontoselectandordertextsforinterpretation.HisorderofbooklearningtheFourBooks,theFiveClassics,andhistories,forexample,wasestablished
preciselyonthebasisof"moralrelevancetotheself."Butoncetheinterpretersetsouttoworkonhistext,hemustfollowstrictlythemethodologicalrulesoftextual
interpretationandrelegateallmoralconsiderationstothebackground.Itisonlyattheveryendoftheinvestigationsofatextthatmoralrelevancetotheselfofthe
interpretercomesintofullplay.Hemustthenbeabletoriseabovethetextinordertoseekexistentialunderstanding,whichalonecangivemeaningtohismoral
existence.Itispreciselyatthispointthattaowenhsehreturnstotsuntehsing,potoyeh,andchihchihtoching.Inaword,knowledgeistransformedinto
moralpractice.Thetransformationundoubtedlyinvolvesa"leap"inunderstandinga"leap"fromtheintellectualleveltothemorallevel.Sucha"leap"ispossibleonly
ifthedesiretounderstandarisesfromtheactualmoralneedsoftheinterpreter.ThusChuHsi'sviewoftheroleofknowledgeinlifemaybeseenasnecessarily
presupposingspiritualcultivationatthesametime.Withoutselfcultivationhowcanonepossiblydistinguishauthenticmoralneedsfromdisguisedselfishdesires?
Intellectualprogressandspiritualprogressmustgosidebysidetoreachthemeetinggroundonwhichthe"leap"finallytakesplace.Here,Ibelieve,liesthecentral
significanceofChuHsi'slifetimeeffortstoreinterpretCh'engI'sfor

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mula,"selfcultivationrequiresseriousnessthepursuitoflearningdependsontheextensionofknowledge."
KnowledgeAstheFoundationofMoralityAPhilosophicalOverview
Asindicatedearlier,ChuHsi'semphasison"inquiryandstudy"inhisdebatewithLuHsiangshanisdeeplyrootedinhisphilosophicalsystem.Inthisconcluding
sectionIproposetodiscuss,briefly,afewofhisphilosophicalideasdirectlyrelatedtothecentralthesisofthisstudy.
ThelogicalplacetobeginisChuHsi'sviewofthefunctionof"intelligence"(or"wisdom"chihal)inhumannature.Ofthefourcardinalvirtuesinborninmanaccording
toMencius(372289B.C.)humanity(jenam),righteousness(ian),propriety(liao),andintelligence(chih)itisnoteworthythatChuHsiconsidered"humanity"and
"intelligence"tobethemoreactivepair.While''humanity"isundoubtedlyanallembracingvirtue,"intelligence,"byvirtueofitspowerto"accomplishthingsfrom
beginningtoend,"isnolessimportant.67WhenastudentaskedhimwhyMenciusplaced"intelligence"attheendofthelist,heansweredthus:"Menciuswasactually
talkingaboutacircle.Infact,humanity,righteousness,andproprietyareallstoredinintelligence.Youcanactinacertainwayonlywhenyouknowit."68Elsewherehe
furtherpointedout,"[Likehumanity]intelligencealsoincludesall[thefourvirtues]becauseknowledgecomesfirst"69and"Humanityandintelligenceareinclusivewhile
righteousnessandproprietyarenot."70TosaythatMencius'listisactuallya"circle"istorefuteinasubtlewaythetraditionalinterpretationthat"intelligence"isthelast
ofthefourcardinalvirtues.Hisdescriptionof"intelligence"intermsofits"powertoaccomplishthings"and"inclusiveness"refersprimarilytoitsactiveanddynamic
character,whichalonecansettheotherthreevirtuesinmotion.Forexample,heexplicitlystated,"Consciousnessisclearlysomethingarisingfromintelligence...The
reasonthatintelligenceisclosetohumanityisthatitisthepointatwhichthecircleofthe'FourBeginnings'startstomove.Withoutintelligence,humanitycannotbeset
inmotion."71Thisalsoexplainswhyhedefined,elsewhere,"intelligence"asthe"masculineway"(ch'ientaoap),thatis,possessingactive,vigorous,aggressive,
productivequalities.72Forthisreason,heheldtheviewthatsagehood(shengaq)mustalsorequire"intelligence"forcompletion.73"Withoutintelligencesagehoodgets
nowhere."74
Withhisemphasisontheimportanceof"intelligence"(better,inhiscase,"intellect"),itisonlynaturalthathisphilosophicalsystemadmitsofnosuchdistinctionasmoral
knowledge(tehsingchihchihar)versussenseknowledge(wenchienchihchihas).InthehistoryofNeoConfucianism,thisdistinctionwasfirstproposedbyChang
Tsai75itreceivedthefollowingreformulationinthehandsofCh'engI:"Theknowledgeobtainedthroughhearingandseeingisnottheknowledgethroughmoralnature.
Whenathing(thebody)comes

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intocontactwiththings,theknowledgesoobtainedisnotfromwithin.Thisiswhatismeantbyextensivelearningandmuchabilitytoday.Theknowledgeobtained
frommoralnaturedoesnotdependonseeingandhearing."76ThelanguagesuggestsMencius'distinctionbetweenthefunctionofthesensesandthatofthemind.77But
Menciusdidnotdistinguishtwotypesofknowledge.Inadifferentplace,ChangTsaispeaksofthetwotypesofknowledgeinaslightlydifferentway:"Knowledge
gainedthroughenlightenmentthatistheresultofsincerityistheinnateknowledgeofone'snaturalcharacter.Itisnotthesmallknowledgeofwhatisheardorwhatis
seen."78Thetermof"smallknowledge"isobviouslyaborrowingfromChuangTzuat(369?286?B.C.).AlthoughChuangTzucontrasts''smallknowledge"with"great
knowledge,"thedifferencebetweenthetwoismostlikelyoneofdegreeratherthankind.79Clearly,thedistinctionmustbecreditedtoChangTsaiandCh'engI.
Accordingtothisdistinction,then,moralknowledgeliesinahigherrealm,towhichhumanintellecthasnoaccess.ThisisevenmoresowithCh'engIthanwithChang
Tsai,forwhilethelatteronlysaidthatmoralknowledgedoesnotoriginatefromsenses,theformerheldthatmoralknowledgedoesnotdependonthesenses.Ifthisis
thecase,thenallChuHsi'stalkabout"investigationofthings,""extensionofknowledge,"booklearning,wouldbepurenonsense.Therefore,fromChuHsi's
philosophicalpointofview,thisdistinctionisfalseandmustberejected.Whenastudentaskedhimwhetherthereissomethingcalledsenseknowledge,herepliedwith
acontemptuoustone,
Thereisonlyonekindofknowledge!Whatisatissueiswhetherourknowledgeistrueornottrue.Whyshouldweargueonsuchamatter?Itisdefinitelynotthecasethat[after
wehaveacquiredsenseknowledge]welaterobtainanotherkindofknowledge.80

DiscussingChangTsai'sconceptionofsenseknowledge,hefurtherremarked,
Inordertobeabletolearn,wemustpossesssensesofseeingandhearing(chienwenau).Howcanwepossiblydowithoutthem?Weworkhardwithoursensesuntilweachievea
wideandfarreachingpenetration.Ordinarily,whenwestudysomethingbyrelyingonsenses,theknowledgeobtainedisonlylimitedtoasingleprinciple.However,whenwe
reachthestageofageneralpenetration,alltheprinciplesbecomeone.81

Inhisviewevenifwecallknowledgearrivedatinthefinalstage"moralknowledge,"itdiffersfromsenseknowledgeonlyindegree.Inhisterminology,itisrathera
differencebetweenshallownessanddepthaswellasbetweencoarsenessandrefinement.82Moreover,moralknowledge,atermheneverreallyadopted,canonlybe
developedoutofsenseknowledge.Whatiseven

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morerevealingishissharpcriticismofChangTsaiwithrespecttothisdistinction:
Question:WhataboutHengch''s av[ChangTsai]distinctionbetweensenseknowledgeandmoralknowledge?
Answer:Itisfallacious.Senseknowledgeisalsoafterthesameprinciple.Idonotunderstand,givensuchanextraordinaryintelligenceashis,howhecouldpossiblymakeso
glaringamistake.83

HeknewverywellthatCh'engInotonlyhadsubscribedtothesameviewbutevendevelopedittoamorerigidform.SohiscriticismofChangTsaiwasequally
applicabletoCh'engI.However,becauseofhisgreatrespectforthelatter,hepurposelyomittedthelatter'snameinhisdiscussions.Thisisclearevidencethat
althoughhebasicallyfollowedCh'engI'steaching,heneverthelessconsciouslywentbeyondhimintheintellectualizationoftheConfucianWay.84Itwaslargely
becauseofhisgreatinfluencethatthedistinctionbetweenmoralknowledgeandsenseknowledgehadfallenintoalmostcompleteoblivionuntilWangYangming
arrivedonthescene.
ChuHsi'semphasisonknowledgeasafoundationofmoralitymustalsobeunderstoodinlightofhisviewsofli(principle)andmind.Tobeginwith,itisnecessaryto
clarifyacommonmisunderstandingconcerningoneaspectoftherelationshipbetweenprincipleandmindinhissystem.ChuHsioftenmakessuchstatementsas"the
mindpossessesamultitudeofprinciplesandrespondstothemyriadaffairs,""themindembracesalltheprinciples,""themyriadprinciplesarecompletelyembodiedin
amind,''and"alltheprinciplesareoriginallywithinthemind,notobtainedfromtheoutside."85Thesestatementshavegivenrisetotheinterpretationthathewasnot
reallyinterestedinobjectiveknowledgeoftheexternalworld.His"investigationofthings,"accordingtothisinterpretation,isthereforenothingbutseekingconfirmation
oftheknowledgeof"principles"alreadycontainedinone'sownmind.TaiChen'saw(17241777)sharpcriticismofhisviewthat"principleisreceivedfromHeaven
andcompletelyembodiedinthemind,"86forexample,isbasedonsuchaninterpretation.Thisisnottheplacetogointodetailsconcerningthisimportantmatter.I
merelywishtopointoutthat,despitehissometimeslooseandthereforemisleadinglanguage,ChuHsididnotholdthatthemindpossessesknowledgeofprinciples
beforethe"investigationofthings."Ashemakesclearinhisfamous"emendation"totheGreatLearning,themindisonly"formedtoknow."Healsostates
unequivocally,"Althoughthemyriadprinciplesareembodiedinourmindsthemindmuststillbemadetoknowthem."87Ibelieveitwouldmakemuchbettersenseif
wetookhis"principlesembodiedinthemind"asaprioriformsofunderstandingsomethingakinto,thoughnotthesameas,"categories"intheKantianspirit.He
seemstothinkthatforeachandevery"principle"ofathingoreventthereiscorrespondingaprioriforminthemind.Apparentlyhealsobelievesthateventu

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allyalltheprinciplescanbeshowntobedifferentiationsfromasingleunitaryprinciple.ThisisclearlyexpressedinthecelebrateddictumheinheritedfromCh'engI,
"Theprincipleisone,butmanifestationsaremany"(liifenshuax).88However,theseaprioriformsinthemindareempiricallyempty.Thepostulationofaprioriforms
correspondingtoprinciplesofthingsandeventsintheexternalworldisnecessarybecause,fromhispointofview,italonecanexplainhowourmindsare"formedto
know"thelatter.But,ontheotherhand,asamplyshowninhisconversationsaswellaswritings,nopositiveknowledgeofprinciplesispossiblewithoutthe
"investigationofthings."Seeninthisway,notonlywashegenuinelyinterestedinobjectiveknowledgeoftheexternalworldbuthiswholephilosophicalsystemalso
requiredit.Itistrue,aswehavealreadynoted,thathewasmuchmoreconcernedwithknowledgeofthehumanworldthanthatofthenaturalworld.Nevertheless,his
objectivecuriosityaboutandkeenobservationofnaturalphenomenawereclearlywithoutmatchamongtheNeoConfucianists.89Thissustainedinterestinthenatural
worldcamepartlyfromhisintellectualtemperhisearliestwonder,whichoccurredattheageoffiveorsix(Chinesecounting),wasaboutheavenlybodies.90Butitwas
undoubtedlyalsocloselyrelatedtohisfirmbeliefthatprinciplesareinherentinthingsintheexternalworldincluding"abladeofgrassoratree."Heoncetoldhis
students,
Principlesareuniversallyinherentinallthingsintheworld.Butitisthemindthattakeschargeofthem.Beingincharge,themindthereforemakesuseofthem.Itmaybesaidthat
thesubstanceofprinciplesisinthingsthemselveswhiletheirfunctionsdependonthemind.

Butthenextmorningheaddedthefollowing:
IstatedthecaseinthiswaybecauseIwastakingmyselfasthe[knowing]subjectandthingsasobjects[ofknowledge].However,theimportanttruthisthatthereisreallyno
differencebetweensayingthatprinciplesexistinthingsandthattheyexistinus[i.e.,mind].91

Boththeoriginalstatementandtheafterthoughtarehighlyilluminating.Theoriginalstatementshowsthathefullyrecognizedtheobjectivityofprinciples.Intermsof
substance,theyexistinthingsandareindependentofthemind.Bysayingthat"themindtakeschargeofprinciples,"heobviouslyreferstothefactthatthemindcan
discover,order,andapplythem.Theafterthoughtshows,ontheotherhand,thathebecameawareofthepossibilitythattheoriginalstatementmightmisleadhis
studentstoquestionthevalidityofhispostulationaboutaprioriformsinthemindwhichcorrespondtoprinciplesinherentinthingsoftheexternalworld.Tosaythat
"thereisreallynodifferencebetweensayingthatprinciplesexistinthingsandthattheyexistinus"istostressthepointthatintheactualpracticeof"investigationof
things"and

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"extensionofknowledge,"thesubjectivityofaprioriformsandtheobjectivityofprinciplesareultimatelytobecomeunified.

92

InalettertoChangShih,ChuHsisays,
Confucianlearningonthewholebeginswithathoroughstudyofprinciples.Eachindividualthinghasitsownprinciple.Onlywhenapersonhasaclearknowledgeofprinciples
canhegetholdofanexactstandard(chuntseay),asofweightandmeasurement,forhismindtofollowinitsfunctioning.Ifhedoesnotextendhisknowledgeinthis[realmof
principles]therebybeingleft,generally,withoutanexactstandard,andisrathercontentwiththesoleclaimthathehasobtainedsuchandsuchaknowledgeandunderstandingof
themind,thenhowwoulditbepossibleforwhatispreservedinandissuedfromhismindtoconformunerringlytoprinciples?93

Nowhereisthenecessityof"theinvestigationofthings"and"theextensionofknowledge"inChuHsi'sphilosophicalsystemmoreclearlyexplainedthaninthisletter.
Becausehistrustofthematerialandfalliblehumanmindwasalwayslessthantotal,hethereforewantedtofindanobjectivestandardforthemindtofollowsothatit
maynotmistakeselfishdesiresformoralprinciples.Thisexactstandard,inhisview,canonlybeestablishedonthebasisofathoroughknowledgeofprincipleswhich
existobjectivelyinthingsandeventsoftheexternalworld.Thusweseethatatleastintheory,knowledgeofthenaturalworldandknowledgeofthehumanworldare
equallyimportantasfarastheobjectivityofprinciplesisconcerned.Asheemphaticallypointedout,"Principlesofthingsareidenticalwithmoralprinciples.Theworld
doesnotpossesstwokindsofprinciples."94Thisisalogicalconclusioneasilyderivablefromhisfundamentalpresuppositionthatalltheindividualprinciplesinthe
worldarebutdifferentiationsfromasingleunitaryonewhichisnoneotherthanwhathecallstheGreatUltimate(T'aichiaz).So,inthefinalanalysis,thecosmicorder
andthemoralorderfollowthesamepatternlawforthingsandmorallawareofthesamekind.95Through"inquiryandstudy,"anobjectivestandardcanbe
discoveredineitherworldwhich,fromhispointofview,wouldguaranteetheobjectivityaswellasthestabilityofmoraltruth.
Itwasalsohisdistrustoftheordinaryhumanmindandhissearchforanexactstandardthatledhimtoseethenecessityofbooklearning.Hesays,
AsIseeit,thereasonthatwehavetostudyisbecauseourmindsarenotyetas[purifiedas]thesages'minds.Sinceourmindsarenotyetaspurified,wethereforecannotsee
principlesclearlyanddonothaveanexactstandardtoconformto.Asaresult,weoftenfollowourpersonalinclinations,whichgenerallyfailtomeetthestandardbyeithergoing
beyondorfallingbelowit.Butweareusuallyunawareofourexcessesofdeficiencies.Ifourmindsarefromtheverybeginningnotatalldifferentfromthesages'mindsorthe
cosmicmind,thenwhatdoweneedstudyfor?Forthisreasonitisnecessarythatweaslearnersfirstseektounderstandtheideasorintentionsofthesagesthroughearly
commentariesand

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thensearchforuniversalprinciplesinthelightoftheideasorintentionsofthesages.Oursearchproceedsfromthesuperficialtotheprofoundaswellasfromwhatisathandto
whatisfarreaching.Wedothisbyfollowingastepbysteporder,notbyjumpingtotheconclusionwithburningimpatience...Oncewehavereachedtheultimatelimit,our
mindswillbecomenaturallyrectified.Bytheneventhesages'mindsorthecosmicmindcannotbeverydifferentfromours.ButIdonotmeantosuggestthatwebesatisfiedwith
whatissuperficialandathand[booklearning]andforgetaboutwhatisprofoundandfarreaching[moralprinciples].NordoImeanthatwesimplygoafterthemindsofthesages
attheexpenseofourownmindsandfollowuncriticallytheinterpretationsofearlycommentatorsattheexpenseofourowninterpretations.96

Thisletterspeaksremarkablywellforitself.Ionlywanttocallattentiontoafewimportantpoints.First,the"exactstandard"hewasseekingtoestablishisultimately
tobefoundintheobjectivityofprinciplesofthingsandeventsoftheexternalworld,notinthesubjectivityofthesages'minds.Forthesearchmusteventuallygo
beyond"theideasorintentionsofthesages."Thisisentirelyconsistentwithhishermeneuticalprinciplethatintheendourunderstandingmustbeabletotranscendthe
classicaltext.Second,itwasneverhisideathatwemustfollowthesagesblindly.Asamatteroffact,hiscriticalspiritof"doubt"ledhimtothecontrary.Ashe
explicitlystatedelsewhere,"Weshouldalwaysreadatextwithopenmindandfairspiritinordertoscrutinizetheprinciplesenunciatedinit.Ifthereisavalidpoint,we
donotcastitasidesimplybecauseitismadebyacommonman.Ontheotherhand,ifthereisadoubtfulpoint,wemustexamineitcarefullyeventhoughitisattributed
toasageorworthy."97Third,itistruethatbooklearningiscentraltohisteachingatthemethodologicallevel.However,hisinsistenceonlearningfromthesagesand
theworthiesofthepastcanbynomeansbeconstruedasarisingoutofanuncriticalandidolatrousattitudeonhispart.Norisitaresultofsheerantiquarianism.Itis
ratherbasedonhisbeliefthatthepastsageshadbequeathedtousnumerousobjectiveprinciplesthattheyhaddiscoveredthrough''investigationofthings."Theycan
serveasourmodelsbecausetheirmindshadbeenextremelywellcultivated(orpurified)through"inquiryandstudy."Aslearnerswemustalsocultivateourmindsin
thesameway.Wedothisnotonlybyfollowingtheirexamplesbut,moreimportantly,byalsostandingontheirshoulders.Thisispreciselywhyhesays,inhis
"emendation"totheGreatLearning,thatthelearner,inregardtoallthingsintheworld,must"proceedfromwhatknowledgehehasoftheirprinciples,and
investigatefurtheruntilhereachesthelimit."Theknowledgeofprinciplesofthingsandeventsnowatourdisposalistherichestandthemostvaluablelegacywehave
inheritedfromthepastsagesandworthies.Itmustofnecessityserveasthestartingpointofournewinvestigations.Hesays,D
Itisofcoursetruethatinhighantiquity,beforethewritingsystemhadbeeninvented,thelearnershadnobookstoread.Moreover,itisalsotruethatpeople

Page247
withaboveaverageintelligencesometimescanattaintotheWaythroughselfrealizationandwithoutbooklearning.However,eversincethesagesandworthiesbegantheir
creativework,agooddealoftheWayhasbeenpreservedintheClassics.Therefore,evenasagelikeConfuciuscouldnothavepossiblypursuedlearningapartfromthem.98

Therecannotbetheslightestdoubt,asProfessorCh'ienMubapointsout,thathemusthavewrittenthispassagewiththequestionposedbyLuHsiangshanduring
theirGooseLakeTemplemeetinginmind:"BeforethetimeofYaobbandShunbcwhatbookswerethereforpeopletoread?"99Fromhispointofview,thisisaskinga
wrongquestion,onewhichbordersonsophistry.Thehistoricalsituationbetweennowand"thetimebeforeYaoandShun"hasbeenfundamentallychanged.The
simpletruthisthatwenowdohavetheConfucianClassicswhichdefinetheWayinitsmainoutlinesaswellasinitsminutedetails.Ifweareinquestoftheverysame
Way,asLuHsiangshanapparentlywas,thenwhatpossiblejustificationdowehaveforourrefusaltostartthesearchwiththeClassics?ChuHsi'skeenhistorical
consciousnessnaturallyledhimtoemphasizetheimportanceofthetraditionofConfucianscholarship.Forhim,knowledgeofprinciplesofthingsandeventsisalways
anaccumulativeenterprise.
Lastly,ChuHsi'sstatementintheabovepassage,"NordoImeanthatwesimplygoafterthemindsofthesagesattheexpenseofourownminds,"isanoutright
rejectionoftheideaof"transmissionofmind,"theninwidecurrency.Inhisview,whatcanbetransmittedisnotthemindbuttheWay,whichconsistsoftheprinciples
objectivelydiscoveredbythesages'mindsinthingsandevents.100Sincethemindisessentiallyaknowingmind,thebestapersoncanhopetoaccomplishistoraise
hismindtothelevelofpurificationashighasthesages'minds.Butthereisnowayhecantakethesage'smindashisown.Heisconvincedthatonlythesage'swords
exhibitthesage'smind,whichisnothingbuttheembodimentoftheprinciplesintheworld.Onlybystudying,carefullyandstepbystep,thesage'swordscanone
expecttograsptheseprinciples.ButLuHsiangshanbelieves,accordingtoChuHsi,thatapersoncanobtaintheprinciplesbyrelyingonlyonhisownmindwithout
thehelpofthesages'words.Itisindeedexcellent,saysChuHsi,ifapersonisabletogethold,allbyhimself,oftherightkindofprinciples.Butwhatiftheprinciples
hegetsturnouttobeofthewrongkind?101HereagainChuHsidisplayshisdeepdistrustofthesubjectivityofmindontheonehandandhisbasicconcernwiththe
objectivevalidityofmoralprinciplesontheother.Seeninthislight,therootsofhisdifferenceswithLuHsiangshanonthepedagogiclevelindeedstrikedeepintheir
differentconceptionsofsuchkeyNeoConfucianideasas''principle"(li)and"mind"(hsin).
UnlikeChuHsi,LuHsiangshan'sconcernisnotwiththeobjectivityofprinciplesbutratherwiththesubjectivityofmind.Needlesstosay,Icannotdealwithhis
theoryofmindhere.102AllIneedtosayisthathistrustofthe

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103

subjectivityofmindisunlimited. Hiswellknownproposition,"MindisPrinciple,"hisidentificationofthemindwiththe(spatiotemporal)cosmos,hisemphasison
the"recoveryoftheoriginalmind,"andmanyothersimilarformulationsallpointinthesamedirection."Mind"conceivedinthiswaycannotpossiblybeidentifiedwith
thatasunderstoodbyChuHsiwhich,aswehaveseen,isessentially"formedtoknow."Itmakessenseonlyifinterpretedastheabsolutemoralmind.104Withregard
tothismind,therecannotbeprinciplesexternaltoitallobjectivityisabsorbedintosubjectivity.ChuHsi'squestionofan''objectivestandard,"therefore,willnever
ariseinthecontextofLuHsiangshan'sphilosophy.Moreover,accordingtoLuHsiangshan,thisabsolutemoralmindwhichissharedbyeveryonedoesnotchange
withtime.History,therefore,makeslittledifference,andtraditionisofnofundamentalimportance.The"recoveryoftheoriginalmind"dependsentirelyoneveryone's
owneffortitcannotcountonthewordsormindsofthesagesandtheworthiesforhelpinanessentialway.LuoncereminiscedthathisunderstandingofConfucian
learningwasselfattainedontheoccasionofreadingtheBookofMencius.105Obviously,hehereplacedtheemphasismoreonselfattainmentthanonthebook,
whichonlyprovidedtheoccasionforhisenlightenment.ItisalsoveryinterestingtonotethathereachedthesameconclusionasChuHsididwithregardtothe
problemof"transmissionofmind,"butforcompletelydifferentreasons.IntheGooseLakeTemplemeeting,hewasdissatisfiedwiththesecondlineofhisbrother
Chiuling'sbdpoemcomposedspecificallyfortheoccasion.Itreads:"Ancientsagespassonthismind."Inresponsethesamelineofhisownpoemsays:"'Tisman's
indestructiblemindthroughallages."106Clearly,inhisview,recoveryoftheoriginalminddependsprimarilyoneveryone's"selfattainment"whereas"transmissionof
mind"impliesadependenceontheminds,andconsequentlyalsothewords,ofthesages.107ItwasinthiswaythatLuHsiangshan'sviewofmindled,byitsinner
logic,toanattitudetowardbooklearningdiametricallyopposedtoChuHsi's.
Notes
1.ThisisareferencetotheChungyungbe[DoctrineoftheMean]whichprovidesthelocusclassicusoftsuntehsingandtaowenhseh.TheChungyunghas
beentraditionallyascribedtoTzussu(483402B.C.?),Confucius'grandson.
2.ChuWenkungwenchibf[CollectedliteraryworksofChuHsi,hereafterwenchi](SPTKed.),ch.54,p.962,"ReplytoHsiangP'ingfu."
3.SeeLuHsiangshan's"Nienp'u"bg[Chronologicalbiography]intheHsiangshanHsienshengch'anchibh[CompleteworksofLuHsiangshan],(SPTKed.),
ch.36,p.321andYlubi[Recordedconversations]inch.34,p.261.IhavefollowedLu'snienp'uindatingChu'slettertoHsiangAnshih.WangMaohungbj
(16681741)isclearlywronginassigningthisletterto1181,forthiswastheyearthatHsiangAnshihfirstcametoknowLuHsiangshan.SeeWangMaohung's
ChuTzunienp'ubk[ChronologicalbiographyofMasterChu],(Kuohsehchipents'ungshubl[BasicSociologicalSeries]ed.),p.100.

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bm

bn

bo

4.SeeYChi's (12721348)"Hsingchuang" [Careerbiography]ofWuCh'enginTaoyanhsehkulu [RecordsoflearningfromantiquityintheGardenof

Way],(SPTKed.),ch.44,pp.386387.
5.SeeWangYangming'stwoletterstoHsCh'engchih,bpwrittenin1522,intheYangmingch'anshubq[CompleteworksofWangYangming](SPPYed.),21:
5a8b.
6.Forexample,seeHsChieh'sbr(15031583)"Hsehtsepien"bs[Adiscussionofmethodsoflearning]inHsiangshanHsienshengch'anchi,"Fulu"bt
[Appendix],pp.1415.
7.SeeSungYanhsehan(Wanyuwenk'ubu[UniversalLibrary]ed.),ch.58,pp.68.HuangTsunghsi'sviewwasalsofollowedbyhissonPochiabv(ibid.,p.
8)andCh'anTsuwangbw(17051755)inChich'it'ingchiwaipienbx[CollectedworksofCh'anTsuwang,outerchapters],(SPTKed.),ch.44,pp.656657.
8.Fortheterm"polarity"seeB.I.Schwartz,"SomePolaritiesinConfucianThought,"inDavidS.NivisonandArthurF.Wright,eds.,ConfucianisminAction
(Stanford,Calif:StanfordUniversityPress,1959),pp.5152.
9.ChuTzuyleiby[ClassifiedconversationsofMasterChu],(hereafterylei),(Taipei:ChengchungbzBookCo.,1973),ch.64,p.2524.
10.SeeChuHengtao'scaletterquotedinHsiangshanHsienshengch'anchi,ch.36,p.319.
11.Ylei,ch.64,pp.25212522.Similardiscussionsontherelationshipbetweentsuntehsingandtaowenhsehmayalsobefoundinch.117,pp.45044505
andch.118,pp.45684569.ForthequotedsayingofCh'engI,seeIshucb[Survivingworks]intheErhCh'engch'anshucc[Completeworksofthetwo
Ch'engs],(SPPYed.),15:20a.
12.SeeIshu,18:5bEnglishtranslationinWingtsitChan,cdASourceBookinChinesePhilosophy(Princeton,N.J.:PrincetonUniversityPress,1963),p.562.
13.Forinstance,seeylei,ch.64,pp.25222523.
14.Ibid.,ch.115,p.4425.
15.Ibid.,p.4415.
16.Forinstance,hesays,"Theconcept'seriousness'trulyconstitutesthekeylink(kanglingce)intheteachingsofthesages.Itisalsothechiefmethodformoral
cultivation."Ibid.,ch.12,p.335.
17.Wenchi,ch.51,p.897,"ReplytoHuangTzukeng."cf
18.Forinstance,ChuHsisays,"Themindistherefinedessenceofmaterialforce."Ylei,ch.5,p.138.
19.Ibid.,ch.9,p.235.Similarviewsmayalsobefoundinhiswritings.Seewenchi,ch.50,p.875,"ReplytoCh'engChengssu,"cgandch.54,p.972,"Replyto
KuoHsil."ch
20.Ibid.,ch.115,p.4425.
21.Ylei,ch.9,p.241.
22.Ibid.,ch.9,pp.241242.
23.YenYanci(16351704),Ssuts'unpiencj[Fourpreservations],(Shanghai:KuchickPress,1957),p.104.
24.Ch'enChien,clHsehput'ungpiencm[Ageneraldiscussionofdefectsoflearning],(Ts'ungshuchich'engcn[Collectionofseries]ed.),"T'ikang"co[outline],p.
102Ch'en'sviewisquotedwithapprovalinKuYenwu,cpJihchihlucq[Recordofdailyknowledge],(Wanyuwenk'ued.),ch.18,p.118.
25.Ylei,ch.10,p.255.

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26.Wenchi,ch.14,p.204.Forthedatingofthismemorial,seeWangMaohung,ChuTzunienp'u,ch.2,pp.197200.
27.Ylei,ch.10,p.264.
28.Chan,SourceBook,p.89.
29.WangMaohung,ChuTzunienp'u,ch.4,pp.340341.TheFourBooksare:theGreatLearning,theDoctrineoftheMean,theAnalects,andtheMencius.
TheSixClassicsare:thePoetry,theHistory,theBookofChanges,theRite,theSpringandAutumnAnnals,andtheMusic.Since,however,theMusichaslong
beenlost,theSixClassicsarealsoreferredtoastheFiveClassics.
30.Ylei,ch.11,p.309.Seealsopp.298,200201.
31.Ibid.,ch.19,p.689.Hisdiscussionsthroughoutthischaptermakeitclearthathisemphasisinclassicalstudiesisplacedonknowledgeofmoralprinciples.
32.Ibid.,ch.11,p.301.
33.Wenchi,ch.46,p.800,"ReplytoP'anShuch'ang."cr
34.Ibid.,ch.35,p.558,"ReplytoLPokung."cs
35.ForCh'engHao'sct(10321085)rathernegativeattitudetowardbooklearning,seeIshu,3:1band2aShangts'aiylucu[SayingsofHsiehLiangtso,cv1050
c.1120],(Chengit'angch'anshucw[CompletelibraryoftheHallofRectifyingMoralPrinciples]ed.),2:11b.ForCh'engI'slimitedapprovalofstudyofthe
Classics,seeIshu,15:12a16aTs'uiyencx[Purewords]intheErhCh'engch'anshu,1:25a.Onthisproblem,seeIchikawaYasuji,cyTeiIsennotetsugakuno
kenkyucz[StudyofCh'engI'sphilosophy](Tokyo:TokyoUniversityPress,1964),pp.137140.ProfessorCh'ienMuisrightinsayingthatitwasChuHsiwho
introducedhistoryintotheCh'engChucurriculumofNeoConfucianlearning.SeehisChuTzuhsinhsehanda[AnewscholarlyrecordofMasterChu],(Taipei:
SanmindbBookCo.,1971),Bk.V,p.113.
36.ChangTzuch'anshudc[CompleteworksofMasterChang],(Kuohsehchipents'ungshued.),ch.6,p.108.
37.Ylei,ch.119,p.4584.Seealsoch.114,pp.43994400wherehesays,"Onlybyaconstantengagementinbooklearningcanthefunctioningofone'smindbe
preventedfrombeinginterrupted."
38.Wenchi,ch.64,p.1188,"ReplytoChiangTuanpo."dd
39.Ibid.,ch.44,p.764,"ReplytoChiangTekung."de
40.Ibid.,ch.49,p.855,"ReplytoCh'enFuchung."df
41.ThisideacomesfromapassageintheBookofChangesseeJamesLegge,trans.,YiKingdg(SacredBooksoftheEasted.),p.300.ChuHsiactuallyquotedit
inanotherconversation.SeeYlei,ch.120,p.4639.
42.Ylei,ch.11,pp.298299.Herehereferred,respectively,totheessentialistsoftheLuHsiangshanSchoolandthemanyangledscholarsoftheLTsuch'ien
School.SeeCh'ienMu,ChuTzuhsinhsehan,Bk.III,p.676.
43.Ylei,ch.33,p.1336.
44.Ibid.,ch.69,p.2767.
45.TheAnalectsofConfucius,trans.byD.C.Laudh(PenguinClassicsed.,1979)7:6.
46.Wenchi,ch.31,p.494,"CommentsonChangShih's'InterpretationsoftheAnalects'of1173."
47.Ylei,ch.11,p.304.However,healsopointsoutthatifthenamesofthingsandinstitutionsinatextarenotcentraltoourunderstandingofitsmeaning,wemay
besatisfiedwithageneralknowledgeofthem.Seeibid.,p.301.

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48.Ibid.,p.305.
49.Ibid.
50.Ibid.,p.282.
51.Ibid.,pp.292,306.
52.Wenchi,ch.53,p.943,"ReplytoLiuChichang."di
53.Ylei,ch.36,p.1581.
54.Ibid.,p.293.ThiscompareswellwiththefollowingmaximincontemporaryWesternhermeneutics:"Meaninghastobederivedfromthetextandnotimputedto
it."SeeJosefBleicher,ContemporaryHermeneutics(London:RoutledgeandKeganPaul,andBoston:Henley,1980),p.36.
55.SeeEmilioBetti'sdiscussionoftheneedofan"intellectualopenmindedness"forinterpretationsinhis"HermeneuticsastheGeneralMethodologyofthe
Geistewissenschaften,"translatedbyBleicherinContemporaryHermeneutics,p.85.
56.PaulRicoeur,"TheHermeneuticalFunctionofDistanciation,"inhisHermeneuticsandtheHumanSciences,ed.andtrans.JohnB.Thompson(Cambridge:
CambridgeUniversityPress,1981),pp.131144.
57.Bleicher,ContemporaryHermeneutics,p.40.
58.Ylei,ch.11,p.295.
59.HuShih,"TheScientificSpiritandMethodinChinesePhilosophy,"inCharlesA.Moore,ed.,TheChineseMind(Honolulu:EastWestCenterPress,1967),pp.
104131.
60.Ylei,ch.11,p.305.
61.Ibid.,ch.10,p.255.
62.Ibid.,p.287.
63.HsiangshanHsienshengch'anchi,ch.34,pp.256261.
64.Ylei,ch.11,pp.286288.
65.Ibid.,ch.30,pp.12351236.
66.QuotedinBleicher,ContemporaryHermeneutics,pp.105106.
67.Ylei,ch.6,p.175.ThelocusclassicusofthesefourvirtuesistheBookofMencius,6A:6and7A:21.
68.Ibid.,ch.53,p.2048.
69.Ibid.,ch.20,p.766.
70.Ibid.,ch.6,p.172.
71.Ibid.,ch.20,p.771.AstaughtintheBookofMencius,2A:6,theFourBeginningsare:thesenseofcompassionisthebeginningofhumanity,thesenseofshame
anddislikeisthebeginningofrighteousness,thesenseofdeferenceisthebeginningofpropriety,andthesenseofrightandwrongisthebeginningofintelligence.
72.Ibid.,ch.42,p.1719ch.104,p.4162.
73.Ibid.,ch.58,p.2173.
74.Wenchi,ch.58,p.1062,"ReplytoChangChingfu."dj
75.ChangTzuch'anshu,ch.2,p.45.EnglishtranslationbyChan,SourceBook,p.515.
76.Ishu,25:2aEnglishtranslationbyChan,SourceBook,p.570.OntheconnectionbetweenChangTsaiandCh'engI,seeA.C.Graham,TwoChinese
Philosophers,Ch'engMingtaodkandCh'engYich'uandl(London:LundHumphries,1958),pp.176178.
77.BookofMencius,6A:15.
78.ChangTzuch'anshu,ch.2,p.40Chan,SourceBook,p.507.

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dm

dn

do

79.KuoCh'ingfan (18441897),ChuangTzuchishih [CollectedinterpretationsoftheChuangTzu](Peking:Chunghua BookCo.,1961),ch.1,pp.11

and51.
80.Ylei,ch.34,p.1440.
81.Ibid.,ch.98,p.4002.
82.Onthispoint,seealsoCh'ienMu,ChuTzuhsinhsehan,Bk.II,pp.388389,andChangLiwen,dpChuHsissuhsiangyenchiudq[AstudyofChuHsi's
thought],(Peking:ChineseAcademyofSocialSciencePress,1981),pp.411416.
83.Ylei,ch.99,p.4031.
84.ChuHsi'sintellectualismalsoledhimtodistinguishtwotypesofapproachtotheConfucianWay.HesaidthatamongConfucius'leadingdisciples,Tzukungdrtook
the"intellectualapproach"(chihshihds)whereasTsengTs'andttookthe"practicalapproach"(chienldu).Bytheformerhemeantinquiryandstudyandbythelatter
hemeantpracticingfilialdevotionandothermoralvirtuesindailylife(Ylei,ch.27,pp.10881089).Thisdistinctionisinterestingintwoways:Ontheonehand,the
veryideathatthereisan"intellectualapproach''totheWayrevealshisemphasisontheroleofknowledgeinConfucianteachingasawhole.Ontheotherhand,the
ideaofa"practicalapproach"totheWaysuggeststhathewasverymuchconsciousoftheproblemofhowtorelateConfucianismtothelifeofthecommon(andin
mostcasesalsounlettered)man.Thisisanimportantsubjectneedingfurtherinvestigation.HisviewcontrastssharplywiththatheldbybothLuHsiangshanandWang
Yangming.BothphilosophersspokehighlyofTsengTs'anandslightedTzukungpreciselybecauseofthelatter's"intelligence"andpursuitofmanysided
"knowledge."SeeHsiangshanHsienshengch'anchi,ch.1,p.20,"LettertoHuChisui"dvYangmingch'anshu,1:24bandWangYangming,trans.by
WingtsitChan,InstructionsforPracticalLivingandOtherNeoConfucianWritings(NewYork:ColumbiaUniversityPress,1963),pp.7172.Itmaybe
furthernotedthatChuHsi'sdistinctioncontinuedtoprovokestrongreactionsamongscholarsaslateastheCh'ingperiod(16441912).Forexample,Ch'engT'ing
tsodw(16911767),agreatadmirerofYenYan,understandablyrejectedthedistinctionoftwotypesasnonsense.SeeTaiWangdx(18371873),Yenshihhseh
chidy[RecordoftheYenSchool],(Wanyuwenk'ued.),ch.9,p.115.ButCh'anTsuwang,inhisChingshihwentadz[Questionsandanswersontheclassics
andhistories],ch.6,Chich'it'ingchi,p.451andTaiChen,inMengTzutzuishuchengea[CommentariesonthemeaningsoftermsintheBookofMencius],
(Peking:ChunghuaBookCo.,1961),p.56,accepteditasvalid.
85.SeetheexamplesconvenientlycollectedtogetherinCh'ienMu,ChuTzuhsinhsehan,Bk.II,pp.124.
86.SeeTaiChen'scriticismtranslatedinChan,SourceBook,pp.715717.ForfurtheranalysisseeYYingshih,"TaiChenandtheChuHsiTradition,"inChan
Pingleungebetal.,eds.,EssaysinCommemorationoftheGoldenJubileeoftheFungPingShanecLibrary(HongKong:FungPingShanLibrary,HongKong
University,1982),pp.390391.
87.Ylei,ch.60,p.2263.
88.Ibid.,ch.1,p.2cf.Chan,SourceBook,p.639.
89.ThisareaofChuHsi'sthoughthasbeenextensivelyexploredinamonographicstudybyYamadaKeijiedseehisShushinoshizenkakuee[MasterChu'sstudyof
nature],(Tokyo:IwanamiefBookCo.,1978).
90.WangMaohung,ChuTzunienp'u,ch.1,pp.12.
91.Ylei,ch.18,p.669.

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eg

eh

92.Onthispoint,aroughlysimilarinterpretationmayalsobefoundinTakahashiSusumu, ShuKitoOYomei* [ChuHsiandWangYangming],(Tokyo:

Kakushokankokai*,ei1977),pp.108117and225236.
93.Wenchi,ch.30,p.473,"ReplytoChangChingfu."
94.Ylei,ch.15,p.471.
95.Onthisproblem,seealsotheanalysisbyTomoedaRyutaro*,ejinhisShushinoshiso*keiseiek[TheformationofChuHsi'sthought],(Tokyo:Shunjusha,el
1969),esp.pp.354366.
96.Wenchi,ch.42,pp.712713,"ReplytoShihTzuchung."em
97.Ibid.,ch.31,p.484,"ReplytoChangChingfu."
98.Ibid.,ch.43,p.724,"ReplytoCh'enMingchung."en
99.ChienMu,ChuTzuhsinhsehan,Bk.III,p.616.YaoandShunwerelegendarysageemperors.
100.Wenchi,ch.70,p.1291,"NotesonSomeDoubtfulPoints."
101.Ylei,ch.120,p.4657.
102.ForgeneraldiscussionsofLuHsiangshan'stheoryofmindthereaderisreferredtoT'angChni,eoChungkuochehsehyanlun,yanhsingp'ienep
[FundamentalsofChinesephilosophy:inquiryintohumannature],(HongKong:NewAsiaInstitute,1968),esp.pp.538552andKusumotoMasatsugu,eqSoMin*
jidaijugakushiso*nokenkyu*er[StudiesonConfucianthoughtintheSungandMingtimes],(Tokyo:HiroikegakuenesPress,1972),pp.341367.
103.SeeasayingofLuHsiangshan("Ionlytrustthismindofmine")preservedinSungYanhsehan,ch.77,p.27.
104.ProfessorFungYulanetinhisHistoryofChinesePhilosophyholdsthatbothChuHsiandLuHsiangshansharedthesameviewof"mind"(trans.byDerk
Bodde,Princeton,N.J.:PrincetonUniversityPress,1953,vol.2,pp.587588).Recentstudies,however,suggestthatthecontraryistrue.SeeMouTsungsan,eu
Ts'ungLuHsiangshantaoLiuChishanev[FromLuHsiangshantoLiuTsungchou],(Taipei:StudentBookCo.,1979),ch.2andLaoSsukuang,ewChungkuo
chehsehshihex[AhistoryofChinesephilosophy],(Taipei:SanminBookCo.,1980),Bk.III,pt.1,pp.409414.
105.HsiangshanHsienshengch'anchi,ch.35,p.307.
106.Ibid.,ch.34,p.279.ForacompleteEnglishtranslationofthetwopoemsseeJuliaChing,ey"TheGooseLakeMonasteryDebate(1175),"JournalofChinese
PhilosophyI(1974),p.165.
107.Ch'ienMu,ChuTzuhsinhsehan,Bk.III,pp.299301.
Glossary

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16
ChuHsiontheStandardandtheExpedient
WeiChengt'ung
InChuHsi'sdialogueswithhisstudents,thequestionofthestandard(chinga)andtheexpedient(ch'anb)wasrepeatedlyraised.Therearetworeasonswhyhis
disciplesunceasinglyaskedthisquestion:ConsiderabledebatebylaterConfucianscholars,eachadvocatinghisowninterpretation,hadarisenoverwhatConfucius
(551479B.C.)hadmeantbythetermthe"expedient"asmentionedintheAnalects,1andChuHsi'sstudentswantedtoknowwhoseinterpretationwasthecorrect
oneand,whileallthenumerousdebaters2ofthestandardandtheexpedientagreedthatthetwoconceptsarecloselyrelated,theyareafteralltwodifferentconcepts.
Ch'engIc(10331107)alonemaintainedthattheexpedientisthesameasthestandard,aviewwhichChuHsi'sstudentsfoundimpossibletounderstand.
ThesequestionsbothoriginatefromthesamesourcejustwhatdidConfuciusmeanbytheexpedient?ChuHsiinhisworkLunychichud3(Collected
commentariesontheAnalects)whichhefinished,afterrepeatedrevisions,attheageoffortyeight,emphasizedCh'engI'srenderingoftheterm"expedient,"buthe
citedMencius'(372279B.C.?)remarkthat"Hewhoextendshishandtosavehisdrowningsisterinlaw,isexercisingtheexpedient,"thusinferringthattheexpedient
andthestandardshouldbeconsideredastwoseparateconcepts.IntheCollectedCommentariesontheAnalects,ChuHsiwasfavorabletowardCh'engI's
interpretation.Ifheoccasionallytookexceptions,thedissentingviewswereindicatedasderivedfromMencius'teaching.
Hispostureinregardtothisquestioninhisdialogueswithhisstudentsisdifferent,however.Inhisdialogues,ChuHsimademanyovertcriticismsofCh'engI'stheory.
Onthetwentyeightoccasionsinwhichtheproblemofthestandardandtheexpedientisdiscussed,Ch'engIismentionedsixteentimestenofthosetimesChuHsi
disagreeswithhim.ThebasicdifferencebetweenChuHsiandCh'engIisthatwhileCh'engI'sviewthat"Theexpedientisthesameasthestandard"wasoriginallyset
uptorefutetheargumentoftheHan(206B.C.A.D.220)scholarsthat"ThatwhichisatvariancewiththestandardandcomplieswiththeWayistheexpedient,"4Chu
HsirepeatedlyindicatedhisapprovaloftheHanscholars'view.Tobesure,ChuHsiwas

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greatlyinfluencedbyCh'engI,whomhealwaysdeeplyrespectedandrevered.Ontheonehand,ChuHsi,beingfaithfultohimself,wasunabletoconformfullyto
Ch'engI'sview.Ontheotherhand,hemadeseveralattemptstodefendCh'engI,lesthisintentionsbemisunderstoodbyhisdisciples.
ChuHsi,havingfirmlygraspedthedistinctionbetween"rites"(lie)andthe"expedient"madebyMencius,wasabletohavesympatheticunderstandingoftheHan
scholars'thesisof"beingatvariancewiththestandard"(fanchingf).Inhisdialoguesandotherworks,ChuHsirepeatedlycenteredupontheproblemofthestandard
andtheexpedient,intheendmakingitanindependentandsignificanttopic.
Thepurposeofthispaperistoresurrectthisageoldproblemand,byassemblingtherelevantmaterialandusingnewmethodsandformat,topresentthetopicina
newlight.AsfarasIknow,theproblemhasnotbeensufficientlyattendedtobycontemporaryChuHsischolars.WhatIdoheremay,Ihope,helptoclarifyan
importantaspectofChuHsi'scomplexphilosophicalsystem.
TheStandardandtheExpedient
IfweconsiderCh'engI'sdefinitionthattheexpedientisthestandard,wethereforeoughttorejectthetermthe"expedient."ThisiswhatChuHsiregardsasthe
fundamentalproblemofthetwinconcepts.5Itisjustbecausethestandardandtheexpedientaretwodifferentconceptsthatwemayspeakoftherelationshipbetween
them.ThediscussionofthisrelationshipdemonstratesakeyadvancementinthedevelopmentofConfucianmoralphilosophy.Notonlydoesitenrichthecontentof
theConfucianethicaltheory,butalsoitenablestheConfucianstodealmoresatisfactorilywithchangingsituations.InChineseintellectualhistory,Menciuswasthefirst
torelatethetwoideas,6andwhileseverallaterthinkersdiscussedtheproblem,noneofthemwereabletoleavebehindadiscussionasrichandbrilliantasChuHsi's.
ThatChuHsi'sinterpretationofthestandardandtheexpedientdiffersfromthatofCh'engIdoesnotmeanthatChuHsiisopposedtoCh'engI.Ch'engI'sarguments
emphasizetheabsolutenessofmorality.IfChuHsiweretoopposeCh'engI,thenChuHsiwouldhavehadtoadvocateadoctrineoftherelativityofmorality,whenin
actualityhedidnot.Theirpropositionssharedthesamebasis,andassuchweseeChuHsiontheonehandcriticizingCh'engIandyetontheotherrepeatedly
defendinghim.ChuHsidiffersfromCh'engIbecauseChuHsiwasstimulatedbyMencius,thuscausinghimtofocusonhowanindividualputshisethicalprinciples
intopracticeinaparticularsituation,wherehemighthavetomakeadecisioninclearoppositiontoregularmoralrules.Fromthishewasabletoseethatthetheoryof
theHanscholars,"Thatwhichisatvariancewiththestandardandcomplieswiththe

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Wayiscalledtheexpedient,"notonlydoesnotcontradictMencius'view,butratherisamostaccurateexplicationofwhatMenciusmeantbythetermthe"expedient."
ThusthequestionforChuHsiwashowtoeliminatethecontradictionbetweenCh'engIandtheHanscholars.UponcloseexaminationofChuHsi'sideas,wefindthat
thiscontradictionisnotdifficulttoresolve.
ChuHsisaid,"Thestandardistheconstantprincipleandtheexpedientisthevaryingprinciplewhentheconstantprinciplewon'tworkandthereisnootherchoice."7
Accordingtothisexplanation,ChuHsihastransformedtherelationshipbetweenthestandardandtheexpedientintothatbetweentheconstant(ch'angg)andthe
varying(pienh)inotherwords,"Theconstantiscalledthestandardthatwhichvariesiscalledtheexpedient."8Theearliestappearanceofthisstatement,supposedly
madebyMencius,isrecordedintheHanshihwaichuani(MoraldiscoursesillustratingtheHantextoftheBookofOdes).Examplesofwhen"thestandardisthe
constantprinciple"arelordswhoarebenevolentandministersloyal,andfatherswhoarelovingandsonsfilial.9Whentheconstantprinciplecannotbepracticedand
thesituationleavesnoalternatives,aneedtoallowforchangeorvariationarises.Inallowingchangeonemaypursueseveraldifferentstrategies.Forexample,one
maychoosesomecleverpragmaticmaneuver,achoicethatCh'engIopposed.Iftheexpedientwastoberegardedasbeingnomorethanthis,thenChuHsiwould
opposeitaswell.AccordingtoChuHsi'sanalysis,"change"isequivalenttowhattheHanscholarscalled"tovary''(fanj),namely,"tobeatvariancewiththe
standard."10FromthisexplanationwemayinferthattheHanscholars'viewof"beingatvariancewiththestandard"canbeincludedintherelationshipbetweenthe
standardandtheexpedient.Butfromanotherpointofview,ChuHsirepeatedlyemphasizedthatalthoughthestandardandtheexpedientaredifferent,yetthe
expedientthatvariesisnotnecessarilyseparatefromthestandard.11Heevenwentsofarastosay,"Complyingwiththeexpedientmeansthatthestandardisfoundin
it."12Accordingtothis,whiletheoutwardformsofthestandardandtheexpedientmayvary,theiressentialqualitiesarethesame.Thus,hisviewandthetheoryof
"beingatvariancewiththestandard"produceanobviouscontradiction.Tobeatvariancewiththestandardis,ineitherformorsubstance,tocontradictoropposethe
standarditself.Mencius'example,13thataccordingtorites,unmarriedorunrelatedmembersoftheoppositesexareforbiddentotoucheachother,representsakind
ofsocialnormorcustomthatmaybeconsideredtobea"standard."Nowifamanweretobeinthespecialsituationofthe"drowningsisterinlaw"andwereto
adheretotherite,thenhewouldhavetowatchsomeonediewithoutliftingafinger.Whileitisnotinaccordwithsocialcustom,toextendahandtosavethedrowning
sisterinlawisstillamoraldecisionfoundeduponbasichumanitarianprinciples.Menciuscalledthismannerofdecisionexercisingtheexpedient.Theexpedientthusis
inclearcontradictiontotheabovedefinitionofthestandardasrite.Howmayweresolvethiscontradic

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tionwherebyonemayinadaptingoneselftothechangingsituationbeatvariancewiththestandard,andyet,whilecarryingouttheexpedientbestillinaccordwiththe
standard?ThisproblemaswellasthatbetweenCh'engIandtheHanscholarscanbesolvedsimultaneously.
ItispossiblethatCh'engIandChuHsihavedifferentreactionstothethesis"ThatwhichisatvariancewiththestandardandyetcomplieswiththeWayiscalledthe
expedient"becauseCh'engIresentsthetheoryof"beingatvariancewiththestandard"inadditionhisunderstandingofwhatthetermthe"standard"meansisperhaps
differentfromthatoftheHanscholars.TheHanscholars'conceptofthetermisthesameastheabovementioneddefinitionasrite,whileCh'engI'sconceptofthe
standardissomethingsimilartothe''Way"(Taok).14IfweacceptCh'engI'sdefinition,thenhowmaywespeakofbeingatvariancewiththeWayandcomplyingwith
theWayatthesametime?Theapparentcontradictioncan,perhaps,beresolvedbytheexplanationthatCh'engIsubjectivelyassumedthatthestandardissimilarto
theWaysincehebelievedthattheWayistheuniversallyvalidprinciple,heconsideredallthedoctrinesofchangeandvariationtobefalse,andtotallyrejectedthe
Hanscholars'view.Helogicallyconcludedthat"Theexpedientisthesameasthestandard."15
ChuHsihadadifferentidea.HerealizedthattheWayandthestandardinthestatement"beingatvariancewiththestandardandyetcomplyingwiththeWay"arenot
ofthesamelevel.Hesaid,"Asforthephrase'thatwhichisatvariancewiththestandardandcomplieswiththeWay,'uponcarefulconsiderationitisreasonable
becausetheexpedientiscorrelativetothestandard.Assoonasthetermthe'expedient'ismentioned,thenakindofchangeissuggested,andwemaycallita
variation.Andyet,thoughitisatvariancewiththestandard,itdoesnotcontradicttheWay.Althoughitisdifferentfromthestandard,itisinaccordwiththeWay."16
Inanotherdialoguehesaid,"TheWayisanintegratedentitywhichpenetratesthestandardandtheexpedient."17Thesocalledintegratedentityisthehighestoriginal
substancewhichcomprisesallthethingsintheworld.Itistherealitywhichishigherandmorefundamentalthanthestandardandtheexpedient.FromtheConfucian
pointofview,realityisnotmerelyanobjectofpurelyintellectualconsideration,butalsotheprincipleofbothexistenceandaction.ThereforetheWaycan
"penetrate"(kuanl).TheWaypenetratesallthethingsintheworldandcompletesthem.Itpenetratesthestandardandtheexpedient,providingagroundforstandard
andexpedientactivities.BecausetheWaypenetratesboththestandardandtheexpedient,bothofthempartakeoftheWay.Thuswemaysaythattheexpedientis
thesameasthestandardyetbecausethestandardandtheexpedientarenotonthesamelevelastheWay,whentheexpedientvariesfromthestandard,itdoesnot
necessarilycontradicttheWay.Seenthus,therewouldbenoconflictbetweenCh'engIandtheHanscholars.ThroughChuHsi'sinterpretation,theviewsofMencius,
theHanscholars,andCh'engIareunified.Furthermore,withtheintroductionoftheconceptofthe

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"Way,"ChuHsi'spositionbecomesconsistentwithCh'engI'sinregardtotheabsolutenessofmorality.
AsforChuHsi'sremark,"Thoughatvariancewiththestandard,yetnotcontradictingtheWay,"wecanseethatthereisnoinconsistencyinChuHsi'sthought,but
merelyconfusionintheuseofterms.Whenhesaidthatindealingwithchangingcircumstancesonemaybeatvariancewiththestandard,hereferredtothestandardas
relativetotheexpedient,whichisonelevelbelowtheWay.Whenhesaidthatonemayusetheexpedientandyetnotdepartfromthestandard,hisconceptofthe
term"standard"isdifferentfromthe"standard''in"Thatwhichisatvariancewiththestandard,"andisquiteclosetothetermthe"Way"inthephrase"notcontradicting
theWay."Thereforeonceweunderstandthetermthe"standard"in"Theexpedientinrealitydoesnotdepartfromthestandard,"18tobethesameasthe"Way,"the
confusionwillbeclarified.
InChuHsi'susage,thetermthe"standard"issometimescalled"thegreatnorm"(tafam)19andsometimes"thepermanentprincipleforallages"(wanshihch'ang
hsingchihtaon).20ThestandardandtheWaywereoriginallyindistinguishable.InregardtoChuHsi'sstatementthat"Complyingwiththeexpedientmeansthatthe
standardisfoundinit,"21wecanbesurethatthe"standard"hereisthesameasthe"Way."
TheExpedient,Righteousness,andTimelyEquilibrium
Whenoneisconfrontedbyacertainsituationthatcan'tberesolvedbynormalprinciples,onemustuseanexpedient.Inexercisingtheexpedient,oneishopingto
adaptoneselftothechangingsituationbutwhileattemptingtochangeandadapt,onemaybeforcedtodeviatefromsocialnormsandprecepts.Thisisnotonlyavery
seriousproblemfortheindividualbutforsocietyaswell.Regardingthisissue,theHanscholarsinsistedthatwhileonemaybeatvariancewiththestandard,onemust
aimto"complywiththeWay."ChuHsialsorepeatedlyemphasizedthispoint,forhefearedthatifoneisallowedtobeatvariancewiththestandardwithouthavingto
complywiththeWay,onewouldexhibitbehaviorinobviousoppositiontosocialnormsthusinbecomingindulgentandreckless,onewouldcommitchicaneryand
deceit,andyetclaimthatonewasmerelyexercisingtheexpedient.SuchwouldbewhatChuHsicalled"usingtheexpedientforselfrationalization"(chiehch'uani
tzushiho).22Itiscertainlynottheoriginalmeaningofexercisingtheexpedient.Therequirement"tocomplywiththeWay"isintendedtopreventsuchabusesfrom
takingplace.
Nowthequestionis:HowcanonebothbeatvariancewiththestandardandatthesametimecomplywiththeWay?ChuHsiintroducedtheideasofrighteousness
(ip),equilibrium(chungq),ortimelyequilibrium(shihchungr)andinterlockedthemwiththeideaoftheexpedienttoarriveatanewlineofthoughtthatenabledhimto
solvethisquestion.

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Whilebeingatvariancewiththestandardisakindofdeviantbehavior,deviationisonlyastepintheprocessofcarryingouttheexpedient.Ithasnotyettouchedon
theessenceofexercisingtheexpedient.Themainideaofexercisingtheexpedientisthatonceanindividualisforcedtodepartfromthenormalorder,hemust,inorder
toresolvetheparticulardifficultiesofhisparticularcircumstances,comeupwithanewmoraldecisionthatdoesnotcontradictultimatemoralprinciples.Thus
exercisingtheexpedientisnotmeanttocorrupttheconceptofmoralitybutisinsteadawayofovercomingmoraldifficulties.Weseeatoncethatthecontentofmoral
lifeisenrichedandtheapplicationofmoralprinciplesisexpandedadifficulttaskindeed!ThiswasperhapswhyConfuciusonthispointfelt"usingtheexpedient"to
bemoredifficultthan"learningtogether"(kunghsehs),"aspiringtotheWay"(shihtaot),and"gettingestablished''(liu).23
ChuHsiunderstood"beingabletoadopttheexpedient"tomean"whenonemeetsavaryingsituationandknowstheappropriatemeasure."24Inotherwords,when
onemeetsupwiththedifficultyofapeculiarsituation,onemustthenassesswhatisappropriateandinappropriateaccordingtotheconceptofrighteousness.ChuHsi's
theoryoftheexpedientissomethingthat"mustbynecessitycomplywiththerighteousness."25Wemaysaythattocomplywithrighteousnessistoknow
appropriateness.Whenasituationchangessuddenlywhileoneisunprepared,itisonlybyapplyingtheconceptofrighteousnessthatonemaydeterminewhatconduct
ismorallysuitable.Righteousnessasthegroundforassessingasituationisnotanobjectivelyexistingnormreadytobefollowed.Righteousnessmeans
appropriateness.Itissomethingthatmustbedecidedthroughone'sinnateknowledge(liangchihv).Whethertheapplicationofinnateknowledgeisappropriateornot
dependsontheindividual'slevelofpersonalcultivation.Thosewhoarenotthoroughlyfamiliarwiththeprinciplesofhumanityandrighteousnesscannot,then,exercise
theexpedient.ChuHsithereforeinsistedthatthosewhowerenotsagescouldnotcasuallyappealtotheexpedient.
Righteousnesscanbelinkedupwiththeconceptofthevaryingexpedientbecauserighteousnessitselfhasthespecialcharacteristicofbeingabletoadapttotemporal
changehencerighteousnessisappropriatenessandnotafixedorunchangingentity.Whatisappropriatewithregardtooneparticulareventmaynotnecessarilybe
appropriatewithregardtoanotherevent.Todeterminewhethersomethingisappropriateornot,wemustlookattheconcretesituation.Todootherwise,thatis,tobe
obstinateandstubborn,wasapositionstronglyopposedbyConfucius,whoalsodisapprovedoftheideathatoncesomethingisdeemedappropriate,itisalways
appropriate.26Thisiswhyhecondemned"obstinacy"(kuw).Confuciusalsopointedoutthatnothingintheworldcouldalwaysberightoralwayswrong.Oneonlyhad
tocomplywithrighteousness(recognizedbyinnateknowledge)andthus"whatisright,onewouldfollow."27Whatisappropriateandwhatisexpedient,thesetwo
ideas,mustbothbebasedupontheprincipleofrighteousnessbeforetheyare

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accepted.ThisiswhatChuHsimeantbysayingthattheexpedientmustcomplywithrighteousness.
Nowthattherelationshipbetweentheexpedientandrighteousnessisclarified,whatthenistherelationshipbetweenthetwoandequilibrium?ChuHsiexplainswithan
analogy:"Onemustuserighteousnesstoassesssituationsbeforeonewillbeabletoattainequilibrium.Righteousnessislikeabalance,andtoexercisetheexpedientis
toweighsomethingwiththisveryscale.Equilibriumoccurswhenthethingattainsitsbalance."28Encounteringachangeincircumstanceswithamoraldecisiontomake,
oneactivelyweighswhethertoacceptorrejectacertaincourseofaction,basingthedecisiononrighteousness.Thereforeitissaid,"Oneusesrighteousnesstoassess
situations."Thismentalactivityofassessingasituationmustbefullythoughtoutbeforetheprocessofcarryingouttheexpedientcanbeconsideredachievedwhenitis
finallyachieved,thefinalconclusioniscalledequilibrium."Whenthingsattaintheirbalance"istosaythattheconclusionwasneitherbiasednorodd.Itmustbe
appropriateandmustcomplywiththeprincipleofequilibrium(chungtaox).Ifthebehaviorofassessinghowtobeinaccordwithchangecannotattainequilibrium,
thenitcannotbecalledtheexpedient.ThereforeChuHsisaid,''Theexpedientistimelyequilibrium.Withoutequilibrium,onewillhavenowaytousetheexpedient."29
"Theexpedientistimelyequilibrium"meansthatinsituationsofassessingchange,onemustbeableto"resideintheequilibrium"atalltimes.Timingisaspecificfactor
thatwhichmaybeappropriateatonetimemaybeinappropriateinanother.Thisiswhatismeantwhenitissaidthatequilibrium"iswithoutfixedform,yetitexistsin
alldifferenttemporalsituations."30ChuHsialsosaidthattheexpedientis"theequilibriumofoneparticularinstant"(ishihchihchungy),31thusexplainingthatboththe
processofexercisingtheexpedientandtheresultofitareinregardtoparticularsituationsandarecarriedoutwhenthereisnoalternative.Onemayadaptthe
expedientonce,butnottwice,for"Itisprovisionalandnotconstant."32Wecannotarbitrarilyextendthemeaningoftheexpedientandutilizeitforselfrationalization.
Inthecaseof"Tzumoalwaysgraspingequilibrium"(Tzumochihchungz),Menciuscriticizedhimasbeing"withouttheexpedientwhilegraspingequilibrium."33
BecauseTzumoconsideredchangetobethenorm,hewasharmingtheWay.Hence,ChuHsihasatheoryofthe"living"andthe"deadaspectsofequilibrium."34The
deadaspectofequilibriumislikeTzumo'smannerofgraspingequilibrium.Thelivingaspectofequilibriumisthetimelyequilibrium,whichisinaccordancewith
changingtemporalreality.
Theseideasofrighteousness,equilibrium,andtimelyequilibriumarealltobefoundintheancientClassics.Theyallhavecomplexsignificance.35ChuHsihastaken
themandappliedthemtotheproblemofthestandardandtheexpedient,thereforeleadingnotonlytothecreationofaframeworkfortheexaminationofexpedient
conduct,butalsotoaneffectivemeansforresolvingtheproblemofthestandardandtheexpedient.

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PracticingtheExpedient
ChuHsiraisedthreequestionsregardingthistopic:(1)Whatkindofpersoncanputtheexpedientintopractice?(2)Inwhatkindofsituationscantheexpedientbeput
intopractice?(3)Whateventscanbeconsideredtobeactsofexercisingtheexpedient?Thefirsttwoquestionsdealwithconditionsforexercisingtheexpedient,
whilethelastproblemincorporatesconcretesituationsthatwillbeusefulindeterminingthenatureoftheconductofexercisingtheexpedient.
Whatkindofpersoncanputtheexpedientintopractice?ThisquestionwasoriginallyaskedbyConfucius.Hefeltthat"usingtheexpedient"wasmoredifficultthan
"gettingestablished."ThereforeChuHsisaidthatonlyasagecouldusetheexpedient.36Thisisareasonablesurmise,butChuHsialsosaid,''Inexaminingtheintention
oftheSage(Confucius),hedoesnotallowordinarypeopletoutilizetheexpedient."37ThisisnotnecessarilyConfucius'intentionconsideringsomethingtobedifficult
isdifferentfromnotpermittingit.LookingatChuHsi'sstatementsthat"theexpedientisappliedonlyifthereisnootherwayout"and"thestandardisaprinciplethat
cannotalwaysbecarriedout,"38wemayspeculateastoChuHsi'strueintention.Itisn'tthatwearenotpermittedtoutilizetheexpedient,butthatChuHsiishighly
alarmedbytheactofemployingtheexpedient.Hewasdeeplyworriedthatordinarypeoplemightcasuallyutilizetheexpedientfortheirownconvenience.
Whyisputtingtheexpedientintopracticesodifficult?WemayuseWangPi'saa(226249)wordstoexplain.Hesaid,"TheexpedientisavariationoftheWayand
variationiswithoutfixedentity.Illuminatingitspirituallyliesintherightperson.Notbeingabletosetitupbeforehandisthemostdifficultpartofit."39Thatis,in
exercisingtheexpedient,therearenodefactorulesthatcanbefollowed.Achangeincircumstancesisaspecialsituation.Itisextremelydifficultforanindividualto
anticipateitandwhileinthemidstofchange,itisevenmoredifficultforthatindividualtobeablewithintheflickerofaneyetodeterminewhathisfutureconduct
oughttobe.Insuchasituationonecanonlyrelyuponhisownspiritualinstinct.Asfor"illuminatingitspirituallyliesintherightperson,"wemayquoteChuHsi's
statementthat"one'sbeingablecarefullytoassessasituationdependsonone'sdailycultivationoftherootthisverymindisunobstructed,pure,integratedand
natural."40WhileChuHsiispointingtoahighlevelofmoralcultivation,WangPi'sexpression,"illuminatingitspiritually"(shenerhmingchihab),doesnotnecessarily
havemoralconnotations.ChuHsialsosaid,"Onlythosewhohavethoroughlyexaminedandareperfectlyfamiliarwithmoralprinciplescantalkaboutthe
expedient."41Obviously,onlythosewhohavethesamelevelofcultivationassagesandworthieswillbeabletoputtheexpedientintopractice.Fromthemodernpoint
ofview,ChuHsi'sassertionthatonlysages

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couldexercisetheexpedientamountstoforbiddingtheexpedient,fortheidealofsagehoodistotallybeyondthereachofmodernmen.Yettheproblemofthe
standardandtheexpedientisaconcreteonethatanyonemayhavetoconfront.
Inregardstotheabovequestion,ifwewon'tbetieddownbyaliteraryreadingofhisstatement,itseemsthatChuHsi'sconclusionisthis:Onlygoodmeanswill
producegoodresultsevilmeanswillnotleadtodesirableends.Thisisthecasenotonlyinnormalsituationsbutalsounderexceptionalcircumstances.
Thenextquestionis:Inwhatkindsofsituationsmaytheexpedientbepracticed?FengYungchihacoftheT'angdynasty(618907)oncesaid,"Asfortheexpedient,it
ismerelyappropriatetoavaryingsituationtemporarilyitisn'talongtermpractice....TheSageknewthatmoralprinciplesaresometimespowerless,thatriteand
righteousnesssometimescannotbeapplied,andthatlawsandpunishmentsometimescannotbeenforced.Underthesecircumstancesweshouldusetheexpedientas
aremedy."42
Itisnotdifficulttosupplyexamplesforthethreekindsofsituationsmentionedhere.Thecaseofextendingahandtosavethedrowningsisterinlawisagoodexample
ofasituationinwhichriteandrighteousnesscannotbeapplied.MenciuscitedthecaseofShun'sad43fathermurderingaman44andsuggestedthatShuncarryhisfather
onhisbackandflee.Thisisanexampleofasituationinwhichlawandpunishmentcannotbeenforced.Manystoriesoftheconflictbetweenloyaltyandfilialpiety45
areexamplesofsituationsinwhichmoralprinciplesarepowerless.Extendingahandtosaveadrowningsisterinlawisundoubtedlyanexcellentexampleof
exercisingtheexpedient.Carryingone'sfatherandfleeingmayalsobecalledexercisingtheexpedient.Thissecondaction,however,mightbecontroversialbecauseit
involvesconflictsbetweenpersonalfeelingsandlawandorder.Theconflictbetweenloyaltyandfilialpietyisaseriousmoraldilemma.Whetheronechoosestobea
loyalsubjectoradutifulson,eitherchoicemaybeconsideredrightorwrong.Thuswhenweconsiderthesetwoexamples,thecircumstancesinwhichonemayuse
theexpedientaredifficulttodetermineindeed.
ChuHsi'sdiscussionoftheproblemtendstobetoogeneral.Ontheonehandhesaid,"Asfortheconstantprinciple,howcanweobtaintherightapplicationinevery
action?Sometimestheremightbeasituationthatcan'tbecovered.Thenwemustadopttheexpedient."46Ontheotherhandhesaid,"Theremightbeeventsthatare
withoutotherchoicesandthestandardcan'tbeapplied.Onecanthenmerelycarrythroughbybeingatvariancewiththestandard."47Yethealsosaid,"Thereare
occasionswheneventsrequirevariationofthestandard.''48Thesethreestatementsallhavethesamemeaning.WhenoneisfollowingtheusualpracticeoftheWay,
andthenadilemmaofferingnoalternativearises,onehastobeatvariancewiththestandard.Theproblemisthatthereisnoobjectivewayofdecidingwhethera
situationisreallywithoutalternatives.Althoughonepersonmayconsiderasituationto

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bewithoutalternatives,anotherpersonmightthinkotherwise.Inthecaseofawidowedwomanremarrying,forexample,evenifthewidowhasnoonetodependon
andthinksshehasnootheralternatives,otherswillstillfeelthatsheiscommitingadulterywhensheremarries.Itisinsuchsituationsinwhichthereisnoone,certain,
acceptabledecisionthattheproblemofexercisingtheexpedientiscreated.
Thethirdquestionis:Whatkindofmeasurescanbeconsideredtobecasesoftheexpedient?ThisquestionputsChuHsi'stwotheoriesof"thatwhichisatvariance
withthestandardandcomplieswiththeWay"and"byusingrighteousnesstomakeanassessment,onethenattainsequilibrium"inapositionwheretheymustbetested
againstactualsituations.ThesituationsreferredtobyChuHsimaybedividedintotwocategories:howthesagesexercisedtheexpedient,andtheincidentsthatChu
Hsiprovidedfromhisownexperience.Boththesecategoriescanbeconsideredaspracticalapplicationsofthetheoryofthestandardandtheexpedient.
Amongthecasesbelongingtothefirstcategory,ChuHsimentionedthevoluntaryabdicationsofemperorsYaoaeandShun,49KingT'ang'safbanishingChieh,ag50King
Wu'sahpunishingChou,ai51Iyin'sajexpellingT'aichia,ak52andtheDukeofChou'salexecutionofKuanshuamandTs'aishu.an53ChuHsiconsideredalloftheaboveto
beexamplesofancientsagesexercisingtheexpedient.
ThestandardistheWaythatiscarriedoutconstantlygenerationaftergeneration,whiletheexpedientisappliedonlyifthereisnootherchoiceandtheexpedientcomplieswith
righteousness,suchasKingT'ang'sbanishingChieh,KingWu'spunishingChou,andIyin'sexpellingT'aichia.Theseareallpracticesoftheexpedient.Iftheyareoftenapplied,
whatkindofworldwillitbe?...Butitwas600700yearsafteremperorsYaoandShunbeforetherewasKingT'ang,another600700yearsbeforetherewasKingWu.
Accordingly,theapplicationoftheexpedientisreallydifficulttospeakof.54
Furthermore,inthecasesoftheDukeofChou'sexecutingKuanshuandTs'aishu,andT'angT'aitsung'saokillingCh'iench'engapandYanchiaq(hiselderandyounger
brothers),55theirapplyingtheswordtosiblingswasthesame,buttheirreasonsweredifferent.KuanshuandTs'aishuplottedtogetherwiththedescendantsofShangto
endangertheChoucourt.Thisisacaseofcommittingacrimeagainsttheempireaswellasagainsttheancestraltemple.ItcouldbesaidthattheDukeofChouhadnochoicebut
toexecutethem.T'angT'aitsung'scasewasobviouslyforthesakeofrivalryforthethrone.HencetheDukeofChou'scasecouldbecalledanapplicationoftheexpedient,while
T'angT'aitsung'sisnot.56

Whenministersareloyaltotheirlords,theyarefollowingthestandard,butwhenministerscommitregicide,theyareatvariancewiththestandard.Asaresultofthese
slayingstherewerepowerstrugglesaimedattheestablishingofaneworder.Thisinterplaybetweenrivalforcesisacommonhistoricaloccur

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rence.ChuHsi,however,singularlyfeelsthattheymaybeconsideredascasesofthesagesexercisingtheexpedient.ThisisbecauseT'angandWuhadlongsince
beenidealizedbytheConfuciantradition.Inotherwords,"TherevolutioncarriedoutbykingsT'angandWucompliedwiththeMandateandweresupportedbythe
people."57BecausebothT'angandWuwerealreadyidealizedassages,itcanbesaidthattheregicidestheyperformedwerecasesoftheexpedientincompliance
withtheprincipleofrighteousness.TothosewhodonotaccepttheConfucianposition,ChuHsi'sargumentishardlyconvincing.Historicallyspeaking,itappearsthat
successistheonlycriterionforjudgment,andthusanythingthatisconducivetosuccessistherebyalsojudgedtobejustified.Ifthisistobeconsideredasexercising
theexpedient,thenitmustbesaidthattheendjustifiesthemeans.Clearly,thisisnotconsistentwithChuHsi'sintentions.Suchexamplesofidealizationarenotreally
applicable.Therefore,whetherfromthehistoricaloridealizedpointofview,ChuHsi'stheoryofthestandardandtheexpedientisverydifficulttoapplyinsuch
situationsasKingT'ang'sbanishingChieh.Inotherwords,thesekindsofeventscannotatallbetestedbyChuHsi'stheoryofthestandardandtheexpedient.
ChuHsifeltthatitwasforthethroneandnottheexpedientthatT'angT'aitsungmurderedhiselderbrother.ThisjudgmentconformstotherequirementsofChuHsi's
theory,butwhatoftheDukeofChou'scase?TheDukewasasageandChuHsipointedoutthatonlysagesmayexercisetheexpedient.Hence,althoughhe
murderedhisownbrothersnomatterwhattherealreasonwashisactmustberegardedasexercisingtheexpedient.EithertheDukeofChou'ssituationisdifferent
fromthoseofKingT'ang,KingWu,andT'aitsungoritisinaccordwithChuHsi'swordsthat"Theremightbeeventsthatarewithoutotherchoices."Eventhoughthe
DukeofChoumurderedhisownbrothers,theactioncanstillbelookeduponasacaseofusingtheexpedient.
Regardlessofhowweevaluatetheindividualsituations,theyallappeartobeusingtheendstojustifythemeans.AccordingtoChuHsi'stheory,theconductofbeing
atvariancewiththestandardcanonlypermitoppositiontosuchkindsofcustomsastheavoidanceofphysicalcontactbetweenmembersoftheoppositesexwhoare
neithermarriednorrelated.Suchcrimesastheslayingofone'sbrotherdefinitelycannotbepermitted.AccordingtoChu'stheories,anordinaryperson'smurderofhis
brotherisacrime,whiletheDukeofChou'smurderofhisbrotherisacaseofexercisingtheexpedient.Thisisabsurd.EveniftheDukeofChou'sactsweremeantto
servethethroneandsavethepeople,wemuststillemployanothercriterioninordertojustifyhisconduct.Inthiscase,ChuHsi'spurelymoralistictheoryofthe
standardandtheexpedientcannotbeapplied.
Next,wewillconsiderChuHsi'spersonalreflectionsofhowtodealwiththeproblemofthestandardandtheexpedient.
Question:Whatifoneisobservingtheriteofmourningandone'selderscompelonetodrinkwine?

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Answer:Ifonecannotobtainpermissiontoabstain,thennoharmisdoneifonereluctantlycomplieswiththeelders'intention.Butonecannotwillinglygetdrunk.Afterdrinking,
onemayreturntohisinitialstate.58

Accordingtoancientrites,onecannotdrinkduringthemourningperiod.Thisisthe"standard.""Theelderscompellingonetodrink"is''tobeatvariancewiththe
standard."Underthesecircumstances,shouldtheindividualobeytheancientritesandnottheelders'intentions,orshouldhedotheopposite?Althoughthisisn'ta
serioussituation,itisstilladifficultmoralpredicament.Onehastomakeachoicebetweenobeyingtheritesandrespectingtheelders.
ChuHsihasponderedoverthisquestionratherthoroughly,aswecanseefromhisreply.Thephrase"Ifonecannotobtainpermissiontoabstain,"indicatesthatone,
whenforcedtodrink,mustfirstdecline.Todeclineistoshowthatoneknowsthattheancientritesshouldbeobserved.Ifoneisnotpermittedtoabstainafter
repeatedpleadings,whichmeansthatonehasnootheralternatives,thenitisallrighttofollowtheexpedient."Theexpedientmustbeinaccordwithrighteousness,"
andrighteousness(appropriateness)varieswithvaryingsituations."Toreluctantlycomplywiththeelders'intentions"meansthatoneprovisionallyreplacesthe
appropriatenessofobeyingtheriteswiththatofrespectingtheelders,therebyresolvingthepresentdilemma.However,therearestillfurtherconditionstobefulfilled:
Onemustnotgetdrunkandonemustreturntotheoriginalstateafterdrinking.Gettingdrunkiscontrarynotonlytotheritesbutalsototheideaofrespectingthe
elders.Tosaythat"onemustreturntotheoriginalstateafterdrinking"istoinsistthattheexpedientisusedonlywhenonehasnochoice.Itisnottobeconsideredasa
precedentthatmightbelightlyinvokedlateron.
Question:Supposeone'sparenthasdiedandhaswilledthatBuddhistandTaoistmonksbeemployedtochantatservices.Whatshouldthesondo?
Answer:Thisisadifficultproblemtodealwith.
Question:Mayhedisregardtheseinstructions?
Answer:Thedeadone'sdescendantnaturallyhasanaffectionthatcannotbeartoviolatethewill.Thismattermustbecarefullystudied.59

Thedifficultyofthisproblemisduetothedifferenceinreligiousbeliefsofthetwogenerations.IfthesonisaConfuciandisciple,hewouldobviouslyhopetoadhereto
themourningritesoftheConfucians,evenifthedeceasedparentisBuddhist.Butthiswouldbeincontradictiontotheinstructionsofthedyingparent,andtooppose
theparent'swillistobeunfilial.Thustheissueisacontroversialone.ForaConfucian,filialpietyisthemostimportantmoralvirtue.Thereforewhentheenquirer
asked,"Mayhedisregardtheseinstructions?"ChuHsirepliedthatifsotheconscienceofthesonwouldbedisturbed.YetChuHsiwastroubledbythecombiningof
theconceptoffilial

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pietywithBuddhistrituals.Deducingfromthedialogue'scontent,ifthesonwouldwanttousetheexpedientbycarryingoutthewill'sinstructionstohirethemonks,
ChuHsiwouldnotbeopposed.Afterall,itdoesnotconflictwithChuHsi'stheory.
Disciple:Whatifthereisanoccasionthatthemotherisdeadandthefatherisstillalive,andthefatherwishestofollowthecommoncustomsformourningbywearingmourning
dress,hiringmonks,andcrematingtheremains?
ChuHsi:Whatwillyoudo?
Disciple:Iwillnotobey.
ChuHsi:Thesearejusttriflingmatters.Ifyouhaddecidedtoobey,itwouldnotharmanything.Butcremationiscertainlyforbidden.
Disciple:Cremationwoulddestroytheparent'sremains.
ChuHsi:Ifyougroupthequestionofcremationtogetherwiththatofmourningdressandhiringmonks,thenyoustillhavenotbeenabletodiscriminatebetweenlightandserious
matters.60

ChuHsiwasabletoreachaconclusionbecauseBuddhistmourningritesincludemourningdressandcremation,andthisishelpfulinavoidingthesituationwhereboth
filialpietyandBuddhistritualsarecalledfor.Ifthefatherhadonlywantedthesontofollowtraditionalcustombyemployingmonksandwearingmourningdress,then
onemightusetheexpedientbecausetheseareonly"triflingmatters."Butcremationcannotbeallowedbecauseitwould"destroytheparent'sremains,"whichis
somethingfarmoreseriousthannotfollowingConfucianrituals.Whileitishardtoeasethemindoftheson,thisdecisionwouldstillbeacceptabletothefather.Chu
Hsi'smannerofhandlingthesituationnotonlymaintainstheConfucianviewpointbutalsoresolvestheconflictbetweenfatherandson.Thiscanbecalledsettlingthe
accountsofbothparties.ChuHsiinthisinstanceofresolvingtheconflictbetweenthestandardandtheexpedienthasleftbehindforlatergenerationsanimportant
revelation.Ifonehasgraspedthemajorprincipleofethics(thatis,thestandard),thenwheninthemidstofdifficultiesonemayprovisionallyapplythesecondary
principle(thatis,theexpedient)toassessthesituation.61
Conclusion
Historicallyspeaking,thequestionofthestandardandtheexpedientbeganwithConfucius.Althoughmanyscholarsdebatedtheproblemafterwards,itisnotuntilwe
readChuHsithatwefindawelldevelopedanalysis.StimulatedbyCh'engI'sdissatisfactionwiththethesisofHanscholarsthat"Thatwhichisatvariancewiththe
standardandcomplieswiththeWayiscalledtheexpedient,"ChuHsimadeadeepandthoroughanalysisofthetwinconcepts.WhilebothrespectingCh'engIand
sympathizingwiththestandpointoftheHanscholars,ChuHsifeltcompelledtoconfronttheproblemandtosearchforareasonablesolution.Hemusthavebeen
troubledbytheproblem,aswit

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nesshiswaveringcommentsonCh'engI.Intheend,however,hefoundthekeytothesolutioninthedistinctionbetweenthestandardandtheWay.
SincetheideaoftheconstantprinciplecanbefoundbothinthestandardandtheWay,oneconceptiseasilymistakenfortheother.Ch'engIinterpreted"thatwhichis
atvariancewiththestandard"tobeoneandthesameas"thatwhichopposestheWayofthestandard."Herewecanseethathehasevidentlyconfusedthestandard
tobesomethingequivalenttotheWay.Thus,Ch'engI'sunderstandingoftheterm"standard"isverydifferentfromthatoftheHanscholars.AccordingtoChuHsi's
pointofview,whilethestandardandtheexpedientarerelativeconcepts,theyaretranscendedbytheWay,andtheWayiscontainedbythem.BecausetheWayis
transcendent,theexpedientmaybeatvariancewiththestandard,butnotopposedtotheWay.AstotheWaybeingcontainedinthestandardandtheexpedient,we
maysaythattheexpedientisthesameasthestandard:bothareinaccordwiththeWay.WiththisformulationChuHsiofferedareasonablesolutiontothe
contradictionsbetweenthepositionsofCh'engIandtheHanscholarswhileatthesametimeheadvancedconsiderablythetheoryofthelatter.
TheHanscholarsonlyclaimedthat"ThatwhichisatvariancewiththestandardandcomplieswiththeWayistheexpedient."ChuHsiattemptedtoshowhowthisis
possible.Hisstatement"TheWayisanintegratedentitywhichpenetratesthestandardandtheexpedient"isnotaloneenoughtoprovideanadequateexplanationof
theconceptoftheexpedientconduct.Histheorybecameeffectivewhenheaddedtheconceptsofrighteousness,equilibrium,ortimelyequilibrium,andexplainedtheir
relationshiptotheexpedient.TheseideaswereoriginallyscatteredthroughoutthevariousClassicsitwasnotuntilafterChuHsigatheredandanalyzedthemthatthey
becamethecoreofthesolutiontotheproblemofthestandardandtheexpedient.
Atheoryoftherelationshipbetweenthestandardandtheexpedientmustnotmerelybeaplayofideas.Itmustbeabletodirecthowtheexpedientistobecarriedout
andhowoneistofindeffectivesolutionstothenumerousparticularmoralquestionsthatarise.ThereforeIhavesoughttoexamineChuHsi'sviewbyreviewinghis
theoreticaltreatmentofthesubjectandhisobservationsonpracticalissues.UponexaminationIdiscoverthatChuHsi'smoralistictheoryofthestandardandthe
expedientisnotnecessarilyapplicableinsuchcasesasKingT'angbanishingChiehandKingWupunishingChou.Iftheseactivitiesareconsideredtobeexpedient
andappropriate,thecriterionofexpediencyandappropriatenessissomethingotherthanamoralisticone.Ontheotherhand,IfindChuHsi'spracticalobservations
extremelyeffectiveinsolvingcomplexethicalproblemswithintheboundaryofritesandsocialcustoms.
Theproblemofthestandardandtheexpedientisanimportantissueinethics.Man'ssituationisalwayschangingandgrowingincreasinglymorecomplex,thus
endlesslyproducingnewanddifficultproblemsrequiringfreshsolutions.ChuHsiwasborneighthundredyearsago,andwhileitistruethat

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someofthemoralproblemstowhichhereferredhavenaturallydisappearedbecauseofchangesinsociety,yethistheoriesandteachingshavetoucheduponsomeof
thecentralissuesincontemporarysituationalethics.HowtoreexamineChuHsi'stheoryandtoimproveorreconstructitinlightofournewexperienceandknowledge
isanewchallengethatmustbetakenupbythemoralphilosophersofthisgeneration.
TranslatedbyRoseanneE.Freesear
Notes
1.Analects,9:29.
2.Cf.Ch'ienChungshu,asKuanchuip'ienat[Notesofsmalldiscoveries],(Beijing:ZhonghuaauBookCo.,1979)"Tsochuan"avintheTsochuan[Tso's
commentaryontheSpringandAutumnAnnals],sec.30,fifteenthyearofDukeCh'eng,awpp.206209andWeiChengt'ung,Chungkuochehsehtz'utienax
[DictionaryofChinesephilosophy],(Taipei:TalinayPublishingCo.,1977),pp.803805,onthetermch'an.
3.ChuHsi'scommentsontheAnalects,9:29.ForMencius'remarksseetheBookofMencius,4A:17.
4.Theactualtextreads,"TheHanscholarsconsideredbeingatvariancewiththestandardandincompliancewiththeWaytobetheexpedient.Hencetheytalked
aboutexpedientvariationsandtactics,whichareallfalse.Theexpedientisthesameasthestandard.Noonehasunderstoodthemeaningoftheterm'expedient'since
theHandynasty."QuotedintheLunychichu.ThetheoriesoftheHanscholarsarefoundinTungChungshuaz(176104B.C.),Ch'unch'iufanluba[Stringof
pearlsontheSpringandAutumnAnnals],ch.3,sec.4:"Althoughtheexpedientisatvariancewiththestandard,itmustbewithinthescopeofwhatcanbe
allowed....Theexpedientisatactfulmeasure.Itwouldbebetterifwecanreturntothegreatstandard"Kungyangchuanbb[TheKungyangcommentaryonthe
SpringandAutumnAnnals],eleventhyearofDukeHuan:bc"Whatdoestheexpedientmean?Itmeanstodeviatefromthestandardwithgoodresults"ChaoCh'ibd
(?201A.D.),CommentaryontheBookofMencius[MengTzuchube]:''Theexpedientisthatwhichisatvariancewiththestandardbutisstillgood."
5.ChuTzuyleibf[ClassifiedconversationsofMasterChu],(Taipei:ChengchungbgBookCo.,1960),ch.37,p.1646.
6.BookofMencius,4A:17.
7.ChuTzuylei,ch.37,p.1639.
8.HanWeits'ungshubh[LibraryofHanandWeidynasties],(Taipei:HsinhsingbiPublishingCo.,1959),1:76b.
9.ChuTzuylei,ch.37,p.1642.
10.Ibid.,ch.37,p.1647.
11.Ibid.,ch.37,p.1642.
12.Ibid.,ch.37,p.1639.
13.BookofMencius,4A:17.
14.Forexample,Ch'engIsaid,"Inconfrontingacertainevent,onedealswithitbyassessingitinordertohaveitcomplywithrighteousness.Thisiscalledthe
expedient.HowcoulditbecontradictorytotheWayofthestandard?"SeetheErhCh'eng

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bj

bk

ch'anshu [CompleteworksofthetwoCh'engs],(SPPYed.),Ts'uiyen [Purewords],pt.1,p.6a.

15.QuotedinChuHsi,Lunychichu,commentontheAnalects,9:29.
16.ChuTzuylei,ch.37,p.1647.
17.Ibid.,ch.37,p.1638.
18.Ibid.,ch.37,p.1642.
19.Ibid.,ch.37,p.1643.
20.Ibid.,ch.37,p.1638.
21.Ibid.,ch.37,p.1639.
22.Ibid.,ch.37,p.1637.
23.Analects,9:29.
24.ChuTzuylei,ch.37,p.1633.
25.Ibid.,ch.37,p.1638.
26.Ch'enTach'i,blK'ungTzuhsehshuolunchibm[EssaysonConfucius'doctrines],(Taipei:ChengchungBookCo.,1958),p.61.
27.Analects,4:10.
28.ChuTzuylei,ch.37,p.1633.
29.Ibid.,ch.37,p.1637.
30.ChuHsi,Chungyungchangchbn[CommentaryontheDoctrineoftheMean],commentonch.2.
31.ChuTzuylei,ch.37,p.1638.
32.Ibid.,ch.37,p.1640.
33.BookofMencius,7A:26.
34.ChuTzuwenchibo[CollectionofliteraryworksofMasterChu],(SPPYed.entitledChuTzutach'anbp[CompleteliteraryworksofMasterChu],58:15b.
35.Cf.WeiChengt'ung,DictionaryofChinesePhilosophy,thetermsi,p.678chung,p.210andshihchung,p.512.
36.ChuTzuylei,ch.37,pp.1634,1638.
37.Ibid.,p.1640.
38.Ibid.,pp.1637,1640.
39.QuotedinHuangK'anbq(488545),Lunychichiehishubr[ExegesisofcollectedcommentariesontheAnalects],ontheAnalects,9:29.
40.ChuTzuylei,ch.37,p.1635.
41.Ibid.,ch.37,p.1643.
42.FengYungchih,Ch'anlunbs[Ontheexpedient]intheCh'anT'angwenbt[CompleteessaysofT'angauthors],vol.404,p.5216.
43.Shun,thelegendaryrulerofancientChinac.22552206B.C.,wasknownasasageemperor,basedontheBookofHistory,ch.2,"CanonofShun."
44.BookofMencius,7A:35.
45.Ch'ienChungshu,Kuanchuip'ien,"SixtyNotesontheMaoShihcheng'i"bu[CommentariesonMao'sBookofOdes],noteno.49,pp.134136.
46.ChuTzuylei,ch.37,p.1642.
47.Ibid.,ch.37,p.1643.
48.Ibid.
49.Yao,alegendarysageemperor(c.23572256B.C.),abdicatedthethroneinfavorofShuninsteadofhisson.ThestorywasfirstmentionedintheMoTzu,bvch.
93.ShunpassedonhisthronetoYtheGreatinsteadofhisownson.Seeabove,n.43.

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bw

50.KingT'angfoundedtheYin (orShang)dynasty(c.17661123B.C.)bybanishingthetyrantChieh(c.18181766B.C.),thelastemperoroftheHsiadynasty(c.
21831752B.C.).Cf.theShihchibx(Historicalrecords),ch.2,"RecordofHsia."
51.KingWu(11211116B.C.)wasthefounderoftheChoudynasty(1111249B.C.)afterhissuccessfulrevoltagainstthetyrantChouoftheShangdynasty.Cf.the
Shihchi,ch.3,"RecordofYin."
52.Iyin,theprimeministerappointedbyKingT'ang,expelledT'aichia,thegrandsonofKingT'ang.Cf.theShihchi,ch.3,"RecordofYin."
53.TheDukeofChou,theyoungerbrotherofKingWu,executedKuanshuandTs'aishu,hiselderandyoungerbrothers.Cf.theShihchi,ch.3,"RecordofYin."
54.ChuTzuylei,ch.37,p.1638.
55.T'aitsung,thesecondemperoroftheT'angdynasty,killedhisbrothersCh'iench'engandYanchi.Cf.theChiuT'angshuby[TheearlierhistoryoftheT'ang
dynasty],ch.64,"Biographiesno.14."
56.ChuTzuylei,ch.37,p.1641.
57.TheBookofChanges,explanationoftheremarksonthefortyninthhexagramkebz(tochange).
58.ChuTzuylei,ch.89,p.3676.
59.Ibid.
60.Ibid.
61.Cf.YangHuichieh,caChuHsilunlihsehcb[ChuHsi'sethics],(Taipei:CowboyPublishingCo.,1978),p.149.
Glossary

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17
ChuHsionPersonalCultivation
JuliaChing
ChuHsiisheirtoatradition,theConfuciantraditionastransmittedandinterpretedbyMencius(372289B.C.?)andothers.Inthistradition,akeydoctrineconcerns
universalhumanperfectibilitythateverypersoncanbecomeasageliketheancientsYaoandShun.a1Thisisanoptimisticteaching,whichclaimstoseetheunityof
humankindintheuniversallyaccessiblegoalofsagehood.Thisteachingisgroundedinthebeliefthathumannatureisoriginallygoodandcanbemadeperfectby
personalcultivation.Indeed,theaffirmationthathumannatureisperfectible,thatthehumanbeingpossessesnaturallyadesiretotranscendthenarrowgoalsofself
survivalandselfsatisfaction,impliestheaffirmationthatthisdesireissomehowpossibleoffulfillment.Buthow?Thereisneedtoshowawaybywhichsuchfulfillment
istoberealized.For,withoutpraxis,thereisnoassurancethattheorycanbetested,andwithouttesting,theoryremainsemptyapowerlesswish,orrather,awish
capableofdestroyingthepersonthroughfrustration,butincapableofitsownfulfillment.
WhenweturnfromChuHsi'scosmologyandmetaphysicsofhumannaturetohispracticalmoralphilosophy,weshallfindacertaincontinuityofbothlanguageand
thought.Inhisethicsandtheoryofcultivation,ChuHsicontinuestospeakofT'aichib(GreatUltimate),oflic(principle),andofch'id(matter,energy).Hedoesnot
abandononerealm,thatofspeculativethought,inordertoenteranother,thatofmoralactionandspiritualcultivation.Heintegratesthetwoinaphilosophythatis,on
everylevel,boththeoreticalandpractical.
AsweexamineatcloserrangeChuHsi'spracticaldoctrines,weshalldiscoverfurtherevidenceagainstacceptingawidespread,conventionalimageofhimasamodel
ofrigidmoralproprietyandadispenserofprescriptionsandproscriptionsregardingthecorrectnessofhumanrelationships.True,ChuHsidoesspeakoftheThree
BondsandtheFiveRelationships2thewarpandwoofofConfuciansocialmorality.Hewashimselfamodelofcorrectliving,byhisownaccountwatchfuloverthe
leastmovementsofhismindandheart.

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Buthedoesnotdevotehisprincipalattentiontoquestionspertainingtodutiesandobligations,virtuesandvices.Heappearsrathertohavesethismindonhigher
things.
ItismybeliefthatChuHsi'sdoctrineofpersonalcultivationbelongstotherealmofpracticalmoralphilosophywhilealsogoingbeyondittoembraceaspiritualand
asceticdoctrinewithmysticalimplications.Itisalsofirmlygroundedinthemorespeculativepartsofhisphilosophy,namely,inhismetaphysicsofhumannature,inhis
viewofmanasthemicrocosmoftheuniverse,participatinginthecosmicprocessandassistingintheperfectionoftheuniversethroughhiseffortstowardself
perfection.IdonotdenythattherecanbeproblemswithChu'steachingsproblemsofconsistency,eitherinternallywithinhisownphilosophicalsystem,orexternally
withtheteachingshandeddownbyConfucius(551479B.C.)andMencius.HecertainlyshowssignsofhavingbeeninfluencedbyBuddhismandTaoismalthoughhe
alsoconsciouslyrejectsthem,inthesensethathiscommitmentistotheConfucianvisionofmoralandsocialresponsibility.Besides,itseemstomethatproblemsof
internalconsistencyareminor,withinahighlyintegratedandwellbalancedthoughtstructure,whileproblemsofexternalconsistencywiththeentireConfuciantradition
deservesomewhatmoreattentionandscrutiny,especiallyforthosewhoseconcernisdoctrinalorthodoxy.MyownplanistomovefromareviewofChu'steachings
onhumannaturetodiscussionsofhumanemotionswhetherthesebegoodorneutralthentohisviewsofthehumanmindandheart(hsine)andtheproblemsof
"preservingthemindandnurturingnature"(ts'unhsinyanghsingf),thatis,tohispracticalteachingsonpersonalcultivation.Thus,Iwishtoexaminehisteachingsof
reverenceandknowledge,toseetheexactplacegiventomeditationorquietsitting,toevaluatetheimportanceofthepursuitofknowledgeinhiswholeformulaof
selfcultivation,beforemakingsomeconcludingobservations.
TheBackground:
ChuHsionHumanNature
ChuHsi'sgreatnessconsistslessinoriginalityofthoughtthaninhisremarkableabilitytoadaptandfusetogetherinonephilosophicalsystemtheindividual
contributionsofthethinkerswhoprecededhim,3whohadmadeseriouseffortstoinheritandtransformtheConfucianlegacyofthepastaccordingtonewneedsand
withthehelpofnewinsightsderivedfromTaoismandBuddhism.FromChouTunyig(10171073),ChuHsiderivesanunderstandingoftheworldofthingsandof
menasthespontaneousreproductionoftheinteractionbetweentheFiveAgents(Metal,Wood,Water,Fire,andEarth)andtheprinciplesofyinhandyangiwhich,in
turn,camefromtheGreatUltimate,anotion,tracedtotheBookofChanges,referringtothatwhichholdstheuniversetogether.4Choualsodescribesitasthewu
chij(literally,"limitless"),therebygivingrisetolaterdebatesaboutitsintendedmeaning.Buthiseffortisgenerallydirectedtowardtheconstructionofaworldviewthat

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explainsthecountlessphenomenaofexistenceashavingcomefromanoriginalsource,pureandundifferentiated,thetotalityofreality. Inthisway,heaffirmstheidea
thatrealityisboth"one"and"many,"anideathathasbecomebasictotheSung(9601279)philosophicalsynthesis.
AlsofromChouTunyi,ChuHsiderivesthebeliefthatmanparticipatesintheexcellenceoftheT'aichi,possessingamoralnatureoflithatcomestohimthroughthe
cosmictransformations.Contactwithexternalthingsprovidedtheoccasionforevil,asdeflectionfromthegoodratherthanapositivepresence.Theperfectman,the
sage,iscompletelysincere(ch'engk).Hismindandheartislikeamirror,quietwhenpassive,uprightwhenactiveormovedbyemotions.ChuHsirecognizesChou's
T'aichiasthesourceandfullnessofallbeingandperfection.HecallsitT'ienlil(HeavenlyPrinciple),usingatermfoundinCh'engHaom(10321085)andCh'eng
Yin(10331107).Ch'engYi'sdistinctionbetweenli(principle,goodness,being)asthatwhichbelongstotherealm"aboveshapes"(hsingerhshango)whichgives
formandidentitytoch'i(matter,energy),thebasicstuffthatmakesupallthings,andwhichbelongstotherealm"withinshapes"(hsingerhhsiap),providesabasis
foranewexplanationofhumannatureanditscapacity(ts'aiq)forgoodandevil.Chuinsistsontheoriginalgoodnessofhumannature,whichheattributestoli,while
explainingthecapacityforevil,ascribingittothequalityofch'iorman'sphysicalendowment.Insodoing,heincorporatesaswelltheteachingsofChangTsair(1028
1077)concerningch'i.Accordingtothisview,emotions(ch'ings),whicharemanifestationsofch'i,becomeoccasionsforevilwhenevertheyshowexcess.Asa
methodofselfperfection,andforcontrolofemotions,Chuproposesthecultivationofadispositionofreverence(chingt)throughquietsitting(chingtsou),aformof
meditationandselfexamination,andcorrectbehavior,aswellastheinvestigationofthingsthroughassiduousstudy.Heclaimsthatthisdualformulacancontribute
towardthestateofpsychicharmony(hov)characterizingthedueproportionofemotionsdescribedintheDoctrineoftheMean.6
WehavespentsometimediscussingtheGreatUltimateinacosmiccontext.AccordingtoChuHsi,itisalsopresentwithinus."EveryhumanbeinghasaT'aichi.
EverythinghasaT'aichi."7Thusthetranscendent,theabsolute,isalsoimmanentnotonlyinthetotalityoftheuniversebutalsoineveryindividualhumanbeing,
indeed,alsoineveryindividualthing(wuw).Butthisimmanenceappearstoremainlatentinmostpeople.Ithastobemademanifest,tobecomeactualized,byself
cultivation.
AproblemhereisthatoftherelationshipbetweentheGreatUltimate,whichisimmanentinhumannature,andtheli,whichconstituteshumannature.Aretheyoneand
thesame,allthemoreastheliisfrequentlydescribedashavingcomefromHeaven,indeed,asthe"HeavenlyPrinciple"(T'ienli)?
Thereismuchambiguityinthisarea.ThelanguageChuHsiusesmayleadustothinkthattheGreatUltimateinhumannatureisalsotheliconstituting

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humannature.Indeed,ChuHsiseemstosayasmuch.ButFungYulan isoftheopinionthattheyaredifferent,thatwhereastheliconstitutinghumannatureisusually
manifest,throughch'i,theGreatUltimaterequirespersonalcultivationandliberationtobecomemanifest.8Ontheotherhand,Ithinkitmaybeusefultoseethe
immanentGreatUltimateasthefullnessofliinman,afullnessthatisusuallynotmanifest,exceptinthepersonsofthesages.Inotherwords,theidentitybetweenthe
GreatUltimateandliinthenatureofsagesisnottrueinordinaryhumans.Itcan,however,bemadesobyaprocessofcultivation.
Herewetouchuponanotherproblem:thatofinequalityinhumanendowmentsnotwithstandingoriginalgoodnessanduniversalperfectibility.ChuHsiexplainsthisin
termsofthedifferencesinphysicalendowmentofch'i(ch'ichihchihhsing.y)HeagreeswithHanYz(768824)thattherearedifferentgradesinhumannature9but
praisesCh'engYiandChangTsai10forthephilosophicalexplanationforsuchdifferences.Headmits,withthem,thatsomemenhaveapurerendowmentofch'iand
othersamoreturbid."Humannatureisalwaysgood,yetsomemenaregoodfromtheirbirthson,andothersareevilfromtheirbirthson.Thisisduetodifferencesin
physicalendowment....Thegoalofeducationistotransformphysicalendowment.Butsuchtransformationisverydifficult."11ChuHsithereforetempershis
optimismregardinghumannaturewithatouchofrealismregardingtheexistentialdifferencesbetweenhumanbeings,aswellasthedifficultiesofchangingthegiven
physicalendowment.
ChuHsi'sconstructionofanewphilosophicalsynthesisbringswithitthedefinitiveacceptanceofacertainformulationofthenewConfucianmessage,aterseformula
supposedlycontainingtheessentialsofthedoctrineofthesages.ThisistakennotfromtheFourBooks12butfromtheBookofDocuments,consideredtobeoneof
theearlierClassics.Actually,itistakenoutofachapterallegedlytransmittedtoposterityintheoldpreCh'inscript:the"CounselsofGreatY"aaeventhoughthe
authenticityofthischapterissubjecttodoubt,andChuHsihimselfacknowledgesit.AllcompleteinsixteenChinesecharacters,thiscrypticformulamaybetranslated
as
Thehumanmind(jenhsinab)ispronetoerror,
Butthemoralmind(Taohsinac)issubtle(weiad).
Remaindiscerningandsingleminded:
KeepsteadfastlytotheMeanEquilibrium(chungae).13

InhisprefacetotheannotatededitionoftheDoctrineoftheMean(Chungyungchangchaf),ChuHsireferstothisformulaastheeternalmessageoftheancient
sages,associatingtheTaohsinwithT'ienliandthejenhsinwithjenyag(humanpassions),andemphasizingtheneedoftheonedominatingtheother.Accordingto
him,thisistobedonebyadherencetotheMean,orthestateofpsychicequilibriumpriortotheriseofemotions(weifaah).Therefore,

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forhim,theConfucianWay(Tao )maybedescribedasthispsychicequilibrium,astateofmindandheartthatreflectsman'soriginalgoodnessandenableshimto
pursueandacquiresagehood.14
ChuHsitendstoportraythesageincosmicandmetaphysicalterms,followingcloselythelanguageandteachingsoftheDoctrineoftheMeanandoftheBookof
Changes.Hespeaksoftheimportanceofhaving,orrepossessing,psychicequilibriumandharmony,sothatthemindandheartbecomelikeabrightmirror,reflecting
allthings.15WhilethesestatementsalsoaffirmMencius'teachingofman'soriginalgoodnessandperfectibility,ChuHsi'sdistinctionsbetweenliandch'i,hisassociation
oftheformerwithgoodnessandthelatterwithemotions,leadalsotoanotherquestion,thatoftheemotionsthemselves:aretheygoodorevil,aretheyahelpora
hindrancetothegoalofsagehood?
Emotions:
GoodorEvil?
Isuggestthatweexaminethediscussionsofemotionsgivenintheclassicaltexts,aswellasChuHsi'scommentariesonthissubject.IreferheretoMencius'teachings
ofthebeginningsofvirtueinhumannatureIreferalsotothediscussionoftheemotionsofpleasure,anger,sorrow,andjoyintheDoctrineoftheMean,ofthe
statepriorandposteriortotheriseoftheseemotions.16ThesearethepivotaltextsthatChuHsiacceptsandincorporatesintohisowntheoryofhumannatureandhis
doctrinesofsagehoodandselfcultivation.
EmotionsAsGood
ThephilosophicaltraditioncomingfromMencius,withitsemphasisofhumanperfectibilitybasedonthedoctrineofman'soriginalgoodness,offersanimportant
foundationforthepositiveevaluationofhumanemotions.Forthedoctrineoftheoriginalgoodnessofhumannatureisgroundedinthatofthemoralityandgoodnessof
certainhumanemotions.InthewordsofMencius,the"FourBeginningsofvirtue"compassion,shame,modesty,andthediscernmentbetweenrightandwrong
"arenotweldedontomefromtheoutsidetheyareinmeoriginally."17
Menciususesthewordhsin(mindorheart)todiscussthesebasicfeelingsoremotions.ItisthesamewordChuHsiusesinhisreferencesto"mind"(hsin)asthat
whichcontrolsnatureandtheemotions.WemaynoteherethattheMenciancontextinwhichthiswordoccursisabroader,almost"naturalistic"onewhencompared
totheNeoConfuciancontextinwhichCh'engYi,ChangTsai,andChuHsimakeuseofthesameword,which,bytheirtime,hadgatheredcertainmetaphysical
connotationsfromBuddhistphilosophy.Allthesame,forbothMenciusandChuHsi,the"mind"or"heart"ofmanistheseatofhisemotionsaswellasofhis
intelligenceandvolitions.
LetusnowturntoanexaminationofMencius'words:

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Menciussaid:"Nomanisdevoidofaheartsensitivetothesufferingsofothers....Theheart(hsin)ofcompassionisthegermofhumanity(jen )theheartofshame,of
dutifulnessorrighteousness(yiak),theheartofcourtesyandmodesty,ofpropriety(lial)ortheobservanceofritestheheartofrightandwrong,ofwisdom(chiham).Manhas
thesefourgerms('beginnings')justashehasfourlimbs."18

Thewordhsin(heart)refersobviouslytocertainsentimentsoftheheart:thatbywhichaperson,forexample,forgetshisowninterestsandrushestotherescueofa
drowningchild.Andwemayespeciallywonderattheinclusionofasenseofrightandwrongamongthesebasicsentiments,these"emotions"oftheheart.InKantian
terms,19Menciusoffersanempiricalgroundformorality:thatofmoralfeeling,basedonhumannatureanditsspontaneous,eveninstinctivechoiceofthegoodin
momentsofcrisiscallingforaltruism.Hehasbuilthisentiredoctrineofhumanperfectibility,ofthepossibilityofattainingthehighestidealsofsagehoodandvirtue,
uponthisfoundationofmoralfeeling.AndChuHsihasacceptedthisfoundationwithoutanyquestion.Hehas,indeed,useditasastartingpointintheelaborationof
hisownviewsonhumannatureandtheemotions.Toquotehimhere:
Wheremind,nature,andemotionsareconcerned,MenciusandChangTsaihavegiventhebestexplanations.[Menciussays],"Theheartofcompassionisthebeginningof
humanity."20Nowhumanityisnature(hsingan),andcompassionisemotion(ch'ing),whicharisesnecessarilyfromthemindandheart(hsin)."Themindunifiesnatureandthe
emotions."21Astonature,itisjustprinciple(li)...andnotaphysicalthing....Thatiswhyitisentirelygood.22

Andso,incommentinguponMencius,ChuHsicontinuestodeveloptheteachingsofhisimmediatepredecessors,especiallyhereofChangTsaiandtheCh'eng
brothers.HehasdonesowithoutviolatingtheintentionsofMencius.ButhehasalsogonebeyondMencius,forhehasmadehisowncontributionaswell,clarifying
therelationshipbetweennatureandtheemotions,whileacceptingmind(hsin)astheunifyingagentbetweenthetwo,indeed,asthedeterminingagentforgoodand
evilactions.
ButtheBookofMenciusisnottheonlyimportantConfuciantextdiscussingtheroleofemotions.ThereisalsotheDoctrineoftheMeanwithitsenumerationof
pleasure,anger,sorrow,andjoy,withitsdistinctionbetweenthestateofconsciousnessthatprevailsbeforeandafterthestirringoftheseemotions.Itistoan
examinationofthissecondtextthatIshallnowturn.
EmotionsAsNeutral
TheDoctrineoftheMeanbeginswithcertaindefinitionsofnature(hsing),oftheWay(Tao),andofinstruction(chiaoao).Itsetsthesedefinitionsinacosmiccontext.

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WhatHeavenhasconferrediscallednatureexercisingthisnatureiscalledtheWaycultivatingtheWayiscalledinstruction.TheWayisthatwhichmaynotbeleftforan
instant....Thereforethegentlemaniswatchfuloverhimselfwhenheisalone.23

Andthen,immediatelyfollowingtheaboveprefacecomesthispassageabouttheemotions.
Beforetherise(weifa)ofjoy,anger,sorrow,andpleasure,[themindandheart]maybesaidtobeinthestateofequilibrium(chung).Whentheyarearisenandreachdue
proportion,thereiswhatmaybecalledthestateofharmony(ho).ThisequilibriumisthegreatrootofallunderheaventhisharmonyistheuniversalWayofallunderheaven.Let
thestatesofequilibriumandharmonyprevail,andahappyorderwillreignthroughoutheavenandearth,andthemyriadthingswillallbenourished.24

Thepraiseisofequilibrium,the''Mean,"thestateofconsciousnessthatprevailsbeforetheriseofemotions,aswellasofharmony,thestateofconsciousnessthat
prevailswhenemotionsaremaintainedinproperbalance.Theobviouswarningistokeepemotionsfromgoingtoexcess.Inotherwords,emotionsinthemselvesare
neithergoodnorevil.Butbecausetheypossessapowerofdisruption,theyshouldbekeptundercontrol.
ChuHsihasgivenmuchattentiontothispassage,focusingespeciallyonthemethodofachievingemotionalharmony.Indistinguishingbetweenthetwostatesof
consciousness,thatbeforeandthataftertheriseofemotions,heusesthewords"substance"(t'iap)and"function"(yungaq).
Thestatebeforetheemotionsofpleasure,anger,sorrow,andjoyarise...isidenticalwiththe"substance"ofthemind,whichisabsolutelyquietandinactive,andthenature
conferredbyHeavenshouldbecompletelyembodiedinit....Whenitisactedupon...theemotionsarethenstirred.Inthisstatethe"functioning"ofthemindcanbeseen.25

Theanalysisofthesetwostatesofconsciousnessremainscoolanddispassionate.Thereisnoattempttodisparagetheemotionsassuch.
Indiscussingtheproblemofevil,however,ChuHsimakesuseofanotherword,passion(jeny,literally,"humandesires"),whichheassociateswithemotionsandto
whichheattachesanambiguousconnotation.
Themindislikewaternatureislikethetranquillityofstillwateremotionsareliketheflowof[moving]water,andpassionsarethewaves.Justastherearegoodandbadwaves,
sotootherearegoodpassions...andbadpassionswhichrushoutlikewildandviolentwaves....WhenMenciussaidthatemotionscanhelppeopletodogood,hemeantthat
thecorrectemotionsflowingfromournatureareoriginallyallgood.26

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ChuHsidoesnotcondemnpassionsinthemselves.Hedoes,however,condemnwildandviolentpassionswhathecalls"bad"wavesandhehasdevotedmuchof
hisphilosophytoatheoryofmoralandspiritualcultivationbywhichsuchpassionscanbecontrolledandthegoodnessoftheHeavenlyPrinciple(T'ienli)maybe
recovered.
Allthesame,thecautionagainstemotionalexcessandtheexhortationtomaintainconstantcontrolandbalancespelloutacertaindistrustofhumannatureitself,which
makesanimperativeofselfconquestinmoralstriving.Inthemselves,someemotionsmaybegood,othersneutral,whileexcessiveandviolentemotionsaredefinitely
dangerous.Besides,thepowerofemotionsissuchthattheyrequireconstantchecking."Thereforethegentlemaniswatchfuloverhimselfwhenheisalone."27Such
vigilanceinsolitude(shentuar)liesatthecoreofChuHsi'steachingsonselfcultivation.ChuHsi,afterall,isanoptimistregardinghumannature.Assuch,hebelieves
thatsagehoodmaybeattained.Atthesametimeasarealistwhoisawareoftheneedforcontrolhehasformulatedatheoryofpersonalcultivationthatputsmanon
guardagainsthisownexcessesandfacilitatesthecultivationofthebeginningsofgoodnessinhumannature.
TheDoctrineofReverence
ThewordchingfiguresprominentlyinChuHsi'sdoctrineofcultivation.Thefactthatdifferentscholarshavetranslatedthetermdifferently(reverence,seriousness,
composure)showsthedifficultyofexplainingitsChineseusageingeneralandChu'sintendedmeaninginparticular.Theusageofthewordcanbetracedtovarious
Confuciantexts,includingtheBookofDocuments,wheretheancientsagekingsaredescribedfrequentlyasbeing"reverentiallyobedient"totheLordonhighor
Heaven,whiletheirdescendantsareexhortedtoimitatesuchreverence.28WithConfuciusthewordisusedmorewithregardtooneselfthantoahigherbeing:"In
retirement,tobesedatelygraciousindoingthings,tobereverentlyattentive(ching)incontactwithothers,tobeverysincere."29TheBookofChangescontinuesin
thesamedirectionwhenitsays,"Thegentlemanpracticesreverencetomaintaininnerrectitudeandrighteousnesstoassureexteriorcorrectness.''30
Thefirsttextcounsels"reverence"inactionwherethesecondtextreferstoamoreinteriorvigilance.ForbothCh'engYiandChuHsi,"reverence"pointstothe
processbywhichtheoriginalunityofthemindispreservedandmademanifestinone'sactivity.31Chuspeaksofabidinginreverence(chchingas),definingitinterms
ofsinglemindednessandfreedomfromdistraction(chuyiwushihat)andcomparingittotheBuddhistpracticeofmindfulalertness(hsinghsingau).32Healso
associatesitspecificallywiththeteachingof"vigilanceinsolitude"oftheDoctrineoftheMean.Andheiscarefultoguardhisdisciplesagainsta"dead"reverence
whichmerelykeepsthemindalertwithoutalsoattendingtomoralpractice.33FollowinginCh'engYi'sfoot

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steps,ChuHsiinformsthewordwithadepththattransformsitfromtheearlier,occasionalusageinConfucianthoughttoadoctrineofpersonalandspiritual
cultivation.InChuHsi'swords:
Reverencedoesnotmeanonehastositstifflyinsolitude,theearshearingnothing,theeyesseeingnothing,andthemindthinkingofnothing,...Itmeansratherkeepingasense
ofcautionandvigilance,andnotdaringtobecomepermissive...[withoneself].34

ChuHsidoesnotoverlookMencius'teaching.Heagreesthatreverencealsomeans"preservingthemind"(ts'unhsin)withoutallowingittogetdissipated:
Whenourmindandheartis"outside,"itshouldbedrawninwardwhenitis"inside,"itshouldbepushedoutward.ThisisthemeaningoftheBookofMencius.35

However,heexpressespreferenceforAnalects13:19,36explainingthatsuchadisciplineofvigilanceoverthemindishelpfulwhenthemindalreadyunderstandsall
theprinciples(li).Ontheotherhand,"whatuseisthereinmerelykeepingwatchoveranemptymind...?"37Elsewhere,heclearlysaysthatreverencerefersto
keepingthePrincipleofHeavenandgettingridofhumanpassions.38Reverenceisobviouslypartandparcelofhisphilosophyofliandch'i,pointingtotheconstant
needofgrowinginvirtueandkeepingthepassionsundercontrol.AsCh'engYisays,"Cultivation(hanyangav)requiresthepracticeofreverence."39Thetermhan
yangincludesthemeaningofnurturing.Theaspiranttosagehoodneedstonurturetheseedsofgoodnessinhismindandheart,andreverencereferstothisprocessof
nurturingaswellastothegoalofharmonyoftheemotionsanabidingstateofmindcharacteristicofthesage.
Thepracticeofreverenceisverylikethatof"recollection"inWesternChristianspirituality.40TheEnglishword"recollection"isusuallyunderstoodintermsof
"remembrance."Itis,however,atechnicalterminspiritualityreferringtothe"collecting"or''gathering"ofone'sinteriorfaculties,keepingthemsilentand"recollected"
inanatmosphereofpeaceandcalm,inpreparationforformalprayerorinanefforttoprolongtheeffectsofsuchprayer.InaworkonChristianspirituality,Canon
JacquesLeclerqsays,
Thewordrecollectionhasnomeaningformanyworldlypeople....Yetrecollectionisthechiefdispositionrequiredfortheinteriorlife.Itisnotitselfinteriorlifebutitissomucha
conditionforitandpreparesusforittosuchanextentthatitalmostnecessarilydevelopsit....Itissimplythecalmwhichisbornintothesoulthroughsolitudeandsilence....
ManhasneedofittofindhimselfaswellastofindGod.41

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TheproperChinesetermfor"recollection,"however,isshoulien (literally,"collectingtogether").Ithasalsothepracticalmeaningof"gathering"aharvest,butits
usageinNeoConfucianwritingsmadeitatechnicalterm.ChuHsitalksabouttheneedforscholarsto"keepalwaysrecollected(shoulien)withoutallowingoneself
tobecomedispersed.''42If,however,theimmediategoalofNeoConfucianshoulienissimilartothatofChristianrecollection,theultimateendisnotnecessarilythe
same.IntheChinesecontext,thereisnospecificreferencetofindingGod,evenifonemayarguethesimilarityinthequestfortheabsolute.
TheRoleofMeditation
TheConfuciantermformeditationisquietsitting(chingtso).ItsuggestsstrongTaoistandBuddhistinfluences,callingtomindChuangTzu'sax(c.369c.286B.C)
"sittingandforgetting"(tsowangay)43andtheBuddhistpracticeofdhyana*(meditation)fromwhichthenameCh'anorZenazisderived.AsmanyotherNeo
Confucianthinkers,ChuHsihadexperienceofTaoistandBuddhistmeditation.HisbiographyrevealshisfondnessforconversationswithBuddhistmonksatatime
whenhewasstillpreparingforcivilexaminations.44InhiswritingswecanfindanessayonusingbreathcontrolasaformofTaoistmeditation.45ChouTunyiandthe
Ch'engbrothersallappearedtohavepracticedquietsitting.ButChuHsiwouldmakeaspecialefforttoshowthedistinctivenessofConfucianquietsittingandits
differencefromTaoistandBuddhistmeditation.
FortheBuddhist,quietsittingisanexercisebywhichthemindconcentratesuponitselftotheexclusionofalldistractingthoughtsandforthesakeofattainingunityand
harmonywithone'sinnermostself.FortheTaoist,thesameusuallyapplies,frequentlywithanadditionalmotiveofpreservinghealthandprolonginglife.Forthe
Confucian,unityandharmonyaresought,togetherwiththeknowledgeofthemoralself,ofone'sownstrengthsandweaknesses,inviewofachievingself
improvement,ofbecomingmoreperfectinthepracticeofvirtuesandtheeliminationofvices,andthereforeinthefulfillmentofone'sresponsibilitiesinthefamilyas
wellasinsocietyatlarge.
ChuHsigivessomeimportancetoquietsittingalsoformakingpossibleafullermanifestationofthe"HeavenlyPrinciple"within.Whatisimpliedisacyclical
movement:thereturntoone'soriginalnature,therecaptureofthespringsofone'sbeing,andtheenablingofthisstateoforiginalequilibriumofnatureandtheemotions
topermeateone'sdailyliving.Itis,however,differentfromtheBuddhistpracticeof"introspection,"whichhasreferenceonlytooneselfandnottothelargerworld.
AccordingtotheBuddhistteaching,oneistoseekthemindwiththemind,deploythemindwiththemind.Thisislikethemouthgnawingthemouthortheeyelookingintothe
eye.Suchacourseofactionisprecariousandoppressive,suchapathisdangerousandobstructed,suchapracticeisemptyofprinci

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46

ples(li)andfrustrating.Iftheysoundlikeus[Confucians],theyarereallyquitedifferent.

ForChuHsi,dutyandcommonsensearealwaysmoreimportantthanthesearchforquietude.
Althoughwespeakoffocusingontranquillity,wearenotabouttoabandonthingsandaffairstofindit.Ashumanbeings,wealsoneedtoserveourrulersandparents,relateto
friendsandspouses,governservantsandsubordinates.Wecannotleaveeverythinginordertodoquietsittingbehindcloseddoors,refusingtoattendtothingsandaffairs.47

ChuHsihasbeentakentotask,especiallybyYenYanba(16351704),forexaggeratingtheimportanceofquietsitting,forrecommendingthepracticeofspending
halfadayinquietsittingandhalfadayreadingbooks.48Althoughthisrecommendationmadeadeepimpressiononsomelaterthinkers,49itcomesuponlyoncein
Chu'srecordedconversationsinaspecificcontextwithasingledisciple.50ChuHsiguardedagainstexcessiveemphasisonquietude.Heisreportedtohavesaidthat
"TheteachingofquietudeisclosetoBuddhistandTaoistteachings.Oursageshavenottaughtit."51Also:"Today,scholarssometimessaythattheyshouldspendhalfa
daydailyinthepracticeofquietsitting.Ifinditamistake."52HecorrectsChouTunyibysaying,"Chouemphasizesquietudeandtranquillity(ching).Buttheword
chingshouldonlybeinterpretedasreverence(ching).Thatiswhyhesaysdesirelessness(wuybb)istranquillity.Ifhemeansemptyquietude,Ifearitwouldturnhim
intoaBuddhistorTaoist."53
Inansweringquestionsaboutquietsitting,ChuHsiisinsistentthatoneneednotsitliketheCh'anBuddhists,seekingtostopallthought.Accordingtohim,allone
needstodoistorecollectthemind,preventitfromdissipation,andthuspermititsnaturalbrightnesstoradiateinastateofpeaceandconcentration.Repeatedly,Chu
associatestranquillitywithmoralbehavior,whichismadeeasybyadispositionofreverence."Asthemindismasteroftheself,withoutdistinguishingbetweenactivity
andtranquillity,speechandsilence,sotoothegentlemanpracticesreverencewithoutdistinguishingbetweenactivityandtranquillity,speechandsilence."54Meditation,
therefore,isatimewhenthepersongathershimselftogetherinwardly,calmshisemotions,examineshisconscience,andfillshismindandheartwithprinciplesofright
actioninorderthatadispositionofreverencemaypermeatehisentirelife.
Expressinghisideasthroughmetaphors,ChuHsidiscussesselfcultivationintermsofcleaningorpolishingamirror.Thehumanmindislikeamirror.Itisoriginally
pure,capableofreflectingallthings.Cultivationrequiresthepracticeof"keepingstill"(ching),whichpermitsonetorestoreandmaintaintheoriginalpurityofthe
mirrorbyremovingfromthemindallselfishdesires.

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Whenthisisaccomplisheditwillfunctionasaclearmirror,quietandstillwhenpassive,straightanduprightwhenactive,thatis,whenstirredupbyemotion.

55

OnSelfconquest
ChuHsiderivedhisdualformulaofreverenceandextensionofknowledgefromCh'engYi.56However,healsomadehisowncontributionbyemphasizingself
conquest(k'ochibc)asanintegralpartofcultivation.Thetermk'ochicomesfromAnalects12:1whereConfuciusexplainsthemeaningofjentohisfavoritedisciple
YenHuibdintermsofk'ochifuli:betosubdueone'sselfandrecoverthevirtueofpropriety.ToquotetheAnalectsonthespecificdutiesofselfconquest:"Looknot
atwhatiscontrarytoproprietylistennottowhatiscontrarytoproprietyseeknotwhatiscontrarytoproprietymakenomovementthatiscontrarytopropriety."57
Seeninthislight,selfconquestisthenegativesideofthepositiveeffortofseekingselfperfectionandanecessarycorollaryinanydoctrineofpersonalcultivation
basedonarealisticevaluationofhumannature.WhereCh'engYimakesoccasionalmentionofk'ochi,ChuHsiintegratesitintohissystem,speakingofitmuch
more,asinconnectionwithreverenceandtheextensionofknowledgeinthisvividparable:
Tousetheexampleofahouse:reverencerepresentsthewatchmanwhokeepsguardatthedoor,selfconquestreferstoresistingthieves,andtheextensionofknowledgerefersto
theinvestigationofthingsandaffairspertainingtoone'sownhouseaswellaswhatcomesfromoutside.58

Elsewhere,ChuHsicomparesselfconquesttoirrigatingthefields,59tokeepingtheroomcleanandthemirrorshining.60
ForChuHsi,thegoalofselfconquestistonurturetheHeavenlyPrinciplebyovercominghumanpassionsnotonlyatthemomentoftheawakeningofselfishdesires
butalsothroughthepracticeofcautionbeforetheriseofemotions.Indeed,ChuHsibecameincreasinglyemphaticabouttheneedforthoroughnessintheworkof
selfconquest,usingsuchlanguageas"uprooting"weedsand"killing"thievesorrebels.61
ChuHsirecognizesthatselfconquest,insteadofaddingathirddimensiontohisdoctrineofpersonalcultivation,merelyassiststhetaskofreverence.He
acknowledgesthatthe"highest"degreeofreverenceeliminatestheneedforselfconquest,buthetakescaretoaddthatsuchanachievementmayonlybeassumedto
havebeenattainedbysages,whileordinarypersonsmustcontinuallyattendtoselfconquest.62
ExtendingKnowledge
ForChuHsi,knowledgerefersprimarilytomoralknowledgetheknowledgeofthegoodasdiscoveredinlifeitselfandinConfucianclassicaltexts,partic

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ularlytheFourBooks.Chugivesaplaceofhonortointellectualpursuit,whileteachinganallencompassingtheoryofknowledgebasedonhisphilosophyof
principlesthatallthingsaremadeofliandch'iandthatthehumanmindisordainedtoseekandpossesstheliofthings.InhiscommentaryontheGreatLearning,
Chuoffersanexpansionofthemeaningofthesentenceinthetext"Theinvestigationofthingsconsistsintheextensionofknowledge."
Ifwewishtoextendourknowledgetotheutmost,wemustinvestigatetheprinciplesofallthingswithwhichwecomeintocontact.Forthemindandspiritofmanareformedto
know,andthethingsoftheworldallcontainprinciples.Solongasprinciplesarenotexhausted,knowledgeisnotyetcomplete.63

Wherepraxisisconcerned,ChuHsisaysthatthestudentistomovefromtheknowntotheunknown,proceedingfromtheknowledgehealreadypossessesofthe
principlesofthingsandcontinuinghisinvestigationuntilthetaskisfinished.Thishappensasasuddenbreakthrough,anexperienceofinnerenlightenment,attheendof
alongandarduousprocessofsearchandexertion.
Afterexertinghimselfinthiswayforalongtime,hewillsuddenlyfindhimselfpossessedofawideandfarreachingpenetration.Thequalitiesofallthings,bothinternaland
external,subtleandcoarse,willallthenbeapprehended,andthemind,initsentiresubstance(t'i)andinitsrelationtothings(yung),willbecomecompletelymanifest.Thisis
calledtheinvestigationofthingsthisiscalledtheperfectionofknowledge.64

Thus,ifthemindisordainedtoknowthetruthofprinciples,truthitselfalsomodifiesthemind,makingitmanifestandradiant(mingbf).Hereweobserveacircular
motion,fromthemindtothingsandthenbacktothemindbutnotjustfromthemindtothemind.ForChuHsiregardsthemindasembracingallprinciples,andall
principlesasbeingcompleteinthismind.Ifapersoncannot"preserve"hismind(ts'unhsin),neitherwillhebeabletoinvestigateprinciplestotheutmost.Weseehere
theinterdependenceofthedoctrineofreverenceandtheneedofconcentrationwiththeteachingoftheextensionofknowledgeandtheinvestigationofprinciples.
Together,indeed,theymakeupChu'scompleteformulaforselfcultivation,aformulahelearnedfromCh'engYiandcarefullydeveloped,makingitanecessarypart
ofhisentiresystem.
ChuHsialsorelatesthispursuitofprinciples,whichcamefromCh'engYi,tothedoctrineofselfcultivationfoundintheBookofMencius.Heidentifiesthetaskof
extendingknowledgeandinvestigatingthingsto"developingthemindtotheutmost,knowingone'snatureandknowingHeaven,"65adoctrineofintrovertive,
philosophicalmysticismwhichheseekstoexplainintermsofhisownmetaphysicsofmindandnature,theprinciplesofthingsandthe

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PrincipleofHeaven.Andheseesacertainsequentialorderinwhichthisselfcultivationistobeorganized,withtheextensionofknowledgeasthefirststeptotakein
thelongsearchforsagehood,precedingtheworkof"makingtheintentionsincere,rectifyingthemind,andcultivatingtheperson"oftheGreatLearning.66Thushe
envisagesperfectvirtue(jen)asthecrowningachievementofalonglifeofinvestigatingprinciplesandextendingknowledge,thefruitionofalifeofdiligentscholarship
andcarefulmoralcultivation.
Aproblemariseshereinthecaseofpersonalcultivation,ofwhichtheultimategoalissagehood.Menciusassertsthateverypersoncanbecomeasage67ChuHsi
acceptsthisassertion.Buthowcansagehoodbeinpracticeuniversallyaccessibleifeveryonemustfirststudytheprinciplesofmoralityasthesearelaiddowninthe
Confuciantexts?EvenifweregardChu'sowntimes,muchofthepopulationthenremainedilliterate,deprivedoftheopportunityofreceivingaformaleducationand
booklearning.Howmanyofthemcouldhavebeenconsideredpotentialsages?IsnotChuHsi,thescholar,speakingtootherscholarsaboutagoalofscholarship,
ratherthanoflifeitself?
WereachhereamostcontroversialaspectofChu'steachings,disputedbyhiscontemporaryandrivalthinker,LuChiuyan(LuHsiangshan,bg11391192),aswell
asbyLu'sspiritualheirWangYangming(WangShoujen,bh14721529).68Thesetwopointouttheprobleminanydoctrineofcultivationthatmakesofintellectual
pursuitthecornerstoneofmoralandspiritualstriving:thatitnecessarilymakesintellectualsofallsagesandmakesthosedeprivedofintellectualdevelopmentthe
underprivilegedinthequestofsagehoodaswell.
HerewediscovertheelitistcharacterofChuHsi'sphilosophy.ThisdoesnotmeannecessarilythatChudeniestheuniversalaccessibilityofsagehood.Rather,itmeans
thatChuseeshimselfasascholarandateacherofscholars,indeed,aguardianoftheConfuciantraditionofscholarship.Ofcourse,Mencius'teachingoftheuniversal
possibilityofsagehoodmaderelativetheimportanceofparticulartraditions,whetherConfucian,Taoist,orBuddhist.ChuHsimusthavebeenawareofthisfact,given
hisyouthfulinterestinBuddhismandhislifelonginterestinTaoism.Inmaturelife,however,hemadeadefinitechoiceforhimself,consciouslybecomingafollowerof
theConfucianSchoolandcommittinghimselfalsotothetaskofredefiningandupholdingtheConfucianmission.Inthiscontext,heseestheneedofmakingclear
distinctions.Forhim,aConfucian(jubi)isnotsimplyanywellmeaningpersonwhorespectsthemorallawgoverninghumanrelationships.Hemustalsopossessa
penetratingunderstandingoftheprinciplesofthismorallawitself.Indeed,hemustbemorethanascholar(ju)hemustalsobecommittedtotheConfucianway
(Tao).Inthislight,wemayalsounderstandhowtheConfucianSchoolbecametransformedintheSungdynastytotheSchooloftheWay(Taohsehbj).
ChuHsiputsspecialemphasisonbooklearningbecauseheseesaspecial

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missionfortheteacheroftheWay,whomustinstructothers.Hediscernsacleardangerinrelativizingcompletelytheneedofbooklearninginthecaseofthosewho
areabletoacquireit.Thedangerliesinsubjectivizingthemorallaw,inmakingofeverymanalawuntohimself.Thedangerliesinforgettingthewisdomofthe
ancients,ingivingupanentiretradition,withitsinsightsandmerits,aswellasitslimitations.Thiscouldcreateavacuum,anemptiness(k'ungbk)andlistlessness,an
intellectualiconoclasm.ItisinthesetermsthatChuHsicriticizesBuddhismandBuddhistmeditation:aquestofinnerenlightenment,forthesakeofpureexperience.
Ultimately,thismightmeantheabandonmentoftheConfuciancauseanditscommitmenttotherenewalofsociety.
WhataboutEnlightenment?
ChuHsidoesnotrejecttheenlightenmentexperienceinitself.Rather,heregardsitpositively.Heseestheattainmentofsagehoodasanarduoustask,requiringmuch
effortalifetimeofcultivation,includingpossiblytheaccumulationofencyclopedicknowledge,whichmaypreparethepersonforanexperienceofinner
enlightenment.ButunliketheBuddhistorTaoist,ChuHsiseeksthisexperiencenotforitsownsake,butonlyasanaidinachievingthehigheridealofsagehood.True,
thereisamysticaldimensiontohisunderstandingofsagehooditself.Itrefersalsotoastateofconsciousnessinwhichthetruemeaningofman'sonenesswithHeaven
andEarthandallthingsisperceived.However,thisisachievedthroughspiritualandmoralcultivation,includingintellectualpursuit,ratherthaninmysticalexperience
alone.ForChu,asforotherNeoConfucianphilosophers,thescholartranscendsthedifferencebetweentheselfandothersbyextendinghispracticeofjen,oflove,
fromhimselfandthosenearhimtoallothersintheuniverse.Thiskindofmystiqueisopentoothersandsupportsethicalvalues,whereasthefocusonanenlightenment
experiencemightobliteratetheneedforanypersonalcultivation.ChuHsimaintainsthatthehumanmind(jenhsin)andthemoralmind(Taohsin,'themindofthe
sage')representstwodifferentorders,thatofhumanpassionandthatofHeavenlyPrinciple.Hisemphasisisontheconstantstruggletoallowthe"moralmind"to
triumphoverthe"humanmind."ThatiswhyadoctrineofcultivationissoimportantinChuHsi'sthought.
Conclusion
ChuHsitempershisoptimismabouthumannaturewithhisrealismabouthumannature.Heacknowledgesboththeaccessibilityofsagehoodandthedifficultyof
achievingit.Heoffersadualformulaforpersonalcultivation,knowingwellthatitcannotserveall,especiallytheuneducated.Buthedoesnotsaythattheyare
deprivedfromachievingtheultimategoal.Heseemstothinkthatsomearecalledonlytoalifeofpracticalmorality,whichisadmirableinitself.However,tothose
others,fortunateenoughtobehisstudents

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whetherinhisowndaysormuchlater,throughhiswritingshisconstanturgeistoasenseofstriving,tothecultivationofthatwhichispreciouswithinus,againstall
thedifficultiesthatthreatenus.
Man'snatureisoriginallyclear,butitislikeapreciouspearlimmersedinimpurewater,whereitslustrecannotbeseen.Afterbeingremovedfromthewater,[thepreciouspearl]
becomeslustrousofitselfasbefore.Ifoneshouldonlyrealizehimselfthatpassions(jeny)arewhatobscure[hisnature],[heshouldbeable]tofindillumination.69

Amirrortopolish,apearltoberescuedfromimpurewater,sothateachshouldshine.SucharethemetaphorsChuHsidelightedinusing,torepresentthetaskof
personalcultivationasheseesit:anarduoustask,butnotwithoutitsreward.
Notes
1.YaoandShunarelegendarysagekings,especiallyveneratedbyConfucianscholars.
2.TheThreeBondsrefertothespecialrelationshipsbetweenfatherandson(parentandchild),husbandandwife,rulerandsubject,withtheircorollarydutiesof
affectionandloyalty,whiletheFiveRelationshipsincludeaswelltheolderandyoungerbrothersandtherelationshipbetweenfriends.Sometimes,theThreeBonds
arementionedtogetherwiththeFiveConstantVirtues,thatis,thevirtuesofhumanity(jen),righteousness(yi),propriety(li),wisdom(chih),andfaithfulness(hsinbl).
TheConfucianschoolhasalwaysemphasizedthemoralcharacterofhumanrelationships.
3.SeeJuliaChing,ToAcquireWisdom:TheWayofWangYangming(NewYork:ColumbiaUniversityPress,1976),Introduction.SeealsoJuliaChing,"Chu
Hsi'sTheoryofHumanNature,"Humanitas1B(1979),pp.77100.
4.BookofChanges,"AppendedRemarks,"pt.1,ch.11.
5.ChuTzuyleibm[ClassifiedconversationsofMasterChu(hereaftercitedasYlei)],(Taipei:ChengchungbnBookCo.,1973reprint),1:1ab,94:4a6b,12a,
20b,35ab.SeealsoCh'ienMu,boChuTzuhsinhsehanbp[AnewrecordofChuHsi'sthought],(Taipei:SanminBookCo.,1971),Bk.I,ch.3.
6.Ylei,4:23,91612:518.SeealsoCh'ienMu,ChuTzuhsinhsehan,Bk.I,ch.9,13,23.ReferencetotheDoctrineoftheMeanistoch.1.
7.Ibid.,94:6a.
8.FungYulan,AHistoryofChinesePhilosophy,trans.DerkBodde(Princeton,N.J.:PrincetonUniversityPress,1953),vol.2,p.541.
9.SeeHanY,"Yanhsing"bq[Aninquiryintohumannature]inHanCh'anglich'anchibr[CompletewritingsofHanY],(SPPYed.).Englishtranslationin
WingtsitChan,bsASourceBookinChinesePhilosophy(Princeton,N.J.:PrincetonUniversityPress,1963),pp.451452.
10.ForChangTsai,seeChengmengbt[Correctingyouthfulignorance]inChangTzuch'anshubu[CompleteworksofChangTsai],(SPPYed.),ch.6.English
translationinChan,SourceBook,pp.507509forCh'engYi,seeYishubv[Survivingwrit

Page289
bw

ings],(SPPYed.),18:17b,19:4b,intheErhCh'engch'anshu [CompleteworksofthetwoCh'engs].EnglishtranslationinChan,SourceBook,pp.568
569.ForChuHsi'scommentsonChang'sandCh'eng'scontributions,seeYlei,4:12a13b.
11.Ibid.,4:11b.
12.TheFourBooksincludetheAnalectsofConfucius,theBookofMencius(recordedconversationsbetweenthetwoMastersandtheirdisciples),theGreat
Learning,andtheDoctrineoftheMean(originally,twochapterstakenfromtheBookofRites,oneoftheFiveConfucianClassics,theotherfourbeingtheBookof
Changes,theBookofDocuments,theBookofPoetry,andtheSpringandAutumnAnnals).
13.BookofDocuments,ch.3.EnglishtranslationadaptedfromJamesLegge,TheChineseClassics(Oxford:ClarendonPress,1893),vol.3,p.61.
14.SeeSsushuchichubx[CollectedcommentariesontheFourBooks],(SPPYed.),Chungyungchangch,p.1.
15.Ylei,60:3a4bCh'ienMu,Chutzuhsinhsehan,Bk.1,pp.366376.
16.DoctrineoftheMean,ch.1.
17.BookofMencius,2A:6and6A:6seeLegge,ChineseClassics,vol.3,pp.202203andpp.402403.
18.BookofMencius,2A:6.EnglishtranslationadaptedfromLegge,ChineseClassics,vol.3,pp.202203.
19.JuliaChing,"ChineseEthicsandKant,"PhilosophyEastandWest28(1978),pp.161172.
20.BookofMencius,2A:6.
21.ChangTsai,ChangTzuch'anshu,14:2a.
22.Ylei,5:9a.
23.DoctrineoftheMean,ch.1.EnglishtranslationadaptedfromLegge,ChineseClassics,vol.1,pp.383384.
24.Ibid.
25.FirstlettertotheGentlemenofHonanonEquilibriumandHarmony,intheChuTzuwenchiby[CollectionofliteraryworksofMasterChu],(Taipei:Kuangwenbz
BookCo.,1972reprint),64:31a.EnglishtranslationadaptedfromChan,SourceBook,p.601.
26.Ylei,5:10a10b.EnglishtranslationadaptedfromChan,SourceBook,p.631.
27.DoctrineoftheMean,ch.1,seeLegge,ChineseClassics,vol.1,p.384.
28.SeetheBookofDocuments,ch.16"T'aichia,"capt.3ch.40,"AnnouncementoftheDukeofChao,"cbpts.45.EnglishtranslationinLegge,ChineseClassics,
vol.3,pp.209212,426427.
29.Analects,13:19.EnglishtranslationadaptedfromLegge,ChineseClassics,vol.1,p.271.
30.Commentaryonsecondhexagram.EnglishtranslationadaptedfromLegge,YiKing,ccSacredBooksoftheEastseries,ed.MaxMuller(Oxford:Clarendon
Press,1885),p.420.
31.SeeA.C.Graham,TwoChinesePhilosophers(London:LundHumphries,1958),p.67.
32.SeeYlei,17:23,whereChuHsidiscussesCh'engYi'steachingonreverenceintheseterms.SeealsoYishu,15:1a.ThetermhsinghsingwasusedbyHsieh
Liangtsocd(1050c.1120)inexplainingreverence.SeeShangts'aiyluce[RecordedsayingsofHsiehLiangtso],(Taipei:KuangwenBookCo.,1972reprint),
2:13a.
33.Ylei,12:14b.

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34.Ibid.,12:10b.EnglishtranslationadaptedfromChan,SourceBook,p.607.
35.Ibid.,19:7b.
36.Seeabove,n.29.
37.Ylei,59:29ab.
38.Ibid.,53:18a21b.
39.Yishu,18:5b.
40.Idevelopedthispointinapaperentitled"WhatisConfucianSpirituality?"whichwaspresentedattheVitalyRubinMemorialColloquiumheldatTheHebrew
UniversityofJerusalem,March1416,1983.
41.SeeJ.Leclerq,TheInteriorLife,trans.fromFrenchbyF.Murphy(NewYork:P.J.Kennedy,1961),p.118.
42.Ylei,12:2b.
43.SeeChuangTzu,ch.6Chan,SourceBook,p.201.
44."Nienp'u"cf[Chronologicalbiography],inTaiHsiencg(1496cs),comp.,ChuTzushihchich[TruerecordsofChuHsi],(Taipei:1972reprint),2:46.
45.ChuTzuwenchi,85:6b.
46."Kuanhsinshuo"ci[Oncontemplatingthemind],ChuTzuwenchi,67:21b.EnglishtranslationadaptedfromChan,SourceBook,p.604.
47.Ylei,45:11b.
48.ChuTzuyleip'ingcj[AcritiqueoftheClassifiedConversationsofMasterChu],p.18b,intheYenlits'ungshuck[YenYanandLiKungclseries](1923).
49.IreferespeciallytoKaoP'anlungcm(15621626)whotookthisliterallyinhisowncultivation.SeehisK'unhsehchicn[Recordsofpainfulstudy],3:15,inthe
KaoTzuishuco[SurvivingworksofMasterKao],(1631ed.).
50.Ylei,116:17b.ThisispointedoutinCh'ienMu,ChuTzuhsinhsehan,Bk.II,p.293.
51.Ylei,60:10b.
52.Ibid.,62:25b.
53.Ibid.,94:17a.
54.ChuTzuwenchi,lettertoChangCh'infu,cp37:27a.
55.ChuTzuwenchi.EnglishtranslationinChan,SourceBook,p.601.
56.Yishu,18:5b.
57.Analects,12:12.EnglishtranslationinLegge,ChineseClassics,vol.1,p.250.ChuHsi'steachingonselfconquestisespeciallydevelopedinCh'ienMu,Chu
Tzuhsinhsehan,Bk.I,pp.336363.
58.Ylei,9:3b.
59.Ibid.,12:13a.
60.Ibid.,41:21b.ThisgivesaclearresonanceoftheCh'anpatriarchHuineng'scq(638713)gatha.SeeLiutsutashihfapaot'anchingcr[Thepreciousplatform
scriptureoftheGreatTeacher,theSixthPatriarch],Taisho*shinshu*daizokyo*cs[Taisho*editionoftheBuddhistCanon],no.2007,pp.337340.
61.Ylei,42:4a.
62.Ibid.,97:10b.
63.EnglishtranslationadaptedfromLegge,ChineseClassics,vol.1,p.365.
64.Ibid.,pp.365366.
65.Ylei,9:6aBookofMencius,7A:1.
66.GreatLearning,thetext.
67.BookofMencius,6B:2.

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68.JuliaChing,ToAcquireWisdom:TheWayofWangYangming,ch.7.
69.Ylei,12:7a.
Glossary

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18
AnAnalysisofChuHsi'sSystemofThoughtofI
ChangLiwen
ThesubstanceinthelogicalstructureofChuHsi'sphilosophyishissystemofthoughtofIa(Changes).DelvingintosuchcategoriesasT'aichib(supremeultimate),
yinyangc(passiveandactivecosmicforces),andkangroud(strengthandweaknessandfluctuation)ofChuHsi'stheoryofChangeswillfacilitatenotonlyan
expositionofChuHsi'sphilosophybutalsoasearchforthelawofdevelopmentinthehistoryofSung(9601279)Ming(13681644)NeoConfucianism.
I
Ichinge(Bookofchanges)isaworkwhichissimpleandterseinitslanguagebutcomprehensiveandrichinitsmeaning,andsoitiscapableofbeingextendedand
developed.ScholarsandphilosophersofpastageshaveannotatedtheIchingintheirrespectivelightsandfromtheirownviewsinconsistentwiththeoriginalmeaning
oftheclassic.Severalschoolscameintobeing.SincetheCh'inandHandynasties(221B.C.A.D.220),therehavebeenthesocalledYinyangchiaf(schoolthat
explainedtheIintermsofyinyangdoctrine),Taochiag(schoolthatdealtwiththeIchinginaTaoistway),Ch'anweichiah(schoolthatillustratedtheIchingina
necromanticlanguage),Hsanhsehchiai(schoolthatexpressedtheideaofChangesinanabstruseway),Lihsehchiaj(schoolthatexpoundedtheIchingin
accordancewithNeoConfucianism),andsoon.OftheseschoolssomeheldthattheIchingshouldbeinterpretedbymeansofnecromancyandotherssuggested
thatitshouldbeexplainedinaccordancewithmoralprinciples.EachofthemhaditsownviewinregardtohowtointerprettheIching.ChuHsicommentedonthem
thus,''EversincethetimesofCh'inandHan,thosewhodevotedtheirstudytotheillustrationsoftheBookofChangesfollowedabigotedcourseofemblemsand
numbers,failingtoadoptanapproachofcomprehensivenessandsimplicity,whilethosewhotalkedaboutmoralprincipleswereconfinedtomereemptytalk,farfrom
beinginconsonancewiththethemeofhumaneness,righteousness,moderation,anduprightness."1Obviously,ChuHsiagreesneitherwith

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k

thosewhohadbeliefinemblemsandnumbersnorwiththosewhoweremerelyhighsoundinginemptytalk.IncriticismofShaoYung's (10111077)emblemsand
numbersandCh'engI'sl(10331107)Ichuanm(CommentaryontheBookofChanges),hehimselfwroteabookentitledChouipenin(Theoriginalmeaningofthe
IchingofChou)laterhewrotetheIhsehch'imengo(AguidetothestudyofChanges).2HavingabsorbedtheessentialsfromthedoctrinesofShaoandCh'eng,
ChuHsiinhisworksunifiesbothemblemsandnumbersandmoralprinciplesasummationofthetwoapproaches.JustastheSchoolofPrinciple(Lihsehp)was
recognizedasanofficialphilosophyinthelaterperiodofthefeudalsocietyofChina,soChuHsi'sthoughtofIwasalsoregardedasanorthodoxschooloflearning.
AbouttheninediagramsChuHsiprefixedtohisbookChouipeni,3WangMaohungq(16681741)wasoftheopinionthat"theninediagramsmentionedinthe
ChouipeniwerenotChuHsi's....ChuHsihadwrittentwobooksontheIching:oneistheChouipeni,theothertheIhsehch'imeng.Besides,histhought
ofIisalsoexpoundedelaboratelyinhiscollectedworks,recordedsayings,andlectures.Butnowhereinhiswritingcouldbefoundareferencetotheninediagrams,
whicharequiteincongruouswiththeChouipeniandtheIhsehch'imeng."4ThisviewofWang'shasencountereddisagreementsinthewritingsofrecentscholars.
Inmyopinionhisviewhasbothmeritsanddemerits.
Concerningtherecordofhot'ur(theYellowRivermapthemap,aslegendgoes,wassentforthfromtheYellowRiveratthetimewhenYstheGreatoftheHsia
dynasty[21831752B.C.]ascendedthethrone),areferencetoitwasfirstseeninchapter50,"Kuming"t(Oncontemplatingthedecree),oftheBookofHistory:"[in
aceremony]fivekindsofjades,astateguardinggem,aredprecioussword,recordsofdeceasedsagekings'teachingsandabigpieceofjadesshouldbeexhibited
beforeatablekeptnearthewesternwalloppositetotheeast.Abigpreciousstone,agemobtainedfromafrontierstate,anarmillarysphereandhot'ushouldbe
showninfrontofatableplacedneartheeasternwalloppositetothewest"(sec.19).Ts'aiShen'su(11671230)annotationonthisisthus:
Aboutthehot'u,itissaidthatduringthetimeofthelegendaryemperorFuhsi,vadragonandahorsecameoutfromtheYellowRivercarryingamapontheirbacks.Themap
showstennumbers,ofwhichthenumbers1and6areinitsnortherndirection,thenumbers2and7areinitssoutherndirection,thenumbers3and8areinitseasterndirection,
thenumbers4and9areinitswesterndirection,andthenumbers5and10areinitscenter.Thisisthesocalledhoch'ut'uw(theriversendsforthpictures)mentionedinthe
"AppendedRemarks"oftheIching.5

Confucius(551479B.C.)hadalsosaid,"Thephoenixdoesnotcometheriversendsforthnomap.Itisalloverwithme!"6

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x

Abouttheloshu (thebookoftheRiverLo),arecordinchapter32,"Hungfan" (Greatplan),oftheBookofHistorysays,"OntheoccasionwhenKingKunzwas

puttodeathandwassucceededbyhissonYtheGreat,HeavenbestowedonthelatterabookteachinghimhowtoruleinconformitywiththeHungfanchiu
ch'ouaa(Greatplanandninecategoriesorwaystorule)"(sec.3).Ts'aiShen'sexplanatorynoteonthisis:''YtheGreatfollowedthenatureofwaterandsucceededin
regulatingtheriversandwatercourses.Therefore,HeavenfavoredhimwithabookwhichwassentforthfromtheRiverLo,whichYidentifiedastheHungfan
chiuch'ou.Ygovernedthepeopleandrulethestateinaccordancewiththemorallawstaughtinthebook."7BeforetheSungdynasty,bookslikeCh'unch'iuweiab
(ApocryphalexplanationsoftheSpringandAutumnAnnals),theChoupichingchiac(Illustrationsofthebookofastronomy),andthe"Mingt'ang"ad(Imperial
ancestralhall)chapteroftheTatailichiae(TheelderTai'sBookofRites)allreferredtotherecordofthehot'uloshu.Thisshowsthattherecordwasnotcreated
byChuHsi.Nevertheless,itwouldcontradictthefactsifoneweretothinkthatnomentionoftheninediagramswasevermadeinChuHsi'scollectedessaysand
recordedsayings.Infact,hemadetheitemsofhot'u,loshu,Fuhsi'seighttrigrams,numbers,andsoon,specialentriesinhisChuTzuyleiaf(Classified
conversationsofMasterChu)inchapter65andhasdrawnanorderlytableofFuhsi'seighttrigramsinchapter76.Also,inaletter"ReplytoYanChichung,"agChu
Hsiinseveralplacesdiscussedthehot'uloshuandthequestionabouteachdivinationdiagraminKingWen'seighttrigrams.8Thecontentionthattherehasnotbeen
foundasinglewordreferringtothehot'uandloshuinChuHsi'swritingsisclearlynotafact.
However,ChuHsiwasthefirsttomakeadefinitecorrelationbetweentheIchingandthehot'uloshuandtoputthehot'uandtheloshutogetherwiththeother
sevenpicturesattheheadoftheIching.ThecorrelationbetweentheIchingandthehot'uloshuwasexpoundedearlierinthe"AppendedRemarks"oftheBooks
ofChanges.9Later,ChengHsanah(127200)inhisannotationsontheBookofChangessaid,"DuringFuhsi'sreign,theauspicioussignofthedragonwasseenon
theYellowRiver,andFuhsiwrotehisworkontheeighttrigramsaccordingtothedesignhesawonthebackofatortoisethatcameforthfromtheRiverLo."10K'ung
Ankuoaialsosaidinhiscommentaryonthe"ContemplatingtheDegree"chapteroftheBookofHistory,"WhenFuhsiruledunderHeaven,auspicioussignsof
dragon,horse,etc.appearedfromtheriver.Fuhsidrewthepictureofeighttrigramsincompliancewiththesignshesaw,andnamedithot'u."11Butthehot'uand
theloshuhadnotbeenfoundprefixedtotheBookofChangesbyscholarsandphilosphersfromChingFangaj(7737B.C.),Ch'iaoKanak(fl.1350B.C.),Hsn
Shuangal(128190),andYFanam(164233)oftheHandynasty(206B.C.A.D.220)downtoK'ungYingtaan(574648)andLiTingtsoaooftheT'angdynasty
(618907).
AndtheworkChouichichiehap(CollectedexplanationsoftheIchingof

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aq

ar

Chou)recordedinitselfonlythekuach'it'u (atableofdiagramsbeingfittedinwiththeweatheroffourseasons),theyaoch'ent'u (atableshowinga

combinationofyinyangandlinesofthetrigramswiththetwelvehorarycharacters),nachiat'uas(atableofdiagramsbeingfittedinwithtencelestialstemsandthe
twentyfourdivinationpositions).Althoughtherehadbeengoingon,duringtheNorthernSungperiod(9601126),anendlesscontroversyamongConfuciansoverthe
questionofhowthehot'uloshuwashandeddownfromancienttimesandhowitwastaughtandaccepted,yetitwasChuChen's(10721138)atwork,theChoui
t'uau(TheIchingdiagrams),whichfirstmadetheentryofhot'uloshuintheIching,andwhichwaspresentedtoEmperorKaotsungavin1136.Bethatasitmay,
HuWeiaw(16331714)stillholds,"Noitemaboutthehot'uloshuhaseverbeenfoundrecordedintheopeningpagesoftheancientIching,oritsvarious
explanatoryworks.Ifthereisany,itisChuHsi'sChouipeniwhichinitiatedprefixingthehot'uloshutotheIching.Then,inhisIhsehch'imeng,ofwhichthe
draftwaspreparedbyTs'aiChit'ung(Ts'aiYanting,ax11351198),thehot'uloshuappearsasthefirstiteminthebook,andnextcomestheitemofdiagram
lines."12TheChouipeniwascompletedin1177andtheIhsehch'imengin1186,aboutfortyorfiftyyearsafterChuChen.ThereisadifferencebetweenChu
HsiandChuChen:ChuHsiprefixedsevenpicturestotheIchinginadditiontothetwopictureshot'uandloshu.Also,whileChuChenconsidersthatthereare
ninenumbersinthehot'uandtennumbersintheloshu,ChuHsi,havingacceptedShaoYung'stheory,takestheloshuashavingninenumbersandthehot'uas
havingten.Thislatterviewhasbecomethefinalversion.
AstothepseudonymYnt'aicheniay(atruerecluseoftheYnt'aiTemple)ChuHsigaveintheprefacetohisIhsehch'imeng,whenheheldasinecureasthe
superintendentoftheYnt'aiTaoistTempleatHuachou,13heusedthepseudonymjusttoshowwhathewasandwherehewasthen.Hisprefacewaswritteninthe
latespringof1186,andontheseventhofJuly(accordingtothelunarcalendar)ofthesameyearheusedasimilarpseudonym,Ynt'aiwaishihazChuHsi(theYn
t'airetiredhistoriographerChuHsi).14ChuHsiwasappointedsuperintendentoftheYnt'aiTempleatHuachoubainApril1188fromthenonheadoptedthename
Ynt'aiyinliChuHsiChunghuifubb(theYnt'airetiredofficerChuHsiChunghuifu).15Evenintheyear1197,twelveyearsafterhistermatthetemple,ChuHsi
stillusedthenameYnt'aitzubc(MasteroftheYnt'aiTemple).16Thereis,therefore,nothingsurprisingatChuHsi'sadoptionofthepseudonymYnt'aicheniin
fact,ChuHsihasthusindicatedthathehimselfwrotethebookIhsehch'imeng.
II
InthelogicalstructureofChuHsi'sphilosophy,principle(libd)isthehighestcategory,whiletheSupremeUltimate,Tao,andHeavenlyPrinciple(T'ienlibe)arethe
categoriesequivalenttothatofprinciple,orthedesignationsfor

Page296
17

principleunderdifferentconditionsandcircumstances.ChuHsisays,"WhatiscalledtheSupremeUltimateisprinciple." "ThesocalledSupremeUltimateis,indeed,
nothingbutprinciple."18So,beingprinciple,theSupremeUltimatehasitsinnatecharactersimilartothatofprincipleithasnoform,nosymbolandnodirection."The
SupremeUltimateisanappellationforprinciplebeforeallthingsappearedinformsandnumbers....ThisiswhatMasterShaoYungcalled'TaoistheSupreme
Ultimate'19and'MindistheSupremeUltimate.'20''21TheSupremeUltimateistheprincipleofthetwoforms(liangibf),thefouremblems(ssuhsiangbg),andtheeight
diagrams.Itcannotbespokenofasnothingness,butithasnoformandnosymboltobedescribed."22Andyet,theSupremeUltimateisnotathingithasnospot
whereitmaybeplaced.ItistheUltimateoftheformless.23SincetheSupremeUltimatehasnoformandnoplacetorestin,itisnotanobjectabletobeperceived.
Beingwithoutformorsymbolicrepresentationis,ofcourse,notemptiness,butmatterthatexistswithoutdependinguponourperception.AstheSupremeUltimate
hasnodirectionandnoplacetostayin,soittranscendstimeandspaceitisnotathingthatobjectivelyexistsitisbutsomesortofpsyche,themanifestationofwhich
becomespossibleonlythroughphysicalthings.
Withrespecttotheoriginalsubstanceofthisspirituality,ChuHsisays,"MasterChouTunibh[10171073]...considersthatitwaspriortophysicalthings,yetithas
neverceasedtostandevenaftersuchphysicalthingscameintobeing.Hemaintainsthatitliesbeyondyinandyang,yetitneverfailstooperatewithinthem.He
maintainsthatitpenetratesthewholeuniverseandisomnipresent,andyettherewasnosound,smell,reflection,orresonancethatcouldbeascribedtoitinthe
beginnng."24DescribingtheSupremeUltimateasantedatinganyphysicalthingandstandingoutsideyinandyangmeansthattheSupremeUltimateistheveryprinciple
thatexistedbeforeallthingsoftheuniversewereproducedandisbeyondtherealmofmatter.ViewingtheSupremeUltimateasremainingevenafterallthingscame
intobeingandasmovingbetweenyinandyangmeansthattherecanbenoseparationoftheSupremeUltimatefromyinandyang.Thisistosaythattherelation
betweentheSupremeUltimateandyinyangisthatofnonseparationyetnonminglingaswell,aunityofopposites.AsChusaid,
WhatisallpervadinginheavenandonearthisnothingbutthemysteryoftheSupremeUltimateandyinyang....Hencefromthetimewhenthetwoformshadnotstoodapart
onefromtheother,therealreadyexistedtheperfectwholenessoftheSupremeUltimateinwhichtheprincipleofthetwoforms,thefouremblems,andthesixtyfourhexagramswas
distinctlymanifested.FromthetimewhentheseparationoftheSupremeUltimatefromthetwoformshappened,theSupremeUltimatebecametheabsoluteone(asdistinctfrom
thetwoforms)andthetwoformsobviouslybecamethetwo(asdistinctfromtheSupremeUltimate).25

Page297

ThattheprincipleoftheSupremeUltimatealreadyexistswithinthestateofnonseparationofthetwoforms,thatis,beforetheseparationofyinfromyang,meansthat
thereexistsaninterdependenceandanonseparationbetweentheSupremeUltimateandthetwoformsandthattheSupremeUltimatebecametheabsoluteoneand
thetwoformsdistinctlybecamethetwowhentheseparationbetweentheSupremeUltimateandyinyanghappenedmeansthatthereisnointerminglingofthe
SupremeUltimatewiththetwoforms.
Obviously,therelationbetweentheSupremeUltimateandyinyangresemblesthatbetweenprincipleandether(ch'ibi).TheSupremeUltimateoccupiesnoresting
placeinitself,buttakesyinandyangasaspotwhereitcouldrestitself.Becauseofthefluctuationbetweenyinandyang,andbetweenmovementandquiescence,
"Yinproducesyang,yangproducesyin,andsothemutualgenerationgoesontonoend."26Thus,itproducesthefouremblems,suchasspring,summer,autumn,and
wintermetal,wood,water,andfireeast,west,south,andnorth.Thefouremblemsinturnproducetheeighttrigramsrepresentingheavenandearth,mountainand
marsh,windandthunder,andwaterandfire.Inthiswaycomeintobeingthenaturalworldandhumansociety.InhisIhsehch'imeng,ChuHsiquotedShaoYung
assaying,
ByHeavenitmeansthatitcreatedthingsinthebeginning.Thereforeyinappearsabovewhileyangappearsbelow.Thisshowsthesignificanceofthealternatinginterplay
betweenyinandyang.ByEarthitmeansthatitmadethingscomingintoactualexistence.Thereforeyangstandsabove,whileyincomesbelow.Thisshowsarelativerankinthe
socialorder.[Accordingtotheprinciplemanifestedintheeighttrigrams]thediagramsofch'ienbj(Heaven)andkunbk(Earth)arerespectivelyfixedintheupperpositionandthe
lowerposition,whilethediagramsofk'anbl(pit)andlibm(brightnessandseparateness)arerespectivelyplacedontheleftsideandtherightside.Inthisway(fromthesame
principle),theopeningandclosingmovementsofheavenandearth,therisingandsettingofthesunandthemoon,thefourseasonsofspring,summer,autumn,andwinter,the
darknessofthenewmoonandthebrightnessofthefullmoon,thelongerandshorterdurationofthedayandnight,andthelawofwaxingandwaningofthesunandthemoon
haveallbeenderived.27

Thus,ChuHsi,startingfromthelogicalstructureofhisphilosophy,triestoillustratethecorrelationandtransformationbetweenallnaturalphenomenaandsocial
phenomenaaswellastheformationoftheuniverseandsociety.HedescribesaworldpatternbymeansofanorderlysequenceoftheSupremeUltimate,thetwo
forms(yinandyang),thefouremblems,andtheeighttrigrams.
Lookingintoitdeeper,onewouldfindthatChuHsi'sdoctrineabouttheformationoftheuniverseandsocietytheendlessorderlysequencefromtheSupreme
Ultimatetothetwoforms,thefouremblems,theeighttrigramsisinaccordancewithsuchalawas"onedividesintotwo."Hesays,"Initsdivi

Page298

sion,theSupremeUltimateproducesoneoddnumberandoneevennumberintheverybeginning,whichismarkedbyonestroke(intheeighttrigrams).Thetwo
numbers(oddandeven)signifythetwoforms,ofwhichyanghasonestroke()whileyinhastwobrokenstrokes()....WhatMasterShaocalledonedividing
intotwosimplymeansthis.Ofthetwoformsmarkedbytwostrokes,eachproducesoneoddnumberandoneevennumber.Thesefournumberssignifythefour
emblems.WhatMasterShaocalledtwodividingintofourpreciselymeansthis."28Byinferencefromthisanalogy,onewouldseethatofthefouremblemsmarkedby
threestrokes,eachagainproducesoneoddnumberandoneevennumber,thus(thefouremblemseachhavingtwonumbers)makingtheeighttrigrams.Thisiswhat
ShaoYungcalledfourdividingintoeight.Again,oftheeighttrigramsmarkedbyfourstrokes,eachproducesoneoddandoneevennumber(theeighttrigramseach
havingtwonumbers),thusmakingeightdividingintosixteen.Again,ofthesesixteennumbersmarkedbyfivestrokes,eachproducesoneoddandoneevennumber,
thusmakingsixteendividingintothirtytwo.Andagain,ofthesethirtytwonumbersmarkedbysixstrokes,eachproducesoneoddandoneevennumber,thusmaking
thirtytwodividingintosixtyfour.
Here,ChuHsiappliesthecorrelationandtransformationoftheemblems(,)andnumbers(oddandeven)asmentionedintheBookofChangestorevealand
generalizethemostcomplicatedstructureandcontradictionsintheuniverseandsociety.Hefurthertakestheunityofthetwooppositesofyinandyangandthelawof
oddandevennumbersasthefundamentallawofcosmogony.Intheuninterruptedevolutionof"onedividingintotwo"derivedfromtheSupremeUltimate,itis
preciselybecauseofthefunctioningoftheunityofthetwooppositiesofyinandyangandthelawofoddandevennumbersthattheevolutionof"onedividingintotwo"
goesonwithoutend.Thismaybeshownbythefollowingfigures:
1

16

32

64

...

20

21

22

23

24

25

26

...2n

TheSupremeUltimateismarkedbyfigure1or20,andthendividesintooneyinandoneyang.Thatis,itproducesoneoddnumberandoneevennumber.This
divisionismarkedbyfigure21,thesocalledonestroke.Figure21,eachagainproducesoneoddnumberandoneevennumber.Thisisshownbyfigure22,theso
calledtwostrokes.Figure22eachagainproducesoneoddnumberandoneevennumber.Thisisrecordedbyfigure23,thesocalledthreestrokes.Figure23each
againproducesoneoddnumberandoneevennumber,anditismarkedbyfigure24,thesocalledfourstrokes,andsoon.Here,notonlyiseverylinkintheevolution
of"onedividingintotwo"formedbyyinandyangandtheoddandeven,butthegeometricprogressionof"onedividingintotwo"0,1,2,3,4,5,6isalsomade
byoneoddandoneevennumber.InChuHsi'sopinion,this"onedividingintotwo,two

Page299

dividingintofour"isalimitlesscourseofevolution."Thisismerelyalawof'onedividingintotwo'inoperation,anditworksinthiswayateverystageoftheevolution
andcontinuestonoend.Allthismeansonlythateverythingproducestwo."29
Beingalawoftheconstitutionoftheuniverseandsociety,this"onedividingintotwo"deeplyreflectsthephenomenaofcontradictionexistingintheuniverseand
society.ChuHsiholdsthatin"onedividingintotwo"theonemeansanintegratedobjectorathingthatexistedlongbeforeheavenandearthweredifferentiatedfrom
eachotherinastateofgreatchaos.Thisintegratedobjectcontainsinitselftwooppositeaspects."Oneisoneprinciple,andyetithastwoaspectsofwhicheachhasa
differentfunction.Forexample,regardingtherelationbetweenyinandyang,inyinthereisyang,andinyangthereisyin.Whenyangreachesitsapogee,yinis
producedandwhenyinreachesitsapogee,yangisproduced.Thereforethemysterioustransformationofspiritknowsnoboundary."30Thisshowsthatinanintegrated
oridentifiedentitythereexisttwomutuallyrepellingandopposingaspectsasyinandyang,eachplayingitsrespectiverole.''Yangcomesfirst,andyinnext.Yang
indicatesrighteousnesswhileyinmeansbenefit."31However,"yangmeansgeneratingwhileyinindicateskilling.Thatistosaythatthereisadifferentiationofthegood
fromthebad."32Atthesametime,thetwooppositesidesareinterdependentandmutuallypermeating,oneoppositesidetakingtheotherastheconditionforitsown
existence."Yinisyang'smother,whileyangisyin'sfather....Whenyangiswithinyin,yanggoesadversely,andwhenyiniswithinyang,yingoesadversely."33Itis
clearthatthetwooppositesofyinandyangexistsimultaneouslywithinanintegratedentity.Thisisthesocalledoneness.EventhoughChuHsi,whiledealingwiththe
oneness,bypassescertainconditionsunderwhichthetwooppositesideswouldundergoamutualtransformation,asfarashisillustrationofamutualpermeation
betweenthetwooppositesidesisconcerned,therearesomereasonableelementsintheviewpointhestronglyadvocates.
Ontheonehand,ChuHsiacceptsthetheoryoftwooppositeaspectsontheotherhand,heconsidersthatthetwooppositesareinoneintegratedentity.Hencehe
takesthetwooppositesandtheunitytobetwophasesofonething."Whatoriginallyprevailedbetweenheavenandearthwasoneetherwhichhadmovementand
quiescence....Itwasbythedifferencebetweenitsmovementandquiescencethatthedifferencebetweenyinandyang,andbetweenhardnessandsoftness,
appeared."34"So,notonlyyinandyang,asapair,undergoalternatelythefluctuationofincrease(light)anddecrease(darkness)butineverything,eachofthepair
actstoincreaseanddecreasealternately."35Sinceyinandyangaretwophasesofonething,theoppositesaretheoppositesofaunity.Thetwooppositephases
wouldexistnomoreiftheintegratedentitywerecastaway.Hence,"intermsofderivation,yinandyangaremerelyone,whileintermsofopposition,theyaretwo,
justasthesunandmoon,waterandfire,andthelikearetwo."36Here,thesocalledoneunified

Page300

entityinviewofitsderivationmeansthat"thoughyinandyangaretwowords,yettheyarethefluctuationofoneether,...whichfromtimeimmemorialdowntodate
hasbeendoingmyriadofthingsbetweenheavenandearth.So,itisrighttosaythatyinandyangareoneitisalsorighttosaythatyinandyangaretwo."37Viewedas
one,itmeansthatetherundergoesfluctuation,andviewedastwoitmeansthatetherisdividedtobecomeyinandyang.Therefore,thereisnounitythatdoesnot
possessopposites,andtherearenooppositesthatarenotunified.Inshort,bothoppositesandunityneverfallapart.Thiskindofrelationof"one"with"two"inthe
universeisnotanartificial,butanaturalone."Yinandyangaretheverysourceofchangesandcannotnegateeachother.Theirfluctuationisregularandcannotbe
artificiallyenlargedordiminished."38ThismeansthatitwastheSupremeUltimatewhichcreatedtheboundlessuniversebymeansofthefluctuationbetweenthe
movementandquiescenceoftheether(yinandyang)bymeansoftheformulaofonedividingintotwo."Betweenheavenandearththereexistedoneetheronlywhich,
whendividedintotwo,producedyinandyangandtheFiveElements[Metal,WoodWater,Fire,andEarth].Allthemyriadthingsintheprocessofcreationare
governedforeverbythisonly.''39ThisistheverypatternoftheuniverseconstructedinaccordancewiththetheoryofChanges.
III
LetusproceedtodiscussChuHsi'stheoryofmovement(tungbn)andquiescence(chingbo).
Everythingissubjecttothelawofunityoftwocontradictoryaspectsandofdivisionofoneintotwo,andbythisaremotivatedthemovementandtransformationinall
things.ChuHsisays,
InitsdivisiontheSupremeUltimateinthebeginningproducedoneoddnumberandoneevennumber.Bytheorderlysequence,yangstandsasnumber2.Thisisalsodescribed
asoddandevennumbersintheloshu.MasterChousays,"TheSupremeUltimatethroughmovementproducesyang.Thismovementhavingreacheditslimit,quiescenceis
produced,andbythisquiescenceitproducesyin.Whenquiescencehasreacheditslimit,thereisareturntomovement.Thus,movementandquiescence,inalternation,becomes
eachthesourceoftheother,thedistinctionbetweenyinandyangisdetermined,andtheirtwoformsstandrevealed.40

Thisprovesthatitisthecontradictorymovementbetweenyinandyangthatmakesthingsundergoceaselesschanges."Whatappearseverywherebetweenheavenand
earthisnothingmorethanyinandyang.Hencemovementandquiescence,speechandtaciturnity,arealltheprincipleofyinandyang."41

Page301

Thatistosaythatmovementandquiescencearethelawofthefluctuationbetweenyinandyang.
Basedonthetheoryofmovementandquiescence,ChuHsifurtherdealswiththemovementthatmanifestsitselfintheformofrelativesteadinessandtheformof
obviousfluctuation.Hecallsthis"change"(huabp)and"transformation"(pienbq).Theformermeansagradualchangeandisequaltoaquantitativechange,whilethe
lattermeansasuddentransformationandisequaltoaqualitativechange.Therelationofmovementquiescencetochangetransformationisthis:"Transformationisa
processofchangefromyintoyangandfromquiescencetomovement,whereaschangeisaprocessofchangefromyangtoyinandfrommovementtoquiescence.
Theprocessgraduallyreachesastatewherenotraceofchangeisdetectable.''42Whiletransformationisafluctuationfromquiescencetomovementandchangea
fluctuationfrommovementtoquiescence,botharemanifestationsofthingsindifferentstatesanddifferentformsintheprocessoffluctuation.HenceChuHsisays,
"Movementmeanstransformationandchange."43Andso,fluctuationcontainstwoshapes:"gradualchange"and"suddentransformation."
FromChuHsi'sviewpoint,theoriginalmeaningof"change"intheBookofChangeshastwosenses:oneistransformation,whichinvolvesanoperationtheotheris
exchange,whichinvolvestwoopposites.44Transformationmeansthechangefromyangtoyin,fromyintoyang,fromthegreateryangtothelesseryin,andfromthe
greateryintothelesseryang.Exchangemeansthatyanginteractswithyin,yininteractswithyang,andthereisinteractionbetweentheaboveandthebelow."The
myriadprinciplesoftheworldarederivedfrommovementandquiescence,thecountlessnumbersoftheworldarederivedfromoddandeven,andthemultifarious
emblemsoftheworldarederivedfromsquareandround.However,allarederivedfromthetwostrokes,thech'ienandkun."45If,inthisview,itcanbesaidthat
principles,numbers,andemblemsconstitutetheveryessenceofchange,thenitisunderstoodthatchangepermeatesthroughthemall.
Ifwecomparethehot'uloshuwiththenumbersandemblemsoftheBookofChanges,wewouldfindthattheemblemsinthehot'uareround,whiletheemblems
intheloshuaresquare.Thehot'uandtheloshuare,infact,aplanofbothsquareandrounddiagrams.Accordingtothehot'u,"Theheavenlynumbersarethe
oddonesofyang,theearthlynumbersaretheevenonesofyinthisisthesocalledhot'unumbers."46ChuHsiinhisChouipeniandIhsehch'imengquoted
fromYangHsiung'sbr(53B.C.A.D.18)work,theT'aihsanchingbs(Classicofgreatmystery),Hsant'upien,apithyoralformula,whichsays,"Thenumbers1and
6arekininthenorth,2and7arecompanionsinthesouth,3and8arecomradesintheeast,4and9arefriendsinthewest,and5and10protecteachotherinthe
center"47(seeFigure1).
Bydifferentiationofnumbers,"Thenumbersofyang,1,3,5,7and9,beingodd,belongtoHeaven.Thisiswhatiscalledthefiveheavenlynum

Page302

Figure1

bers.Thenumbersofyin,2,4,6,8and10,beingeven,belongtoEarth.Thisiswhatiscalledthefiveearthlynumbers.Theheavenlynumbersandtheearthlynumbers
mutuallyseektheirrespectivepartnernumbers.Thismeansthatonegroupoffiveisadaptedtoanothergroupoffive."48Thatis:
HeavenlyNumbers(odd) 1

25

EarthlyNumbers(even)

10

30

Here,"Theadditionofthefiveoddnumbersmakes25,whiletheadditionofthefiveevennumbersmakes30.Thetwotogethermake55.Thisisthetotalnumber
mentionedinthehot'u."49
Astotheloshu,thechapterontheimperialancestralhallintheElderTai'sBookofRitesdescribes:"Theimperialancestralhallwasalreadyknowninoldendays.It
consistsofnineroomsrooms2,9,and4rooms7,5,3androoms6,1,and8."ChenLuan,btamathematicianoftheNorthernDynasties(386554)inhis
annotationoftheShushuchiibu(Amathematicalmemorandum)explainedthepassage,saying,"Ofthenineroomsoftheimperialancestralhall,rooms2and4stand
forone'sshoulders,rooms6and8standforone'sfeet,room3indicatesone'sleftside,room4indicatesone'srightside,room9symbolizesone'shat,room1
symbolizesone'sshoes,androom5standsforone'scentralpart."Ts'aiYantingadoptedChen'sviewinhiscommentaryontheIhsehch'imeng(seeFigure2).
Inthismagicsquareofninenumbers,thethreenumbersinanyrowhorizontal,vertical,ordiagonaladdupto15,asumequaltothatofthenumber9oftheyang
yaobv(oddnumbers)plusthenumber6oftheyinyaobw(evennumbers),orequaltothatofthenumber8oftheyinyaoplusthenumber7oftheyangyao.A
distinctionbetweentheloshuandthehot'uisthatintheloshuthediagramnumbersaremadeupof1to9,whileinthehot'utheyaremadeupof1to10.

Page303

Figure2

Agreatnumberofwisemeninthepasthavedevotedthemselvestoexploringthesecretofthemagicsquare.ChuHsi,inanattempttofindananswertothisenigma,
raisesthequestionWhydoesthenumber5alwaysstandatthecenterofthediagram,whetherinthehot'uorintheloshu?Heexplainsitthus:"Numberbeginswith
onlyoneyinandoneyang.Thesymbolicemblemofyangiscircular,andthediameterofacircleistoitscircumferenceas(roughly)1to3.Thesymbolicemblemof
yinissquare,andonesideofasquareisinaratioof1to4."50Ifweexplainthesecondandthirdtiersofthehot'udiagraminaccordancewiththisanswerthatone
sideofasquareisinaratioofonetofour,thenasChuHsisays,"Thefoursidesofasquareare2madeinto1,"andatthesametime,thediameter(ofasquare)
becomesasquaresidelength(L),thatis,thediameterbeingmade5from1.Inthesecondtier,A'B'+B'C'+C'D'+D'A'=3+2+4+1=10.Inthethirdtier,
AB+DC=5+5=10(seeFigure3).
Ifthefirsttierofthehot'uisillustratedaccordingtotheoldtheorythatthediameterofacircleistoitscircumferenceas1to3,andthefigure5inthecenteristaken
astheradiusofthecircle,thenthelengthofacircumferenceis235=30=6+8+7+9.Theexplanationcorrespondstothenotionsthatheavenisroundand
earthissquare,thatheavencoversandearthsupports,andthatthesquareisembracedbythecircle.
Ifweexplaintheloshuthatonesideofasquareisinaratioofonetofour,andassumingthatthediameterisasquaresidelength,andthediameteris5,thenthe
circumferencebecomes4L+AB+BC+CD+DA=1+3+9+7=20,thesumoftheoddnumbers,or4L=A'B'+B'C'+C'D'+D'A'=2+4+6+8=20,
thesumoftheevennumbers(seeFigure4).
Regardinghow"transformation"and"change"operate,asexpressedinthehot'uandtheloshu,"One,thefirstnumber,producesWaterbytransformationwhile6
formsitbychange,2producesFirebychangewhile7formsitbytransformation,3producesWoodbytransformationwhile8formsitby

Page304

Figure3

Figure4

change,4producesMetalbychangewhile9formsitbytransformation,and5producesEarthbytransformationwhile10formsitbychange."51Adistinctionbetween
thehot'uandloshuisobvious:"Inthehot'u,1,2,3,and4arealloutsidetheinnersquarewheretheemblemornumber5is,while6,7,8,9,and10allderivetheir
numbersfromthenumber5,andatthesametime,standoutsidethenumber(5)thatgeneratesthem.Intheloshu,1,3,7,and9arealsooutsidethesymbol5atthe
centerofthesquarewhile2,4,6,and8arebesidetheoddnumbersbecauseoftheirrespectivepartnernumbers."52Thiskindoftransformationandchangedescribed
inthehot'uandloshupre

Page305

ciselyconstitutestherelationshipofreciprocalproductionandreciprocalrestraintbetweentheFiveElements(seeFigure5).

Figure5

Accordingtothehot'u,thereciprocalproductionamongtheFiveElementsbeginswithWoodthatproducesFire.Movingclockwisefromtheeast,"Afteracomplete
round,itstartsfromtheeastagain."Accordingtotheloshu,thereciprocalrestraintamongtheFiveElementsstartswithWaterthatovercomesFire."Aftera
completeroundcounterclockwise,itmakesarotationmovingtotherightandcomingtoEarthovercomesWateragain."53Boththemutualproductionandthemutual
restraintareformsoftransformationandchange.
Whatdowemeanbytransformationandchange?Therearethreecharacteristicsofchange.Inthefirstplace,"Changemeansagradualandimperceptiblemelting
away."54"Thingsthatundergoagradualchangedosonotonlybymonths,bydays,butbyhoursalso,butweareunawareofit."55Second,

Page306
56

changemeansthatthingsfadeawaybydegree."Changeimpliesthatthingschangefromyangtoyinandwillgraduallyfadeaway.Thisiscalledchange." Thethird
senseisthatchangeleavesnotrace."Yangchangesintosoftness,graduallymeltingawayandleavingnotracewhatsoever.Thisisthechange."57ChuHsiillustrates:
"Changeisnotasuddenthingoccurringinoneday.Thesameistrueofaman'sadvancementinvirtues.'Atthirty,Ihadestablishedmycharacter'58doesnotmeanthat
Confuciusestablishedhischaractersuddenlywhenhereachedthirty,butthathehadhismindbentonlearningfromfifteenandconstantlymadeastepbystep
conversionofhimselfintothatstateatthirty."59Thisistosay,changeisaslow,gradualprocessofdecreasingtransformation.
Ifachangegoesbeyondacertainlimit,itcausesadiscontinuoustransformation,whichChuHsicallsasuddentransformation.Thistransformationisdescribedinthree
aspects.First,"Transformationismomentary."60"Transformationmeansathingshiftsfromyintoyangandthenbecomestransformedallofasudden.Thatiswhat
transformationmeans."61Thatisaswifttransformation,anabruptleap.Second,"Transformationisaprocessfromobscuritytoobviousness."62"Astransformationof
yinintoyangincreasesinintensity,itappearstousassuddenandaspossessingaperceptibleform.Thisiswhatwecalltransformation''63thatis,transformationthat
isobviousandtraceable.Third,transformationindicatesabreakinacontinuity."Transformationmeansasuddendiscontinuationwhichmaybevisible."64Change,
then,isagradualshift,whereastransformationisasuddenshift.Forinstance,theprocessofchangetakesplacefromthefirstdayofamonth.Whenitdiscontinueson
thethirtiethday,itiscalledamonth.Thisistransformation.65Asthegradualshiftdiscontinuesatacertainpoint,changebecomestransformation.
Onemayseefromtheabovethattransformationandchangearemutuallyopposed,mutuallydifferentiated,mutuallylinkedandmutuallypermeated.ChuHsisays,
"Transformationisaslowprocessofchange,whilechangeindicatesacompletionoftransformation."66Changepermeatesthroughtransformationandinturn
transformationpermeatesthroughchange,thatis,"transformationincludeschangeinitself."67Becausetransformationarisesfromachangehavingreachedacertain
limit,andonthisbasisanewprocessofquantitativetransformationappears,ChuHsicallschangethecompletionoftransformation.ChuHsithinksthattransformation
andchangemaybeconverted.Hegivestherelationshipbetweenhardnessandsoftnessasanexample:"Withregardtothetransformationandchangeofhardnessand
softness,whenathingbecomeshardened,itchanges.Asitchanges,itbecomessoft.Havingbecomesoft,ittransforms.Whatistransformedishardness,andthusit
goesonroundandroundwithoutstop."68Thussoftnessbecominghardnessisanalogoustochangebecomingtransformation,hardnessbecomingsoftnessto
transformationbecomingchange.Softnesshavingreacheditsapo

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geebecomeshardened,changehavingreacheditsapogeebecomestransformedhardnesshavingreacheditsapogeebecomessoftened,transformationhaving
reacheditsapogeebecomeschanged.Inthiswaythemutualconversionproceedsinendlesscycles.
ChuHsi'sconceptionabouttransformationandchangehas,ofcourse,itslimitations.Heacceptsthenotionthatthereexistssomethingunchanged.Hesays,"[A
hexagramconsistingofsixlinesoryaossignifieschanges.Accordingly]achangethatbeginsatthelowestline,goingupward,willstoporvanishwhenitreachesthe
topline,whereasanonchangethatremainsatthelowestlinebecomestheoriginofnonchangewhichshouldbe,therefore,regardedastheprimaryessence."69Thus,
ChuHsi,havingrejectedchangeortransformationasauniversalphenomenon,becomesinclinedtowardsmetaphysics.
WehavesofaranalyzedChuHsi'ssystemofthoughtofChanges,whichwastheresultofhowChuHsifollowed,synthesized,anddevelopedthedoctrinesof
ChangesexpoundedbyShaoYungandCh'engIinsodoingheinauguratedanewphaseinthisfieldoflearning.IfitcanbesaidthatitwasShaoYungwhomade
cleartherangeofemblemologyandnumerologyfromtheverybeginning,thenitwasCh'engIwholaidthefoundationsoftheschoolofrighteousnessandprinciple.
ChuHsi,dissatisfiedwiththeseonesidedviewpoints,combinedthetheoryofemblemandnumberandthatofrighteousnessandprinciple,andsynthesizedtheminto
acomprehensivewhole.ThisledtothefurtherdevelopmentofthelearningofChangesintheSung,Ming,andCh'ing(16441912)periods.BetweentheMingand
Ch'ingdynasties,HuWei,HuangTsunghsibx(16101695),HuangTsungyenby(16161686),andChuItsun(16291709)hadcriticizedShaoYung.Theysaid,
"ThepurposeofK'angchiehbz[ShaoYung]inwritinghisbookwastosumupthecalendarsofallages,ancientandmodernandattributethemtothetheoryof
Changes.Buthowcouldthatbeso?Asamatteroffact,thetheoryofChangeshasbasicallynothingincommonwithcalendar.Hemadeaforcibleorunnatural
combinationoftheChangesandcalendarandthemoreelaboratehisdoctrines,themorecomplicatedhiswayofexplanation.Asaresulthisworksbecameakindof
almanacfullofconfusionandofnouseatall."70ShaoYung"pickeduptheTaoistheterodoxytomisleadtheworld."71Inspiteoftheseuncomplimentarycomments,he
stillhadanumberofsuccessorstocarryonhisdoctrineofemblemologyandnumerology.AfterChuHsi'selucidationofChanges,however,onlyafewdidnot
combinethetheoryofemblemandnumberandmoralprinciplesintheirstudyofChanges.AlthoughthereisstillsomecontroversyoverChuHsi'ssystemofthought
ofChanges,yetitoccupiesaveryimportantplaceinthehistoryofSungMingNeoConfucianismanddeservesourattention.
TranslatedbyWuBaihuica

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Notes
1.See"ShuIch'uanhsienshengIchuanpanpenhou"cb[AnoteappendedtotheeditionofMasterIch'uan'sCommentaryontheBookofChanges],intheChu
WenKungwenchicc[CollectionofliteraryworksofMasterChu],(abridgededitionoftheFourLibrariesseries),ch.81,pp.14741475.
2.AbouttheauthoroftheIhseh,ch'imeng,theSungshihcd[HistoryoftheSungdynasty]records,"TheIhsehch'imengwasfirstdraftedbyTs'aiYan
ting"(biographyofTs'aiYantinginch.434[ChunghuaceBookCo.ed.],p.12876).ButonecanfindfromChuHsi'sownwordswhyhewrotetheIhsehpeni
andtheIhsehch'imeng"WhatyouhaveunderstoodaboutthereadingoftheBookofChangesisverygood.Thisworkwasoriginallywrittenfortheuseof
divination.Whatisdescribedinitissimplyformsandnumbersbywhichtoforetellone'sgoodorevilfortune.Now,thistraditionalwayofdivinationhasbeenlost.
Generally,thoseConfucianswhotalkaboutformsandnumbersgivestrainedinterpretationsanddrawfarfetchedanalogies,whilethosewhopreachrighteousnessand
principlestrayfarfromthesubject.Thisisthereasonwhytheirbooksaretoodifficulttoread,andthisisalsothereasonwhyIwrotemyIhsehpeniandIhseh
ch'imeng"(replytoLiuChunfangcfintheCollectionofLiteraryworksofMasterChu,ch.60p.1095).Hence,ChuHsiprideshimselfupontheworkIhseh
ch'imeng.Hesays,"InsofarastheTahsehchangchcg[CommentaryontheGreatLearning]andtheIhsehch'imengareconcerned,Ihavebeenobserving
throughoutmylifethatonlythesetwoworkshavethrownlightonwhatourpredecessorshadnotyettouched"(ChuTzuylei,ch.14).ThisistheproofthattheI
hsehch'imengisChuHsi'sownwork.Nevertheless,priortoitspublication,ChuHsiconsultedwithTs'aiYanting(Ts'aiChit'ung)againandagaintillthe
manuscriptwasfinalized.ChuHsisaysinareplytoTs'aiChit'ung,"IntheIhsehch'imeng,thereareseveralplacesthatneedrevision.Iamsendingyouherewith
thesepartsasmarkedout.Ihopeyouwillexaminethemoncemore.Itwouldbeveryniceifyoucouldcorrectwhatshouldbecorrected"(supplementarycollection,
ChuWenKungwenchi,ch.2,p.7816)."HavingperusedtheIhsehch'imeng,Iconsiderthatitneedsnomorecorrection.Itsufficesonlytocorrectthesentence
aspointedouttheotherday''(Ibid.,p.1817).OnecantellfromtheaforesaidthatTs'aiYantingcontributedagreatdealtobringtheworktocompletion.We
cannotruleoutthepossibilitythatsomeportionsoftheworkwereactuallywrittenbyTs'aiYanting.
3.Ninediagrams:Thehot'udiagram,theloshudiagram,theeighttrigramsarrangedinorderaccordingtolegendaryemperorFuhsi,theeighttrigramsarrangedin
directionsaccordingtoFuhsi,thesixtyfourhexagramsarrangedinorderaccordingtoFuhsi,thesixtyfourhexagramsarrangedindirectionsaccordingtoFuhsi,the
eighttrigramsarrangedinorderaccordingtoKingWench(r.11711122B.C.),theeighttrigramsarrangedindirectionsaccordingtoKingWen,thehexagrams
arrangedintheirchanges.
4."Ipenichiut'ulun"ci[DiscussionontheninediagramsarrangedaccordingtoTheOriginalMeaningoftheBookofChanges],inthePait'ients'aot'angts'un
kaocj[TheremainingdraftsoftheGrassHutofWangMouhung],(1752ed.),ch.1,p.1.
5.BookofChanges,"AppendedRemarks,"pt.1,ch.11.
6.Analects,9:8.
7.QuotedintheShuchingchichuanck[CollectedcommentariesontheBookofHistory],ch.4,p.74.

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8.ChuWenKungwenchi,38:1ab,5a,firstandthirdrepliestoYanChichung.
9."AppendedRemarks,"pt.1,ch.11.
10.ChengHsan'scommentaryisfoundinthecommentariesoftheBookofChangesintheThirteenClassicsedition.
11.KungAnkuo'scommentaryisfoundinthecommentariesontheBookofHistoryintheThirteenClassicsedition.
12.It'umingpiencl[IllustrationofthediagramsintheBookofChanges],(1796ed.),1:17b.
13.InShensiProvince.
14.ChuWenKungwenchi,ch.82,p.1486,"ComplimentsonPrefectKu'scmTreatiseonArchery."
15.Ibid.,ch.82,p.1484,"AnEpiloguetoaPieceofWritingbyChouYanweng."cn
16.Ibid.,ch.84,p.1517,"AnEpiloguetotheHandwrittenCopyoftheTaotechingbyChuHsichen."co
17.Chouipeni,ch.3,commentaryontheBookofChanges,"AppendedRemarks,"pt.2,ch.11.
18.Ch'utz'uchichucp[AssembledexplanationsoftheBookofCh'u],(Shanghai:KuchicqPublishingCo.,1979),ch.3,p.50,"EssayonQuestioningHeaven."
19.Huangchichingshihcr[Supremeprinciplesgoverningtheworld],7:36.
20.Ibid.,8:37.
21.Ihsehch'imeng(ChuTzuishucs[SurvivingworksofMasterChu]ed.),2:2a.
22.ChuWenKungwenchi,ch.71,p.1295,onLinHuangchung'sctdiscussiononthe"WesternInscription."
23.ChuTzuylei(YingyancuAcademyed.,1872),75:19.
24.ChuWenKungwenchi,ch.36,p.573,replytoLuTzuching.cv
25.Ihsehch'imeng,2:1ab.
26.Chouipeni,commentaryon"AppendedRemarks,"pt.1,ch.5.
27.Ihsehch'imeng,2:15ab.ShaoYung'sstatementsarefoundintheHuangchichingshih,7:4041.
28.Ihsehch'imeng,2:3a.
29.ChuTzuylei,67:7.
30.Ibid.,98:6.
31.Chouipeni,ch.1,commentaryonthetextofthesecondhexagram,k'un(female).
32.Ibid.,commentaryonthelowestlineofthek'unhexagram.
33.Ihsehch'imeng,2:15a.
34.Chouipeni,ch.1,commentaryonthetextofthefirsthexagram,ch'ien(male).
35.Ihsehch'imeng,3:7a.
36.ChuTzuylei,65:1.
37.Ibid.,74:5.
38.Chouipeni,ch.1,commentaryonthelowestlineofthek'unhexagram.
39.Ihsehch'imeng,1:4b.
40.Ibid.,2:b.ForChouTuni'sstatement,seetheChouTzuch'uanshucw[CompleteworksofMasterChou],(Wanyuwenk'ucx[Universallibrary]ed.),ch.1,p.
6.
41.ChuTzuylei,65:3.
42.Ibid.,74:3.
43.Chouipeni,ch.3,commentaryon"AppendedRemarks,"pt.1,ch.2.

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44.ChuTzuylei,65:1.
45.Ibid.,65:8.
46.Chouipeni,ch.3,commentaryon"AppendedRemarks,"pt.1,ch.9.TheillustrationsuggestedbyDr.JosephNeedhamaboutthehot'udiagramseems
somewhatdifferentfromitsoriginalmeaning.SeetheChineseversionofScienceandCivilisationinChina,vol.III,onmathematics(Beijing:SciencePublishing
House,1978),p.127.
47.YangHsiung,T'aihsanching(Ch'ungwencyBookCo.:1875reprint),10:3.
48.Ihsehch'imeng,1:lb5b.
49.Ibid.,1:5a.
50.Ibid.,1:5ab.
51.Chouipeni,ch.3,commentaryon"AppendedRemarks,"pt.1,ch.9.
52.Ihsehch'imeng,1:6a.
53.Ibid.,1:6b.
54.ChuTzuylei,74:3.
55.Ibid.,71:8.
56.Ibid.,74:12.
57.Ibid.,74:11.
58.Analects,2:4.
59.ChuTzuylei,75:24.
60.Ibid.,74:3.
61.Ibid.,74:12.
62.Ibid.,74:3.
63.Ibid.,75:24.
64.Ibid.,75:24.
65.Ibid.,75:24.
66.Chouipeni,ch.1,commentaryontheremarksonthetext.
67.Ibid.,ch.3,commentaryon"AppendedRemarks,"pt.1,ch.2.
68.ChuTzuylei,74:1011.
69.Ibid.,66:17.
70.HuangTsunghsi,Ihsehhsiangshuluncz[OnemblemsandnumbersoftheBookofChanges],(KuangyadaBookCo.ed.),ch.5,p.2.
71.HuangTsungyen,Chouishenmenylundb[ComplementarynotesonthesearchforawaytounderstandtheBookofChanges],(ChaotaidcSeriesed.),p.9.
Glossary

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19
ChuHsi'sDisciplineofPropriety
KaoMing
ContentsoftheDisciplineofProprietyofChuHsi
TheDisciplineofProprietyisalsocalledtheDisciplineoftheThreeProprieties.Itcoversthefollowingsubjects.
1.ThestudyofChouli,a(RitualofChou)orChoukuanb(GovernmentorganizationoftheChoudynasty)dealswiththestateorganizationandsystemsoftheChou
dynasty(1111249B.C.).Theorganizationandinstitutionsofastatevarygreatlyaccordingtothespecificrequirementsofdifferenttimes.Nevertheless,the
experiencesandideasofstateorganizationoftheChoudynastyhavebeenanimportantsourceofreferenceandinspirationforlaterdynastiessincetheHan(206B.C.
A.D.220).Forinstance,ChengHsanc(127200)oftheHandynastycomparedtheHansystemwiththatoftheChouinhisChoulichud(AnnotationsoftheChou
li).ChiaKungyene(fl.650)oftheT'angdynasty(618907)comparedtheT'angsystemwiththatoftheChouinhisChoulishuf(CommentariesontheChouli),
whileTuYug(735812),alsoascholaroftheT'ang,didthesameinhisT'ungtienh(Encyclopediaofinstitutionsandcustoms).ScholarsoftheSungdynasty(960
1279)werenoexception.Forinstance,SsumaKuangi(10191086)citedpassagesoftheChouliassupportingevidenceinhis"Lunts'ailishu"j(Memorialtothe
throneonwealthandprofit).1Similarly,WangAnshihk(10211086)wrotetheChoukuanhsinil(NewmeaningsoftheChoukuan)insupportofhis
unprecedentedpoliticalreform.AfterWang'sabortiveattempt,SungscholarsseldomdirectedtheireffortstowardthestudyoftheChouli.Nevertheless,ChuHsistill
consideredtheChouli"thekeylinkofpropriety"inhis''Ch'ihsiusanlitatzu"m(MemorialtothethroneaskingforrenovationoftheThreeProprieties).2Healso
wrotethe"Choulisanteshuo"n(ThethreevirtuesoftheChouli)andthe"Choulit'aichuchiupaipien"o(DiscussionontheGrandPlayer'sninesalutes)aswellas
othersimilartreatises.3ItisevidentthathealsohasthoroughlystudiedtheChouli,directinghismainconcernatthepartsconcerningprinciplesandrulesofpropriety,
inotherwords,thepartsthatcouldbeassociatedwiththoseintheLichip(Bookofpropriety)andIliq(Bookofrituals).

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2.ThestudyofIlidealswiththecodesofconductofsociallife.Althoughsocietychangesconstantly,manstillretainshisbasicnatureandhisrelationshipwithother
people.Therefore,thesocialrulesoftheChoudynastywerestillvaluableintheeyesofthepeopleoftheSungdynasty.ChuHsiwasamanwithkeeninterestinsocial
rules,believingthatsocialunrestwascausedbythedecayofmoralvirtuesinsociety,whichwasinturnattributabletothefailuretoassignsufficientauthoritytothe
rulesofsociallife.Thus,herepeatedlyaskedthegovernmenttopromulgatebooksofproprietyaswellastoreviseandaddtothosealreadyavailable.Forinstance,
chapter20oftheCollectionofLiteraryWorkscontainsthe"Ch'ipanchianglishuchuang"r(Memorialtothethroneaskingforpromulgationofbooksonpropriety)
and"Ch'itsenghsiulishuchuang"s(Memorialtothethroneaskingforadditiontobooksonpropriety).4Inhis"Postface"toChangShih'st(11331180)Sanchiali
fanu(Examplesofproprietybythreescholars),hegreatlypraisedSsumaKuang'sShuiv(Correspondenceandetiquette).5HewrotetheChialiw(Familyetiquette)
andtheIlichingchuant'ungchiehx(ComprehensiveexegesisofthetextofandcommentariesontheIli).HisFamilyEtiquettewasintendedforadoptionbyhis
contemporariestheComprehensiveExegesisannotatestheIliwithoriginalpassagesfromtheLichiandotherClassicsandhistoricalwritings,aswellaswith
previousannotationsandcommentariesontheIli,theChouli,andtheLichiascitedintheAnnotationsofandCommentariesontheThirteenClassics.The
ComprehensiveExegesisishisattempttoassociatethecodesofconductandrulesofsociallifewithmoralprinciplesandreasonsthatoriginateandsupportthem,in
ordertoprovidethereaderwithanadequateunderstandingoftheserulesandcodesthatwouldinturnstrengthenhiswillingnessanddeterminationtopracticethem.
Moreover,theExegesisdividesitscontentsintosuchsectionsas"FamilyRituals,""CountryRituals,''"SchoolRituals,""StateRituals,"and"RitualsoftheKing's
Court,"whichcoveralltherulesofsociallifeatalllevelsandonalloccasions,suchasthe"auspicious,mourning,military,visitingandreception,andcelebrating"
protocolandceremonies.ThisisconsideredthemostimportantpartofhisDisciplineofpropriety.
3.ThestudyoftheLichidealswiththemeaningandsignificanceofstateorganizationandinstitutionsaswellaswiththerulesofsociallifeandcertainrelated
academicmatters.TheLichiisacollectionofarticles,authoredoreditedbyConfucianscholarsafterthedeathofConfucius(551479B.C.)uptotheearlyperiodof
theHandynastyandincludingwritingsbyConfucius'disciplesorlaterfollowerssuchasYenYen,yPuShang,zTsengShen,aaTzussu,ab6andothers,whichelucidate
andexpoundtheconceptsandtheoriesofConfucius.TheinfluenceoftheLichishouldbelessprominentthanthatoftheBookofMenciusandtheHsnTzu.ac
WhilethewordsanddeedsofConfuciusarerecordedintheAnalects,theLichicontainstheconceptsandtheoriesofConfucianismasrefinedanddevelopedafter
thepassingawayoftheMaster.FollowingthestepsofCh'engHaoad(10321085)andCh'engIae(1033

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1107),ChuHsimadeenergeticeffortstoelucidatetheGreatLearningandtheDoctrineoftheMean,whichwereoriginallytwoseparatetreatisesintheLichi.In
explainingtheultimategoaloflearning,theGreatLearningstartsfrom"manifestingtheillustriousvirtue"manifestingthevirtuousnatureendowedinoneselfthen
goesonto"enablingallthepeopletobeintimatewitheachother,"andfinallyto"restinginthehighestexcellence."Itrecommendsthatthestepsforsuchan
achievementshouldbe''investigationofthings,""achievementofknowledge,""sincerityofthewill,""rectificationoftheheart,""cultivationofoneself,""regulationofthe
family,""governmentofthestate,"andfinally,"makingthewholeworldjustandpeaceful."Allthisoffersasystematic,complete,andstepbystepelucidationofthe
philosophyoflifeandpoliticalphilosophyupheldbyConfucianism,whicharecenteredonmorality.ItisindeedthemostmaturethoughtofConfucianism.Similarin
nature,theDoctrineoftheMeanexpoundsthatinlearningthetruthoftheuniverseandthepaththatmanshouldtake,onemustfollow,andbringintofullplay,the
virtuousnatureoneisendowedwith.Theopeningparagraphsays:"WhatHeavenhasconferrediscalledthenatureanaccordancewiththisnatureiscalledthepath
theregulationofthispathiscalledinstruction."Thisisthetruthandpaththatmanmustkeeptowithoutamomentofdeviation.Evenifheisallalone,outofthesight
andhearingofothers,hemuststillbe"cautiousandapprehensive."Thatiswhatmaybecalled"beingwatchfuloveroneselfwhenalone."Theultimategoalisto
achieveastateof"equilibrium"withoutdeviation,inclination,excess,orinsufficiency.Thus,amanwillbeabletoregulatehisemotionsandfeelingssuchaspleasure,
anger,sorrow,orjoy,andarriveatthestateof"harmony"theharmonybetweennatureandmanandamongmen.Throughwhatiscalled"achievementofequilibrium
andharmony,"allcreaturesintheuniversecanhavetheirproperplacesanddevelopthemselves.ThisloftyideaisexpressedintheDoctrineoftheMeanas"Ahappy
orderwillprevailthroughoutheavenandearth,andallthingswillbenourishedandflourish."Theideaidentifiesmanwithnatureinaharmoniousoneness,inastate
where"natureandmanformoneunity"amoralstatethatisachievedthroughtheutmostexertionofman'shumaneness,wisdom,andthespiritofbrave
advancement.ItisreasonabletoassertthatthemostrefinedtheoryofConfucianismisveryaptlydefinedtherein.ChuHsianalyzedandrearrangedsentencesand
paragraphsofthesetwotreatises,addedamplecommentariestoillustratetheirsignificance,andcompiledthemintotwobooks,Tahsehchangchuaf(Commentary
ontheGreatLearning)andChungyungchangchag(CommentaryontheDoctrineoftheMean).TogetherwithhisLunychichuah(Collectedcommentaries
ontheAnalects)andMengTzuchichuai(CollectedcommentariesontheBookofMencius),theywereplacedunderasingletitle,Ssushuchichuaj(Collected
commentariesontheFourBooks),whichbecamethemostcherishedreferencefortheSchoolofPrincipleintheSungdynasty.
In"Chungniyench"ak(Confuciusatleisure)intheLichi,itisrecorded

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al

thatConfuciussaidthat"proprietyisthepracticeofprinciple"in"Yehchi" (Recordofmusic)intheLichi,Confuciusisagainquotedassayingthat"proprietyisthe
principlethatcannotbealtered."7Accordingly,sinceprincipleresidesinpropriety,thentheSchoolofPrincipleisderivedfromthe''disciplineofpropriety."Thereason
thatChuHsibecameoneofthemostdistinguishedmastersoftheSchoolofPrincipleisattributabletohisprofoundstudyandunderstandingofpropriety,especially
thestudyoftheLichi.ItmustbepointedoutherethathisstudyoftheLichiisbynomeanslimitedtotheGreatLearningandtheDoctrineoftheMean.For
instance,inthe"TableofContents"ofhisComprehensiveExegesis,hehasemphasized:"'Hsehchi'am(Recordofschooling)describestheschools'processof
teaching,oftransmittingthedoctrine,andofprovidingknowledgeaswellasthecausesofsuccessandfailure,meritsanddemeritsofeducation.Itshouldhave
coveredbothadvancedandprimaryschooling.However,previouscommentariesonithavemostlymissedthepoint.Now,withreferencetotheviewpointsofMaster
ChangofHengch'an(ChangTsai,10201177)andwithideasofmyown,Ihavemadeadditionalannotationstoit."8ItisevidentthatChuHsipaidequalattentionto
the"Hsehchi."AstootherworkscontainedintheLichi,hehasasmuchaspossibleintegratedtheirpassagesintotheComprehensiveExegesistoassociatethe
theoreticalsayingswithrules,andprinciplewithpractice.Thisisthemostsignificantachievementofhisstudyofpropriety.
ChuHsi'sWorksontheDisciplineofPropriety
TheComprehensiveExegesisoftheTextoftheCommentariesontheIlicanberegardedasthemostimportantworkofthiskindproducedbyChuHsi,
althoughitwasnotentirelycompletedbyhisownhands.Ininitialpreparation,thebookhadbeenentitledIlichichichuanchichuao(Collectedcommentariesonthe
annotationsoftheIli).Thepresenttitlewasadoptedafterhisrevisioninlateryears.Itwasnotpublisheduntil1217atNank'angapafterhisdeathin1200.This
editioncontains,underthepresenttitle,fivechaptersof"FamilyRituals,"threechaptersof"CountryRituals,"elevenchaptersof"SchoolRituals,"andfourchaptersof
"StateRituals,"totallingtwentythreechapterswithfortytwoarticleslistedinthetableofcontents.However,onearticlelistedunder"WritingandMathematics"is
missing,whileeightarticlesfrom"GrandArchery"to"MutualVisitsAmongStatePrinces"areunfinished.Inthesameeditionbutundertheoldtitle,thereareeighteen
articlescontainedinchapters2437.Theyarethe"RitualsoftheKing'sCourt."Moreover,amongthelistedarticlestheoneentitled"PrognosticationandDivination"is
missing,whileinthetableofcontents,theforewordsandremarksforthearticlesfromchapter31,whichisentitled"AscendingtheThrone,"tothelastareallmissing.
Itisthereforeevidentthatthiseditionistheunfinishedone.
Infact,ChuHsihadaskedHuangKanaq(11521221),oneofhisstudents,

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torevisedraftsofthe"FuneralRites"and"SacrificialRites."In1219,HuangKancompletedtherevisionoffifteenchaptersofthe"FuneralRites"hediedofillnessnot
longafter.In1222,fouryearsafterhisdeath,ChangFuar(fl.1222)publishedtherevised''FuneralRites"atNank'ang.AsacompletebookplannedbyChuHsi,the
jobstillwasunfinished.Sometimelater,YangFuas(fl.1222),anotherstudentofChuHsi,revisedthedraftsoffourteenchaptersof"SacrificialRites"andpublished
them.TogetherwiththepreviouslypublishedworksunderthetitlesofComprehensiveExegesisandtheCollectedCommentariesontheAnnotationsoftheIli,
andbothHuangKan'sandYangFu'srevisions,thebookasnowavailablecontainssixtysixchapters.AlthoughthebookwasnotentirelycompletedbyChuHsi
himself,HuangKanandYangFuwerehisdisciplesandtheyfollowedtheformatandstyleoftheirmasterveryclosely.Thereshouldbenoseriousquestionaboutthe
editorship.
IntheCompleteCollectionoftheFourLibrariesthereisafivechapteredition(withonechapterof"Supplements")oftheChiali.ListedinboththeChikuko
chents'angmipenshumuat(BibliographyofrareeditionskeptintheChikuPavilion)byMaoIau(16401686)andtheHsiaotz'ut'angshumuav(Bibliographyof
Hsiaotz'uHall)byWangWenyanaw(1663?),isthefivechapterSungeditionofChuHsi'sFamilyEtiquette.InthecollectivebibliographyofreprintsofSung
originalscompiledbyTengChungyehaxoftheMingdynasty(13681644),theFamilyEtiquetteconsistsoffivechaptersplusonechapterofsupplements.This
mightbetheeditionadoptedbythecompilersoftheCompleteCollectionoftheFourLibraries.Forcriticaldescriptions,seetheSsushuch'anshutsungmut'i
yaoay(EssentialpointsaboutworksintheCompleteCollectionoftheFourLibraries),compiledbyChuYnaz(17941805)andotherswithsupplementbyHu
Ychinba(18581940).9
However,listedinboththeT'iehch'int'ungchienloushumubb(BibliographyoftheIronLuteBronzeSwordTower)byCh'Yungbc(fl.1850)andtheTunghu
ts'ungchibd(CollectednotesofTunghu)byChiangKuanghsbe(18131860)bothoftheCh'ingdynasty(16441912),arecopiesofthetenchapterSungedition
oftheTsuant'uchichuWenKungChialibf(ChuHsi'sFamilyEtiquettewithillustrationsandcollectedannotations).Furthermore,thistenchaptereditionis
markedwiththewords"WithannotationssupplementedbyYangFuandadditionalannotationsbylaterfollowerLiuKaisunbg[fl.1222]."Thiseditioncontainsone
chapterof"CommonEtiquette,"onechapterof"CappingCeremony,"fivechaptersof"FuneralRites,"andtwochaptersof"SacrificialRites."The"Prefacebythe
Author"thereinisareproductionofChuHsi'sownhandwriting.ItisthenevidentthatevenintheSungdynastythereweretwodifferenteditionsoftheFamily
Etiquette,oneinfivechaptersandoneinten.Inhis"BiographicalAccount"ofChuHsi,HuangKanpointedoutthat"theFamilyEtiquetteauthoredbyhimhasbeen
widelyadoptedforpracticeinsociety.Hemadedeletionsandadditionsbutwasnotabletomakeafinalrevisionofthebookinhislifetime."10Itis

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obviousthatChudidwritetheFamilyEtiquette,whichwascirculatedwidely.Healsomadeseveraladditionsanddeletionsbutdidnothavetimetocompleteafinal
version.Furthermore,the"PrefacetotheFamilyEtiquette"canalsobefoundintheCollectionofLiteraryWorksofChuHsi,11withminordifferencesofwording
fromthatpublishedinthetenchapteredition.Understandably,someminorchangesmighthavebeenmadebetweenitspreparationforthebookanditslaterinclusion
intheCollectionofLiteraryWorks.Moreover,thedateofcompletionoftheFamilyEtiquetteisrecordedintheChuTzunienp'ubh(Chroniclebiographyof
MasterChuHsi)12whilethe"Supplement"tothebookexplainshowitwaslostandrecovered.Thus,thereshouldbenodoubtaboutitsauthenticity.
Nonetheless,WangMaohungbi(16681741),aCh'ingdynastyauthorityonthestudyofChuHsi'sscholarship,producedatreatiseentitled"Chialik'ao"bj(An
investigationintotheFamilyEtiquette).Thiswork,collectedinhisPait'ientsachubk(MiscellaneousworksofWangMaohung),13energeticallyarguesthatthe
FamilyEtiquettewasnotaworkbyChuHsi.Wanghasexpressedseriousdoubtsaboutthebookbypointingoutthecontroversialsayingsinthe"Biographical
Account,"theChronicleBiography,the''PrefacetotheFamilyEtiquette,"andthe"SupplementtotheFamilyEtiquette"aswellasbynotingthatthebookwas
rarelymentionedintheCollectionofLiteraryWorksandtheClassifiedConversationsofChuHsi.Wanghasalsowrittenthe"Chialihouk'ao"bl(Afurther
investigationintotheFamilyEtiquette),whichcontainsseventeenitems,quotingtheviewpointsin"Chialipien"bm(DisputingtheFamilyEtiquette)byMisterYingbn
oftheYandynasty(12711368)andthoseofCh'iuChnbo(14181495)oftheMingdynastyinsupportofhisownopinion.Hethenwrotethe"Chialik'aowu"bp
(AnexaminationoftheerrorsintheFamilyEtiquette)containingfortysixitems,inwhichhecitedancientcodesofritualtodebatetheauthenticityofChuHsi'swork.
Letuslookatthematterofauthenticityanotherway.Tobeginwith,the"PrefacetotheFamilyEtiquette"writtenbyChuHsiwasincludedintheCollectionof
LiteraryWorksofMasterChuHsi.Thisisbeyondreasonabledoubt.Becausethe"BiographicalAccount,"theChronicleBiography,andthe"Supplementtothe
FamilyEtiquette"wereproducedbydifferentauthors,itisunderstandablethattheycontainsomecontroversialpoints.Thesepoints,however,cannotnegatethefact
thatChuHsididwritethebook.AstotheviewpointsofYingandCh'iu,Ch'iualsoconsideredYing'sopinionincorrect.Moreover,evenWanghimselfcriticizedCh'iu
statementsas"inaccurateandunreliable"theycannotresolvethedoubtsinthemindofothers."Therefore,"AFurtherInvestigationintotheFamilyEtiquette"cannot
beregardedasplausiblescholarship.
Infact,ChuHsipointedlyemphasizedinhis"PrefacetotheFamilyEtiquette":InthetimeofthethreeancientdynastiesHsia(21831752?B.C.),Shang(1751
1112?B.C.),andChou,thecodesofetiquettewerecomplete.However,thoseextanttoday...arenotsuitableforcontemporarysociety.

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Althoughsomeacknowledgedgentlemenhavemaderulesforcontemporarytimesbyweighingthechangesfromancienttimestothepresent,suchworksstilllack
discriminationwhilebeingrathersimpleincontent....Therefore,Ihaveconsultedworksofancientandmoderntimesandhavecomeupwithmyownopinionby
adoptingthoseitemsthatcannotbealteredandmakingsomeminordeletionsfromandadditionstothem."14Itisafactthatancientetiquetteisnotsuitableforlater
generations.Ofcourse,informulatinghisworkwithreferencetothechangessinceancienttimes,ChuHsididnotsticktotheinstitutionsofancienttime.Thus,Wang
citingancientrulestodebatetheauthenticityoftheFamilyEtiquettecanbeconsideredasshowingignorancetothe"changesfromancienttimestothepresent."To
reiterate,theFamilyEtiquettewaswrittenbyChuHsiforadoptionbyhiscontemporaries,andisofadifferentnaturefromthe"FamilyEtiquette"portionofthe
ComprehensiveExegesisoftheTextoftheCommentariesontheIli,whichinquiresintoancientrituals.Oneshouldnotlumpthemtogetherassomething
identical.Therefore,itappearsfairtosaythatWangfailedtobuildaplausiblecaseforrefutation.
AbriefmentionoftheCollectionofLiteraryWorksofMasterChuHsimightbeappropriatebecauseitcontainsnumerouspassagesconcerningthestudyofthe
Chouli,theIli,andtheLichi.Besidesthefewthathavebeenmentionedpreviouslyinthispaper,therearemorethanahundredsinglearticlesinthecollection
whichresearch,examine,discuss,andelucidatethesystems,details,principles,andsignificanceofritualsofancientandcontemporaryperiods.Hisopinionsappearto
bewellbalancedandfeasiblewhileatthesametimemeticulousandpenetratingandtheinsightsareexcellent.Whenstudyinghisdisciplineofpropriety,these
materialsshouldnotbeoverlooked.15
OftheeditionsofCh'uHsi'sdialogues,the140chapterChuTzuyleibq(ClassifiedconversationsofMasterChu)16isofcoursethemostcomplete.Ch'engCh'uanbr
oftheCh'ingdynastyselectedfromitthesayingsrelatedtotheFiveClassicsandcompiledthemintoasinglebookineightychaptersentitledChuTzuwuchingy
leibs(ClassifiedconversationsofMasterChu,concerningtheFiveClassics)thatcontainsfortychaptersofsayingsontheBookofChanges,ninechaptersonthe
BookofHistory,sevenchaptersontheBookofOdes,threechaptersontheSpringandAutumnAnnuals,andtwentyonechaptersonLi(Propriety).Sinceone
fourthoftheedition'scontentsareaboutpropriety,ithasanabundanceoforiginalmaterial.ItwouldbeadvisableforonestudyingChuHsi'sdisciplineofproprietyto
payattentiontoit.17
LiKuangtibt(16421718)hasalsocompiledafivechapterChuTzulitsuanbu(CollectionofMasterChu'ssayingsaboutpropriety)18bygatheringtogethersuch
passagesandsayingsoriginallycontainedinChuHsi'sCollectedLiteraryWorksandClassifiedConversationsbutnotintheComprehensiveExegesisand
FamilyEtiquette.Thebookisdividedintothecategoriesof"General,""CappingandWedding,""Funeral,""Sacrificial,''and"Miscella

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neousEtiquette."ItoffersarathersystematicanditemizedreferencetoresearchersofChuHsi'sdisciplineofproprietysothattheydonothavetospendtoomuch
timepiecingtogetherthescatteredmaterials.Thebookisconsideredaveryhelpfulreference.However,therestillareafewomissions.Examplesoftheseomissions
areChuHsi'sanswertoP'anKungshubv(fl.1180),whichdiscussesthestyleandformatofintegratingtheLichiandtheIliandcompilingitintoasinglebook19the
"ShuCh'engTzu's'T'ishuo'hou"bw(PostscripttoCh'engI's"DiscussionoftheT'iSacrifice"20the"Choulisanteshuo,''andthe"Yehchitungchingshuo"bx
(Discussionofthedynamicsandstaticsofthe"RecordofMusic")21andcertainotherwritings.AlthoughChuHsi'slettertoWuHuishu,by22whichexpresseshis
opinionthatthegrandancestraltempleshouldhavefacedsouthwhiletheancestraltabletsfacedeast,isquitesimilarinprinciplewithhisletterinanswertoWangTzu
ho,bz23theformercontainsamuchclearerandmoredetailedexpositionofhisviews.Intentionallyorotherwise,LiKuangtihasrejectedthemoredetailedoneinfavor
ofthelessusefulone,whichmayhavebeenanunwisedecision.ThingslikethesecanbeconsideredminorshortcomingsofLi'sedition.InourstudyofChuHsi's
disciplineofpropriety,Li'sworkcansaveusalotoftrouble.Oneshouldnotoverlookhissignificantcontributionsdespitetheseminordeficiencies.
Besidestheworksalreadymentioned,LiangWanfangcaoftheCh'ingdynastyhasalsopublishedasixtyninechaptereditionoftheCh'ungk'anChuTzuIliching
chuant'ungchiehcb(ReprintofMasterChu'sComprehensiveExegesisoftheTextofandCommentariesontheIli).24Althoughcalledareprint,theeditionis
actuallyarevisionthathasalteredtheoriginalbeyondrecognition.WhereasCh'iuChnoftheMingdynastycompiledaneightchapterChialiichiehcc(Ceremonial
usagesfromtheFamilyEtiquette),25abookwasalsopublishedunderthesametitleandinthesamenumberofchaptersbutwiththecompiler'snamedesignatedas
YangShencd(14881559).Thelatterisinfactapiratedcopyoftheformer.26IntheCh'ingdynasty,WangFulicealsoproducedatenchaptereditionofChialipien
tingcf(FamilyEtiquettecriticallyfinalized).27Inall,theworksmentionedinthisparagraphareactuallyrewritingsbasedonChuHsi'sworkswithdeletionsand
additions.Theyarenotusefulassourcematerialsbecausetheydeviategreatlyfromtheoriginal.
EvaluationofChuHsi's"DisciplineofPropriety"
Asmentionedpreviously,themostimportantachievementofChuHsi'sstudyofproprietyliesinhisassociationandsynthesisof,ontheonehand,principleswithrules,
and,ontheother,theorieswithpractices.Hewasabletoachievethissynthesisbecausesofhisthoroughresearchintotheannotationsofandcommentariesonthe
threeClassicsofproprietybypreviouseminentscholarssuchasChengHsanandChiaKungyen.IntheSungdynasty,

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manyscholarsoftheSchoolofPrinciplewereinclinedtoneglecttheannotationsandcommentariesbythescholarsoftheHanandT'angperiodswhilebeingfondof
abstractdiscussionsofprinciple.SomeofthemwereevenConfucianistinnamewhileBuddhistMeditationistinnaturetheyignoredtheConfucianClassicsandsought
insteadanuncloudedheartthroughmeditation.ChuHsiwasdifferent.NotonlydidheencourageotherstoreadthenecessaryClassics,butalsotheannotationsand
commentariesbyHanandT'angscholars.Hedeploredthosewhoignoredproperstudyandsaid,"Thewellinformedgentlemenoftodaydonotreadproperbooks
andproperannotationsandcommentaries."28Healsocommented,"Sincethebeginningofthecurrentdynasty,scholarshavejuststucktoannotationsand
commentariesandthentalkedabouttheWay.PeoplelikethetwoSubrothers[SuShih,cg10361101,andSuCh'e,ch10391112]justwantedtotalkaboutthe
Way.Buthowcanonerejecttheannotationsandcommentaries!"29InhislettertoChangChingfu(ChangShih,ci11331180)discussingdoubtfulsayingsintheBook
ofMencius,hesaid,"Thebook[theMencius]hasnotbeenreadagainbecauseoflackoftime.ButIhavereadonceagaintheChouliandtheIli.Becausethere
areannotationsandcommentaries,Idonotfindthereadingexhausting.''30Furthermore,inhisletterinanswertoYChengfu,cjChuHsihasemphasizedthat"inthe
extanteditionsofclassicalproprietybooks,thereareoriginalmissingparts.TheymustbesupplementedwiththeannotationsandcommentariesbyHanandT'ang
scholars.OneshouldnotonlyrelyontheClassicaltextsandsimplyrejectthoseannotationsandcommentaries."31TheevidencethusshowsthatChuHsihadnotonly
studiedthepreviousannotationsandcommentaries,butalsoadvisedotherstodosowhilecriticizingthosewhodidnot.
Asamatteroffact,inpreparingtheComprehensiveExegesisoftheTextofandCommentariesontheIli,ChuHsimademeticulousreferencestotheannotations
andcommentariesbybothHanandT'angscholars.Moreover,whilehavingcarefullyinvestigatedtheAnnotationsbyChengHsanoftheHandynastyandthe
CommentariesbyChiaKungyenoftheT'angdynastyandthusobtainedaprofoundunderstandingoftheirscholarship,hewasalsoabletocorrecttheerrorsand
supplementtheomissionsinthem.Ineditorialmethodology,headoptedtheexcellentwaysofCheng,whichwerefurtherdevelopedbyChia.Thus,hewasableto
renderthedifficultIliintoaneasierreading.InhisletterinanswertoLiChichangckhesaid,"ForyearsIhavehadthedesiretoedittheIlibyseparatingthe
paragraphsandsentencesthereinaswellasbyattachingcommentariesandothermaterialstoit.Recently,Icompletedmorethantenparts.Thatseemstoberatheran
achievement.Iexpectthattherestofthebookcanbefinishedbeforetheendoftheyear.Alltheconfusedportionsandtextualmistakesinithavebeenpointedoutby
previousscholars.However,sincethebookisaconglomerationofwordswithoutdivisionintoparagraphs,itisadifficultthingtoread.IfIcanmakeitclearerand
betterorganizedassomethingeasiertoread,itwould

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32

besomekindofcontribution." Thisiswhathehasdone.ChuHsi'smethodwasemulatedbylaterscholars.Forinstance,intheCh'ingdynasty,ChangErhch'icl
(16121677)adopteditinhisIliChengchuchtucm(TheIliannotatedbyCh'engHsanwithdivisionofsentences)33whileWuChienhuacndidthesameinhisI
lichangchco(TheIliwithdivisionofparagraphsandsentences).34TheLishukangmucp(GeneraloutlineofBooksofPropriety)byChiangYungcq(16811762)
35ofthesamedynastytooktheComprehensiveExegesisasabasicreferenceand,quitenaturally,ChiangalsoadoptedChu'smethodofediting.Thesamemethod
wasagainadoptedbyHsCh'ienhsehcr(16311694)inhisTulit'ungk'aocs(Generalinvestigationintoreadingsofpropriety)36andbyCh'inHuit'ienct(1702
1764)inhisWulit'ungk'aocu(Generalinvestigationintothefivecategoriesofpropriety).37ThisshowsthefarreachinginfluenceofChu'sscholarlyefforts.
The"directionstothereader"inChengHsan'sannotationsoftheIliguidethereadertoitemsdealingwithsimilarsubjectsthatarescatteredthroughoutthebook.
ChiaKungyenprovidedthesameinhiscommentariestotheIliwhileaddingsomethatChenghadomitted.38Becauseoftheirprofoundunderstandingoftheoriginal
editingrulesoftheIli,ChengandChiawereabletoworkoutannotationsandcommentaries.Bythesametoken,becauseofChuHsi'sthoroughknowledgeofsuch
annotationsandcommentaries,helikewiseknewthevalueofthe"directionstothereader."HebeganhisletterinanswertoCh'enTs'aich'ing,cv"Youknowthatthere
isasystematicwaytoreadtheIli.Thatisverygood!Althoughthebookisdifficulttoread,manypassagesaresimplyrepetitions.Ifoneknowsthecategorical
classificationofitandmakescrossreferencetothefollowingandpreceedingpassagessothatthesepassagescanelucidateeachother,aftersometimehewillcome
upwithacomprehensiveunderstanding.''39WhatChuHsicalls"categoricalclassification"isidenticalwith"directionstothereader."ChuHsiwasabletoachievea
comprehensiveunderstandingofthisClassicalworkonproprietybecauseofhismasteryofthe"directionstothereader"suggestedintheannotationsand
commentariesofChengandChia.
However,ChuHsiwasnotapedantstayinginarut.Asmentionedbefore,hemadecorrectionsandadditionstotheworkofpreviouseminentscholarssuchasCheng
andChia.40Allthisclearlydemonstrateshissolidacademicfoundationandseriousnessofattitude.
ChuHsi'sscholarlyeffortsnotwithstanding,theComprehensiveExegesisoftheIlicannotbeconsideredaperfectwork.Ontheonehand,Chuhastakenpassages
oftheLichiandusedthemtoannotatepassagesintheIli.Ontheotherhand,hehasexcludedthe"MeaningofCapping"and"MeaningofWedding"oftheLichi
fromhisannotationsof"CappingCeremonyforScholar"and"WeddingCeremonyforScholar"intheIlibyputtingthemunderindependentchaptertitles.The
"DomesticMannerism,""DomesticManagement,""FiveClans,"and"Relatives"arechaptersnotoriginallycontainedintheIli.OnewonderswhyChuHsishould
havetakenthematerials

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intheLichi,supplementedthemwithpreviousannotationsandcommentaries,andputthemintheExegesisasoriginal"classictexts."Furthermore,inthe
ComprehensiveExegesisthesequenceofchaptersoftheoriginalIliwasrearranged,withsomealterationofpassages.41Suchliberalalterationsoftheoriginaltext
andcommentariesareamatterofcontroversy.ItappearsthattheeditorsoftheCompleteCollectionofBooksintheFourLibrariesdisagreewithsuch
rearrangements.42Thebook,however,wasnotcompletedbyChuHsihimselfpartswererevisedbyHuangKanandYangFu.Althoughtheeditorialstyleofthe
bookisconsistent,shortcomingsareinevitable.
ApplicationofChuHsi'sdisciplineofproprietyinreallifeismainlyillustratedintheFamilyEtiquette.Lifechanges,andandsodothecodesofconductand
propriety.Itissaidinthe"RecordofMusic"oftheLichithat"KingsoftheThreeDynastiesdidnotcopytheritualsofthepreceedingdynastybecauseofdifferences
insociety."43Andithasalsobeenemphasizedinthe"CeremonialObjects"chapteroftheLichithat"inpropriety,timelinessismostimportant."44TheK'aiyanlicw
(EtiquettepreparedintheK'aiyanperiod,713755)wasnotentirelypracticableintheSungdynasty,nottomentiontherulesestablishedintheClassicalIli.For
thisreason,SsumaKuangwrotetheCorrespondenceandEtiquetteandChuHsitheFamilyEtiquettefortherequirementsoftheircontemporaries.Ofcourse,
whethertheircontemporarieswouldacceptsuchcodesofconductisaquestionand,understandably,theremusthavebeendifferencesofopinion.Nevertheless,the
principlesadoptedbyChuHsiincreatingsuchaworkappeartobecorrectandsound.
Inthefirstplace,informulatingacodeofetiquetteonemustgraspthefundamentalsofpropriety.Intheopeningofthe"PrefacetotheFamilyEtiquette"ChuHsi
statedthat"Allthingsofproprietyhavefundamentalsandexpressions.Asforthoseapplicableinthefamily,attentiontonameandobligationaswellasmanifestationof
loveandrespectisthefundamental."Intheconclusionhereiterated,"Ingeneral,attentiontonameandobligationaswellasmanifestationofloveandrespectis
consideredthefundamental."45Afamilyisorganizedbyacoupleahusbandandawife.Amaninthenameofhusbandmustperformtheobligationsofahusband,
whilethewifeshouldperformherobligations.Furthermore,agenuineandcompleteagreementofnameandobligationcanonlybeattainedbyloveandrespect.
Mutualloveandrespectbetweenthehusbandandthewifewillensureahappymarriageaswellasaharmoniousfamily.Whenthecouplehavechildren,theybecome
parents.Betweentheparentsandthechildrenarealsocertainobligationstobefulfilledinthenameof"father,"''mother,""son,"and"daughter."Whiletheparents
shouldhaveparentallovetowardtheirchidren,thesonsanddaughtersmustalsobefilialandrespectfultotheirparents.Insuchafamily,thereisalsotherelationship
betweenbrothersandsisters,sincetheyaretheoffspringofthesameparentsandarebeingraisedinthesamefamily.Elderbrothersandsistersshouldloveandtake
careoftheyoungerwhiletheyoun

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geronesoughttorespectandlovetheireldersiblings.Thuswillalargefamilyberenderedmoreharmoniousandhappy.Inalargersense,theparentsofafamilyhave
theirownparents,grandparents,andsoon.Intracingone'sorigin,oneshouldloveandvenerateone'sancestors,howeverremote.Thus,ChuHsibelievedthatin
establishingacodeforfamilylifeintheformofFamilyEtiquette,thefundamentalprincipleshouldbeagenuinefulfillmentoftheobligationsattachedtonamesthrough
conscientiousmanifestationofloveandrespect.ThisisinfactaheritageoftraditionalChineseculture.
Secondly,itisChuHsi'sconvictionthatethicalrelationsshouldbemanifestedindetailinacodeofconduct.Heemphasizedthisbeliefinthe"PrefacetotheFamily
Etiquette"andsaid,"Capping,wedding,sacrifices,protocol,...aremanifestations....Suchmanifestationsareforoutliningandgoverningthedeedandactsof
humanenessfromthebeginningtotheendofhumanlife.Theyaretobepracticedoncertainoccasionsandatcertainplaces.Unlessonehasbeenexplicitlytoldhow
todothemandonehasfrequentlypracticedthem,onewillnotbeabletocarrythemoutcorrectlywhensuddenlyconfrontedwithsuchoccasions.Therefore,they
shouldbefrequentlydiscussedandpracticed."Suchdiscussionsandpracticeshouldbepartoffamilylife.Peoplegrowupunderthecareandeducationoftheir
parents.InthefamiliesofancientChina,whenapersonreachedmaturity,acappingceremonywasheldformalesandaceremonyofbindingupthehairofagirlat
fifteenwasheldforfemales.Suchceremonieswereintendedtotellsonsanddaughtersthattheyhadbecomeadultswhomusthavethepostureandvirtuesproperto
adultsaswellasasenseofresponsibilitytowardtheirancestors,families,andcountry.Atawedding,asolemnceremonywasheldtotelltheyoungcouplethatthis
wasthebeginningofanewlifeforthemaswellasthebeginningofmorenewlives,andeachpartnermustfulfilltheobligationsattachedtothenamesof"husband"and
"wife,''andlateron"father"and"mother,"sothatthemarriagemightbehappyandlonglastingandthatthefamilycouldaccomplishtheroleofsuccessiontoancestors
andinitiationofposterity.Thereareothersocialobligationsaswell.Amancannotisolatehimselffromfamily,society,andcountryallhislife,sotheremustalsobe
etiquettegoverningcontactswithotherpeople.Thiswasdealtwithinthe"etiquetteformutualcontacts"ofancienttimes,whichensuredharmonyinrelationships
betweenindividuals.Likewise,therewere,inancienttimes,the"etiquettefordrinkinginthecommunity"praisingthevirtuousandtalented,the"etiquetteforcommunity
archerycompetition"promotingphysicaltraining,the"etiquetteforentertainment"expressinggratitude,andthe"etiquetteforexchangeofvisits"describingproper
conductinformaldealings.Inthesamevein,therewassolemnfuneraletiquettefortheendofaperson'slife,whichenabledthebereaved,relatives,andfriendsto
expresstheirsorrow.Suchaceremonyrequiredmourningattire,mourningbehavior,andrites.Theseritesincludedthosetobeperformedinthedeathchambersuch
asshroudinganddressingthedeceased,andthoseperformedelsewheresuchas

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cx

cy

encoffining,burying,y (theriteperformedatthetombtoleadthespiritofthedeceasedtotheancestraltemple),andfu (theriteperformedintheancestraltemple

toinitiatetheunionofthenewlydeceasedwiththeancestors).Thefuneralceremonyasawholewasintendedtoturnmourningintoawishwishingthatthespiritof
thedeceasedwouldbeimmortal.AsolemnfuneralaccordingtothedescriptionofTsengShenincludeda"carefulattentionofone'sparentstotheendoflives,"while
theplacingofthetabletofthedeceasedintheancestraltempleincompanywiththeforefathersandmakingreasonablesacrificestoexpresseverlastinggratitudewere
describedas"memoryofancestry."Hesaid,"Withcarefulattentiontotheendofone'sparents'livesandmemoryofone'sancestry,thevirtueofthepeoplewillreach
itsproperexcellence."46Itisunderstandablethatwhenpeoplecanusefuneralceremoniesandsacrificialservicestoreflecttheireverlastingloveandreverencetotheir
deceasedparents,theyshouldbevirtuous.Therefore,inhisFamilyEtiquetteChuHsiplacedspecialemphasisonthepartsdealingwithcapping,wedding,funeral,
andsacrifice,andheformulatedacodeofconductforalloccasionsfromthetimeofinitiationtotheendofhumanlife.Whenpeoplearefamiliarwithwhatisrequired
ontheseoccasions,theywillhavenodifficultyinotherrespectsofsocialbehavior.WhatChuHsididisoffarreachingsignificance.
Third,acodeofproprietymustbepracticable,withduereferencetotraditionandcontemporaryneeds.Inthe"PrefacetotheFamilyEtiquette"ChuHsi
commented,"Inthetimesofthethreeancientdynasties,thecodesofetiquettewerecomplete.However,thoseextanttoday,suchasspecificationsofbuildings,wares,
andclothingaswellastheprescriptionsofmannersandbehavior,arenotsuitableforcontemporarysociety."Becauseofhisconvictionthattheancientrulesof
proprietywereobsoleteintheSungdynasty,hecameupwithhisowncodeofetiquetteby"adoptingthoseitemsthatcannotbealteredinprincipleandmakingminor
deletionsfromandadditionstothem,"withemphasison''rejectingsuperfluousdecorationsandupholdingtheessentialandpractical."47ChuHsiwasbynomeansa
pedantwhostucktoconventions.Certainoftheunderlyingjustificationsandprinciplesoftheancientcodesofproprietyremainedunalterable,however,becausethe
humanfeelingsoftheancientswerenotgreatlydifferentfromthoseofhiscontemporaries.Forthisreason,inpreparingtheFamilyEtiquetteChuHsimeticulously
studiedthecodesintheIliinordertofathomtheirunderlyingprinciplesandreasons,withtheaimoffindingoutwhatwasunalterableandsuitableforadoptioninthe
Sungdynasty.Astothoseitemsunsuitableforcontemporarysociety,hehadtomakedeletionsandadditionsashesawfit.Hisconceptofdoingthingsasnecessity
demandsisfarwiserthanthepedanticpracticeoftakingtheancientwithoutdigestingit.Moreover,inviewofwhathesawastheprevailingconditionofhistimethat
hiscontemporaries"eitherforgetthefundamentalwhileattendingtosuperfluousdetailsorneglecttheessentialswhilebeingdevotedtodecorativeprotocol...and
poor

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peopleareparticularlyworriedthattherewillbenoactofproprietyontheoccasionoftheirdeaths"heregarded"rejectingsuperfluousdecorationsandupholding
theessentialandpractical"asaguidelineforhiscodeofpropriety,hopingthatpeopleatalllevelsofsociety,bothrichandpoor,couldadoptitforpractice.48His
intentionisquitecorrect.
ChuHsi'scommentariesontheGreatLearningandtheDoctrineoftheMean,whichwereoriginallytwoseparatechaptersintheLichi,arehismostprominent
contributiontothestudyofLichi.49SincetheofficialpublicationofhisCollectedCommentariesontheFourBooksbytheImperialInstituteofHigherLearning
(T'aihsehcz)in1211duringtheSungdynasty,theseeditionshavebeenwidelycirculated.50In1313duringtheYandynasty(12771368),ChuHsi'sCollected
CommentariesontheFourBookswasofficiallydesignatedasthestandardreferenceforofficialexaminations,andthestipulationremainedeffectiveinboththeMing
andCh'ingdynasties.51Itwasnotuntil1905inthelateCh'ingdynastythattheoldexaminationsystemwasabolished.Therefore,for582yearsallChineseintellectuals
studiedtheFourBookscommentedonbyChuHsi.ThecommentarieshavealsobeencirculatedinJapan,Korea,Vietnam,andothercountries.Inthemodern
culturalhistoryofChinaandotherAsiancountries,noonecanmatchtheinfluenceofChuHsi.ThemostmatureandrefinedconceptsandtheoriesofConfucianism
havebeenwidelypropagatedthroughhiscommentariesontheGreatLearningandtheDoctrineoftheMean.Thisishisgreatestcontributiontoourculture.
However,hisincorrectdivisionofparagraphsandsentencesandhisdubiouschangesofwordsandarbitraryannotationshashadsomeadverseinfluence.Thisis
somethingwecannot,andshouldnot,defend.Forinstance,theoriginaltextoftheGreatLearningwas,andis,completeandsystematicallyorganized,asisattested
bytheT'angdynastyeditioncollectedintheK'aich'engshihchingda(ClassicsengravedonstoneslabsinthereignofK'aich'engaround836)andtheSungdynasty
blockprintededitionofAnnotationsofandCommentariesontheLichi,whicharepracticallyidentical.52BecausebothCh'engHaoandCh'engIcameupwith
theirownversionswiththeoriginalcontentsrearranged,ChuHsifollowedwithanotherversionbasedonhisownideas.BecauseofthebroadcirculationofChuHsi's
editionoftheGreatLearning,manystudentshavereadonlythis"standardversion"withoutknowingthatthereisanoriginaloneontheotherhand,thosewhoknow
thatthereisanoriginalonehavecomeupwiththeirownrearrangedversions,believing,undertheinfluenceoftheCh'engbrothersandChuHsi,thattheoriginalwork
containsdisorganizedpassages.TheresultisamultitudeofreeditedversionsthathaverenderedtheGreatLearningintosomethingunrecognizable.Suchworksdone
bybetterknownscholarsincludethosebyHuangChendb(12131280),WangPodc(11971274),Ch'engMinchengdd(fl.1445),YangShouch'eng,deKaoKung,df
ChiPen,dgLiuTsungchou,dhKuHsiench'engdi(15501612),HuWeidj(16331714),ChangPohsingdk(16511725),

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dl

53

ChangLhsiang (16111674),andmanyothers. Thiskindofscholarshiphascreatedconfusionforreaderswhilemakingresearchersspendmuchenergyandtime

onitandsometimesevenleadingthemastray.AlthoughtheCh'engbrothersstartedthetrend,ChuHsimustalsobeheldresponsibleforit.Theopeningsentenceof
theoriginaltextoftheGreatLearningreads:"WhattheGreatLearningteachesismanifestingtheillustriousvirtue,enablingthepeopletobeintimatewitheach
other,andrestinginthehighestexcellence."FollowingtheopinionofCh'engI,ChuHsicommentedthatthewordch'indm(tobeintimate)shouldbechangedtohsindn
(renovate),thusturninganactofhumanity,"enablingthepeopletobeintimatewitheachother,"intoaratheroverbearingactiontotransformthepeople.While,
accordingtotheformer,onemayuniteoneselfwithothersasawholewithoutdistinctionbetweenselfandothers,thelatterbuildsabarrierbetweenselfandothersby
placingoneselfabovethegroup."Enablingthepeopletobeintimatewitheachother''isfarmorebroadmindedandgentleheartedthan"renovatingthepeople."One
maywonderwhyChuHsishouldhavemadesuchachangeofwordinginsomethingwhichisregardedasthecorrectexpressionofthetraditionalChinesemind.
AshasbeenexplicitlystatedintheGreatLearning,"investigationofthings,""achievementofknowledge,""sincerityofthewill,""rectificationoftheheart,""cultivation
ofoneself,""regulationofthefamily,""governmentofthestate,"and"makingthewholeworldjustandpeaceful"arestepstoward"manifestingtheillustriousvirtue,"
"enablingthepeopletobeintimatewitheachother,"andfinally"restinginthehighestexcellence."Tobespecific,one's"restinginthehighestexcellence"bywayof
"manifestingtheillustriousvirtue"isclaimedtomakeaman"inwardlyasage"while"restinginthehighestexcellence"through"enablingallthepeopletobeintimatewith
eachother"makeshim"outwardlyaking"whoisabletogoverninakindlywaybyhumaneness.Asshownabove,"investigationintothings"and"achievementof
knowledge"arethefirststepstotheseloftyattainments.AshasbeenclearlyexplainedintheopeningparagraphoftheoriginalversionoftheGreatLearning,
"achievementofknowledge"meansachievingtheknowledgeof"knowingtheroot,"theknowledgeof"knowingwhatisfirstandwhatislast,"andtheknowledgeof
"knowingwheretorest."Theexpression"root"refersto"cultivationofoneself"asstatedinthepassage"fromtheSonofHeavendowntothemassofthepeople,all
mustconsiderthecultivationofthemselvestheroot(ofeverythingbesides)."Thisisthestartingpointofallendeavors.Theexpression"resting"meanstheultimate
"restinginthehighestexcellence"through"manifestingtheillustriousvirtue"and"enablingthepeopletobeintimatewitheachother,"whichisthegoalofallendeavors.
The"rootandbranches"ofthingsandthe"endandbeginning"ofaffairs,whichareexplicitlystatedintheGreatLearningintermsof"cultivationofoneself,"
"regulationofthefamily,""governmentofthestate,"and"makingthewholeworldjustandpeaceful,"definetheorderof"whatisfirstandwhatislast."Witha
knowledgeofthe"root,"theorderofthings,and

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wheretorest,onemayachieve"cultivationofoneself"through"sincerityofthewill"and"rectificationoftheheart.''Thestartingpointof"achievingknowledge"is
"investigationofthings"the"things"thathavetheirrootsandbranchesandthe"affairs"thathavetheirendandbeginningor,toputitmorespecifically,thethingsand
affairsof"cultivationofoneself,""regulationofthefamily,""governmentofthestate,"and"makingthewholeworldjustandpeaceful"for"manifestingtheillustrious
virtue,""enablingthepeopletobeintimatewitheachother,"and"restinginthehighestexcellence."
Theword"investigation"isaroughtranslationoftheChinesewordke,dowhichcanalsobedefinedas"tomeasure."Thisdefinition,originallycontainedintheTs'ang
chiehp'iendp(LexiconofTs'angchieh),hasbeenquotedinLiShan'sdqnotesto"Ynminglun"dr(Onfateanddestiny)intheChaomingwenhsands(Aselection
ofliteraryworkscompiledbyPrinceChaoming).ThiswasalsoconsideredtheoriginalmeaningthatshouldbeappliedtothewordkeintheGreatLearningbythe
prominentCh'ingscholarsHuiTungdt(16971758)andMaoCh'ilingdu(16231716).54Themeaningof"measuring"inthiscontextisquitesimilartothemodern
terms"study"or"research."Hence,asexplainedintheGreatLearning,thestudyof,orresearchinto,the"thingsandaffairs"mentionedabovewillleadto
"achievementofknowledge."ItappearsthatChuHsididnotseekfortherightmeaningof"investigationofthings"and"achievementofknowledge"intheoriginaltext.
Instead,heconcludedthattherewasapassagemissinginthetext,andsohefilledinthegapwithhis"amended"commentaryon"investigationofthings"and
"achievementofknowledge."Itisnotsurprisingthatmanylaterscholarshavecriticizedhissubjectiveandarbitraryapproach.55ChuHsi'sexplanationof"investigation
ofthings"reads,"'Investigation'means'comingto,'and'things'issimilarto'affairs.''Investigationofthings'meansexhaustivelycomingtotheprinciplesofthingsand
affairs,withthedesirethattheutmostpointmaybereached."56Itisclearthatheadded"exhaustively"before"comingto"and"principles"to"thingsandaffairs."Thus
thepassage"achievementofknowledgeliesintheinvestigationofthings"isinterpretedbyChuHsias"achievementofknowledgeliesinexhaustingtheprinciples."He
comestothisinterpretationbyleavingoutthewords"comingto"and"thingsandaffairs."Thisismakingcommentariesbygraftingonwordsandcannotbeconsidered
aseriousattempttoseekoutthetruth.Inhisexplanationof"achievementofknowledge,"hecomments,"'Achieving'means'extendingtotheutmost''knowledge'is
similarto'recognition.'Thetermmeansextendingmyknowledgeandrecognitiontotheutmost,withthedesirethattheremaybenothingwhichitshallnotembrace."57
Thus,the"explanation"hepreparedtosupplementthesupposedlymissingancientpassagereads
Themeaningoftheexpression,"extensionofknowledgeliesintheinvestigationofthings,"isthis:ifwewishtoextendourknowledgetotheutmost,wemustinvestigatethe
principlesofallthethingswecomeintocontactwith,forthe

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intelligentmindofmaniscertainlyformedtoknow,andthereisnotasinglethinginwhichitsprinciplesdonotinhere.Butsolongasallprinciplesarenotinvestigated,man's
knowledgeisincomplete.Onthisaccount,theGreatLearning,attheoutsetofitslessons,instructsthelearner,inregardtoallthingsintheworld,toproceedfromwhat
knowledgehehasoftheirprinciples,andpursuehisinvestigationofthem,tillhereachestheextremepoint.Afterexertinghimselfinthiswayoveralongtime,hewillsuddenly
findhimselfpossessedofawideandfarreachingpenetration.Then,thequalitiesofallthings,whetherexternalorinternal,subtleorcoarse,willallbeapprehended,andthemind,
initsentiresubstanceanditsrelationstothings,willbeperfectlyintelligent.Thisiscalledtheinvestigationofthings.Thisiscalledtheextensionofknowledge.58

Ascanbeseenfromtheabove,itisclearthatChuHsiinterprets"investigationofthings"and"achievementofknowledge"assomethingentirelyrelatedtothe
knowledgeofman'sintelligentmind.Thisconcept,ofcourse,isChuHsi'suniqueandvaluablecontributionofepistemologyorratherCh'engI'scontribution,asChu
pointedoutinhiscommentary.Althoughtheconceptcanprovideaphilosophicalfoundationforvariouskindsofscientificresearchandstudy,itappearsratheroutof
contextintheGreatLearning,whichismainlydevotedtomoralphilosophyforthepurposeofelucidatingthespiritandvalueofmorality.
TheCommentaryontheDoctrineoftheMeanisanotherofChuHsi'simportantworks.Explainingitscentralsignificance,ChuHsihascommentedafterthe
openingchapterofthebook:
First,itshowsclearlyhowtheWayistobetracedtoitsorigininHeaven,andisunchangeable,whilethesubstanceofitisprovidedinourselves,andmaynotbedepartedfrom.
Next,itspeaksoftheimportanceofpreservingandnourishingthis,andofexercisingawatchfulselfscrutinywithreferencetoit.Finally,itspeaksofthemeritoriousachievements
andtransforminginfluenceofsageandspiritualmanintheirhighestextent.TheintentionofTzussudv[fl.483B.C.]59wasthatherebythelearnershoulddirecthisthoughtsinward
andbysearchinginhimself,therefindthesetruths,sothathemightputasidealloutwardtemptationsappealingtohisselfishness,andfillupthemeasureofthegoodnesswhich
isnaturaltohim.60

Again,hiscomprehensionofthesubjecthasthemeritoforiginality.However,itseemsthathehasleftouttheimportantpointthatthegoalofman'seffortsto
understandandfollowtheWayis"attainmentofequilibriumandharmony."Onlythroughtheprocessof"attainmentofequilibriumandharmony"couldmancometo
knowthe"importanceofpreservingandnourishing"thepathaswellasthe"transforminginfluenceofsageandspiritualman.''Afailuretoemphasizethekeyphrase
"attainmentofequilibriumandharmony"intheopeningchapter,whichChuHsicalls"thesumofthewholework,"certainlydeprivesthefollowingchaptersoftheir
centralthemewhiledimmingthemeaningoftheMean.

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Moreover,ChuHsi'sdivisionoftheDoctrineoftheMeanintothirtythreechaptersseemsfragmented,indicatingthathemighthavefailedtograsptheguiding
principleandthesequenceofideasoftheDoctrineoftheMeaninitsoriginalform.Infact,thechaptersdesignatedbyhimastwothroughtwelveareexpositionsof
thetheoryoftheDoctrineoftheMean.Tobespecific,thediscriminationbetweensuperiormanandpettymanisoneofthefunctionsthatthedoctrineemphasizes.
Being"withoutdeviationandinclination"aswellas"notgoingbeyondorfallingshortofit"aredefinitionsoftheMean.LegendarysageEmperorShun'sdw61great
wisdom,YenHui'sdx62humanity,andTzulu'sdy63braveryareexamplesgiventodemonstratethequalitiesdesirableintheidealman.Thesuperiorman'sadvanceor
retreatinthesocietyisusedtoshowthatthedoctrineoftheMean"initsgreatness,nothingintheworldwouldbefoundabletoembraceit"while''initsminuteness,
nothingintheworldwouldbefoundabletosplitit."ThisthrowslightupontheessenceandoperationofthedoctrineoftheMean.AccordingtoChuHsi'sdivision,the
contentsfromchapter13tothesentence"Ifprinciplesofconducthavebeenpreviouslydetermined,thepracticeofthemwillbeinexhaustible"describetheconcrete
practiceofthedoctrineoftheMean.Thissection,forexample,saysthathonestyandtolerance(chungshudz),agreementofone'swordsanddeeds,doingthings
propertoone'sposition,and"beingoneselfinallsituations"aretheproperwaysforthecultivationofoneself.Harmonybetweenhusbandandwife,fraternityamong
brothers,andfilialaffectiontowardsparentsandancestorsaretherequirementsof"regulationofthefamily,"andexamplesaregivenofEmperorShun'sgreatfilial
pietyandthefarextendinginfluenceofthefilialdedicationofKingWenea64(r.11711122B.C.)andDukeChoueb(d.1094B.C.).65Toillustratetheidealwaytogovern
thestates,Confucius'replytoDukeAiecoftheStateofLuedisquoted:"Governmentofthestateliesingettingtherightmen.Suchmenaretobegotbymeansofthe
ruler'scharacter.ThatcharacteristobecultivatedbyhistreadingintheWay.AndthetreadingtheWayistobecultivatedbythecherishingofbenevolence."Then
therearediscussionsofrighteousnessandpropriety,whichareequallyimportanttothecultivationofoneself.Forfurtherdetailedelucidation,thissectionemphasizes
thata"knowledgeofmen"and"knowledgeofHeaven"arenecessarybothforcultivationofoneselfandforgovernmentofthepeople.Itfurtherdefines"knowledgeof
men"asknowledgeofthe"fiveuniversalobligations"(thosebetweensovereignandminister,betweenfatherandson,betweenhusbandandwife,betweenelderand
youngerbrother,andthoseamongfriends)andofthe"threeuniversalvirtues"(wisdom,benevolence,andbravery).Nomatterwhetheramanisconsidered"bornwith
theknowledge,"onewho"acquiredtheknowledgebylearning,"oronewho"acquiredtheknowledgeafterapainfulfeelingofhisignorance,"hemustbe"fondof
learning,"eagerto"practicewithvigor,"andpossessthe"feelingofshame,"sothathecansuccessfullycultivatehimselfandthengovernthepeople.Itisalsostressed
thatthereare"ninestandardrules"formak

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ingthewholeworldjustandpeaceful,namely,cultivationofoneself,honoringmenofvirtueandtalents,affectiontorelatives,respecttowardgreatministers,
consideratetreatmentofallofficers,treatingthepeoplelikeone'sownchildren,attractingallclassesofartisans,kindtreatmentofmenfromadistance,andcherishing
oftheprincesofvariousstates.
Fromthewords"whenthoseininferiorsituationsdonotobtaintheconfidenceofthesovereign"inchapter20tochapter24ofChuHsi'sversion,themainpointisto
showthat"sincerity"isthe"movingforceofthedoctrineoftheMean."Firstcomesanexplanationthat"sincerity"isthe"movingforceoftheMean.''Itstartsby
emphasizingthat"understandingwhatisgood"and"attainmentofsincerityinoneself"arethebasesofcultivatingoneselfandgoverningothers.Then,itdividessincerity
intotwokindsoneisendowedbynaturewhiletheothercultivatedbyman.Ontheonehand,tobringintofullplaythesincerityendowedinmanbynatureiscalled
"developmentofnature."Fromfulldevelopmentofone'sownnature,manisenabledtodevelopthenatureofothersaswellastodevelopthenaturesofcreaturesand
things.Ontheotherhand,"cultivatingtotheutmosttheshootsofgoodnessinoneself"isthewaytoexertthesincerityderivedfromhumanefforts.Startingfroma
comparativelynarrowsphereandbecomingallencompassing,sinceritywillbecome"apparent,""manifest,"and"brilliant."Itwillthen"affect,""change,"and
"transform"allcreaturesandthings.Suchadevelopmentcanonlybematerializedthrough"choosingwhatisgoodandfirmlyholdingit,""extensivestudy,""careful
reflection,""cleardiscrimination,"and"earnestpractice."Inthefinalaccount,boththesekindsofsincerityintheircompletestatecanreachthe"equilibrium"and"mean"
thatensuresfulldevelopmentofoneselfandallcreaturesandthings,makingman"rankasonewithHeavenandEarth."
Chapters27to29,accordingtoChuHsi'sdivision,aredevotedto"approachestotheMean."Itisnecessaryformanto"honorhisvirtuousnature,andmaintain
constantinquiryandstudy,seekingtocarryitouttoitsbreadthandgreatness,soastoomitnoneofthemoreexquisiteandminutepointsitembraces,andtoraiseitto
itsgreatestheightandbrilliancy,soastopursuethecourseoftheMean.Hecherisheshisoldknowledge,andiscontinuallyacquiringnew.Heexertsanhonest,
generousearnestnessintheesteemandpracticeofallpropriety."Thistheonlywaytoreachthe"wayofthesage."Moreover,onemusthaveboththenecessary
"position"and"virtue"forinnovatingthechangesininstitutionsthatcanbemadebysages.Toavoidthepossibilitythatexcellentlyconceivedinstitutionswillnotbe
creditedbythepeople,onemustmakesurethat"theinstitutionsarerootedinhisowncharacterandconduct,andsufficientattestationofthemisgivenbythemasses
ofthepeople.Heexaminesthembycomparisonwiththoseofthethreekings,66andfindsthemwithoutmistake.HesetsthemupbeforeHeavenandEarth,andfinds
nothinginthemcontrarytotheirmoodofoperation.Hepresentshimselfwiththembeforespiritualbeings,andnodoubts

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aboutthemarise.Heispreparedtowaitfortheriseofasageahundredagesafter,andhasnomisgivings."Fromchapter30on,accordingtoChuHsi'sdivision,there
areillustrationsofthe"modelsoftheMean"withaconclusionpraisingthegreatnessofConfucius.
Fromalltheabove,itisevidentthatthegeneraloutlineoftheoriginalversionoftheDoctrineoftheMeanisquiteclearandeasytograsp.OnemaywonderwhyChu
Hsishouldhavedivideditintosomanyfragments.Themostdubiousdivisioncanbeseeninchapters9and12,whicharearbitrarilyseparatedatthesentencethat
reads,"Whenrightprinciplesareopposedanddisallowed,thesuperiormanretiresintoobscurity"67(Chntzuchihtaofeierhyinee).ChuHsiclaimsthatthe
passagesbeforethissentence,includingwhathecallschapter11andthosebeforeit,arethewordsofConfuciusbeingquotedbyTzussu"tocompletethemeaningof
thefirstchapter."Healsomaintainsthatchapter13,beginningfromtheabovecitedsentencetothesubordinateclause"itshinesbrightlythroughHeavenandEarth,"
containsthe"sayingsofTzussuhimself"thisisfollowedbyeightchaptersthat''completethemeaningofchapter12byexpositionscoveringboththe'wide'andthe
'secret'aswellasthe'great'andthe'minute'."
Ascanbeseenfromthedifferenttranslationscitedabove,themainquestionliesintheinterpretationofthesentencethattheWayofthesuperiormanis"feiandyin,"
especiallythewords"fei"and"yin."AccordingtoChuHsifeiindicatesthewiderangeoftheWayinitsapplication,yinindicatestheminutenessoftheWayinits
essence.Suchaninterpretationindicatesthatheconsidersfeiandyinantithesesmanifestedintheoppositesof"essence"and"application"or"function"aswellasin
"width"and"minuteness."Thisinterpretationseemsstrained.IntheChingtienshihwenef(GlossarytoClassics)byLuTemingeg(556627)oftheT'angdynasty,itis
pointedoutthatfeiisprintedinanothereditionasfu.ehThus,feiisahomonymforfumeaningtooppose,todisallow,tofrustrate,intheiractiveandpassivevoices.68
Thus,thesentenceshouldbeinterpretedas"Whentherightprinciplesareopposedanddisallowed,thesuperiormanretiresintoobscurity."Moreover,this
interpretationwillservebetterasaconclusiontothestatementimmediatelyprecedingitwhichreads,"ThesuperiormanaccordswiththecourseoftheMean.Though
hemaybeallunknown,unregardedbytheworld,hefeelsnoregret."Theoriginalmeaningoffeiisexpendingmoneyandthingsforsimilarapplicationasshowninthe
Shuowenchiehtzuei(Explanationsandanalysesofcharacters).69ChuHsistrainedtheoriginalmeaningofthewordtosuithispurposebyregarding"application"as
applicationoftheWay.Sinceancienttimes,onlyheavyspendingofmoneyandsimilarthingshasbeencalledfei,not"widerangeofapplication."ItisobviousthatChu
Hsi'sinterpretationislessappropriatethantheoldone.Accordingtotheoldinterpretation,thepassagemeans:asuperiormanfollowsthecourseoftheMeanhe
acceptsofficialappointmentswhenemployedandretirestoobscuritywhentherightprinciplesaredisallowed,alwaysconductinghimselfinaccordancewiththeWay.

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ThisisthetruthoftheMeanthatcanbeunderstoodandpracticedbycommonmenandwomenwhoareignorantandoflowcaliber.However,intheutmostreaches
ofthetruthoftheMean,eventhesagedoesnotknowandisunabletopracticeit.TheentirediscourseisacoherentwholethatincludesthecontentsofChuHsi's
chapters11and12.Onemaywonderwhyhesplititinthemiddle,claimingthattheeightfollowingchaptersareexpositionscoveringthemeaningsof"thewideand
thesecret"aswellas"thegreatandtheminute."ForthisChuHsicanbecriticizedforgivingstrainedinterpretationsanddrawingfarfetchedanalogies.Thereareother
similarlyquestionablepointsinhisversionoftheDoctrineoftheMean.Forinstance,hehasinterpretedthewordyunginchungyungejascommonplaceorordinary.
Hehasdesignatedthesentencethatreads''TheMastersaid,'HowisthepathoftheMeanuntrodden!'"asanindependentchapter.Hehaschangedthewordsuek
(beinginclinedto)inasentencetosoel(toexamineortostudy),whichalterstheoriginalmeaning.Andhehascombinedallthepassagesabout"DukeAiaskingabout
government"withthosediscussing"awaytotheattainmentofsincerityinoneself"intoasinglechapter.70
Inconclusion,itcanbesaidwithallfairnessthatChuHsimadegreatcontributionstopromotinganddirectingthestudyofboththeGreatLearningandtheDoctrine
oftheMean.Hisrearrangedversionsoftheseworks,althoughimperfect,havehadprofoundandfarreachinginfluenceoverthecultureandideologyofChinaand
otherAsiancountriessincetheSungdynasty.AsanoverallassessmentitseemsappropriatetoregardChuHsi'sversionsofthesetwosignificantclassicsasgreat
accomplishmentswithsmallflaws.
TranslatedbyChouHsingchihem
Notes
1.WenkuoWenchengSsumaKungwenchien[CollectionofliteraryworksofSsumaKuang],(SPTKed.),ch.23,vol.181,pp.221226.
2.ChuTzuwenchi(SPTKed.),ch.14,vol.227,pp.212213.
3.Ibid.,ch.67and68,vol.232,pp.12371238and12491250.
4.Ibid.,ch.20,vol.227,pp.317319.
5.Ibid.,ch.83,vol.233,pp.15021503.ThethreescholarswereCh'engI,ChangTsai,andSsumaKuang.TheworkisbyChangShih.
6.YenYenwasTzuyueo(b.508B.C.).PuShangwasTzuhsiaep(509420B.C.?).InAnalects,11:2,theyarepraisedasexpertinliterature.TsengShenwasTseng
Tzueq(c.505436B.C.),modeloffilialpiety.TzussuwasgrandsonofConfucius.
7.BookofRites,ch.28,sec.4andch.10,sec.4,respectively.
8."Contents"(theportioncoveringtheyearsfrom1217to1231),Nank'angEditionoftheSungdynastywhichwasrepairedinearlyMingdynastybytheT'ai
hseh,nowinthearchivesoftheNationalCentralLibrary,Taipei.
9.Ssuk'uch'anshutsungmut'iyao(Taipei:IwenerPress,1933),vol.2,pp.466

Page333
es

et

467Ssuk'uch'anshutsungmut'iyaopucheng [TheSsuk'uch'anshutsungmut'iyaosupplementedandcorrected],(Taipei:Chunghua Book

Co.),pp.142144.
10.Meinchaichieu[CollectedworksofHuangKan],(FourLibrariesPreciousWorksed.),36:47a.
11.ChuTzuwenchi,ch.75,vol.232,p.1388.
12.TheoriginaleditionofChuTzunienp'uinthreechapters,compiledbyChuHsi'sdiscipleLiFangtzuev(fl.1214)becameextinct.TheonereeditedbyLiMoew
(in1552)hasbeencriticizedbysomeforerrorsandomissions,forLiMowasafollowerofWangYangmingex(14721529).HungCh'wueypublishedanother
editionwithfurtherrevisionsin1700.TheChronicleBiographymentionedherereferstotheLiHungedition,whichrecordsunderthe6thyearoftheCh'ientaoez
reign(1170)that"TheFamilyEtiquettewascompletedwhenChuHsiwasfortyone."IntheFamilyEtiquetteLiFangtzu'swordsarequotedassayingthatinthe
9thmonthofthe5thyearoftheCh'ientaoreign(1169)ChuHsiwasinmourningforhismotherandauthoredtheFamilyEtiquette.However,intheeditionby
WangMaohungthesewordsofLiFangtzuareomitted.BecauseLiFangtzuwasadirectstudentofChuHsi,thisauthorconsidershiswordstrustworthy.Wang's
omissionisnotentirelyjustifiable.
13.ThesameopinionisalsostatedinWangMaohung'sChuTzunienp'uk'aoifa[AninvestigationfordiscrepanciesintheChronicleBiographyofMasterChu],
ch.1.ThestatementcanbeseenintheChuTzunienp'u(Taipei:WorldBookCo.,3rded.,1973),pp.263268.
14.ChuTzuwenchi,ch.75,vol.232,p.1388.
15.The120treatisescitedintheChineseversionofthispaperareomittedinthepresentEnglishtranslation.
16.TheChuTzuyleipublishedinTaiwanbytheChengchungfbBookCo.in1970appearstobeaverydesirableedition.Ithasanindexofpersonalnames,
geographicalnames,andbooktitlescompiledbyscholarsatKyushufcUniversityinJapan.
17.The1725editionandthehandwritteneditionoftheCompleteCollectionoftheFourLibrariesarestoredinWenyanfdPavillion.Bothofthemarenowinthe
archivesoftheNationalPalaceMuseum,Taipei.
18.TherearetheJungts'unch'anshufe[CompleteworksofLiKuangti]editionandthehandwritteneditionoftheCompleteCollectionoftheFourLibraries.
BothareinthearchivesoftheNationalPalaceMuseum,Taipei.
19.ChuTzuwenchi,ch.50,vol.230,p.871.
20.Ibid.,ch.83,vol.233,pp.15031504.
21.Bothinch.67,vol.232,pp.12371240.
22.Ibid.,ch.42,vol.229,p.707.
23.Ibid.,ch.49,vol.230,p.847.
24.Ssuk'uch'anshutsungmut'iyao,vol.2,p.527.
25.Ibid.,pp.527528.
26.Ibid.,p.529.
27.Ibid.,p.532.
28.ChuTzuylei,ch.57,p.2135.
29.Ibid.,ch.129,p.4954.
30.ChuTzuwenchi,ch.31,vol.228,p.490.
31.Ibid.,ch.63,vol.231,p.1170.

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32.Ibid.,ch.38,vol.229,p.630.
33.HandwrittencopybyCh'enYichenf [Ch'ingdynasty]inthearchivesoftheNationalCentralLibrary,TaipeieditionintheCompleteCollectionoftheFour
LibrariesinthearchivesoftheNationalPalaceMuseum,Taipei.
34.IntheCh'ingchingchiehfg[ExplanationofclassesintheCh'ingdynasty]compiledbyJuanYanfh(17641849).
35.CompleteCollectionoftheFourLibraries,NationalPalaceMuseum,Taipei.
36.Ibid.
37.Weichingwofi[Denofenjoyingtheflavoroftheclasses]editionpublishedin1763.
38.ThreeexamplesintheChineseversionareomittedhere.
39.ChuTzuwenchi,ch.59,vol.231,p.1081.
40.ThreeexamplesintheChineseversionareomittedhere.
41.ThreeexamplesintheChineseversionareomittedhere.
42.SummaryofContentsoftheCompleteCollectionoftheFourLibraries,vol.22,p.466.
43.BookofRites,ch.19,sec.5.
44.Ibid.,ch.10,sec.4.
45.ChuTzuwenchi,ch.75,vol.232,p.1388.
46.Analects,1:9.
47.PrefacetotheFamilyEtiquette.
48.Ibid.
49.ThetwocommentariesaretheTahsehchangchandtheChungyungchangch,literallytheparagraphsandsentencesofthetwotreatisesrearranged.
50.SeeChangHuangfj(15271608),T'ushupienfk[Catalogueofbooks]theeditionpublishedbyT'uChingyanfloftheMingdynastyisinthearchivesofthe
NationalCentralLibrary,Taipei.
51."Hsanchleh,"fmHst'ungchihfn["Selectionandexamination,II,"asequeltotheEncyclopediaofRecords],(Taipei:HsinghsingfoBookCo.,1959),vol.3,
p.4107.
52.SeemyKaomingwenchifp[SelectedworksofKaoMing],(Taipei:LimingfqCulturalEnterpriseCo.,1978),vol.1,pp.230241.
53.Ibid.,foraccountsofmanyothers.
54.HuiTung,Chiuchingkuifr[OriginaldenotationsofthenineClassics]MaoCh'iling,Ssushushengyenfs[HumbleopinionsoftheFourBooks].
55.Fordetaileddiscussion,seetheKaoMingwenchi,vol.1,pp.242250.
56.FortheChineseoriginal,seetheSsushuchichu(Taipei:IwenPress),vol.1,p.2.
57.Ibid.
58.JamesLegge'stranslationwithminormodifications.
59.TheDoctrineoftheMeanhastraditionallybeenascribedtoTzussu,grandsonofConfucius.
60.JamesLegge'stranslationwithminormodifications.
61.Legendarysageemperor,symboloffilialpiety.
62.Confucius'mostvirtuouspupilwhodiedattheyoungageofthirtytwo.
63.HisfamilynamewasChungandprivatenameYu.ftAConfucianpupil,hewasonlynineyearsyoungerthantheMaster.
64.FounderoftheChoudynasty,hewasamodelsagekingintheConfuciantradition.

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65.HewasKingWen'ssonandinstitutedsocialandgovernmentalinstitutionsfortheChoudynasty.
66.KingY,fufounderoftheHsiadynastyKingT'ang,fvthefounderoftheShangdynastyandKingsWenandWu,foundersoftheChoudynasty.
67.ThisisaliberaltranslationaccordingtomyinterpretationofJamesLegge'stranslation,followingChuHsi'sinterpretation,whichreads,"TheWaywhichthe
superiormanpursues,reachesfarandwide,andyetissecret."
68.Chingtienshihwen(SPTKed.),vol.13,p.204.
69.Shuowenchiehtzu(Taipei:IwenPress,1964),p.284.
70.Adetaileddiscussionofthisisfoundinmy"Chungyungpien"fw[AninvestigationintotheDoctrineoftheMean].
Glossary

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20
ChuHsiAsLiteraryTheoristandCritic
RichardJohnLynn
ChuHsi'sTheoryofProse
PerhapstheonemostimportantassertionthatChuHsimakesaboutproseisthatitshould"carrytheWay"(wenitsaitaoa).
Thewayprose(wen)carriestheWayisjustlikethewayacarriagecarriesthings.Therefore,justasonewhomakesacarriageissuretodecoratethewheelsandshafts,soone
whowritesprosemustbesuretomakehismodeofdiscourse(tz'ushuob)attractive,forbothwishthatpeoplewillloveandmakeuseofthesethings.However,ifIdecoratethem
andpeopledonotmakeuseofthem,thenthedecorationwillbedoneinvainandwillbeofnovaluetotherealityofthematter(shihc).Howmuchthemorethisistruewhenit
involvesacarriagethatdoesnotcarryanythingorprosethatdoesnotcarrytheTao.dNomatterhowmuchonemightmakethedecorationbeautiful,whatgoodwillitbe?1

ThispassageisactuallyacommentonwhatisperhapsthemostfamousformulationofthemoralisticconceptionofliteratureintheChinesetradition,thatbyChou
Tunie(10171073).
LiteratureisthatbywhichonecarriestheWay.Ifthewheelsandshafts[ofacarriage]aredecoratedbutnooneusesit,thenthedecorationsareinvain.Howmuchmoresointhe
caseofanemptycarriage!Literatureandrhetoricareskills,theWayandvirtuearerealities.Whensomeonedevotedtotheserealitiesandskilled[inwriting]writesdown[the
Way],ifitisbeautiful,then[people]willloveit,thenitwillbepassedon.2

AlthoughChouandChuclearlyinsistthatproseshouldhaveastraightforward,pragmaticordidacticfunction,theydonotdisparagetheaestheticaspectsofwriting
butregardthemmerelyassubsidiarytothepragmatic/didacticfunction.InthistheydiffersharplyfromCh'engIf(10331107)andCh'engHaog(10321085),who
regardedallwen(literatureasafineart)asdetrimentaltotheWay.3However,Chuwasalsoverycarefultoinsistthat

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goodwritingisalwaystheresultoftheauthor'sbeingthoroughlyconversantwithandcommittedtotheWayitisfromtheWaythatfinewritingemergesandnot,as
SuShihh(10361101)wouldhaveit,theotherwayaround.
ThiswenisalwayssomethingthatflowsoutoftheTao,forhowmightiteverhappenthatwencouldactuallyconnecttheprinciplesoftheWay(kuantaochihlii)!Weniswen
andtheWayistheWay.Isnotwenjustlikesomethingwhichhelpsthericedownwhenoneiseatingrice!IfonethinksthatwenconnectsuptheWay,thisisbuttotaketheend
ofitasthebeginningandthebeginningastheend.Howisthispossible?4

KuoShaoyujhasanalyzedinsomedetailtheformulawenikuantaok(writingisameanstoconnectuptheWay),whichisattributedtoSu,5soIshallnotdomore
thanrefertoitinpassing.The"rice,"ofcourse,isthesubstanceofthemealandthevegetablesandmeatembellishmentsthatgiveflavortothericeaswengivesflavor
totheWay.ThismetaphorisconsistentwiththeabovecarriageWaymetaphor,aswellaswiththefollowing,whichinvolvesthevariouspartsofatree:
TheWayistherootsandthetrunkofwen,andwenisthebranchesandleavesoftheWay.LetithaveitsrootandtrunkintheWay,andwhateverisexpressedinwenwillalways
betheWay.6

ThislastpassageisofparticularimportancebecauseinitChuimmediatelygoesontostateexplicitlyhowhethinkshisviewoftherelationshipofwentotheWay
differsfromthatofSuShih.
WritingsoftheworthiesandsagesoftheThreeDynastiesallweredonefromthisstateofmind,sowenwasnothingbuttheWay.Inmoderntimes,Tungp'ol[SuShih]hassaid:
"WhatIcallwenmustgoalongtogetherwiththeWay(wenpiytaoch m)."7Thismeansthatforhimwenissomethingthatcomesfromwen,andtaoissomethingthatcomes
fromtao,sowhenoneisgoingtodowriting,heimmediatelyhastogooutandgetataotoputintoit!Hereinlieshisgreatfailing.Itisjustthathiswritingisusuallysobeautiful
andmarvelous(huamiaon)thatitkeepsthisunderwraps,butwiththishehasunwittinglydivulgedtherealnatureofhisbasicfault.Accordingtohim,itisalwaysamatterof
startingwithwenandthengraduallybringingtheprinciplesoftheWayintoititisnotamatteroffirstunderstandingtheprinciplesoftheWayandonlythenstartingtowrite.
Thusabsolutelyeverythinghewritesisdeficient.8

KuoShaoyhaspointedout,inregardtothis,thatSuShihinsistedthat"theWaycanbeattainedtobutcannotbesought"9andsuggeststhatbythisSumeantthat
experienceactionistheonlymeanstoreachtheWayitistheindividualandsubjectiveexperienceofdoingsomethingSu'sexamplewhichKuociteshere
concernstheboysoftheSouthwhogrowupwithwaterandso

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arethoroughlyadeptatswimmingbytheageoffifteenthatattainstotheWayofthatsomething,and,sinceSu'sWay,heavilyinfluencedbyTaoism,isafarmore
naturalisticWaythanthatofChuHsi,itseemstohaveembracedallthingsequally,inthesensethatallthedifferenttaoaremutuallytransmutable,oratleast
interconnected,sothatthepracticeandrealizationofonewillleadtotherealizationofothersandultimatelytothegreatTaowhichunderlieseverything.Thisiswhy
"wenandtheWaymustgoalongtogether"and"wencanconnectuptheWay."Chusaidthatwenisameanstocarry(tsai)theWay,andSusaidthatwenisa
meanstoconnectup(kuan)theWay.ThefundamentaldifferencehereisnotonlyduetodifferentconceptionsofwhatconstitutestheWaytheobjectof
attainmentbutalsoadifferenceinthenatureoftheattainingprocessitself.ChuinsiststhattheWayhasbeenobjectivelyformulatedbytheworthiesandsagesofthe
ThreeDynastiestheseformulationswerepreservedintheClassics(chingo),illustratedinthehistories(shihp)andexplainedbylearnedcommentatorsandthinkers
(tzuq)suchashimself.Thus,hebelievedthattheWaycouldbeabstractedfromrealityandobjectivelylearned,andoncelearned,itcouldbetaughttoothersinthe
samewaybyusingwriting(wen)asameanstoconveyittothem.
Su'sapproachisentirelydifferent.Forhim,theWaycomestooneindirectlyandsubjectivelythroughexperienceandactionanyattempttolearnitconsciouslyand
deliberatelyfrombooks,orevenbylisteningtoorobservingothers,isawasteoftimeandwillendinfailure.Asfarasbooksareconcerned,Sualsoplacesgreat
importanceonthem,buthedoessoforreasonsdifferentfromthoseofChu.JustasonecanattaintotheWaythroughthesubjectiveandindividualactofwriting,so
canoneattaintoitthroughsubjectiveimmersioninbooks,throughawideranginganddisinterestedexplorationwhichleadstoenlightenment.TheWayforSuwasa
diffuse,elusivethingwhichdidnotatalllenditselftoobjectiveformulation.ChuthoughtSu'skuantaoshuor(doctrineofconnectinguptheWay)washarmful
nonsenseifSuhadlivedtoseeChu'stsaitaoshuos(doctrineofcarryingtheWay),hewouldhavefounditequallyharmfulandnonsensicalthefundamental
differencesintheirrespectivebasicassumptionsmakethisinevitable.InthewordsofArchilochusofParos(eighthorseventhcenturyB.C.),SuShihwasafox,and
ChuHsiwasahedgehog:"Thefoxknowsmanythings,butthehedgehogknowsonebigthing."IsaiahBerlininterpretsthisenigmaticstatementthisway:
[T]hereexistsagreatchasmbetweenthose...whorelateeverythingtoasinglecentralvision,onesystemlessormorecoherentorarticulate...asingle,universal,organizing
principleintermsofwhichaloneallthattheyareandsayhassignificanceand...thosewhopursuemanyends,oftenunrelatedandevencontradictory,connected,ifatall,only
insomedefactoway...relatedbynomoraloraestheticprincipletheselastleadlives,performacts,andentertainideasthatarecentrifugalratherthancentripetal,theirthoughtis
scatteredordif

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fuse,movingonmanylevels,seizingupontheessenseofawidevarietyofexperiencesandobjectsforwhattheyareinthemselveswithout...seekingtofittheminto,orexclude
themfrom,anyoneunchanging,allembracing,sometimesselfcontradictoryandincomplete,attimesfanatical,unitaryinnervision.Thefirstkind...belongstothehedgehogs,
thesecondtothefoxes.10

ChuHsialsohadagreatdealtosayaboutanotheraspectofprosewritingcloselyrelatedtotheconceptof"carryingtheWay"proseshould"communicate
ideas"(tait)andnotindulgein"verbalornament"(tz'uhuau)andinthisheseemstohavebeenlargelyinagreementwithSuShih.Su'smostfamousstatement
concerningthisisprobablythefollowing:
Confuciussaid,"Ifwordsdonothavewen(patterns/embellishments),theywillnotgofar."11Healsosaid,"Wordscommunicatethatisall."12Now,ifwordsshouldonly
communicate,wemaysuspectthattheyarenotwen(embellished/literary).Itisnotsoatall.Toseekthesubtleties(orwonders,miaov)ofthingsisliketryingtotieupthewindor
captureshadowswecanhardlyfindonemanoutofthousandswhocanmakethingsappearclearlyinthemind,letalonemakingthemappearclearlyfromthemouthandthehand
[thatis,inspeechandwriting].Thisiswhatismeantby"wordscommunicate."Ifwordscanreachsuchastateofcommunicativeness,therewillbemorethansufficientwen
(embellishments/literature).13

Therefore,forSutheveryactofsuccessfulcommunicationitselfresultsinverbalbeautythisbeautydoesnotexistapartfromitsintegralroleincommunication.A
numberofpassagesinChu'swritingsarguealongmuchthesamelines.Inthefollowingonehediscussestheroleofiw(meaning/intention)inwritingandhowthegreat
writersofantiquity"wroteastheyspoke"andthusavoidedallcontrivance.
Someoneonceaskedmeabouttheexpressionsusedinthe"Lisaox"(Onencounteringsorrow)andthe"Puch y"(Divination)piece[intheCh'utz'uz(SongsoftheSouthof
Ch'u)],andIsaid,"Fromthebeginningthesenseoftheseexpressionswasbeyondmycomprehension,butonceIapproachedthemthroughtheintentionsinvolvedIcouldsee
whattheymeant."Forexample,"...beaccommodatingandslippery,tobeascompliantaslardorleather''14hasthesenseofcompliantlymeetingsomeone'seachandeverywish.
Expressionssuchasthisareabsolutelyfreeoftheleastimpediment.Ibelievethatitisonlywhensomeonesayssuchandsuchonthespurofthemomentwillitalways
spontaneouslyresultingoodwriting.LinAih san[LinKuangch'ao,aa11141178]oncesaid,"BeginningwithPanKuab[3292]andYangHsiungac[53B.C. A.D.18]writersall
contrivedtheirlanguage.EarlierwriterssuchasSsumaCh'ienad[145?86?B.C.]andSsumaHsiangjuae[179117B.C.]onlysaidsuchandsuchonthespurofthemoment."15
Now,myownexperiencehasledmetobelievethatthisisso.Theancientswereselectedforofficeonthebasisofhowtheycould"climbuphighandcomposeonthespot."16
Thissurelymeansboththattheyhadquick

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nessofmindandthattheycouldspeakinafreelyexpressivemanner.Someoftheancientsregardedpublicdeclarationsandwhatonesaystobeactuallythesamething.Writers
oflateragesjustcontrivedthingsonpaper,and,sinceitwasamatterthenofcontrivingthingsonpaper,PanandYangconsequentlycouldnotmanagetobeuptothelanguage
ofearliertimeswhenpeoplesuchasSuCh'inaf[d.317B.C.]andChangIag[d.309B.C.]wereallextremelyversatilerhetoriciansandwhenwhatwasputintotheShihchiah[Ssuma
Ch'ien'sRecordsofthehistorian]werealways,Ibelieve,thingsactuallyutteredinthespokenlanguageofthattime.17

HereChuadvocatesanintegrityofverbalarticulationinwhichi(intention/will/meaning)isexpressedspontaneouslyinlanguagethatknowsnodistinctionbetween
speakingandwritingandthuscommunicateswithouttheleastimpedimentandcontrivanceorartifice.
InnumerousplacesinhiswritingsChuexpresseshisoppositiontowhatheconsiderstobeartificeinwritingthedeliberatecultivationofverbalbeautyforitsown
sake.InalettertohisfriendTs'aiYantingai(11351198)hecomesrightoutandsays,"Verbalornamentiscertainlywithoutanybenefit,"18and,whereasheseems
tobeinaccordherewithSuShihintheory,inpracticehecondemnshimalongwiththeothermajorfiguresinthekuwenaj(ancientprose)movementforpayingtoo
muchattentiontotheformofwritingattheexpenseofthesubstanceinvolved."Intheirdiscursivewritings,HanT'uichih[HanY,ak768824]andOu[Ouyang
Hsiu,al10071072]andSudonothingmorethanconcentrateonformalliterarystyleandonlyoccasionallyperipherallybringsomeprinciplesoftheWayintoit."19In
anotherplace,Chusuggeststhatonecanevenformulateacceptableproportionsfortherelativeamountsofliteraryembellishment(wen)andsubstance(shih)ingood
writingwiththeemphasis,ofcourse,onsubstance."Ingeneral,inthecompositionofproseitisnecessarytohavesevenpartssubstanceandtwoorthreeparts
embellishment.Forexample,whenthevenerableMr.Ou[OuyangHsiu]managedtowritesomethinggood,itwasbecausehekeptclosetothesubstanceinvolved
anddevelopeditinaclearandorderlymanner."20ExtremeformalismmannerismisforChuasignofcorruption,somethingwhichmarksadegeneratestageinthe
traditionofletters."Whatpeoplecall'antitheticalparallel'writingdealsinsmoothtonguedflatterydevoidofsubstance.Itisusedtotoadytopopulartasteand
representsadegeneratestageinwriting."21
Chualsodevelopstheideathatthereisacloseconnectionbetweenartificeandcontrivanceinwritingontheonehandandsocialpoliticalconditionsontheother.
Thewriting(wen)ofChiaIam[201169B.C.]oftheearlyHaneraissimpleyetsubstantial(chihshihan),theplacesinChaoTs'o'sao[200154B.C.]writingswherehediscussesthe
advantagesanddisadvantages[ofpolicy]aregood,buthisrepliestoquestionsposedbytheemperorthrowtheWayintoconfusion.The

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ap

writingofTungChungshu [176104B.C.]isslowmovingandweak....WritingoftheEasternHanera[25220]isevenmuchworse,sinceitismarkedbyagradualtendencyto
parallelism(tuiouaq)andwriterssuchasYangChenar[d.124]allesteemedtrivialdetail....WiththeThreeKingdoms[220280]andtheEasternandWesternChineras[265420]
thestyleofwritingbecameincreasinglydegenerate.22

Thereischaracteristicwritingofthewellgovernedagethereiswritingcharacteristicoftheageofdeclineandthereiswritingcharacteristicoftheageofchaos.TheSix
Classics23belongtothewellgovernedage,whereasworkssuchastheKuoy as(Conversationsfromthestates)24arelistlessandtediouslytrivialtrulythingswhichbelongsto
anageofdecline!BoththelanguageandthemodeofdiscourseofthistimefitwiththefactthattheChouwasnolongerabletoassertitself.Comingdownlatertowriting
characteristicoftheageofchaos,wefindthisisrepresentativeoftheWarringStatesera[403222B.C.].However,thishasarobustandheroicspiritwhichtheKuoyinitsageof
declinecannotmatch.WritingfromtheCh'uHanera[c.200B.C.]isreallymarvelouslyrobusthowindeedcoulditeverbeeasytoreachitsheights!25

ForChu,vigor,substance,andthesimpleanddirectexpressionofvaluesandideasbelongtoeitherthewellgovernedageortheageinchaos,wherethestrengthand
stabilityoftheoneprovideanecessarynourishingcontext,andthewideopenbutdangerouspossibilitiesoftheothersupplythestimulifortheherotoperformgreat
deedsandcomposegreatwritings.Theageofdeclineprovidesneither,forthenthefabricofsocietyis,ineffect,sostretchedthatitspattern(wen)isdistortedbutnot
yetbroken,andthewenofitsliteraryexpressionreflectsthisdistortioninitsuseofdegeneratemannerisms.Thisidea,ofcourse,isnotnewwithChuHsibutcanbe
tracedbacktocertainstatementsintheBookofRitesandthe"MajorPreface"totheBookofOdes.26Itis,nevertheless,abasicprincipleinhistheoryofprose,one
whichcolorshiswholeviewofliteraryhistoryandhisevaluationofindividualfiguresinthetradition.Weshallseelaterthatthisholdstrueaswellforhistheoryand
practiceofpoetrycriticism.Now,however,letusseehowheappliesthistohisownage,theSungera(9601279).
Writingatthebeginningofourowndynastywasalwaysseriousandwellseasoned.IoncetookalookatedictsandothersuchcompositionsfromtheChiayuatera[10561063]
andearlierandfoundthatthereweresomeveryclumsyusagesoflanguageamongthem....Althoughthiswritingisclumsy,yetitsexpressionisforcefulandtothepoint.Ithas
thesenseofwantingtobeskillful(kungau)butnotbeingabletoachievethatgoalthereforeitscharacterisunsophisticatedandhonest.Comingdowntothetimeofthevenerable
Mr.Ou[OuyungHsiu],thebestofwritingthenwasperfectlyfineyetstillhadthisqualityofgreatclumsiness,whichdidnotmakeitloseitssenseofwarmthandkindnessbut
bythetimeofTungp'o[SuShih],writingalreadyhadbeguntorushheadlongtowardsexcessivecleverness,and,bythetimeoftheChenghoav

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aw

[11111117]andHsanho [11191125]eras,ithadreachedanextremeofgorgeousmannerism,whichdidmakeitloseitssenseofwarmthandkindness.WhentheSage
[Confucius]preferredthemenofformertimesinthemattersofceremonyandritual,hisreason,ofcourse,wassimilartothis.27

Thatis,roughhewnsimplicityispreferredtomannered"sophistication."Thelastreignperiodsmentioned,ofcourse,signaledtheendoftheNorthernSungera(960
1126),whenthesocialpoliticalsituationwasatitslowestebbandtheSunggovernmentwasdrivenoutoftheNorth.
Inthelightofallthis,Chu'sviewsoftheroleofhsehax(studythroughemulationandimitation)inthetrainingoftheprosewriterareratherpredictable:(1)he
advocateshsehasthefoundationofsuchtraining(2)propermodelsforemulationaretobefoundprimarilyintheancientperiodWesternHanandearlier(3)
somegreatwritingdefiesemulationbecauseitwasproducedbysuchgeniusthat,likeSsumaCh'ien'sShihchi,itexhibitsnoformulaicfeaturesandthushasnothing
tograsp.Muchofwhathesaysabouttraininginprosewritinghealsosaysaboutpoetry,withtheexceptionsthatpropermodelsforpoetrycanbefoundthroughthe
WesternChinera(265317)andthatthetruekufengay(ancientstyleandspirit)ofthispoetrywasrecapturedbyLiPoaz(701762)andTuFuba(712770),and
thusthatpoetryisworthyofemulationaswellwhereasChuhadonlylimitedapprovalforanylaterprose.Agoodsummaryoftheseviewsistobefoundinthe
followingpassage:
Forthemostpart,thewritingoftheancientstraveledonthecorrect/orthodoxpath,whereasthosewhocamelaterandfabricatedthingsontheirownwentandtraveledonthe
narrow,trickypathsofheterodoxy.Now,allonehastodoismakeeveryefforttokeepclosetotheorthodoxpath,andinalittlewhilehiswritingwillspontaneouslycometo
surpassthatofothers.28

ChuHsi'sTheoryofPoetry
ChuHsihadagreatdealtosayaboutpoetry.Hiscollectedwritingscontainmanyprefaces,colophonsandthelikethatpresenthisviewsonthehistoryofpoetry,its
value,natureandfunction.ThereisevenasforproseaseparatesectionoftheChuTzuyleibb(ClassifiedconversationsofMasterChu)thatisdevotedtohis
remarksonpoetry(chan140).Hehimselfwrotepoetryinaccordancewiththeseviews.29Ofcrucialimportanceforunderstandingtheseviewsaretheprefacesto
hisShihchichuanbc(CollectedannotationstotheBookofOdes)andhisCh'utz'uchichubd(CollectedannotationstotheSongsofCh'u)andhisequallysignificant
textualstudyofthecollectionofpoemsassociatedwithCh'Yanbe(343c.277B.C.)andhistradition.
Theargumentspresentedinthetwoprefacesreinforceeachotherandseemtorevolvearoundthreeessentialassertions:(1)Poetryexpressestheman,and

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acarefulreadingofpoetrywrittenbyworthymenwillhelpcultivateworthyqualitiesinthereader.(2)Thestudentofpoetrymustknowthedifferencebetweenchengbf
(correct/orthodox)poetryandpienbg(changed/deviant)poetryabasicdistinctionthatbeginswiththepoemscontainedintheBookofOdes."Correct"poetryhas
bothapragmaticfunctionofproviding"modelsforvirtue"and"warningsagainstvice"andanexpressivedimensionthatrevealsproperqualitiesofrestraintand
magnanimity.(3)Deviation(pien)fromthenormsofrestraintandmagnanimityaswellasdeparturesfromtheexemplaryfunctionsofpoetryinevitablyoccurwhen
societyitselfdeviatesfromcorrectnorms,andapoetsuchasCh'Yan,livingintroubledtimes,couldnothelpbutwritepienpoetryfullofunrestrainedandeven
demonichatredandresentment.Thereisstillvalueinthiskindofpoetry,however,foritteachesbynegativeexampleandthereaderisadmonishedthatcircumstances
thatprovokesuchfeelingsshouldnotbeallowedtoexistappreciationofwhatisbeingsaidwillleadtotheredressofwrongsandtherectificationofsociety.Giventhe
importanceoftheseessays,IshallpresenthereinannotatedtranslationtheprefacetotheBookofOdesinitsentiretysincethesetheoreticalissuespredominate
throughoutandthatpartoftheprefacetotheCh'uTz'uthatismostconcernedwiththeory.
Someoneonceaskedme,"WhyhavetheOdesbeenwritten?"Ireplied,"'Manisborninaquietstate.ThisishisnatureasendowedbyHeaven.Whenherespondstothingsand
isthusmoved,thisresultsinthenature'sdesires.'30Havingdesires,onecannotbuthavethoughts,and,havingthoughts,onecannotbutarticulatetheminspeech,and,although
onehasspeech,whenitisunabletoarticulateeverything,onehasrecoursetoexpressingoneselfinovertonescarriedbysighingandexclaiming,andthisinevitablyresultsin
naturalresonancesandrhythmsthatonecannotkeephimselffromcreating.31ThisiswhytheOdeswerewritten."Hethensaid:"Thatbeingso,whatisthewaybywhichthe
Odesimparttheirteachings?"Ireplied:"Poetryhappenswhenone'shsinbh(mind/heart)ismovedbythingsandbecomesarticulateintermsoftheovertonescarriedbylanguage.
Sincetheheart/mindismovedtobothwickednessandvirtue,thecontentoflanguagecanberightorwrong.Itisonlythesagewhooccupiesasuperiorpositionfromwhichthe
natureofhisresponsetothingsisalwayscorrect,andhiswords,consequently,alwayshavesomethingworthytoteach.Perhapstheremightbethecasewherehisresponseto
thingsismixed,buttherecannothelpbutbesomethinginhisutterancestowhichpeopleshouldpayheed.Asuperiorperson(aruler)willnecessarilyengageinintrospection,
whichinevitablyleadstohiseitherencouragingorcondemningsomething.ThisisalsothewaythattheOdesimparttheirteachings.
"OncewhentheChouKingdomflourished,fromaboveatsuburbantemplesandatcourttobelowinvillagesandhamlets,thewordsofallsuchodesweresopurethatnonesaid
anythingthatdidnotaccordwithwhatwasrightandproper.Thesagesthemselves,tobesure,harmonizedtheirprosodicfeaturesandemployedthembothamongcountryfolk
andthroughoutthelesserandgreaterfiefs,inordertoeffectmoraltransformationthroughouttheworld.Asfarasthe

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odesofthevariousfeudalstatesareconcerned,whentheChoukingsmadevisitstothemtheyweresuretobebroughtoutforperusalsothattheycouldbeusedinthe
performanceofceremoniesofpromotionanddemotion.ThispracticedeclinedaftertheeraofKingChaobiandKingMu,bj32forthentheodesbecamepermeatedwiththeeffects
ofthegraduallossofkinglypower.Withthesubsequentdegenerationthattookplaceafterthetransferofthecapitaltotheeast,33theodeswereabolishedandnolonger
discussed.Confuciuslivedatthistime,but,sincehefailedtoobtainanappropriateposition,hehadnomeanstoputintoeffectthekindofgovernmentinwhichanemperoror
kingcouldproperlyencouragevirtueandchastiseevil,promotetheworthyanddemotetheunworthy.Thisbeingthecase,hetookupthetextsoftheodes,and,aftermakinga
criticalconsiderationofthem,eliminatedduplications,putthoseinorderthatwereindisarray,andeliminatedthosethatwereinsufficientmodelsforvirtueandinsufficient
warningsagainstviceallthisinordertohavethemaccordwithstandardsofsimplicityandconcisenessandsoprovideinstructionforaverylongtime,enablingstudentsto
havethemeanstoexaminerightandwrongandallowingthevirtuoustofindtheirmodelsinthemandthewickedtobereformedbythem.Therefore,althoughhisconceptof
governmentfailedtoachieverealizationinthisoneparticularage,histeachingactuallyspreaddownthroughcountlessagesinlatertimes.TheOdesimparttheirteachingsinthis
way."
Hethenasked,"Nevertheless,whydothegenericformsofthe'AirsoftheStates'(Kuofengbk),the'Elegentiae'(Yabl),andthe'Hymns'(Sungbm)differastheydo?"Ireplied,"I
haveheardthatofalltheodesknownasAirsmosthadtheiroriginsasballadscomposedinthelanesandalleysofthecommonfolkwhatcanbecalledsongssungbymenand
womentoeachother,eachexpressinghisorherlove.Itisonlythe'OdesofChoubnandtheSouth'andthe'OdesofShaoboandtheSouth'34thatwereformedintostatementsof
virtuethroughKingWen'spersonalmoralinfluence,insuchawaythatallcontainthemeanstoeffecttherectificationofone'snatureandemotions.Itisbecauseofthisthatwhat
theyexpressinwordsis'fullofdelightwithoutpassingoverintolicentiousnessorfullofsadnesswithoutpassingoverintoharmfulgrief.'35Thus,thesetwosectionsalone
constitutethecorrectandproperpartofthe'AirsoftheStates.'Fromthe'OdesofP'ei'bpon,36thevariousstatesdifferedinwhethertheywereworthyornot,sothatwhatpoets
expressedafterhavingbeenmovedbythingsresultedinanunevenvarietyofdepravityandvirtue,rightandwrong.Atthis,whatweknowasthe'Airs'oftheformerkings
underwentachange(pien).37Asforthesectionscontainingthe'Elegentiae'andthe'Hymns,'theseallwerecomposedatthetimeoftheearlyChoukingsandarethelyricstothe
musicofthecourtandsuburbantemples.Theirlanguageisharmoniousandsolemn,theirmeaningbothbroadanddenseandtheircomposersveryoftenwereofthetypethat
weresages.Thisiscertainlywhytheyhavebecomemodelsforcountlessagessincesomethingwhichnoonecaneveralter!Asforthose'Elegentiae'thathadundergone
change(pien),38thesealsowerewrittenbyworthiesandtruegentlemenwhofeltsorryabouttroubledtimesandfelttroubledaboutsociety'sills.TheSage[Confucius]included
themnonetheless.Thesadandworriedyetmagnanimousstatesofmind/heartandtheintentionsinvolvedtosetforthvirtueandpreventviceareespeciallythingswhichthe
mostarticulatespokesmenoflaterageshaveneverbeenabletoequal.AllthisiswhytheOdesconstitutea

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Classic.ThroughthemcorrectmodesofhumanbehaviorhaveseepeddowntothosebelowandtheWayofHeavenhasattainedcompletionamongthoseaboveinthecourseof
whichnotonesingleprinciplehasfailedtobefulfilled."
Hethensaid,"Yes,Iagree,buthowshouldonegoaboutstudyingtheOdes?"Ireplied,"Oneshouldroothimselffirmlyinthe'AirsofChouandtheSouth'andof'Shaoandthe
South'andsoseektheessentialsinherentinthemheshouldreachunderstandinginthe'Airs'ofthevariousstatesandsobecomethoroughlyawareofthechangesthattake
placewiththemheshouldrectifyhimselfinthe'Elegentiae'andsoenlargehisstandardsandheshouldattainharmonywithinhimselfinthe'Hymns'andsoputhisdemeanor
undercompletecontrol.ThesearethemainfeaturesinvolvedinstudyingtheOdes.Afterthis,heshoulddividethemintostanzasandlinessotogetattheirmainoutlinehe
shoulddophilologicalexplanationsofthemsotosortoutthedetailsandderivationsoftheirmeaningsheshouldchantandintonethemsotomakethemhissongsandhe
shouldsaturatehimselfwiththemuntilheembodiesthemcompletely.Heshouldalsoexaminethemintermsofthemostsubtleandelusiveaspectsofhisnatureandemotionsand
investigatethemintermsofwhatheknowstobethefirstpromptingsofone'sspeechandactions.HeneedlooknofurtherthantheOdesasfarastheWayofcultivatingone's
person,regulatingone'sfamilyandbringingordertotheworldisconcernedforhewillobtainallthatisnecessaryhere."
ThepersonaskingthesequestionsthenwithdrewincompleteagreementwithallIhadsaid.AtthetimeIjusthappenedtobeengagedineditingthesecommentariesontheOdes
andsoputalltheseremarksinorderasanintroductiontotheworkasawhole.
DatedthefourthyearoftheCh'unhsibqera,atingyubryear,Winter,theTenthMonth,awutzubsday[November14,1177],writtenbyChuHsiofHsinan.bt39

IfChubelievestheOdestobethebestofalldirectlypositivemodelsformoralandliteraryaestheticcultivation,healsobelievesthatthe"SongsoftheSouth"inspite
oftheirlackofsuchexemplaryfeatures,canstillserveasimportantstimulitoeffectmoraltransformationandasprofoundinspirationsforthearticulationofjustifiable
angerandresentment.
AsfarasthecharacterofCh'Yanisconcerned,althoughhisintentionandbehaviormighthaveexceededthestandardssetbytheChungyungbu(TheMean)sothatheis
unsuitableasamodel,neverthelessallthathewasanddidcamefromasinceremind/heartthatwasloyaltoitsrulerandloveditscountry.Asfarashiswritingsareconcerned,
althoughthemeaningofhiswordsmighttendtobeunrestrainedanddemonic,andhatredandresentmentsowelledupinthemthattheyareinappropriateasmoralteachings,
neverthelessallofthemaretheproductofthemosthonestsentimentsofprofoundconcernandsadworrywhichhecouldnotstopfromfeelinginspiteofhimself.Becausehe
didnotknowthatheshouldstudyintheNorthandsoseekouttheWayoftheDukeofChouandConfucius,hemerelygallopedaroundinthecorruptvestigesofchanged(pien)
airsandchangedelegentiae[intheliterarytraditionofanageindecline].Therefore,puremindedConfucianscholarsandseriousmindedgen

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tlemenmightbeashamedtopraisehim,butifhiswritingsenabletheexiledofficial,thebanishedchild,theestrangedordivorcedwife,oncetearsarewipeddry,tosingtheir
lamentsbelowsothathewhoisHeaventothem[whetheritberuler,fatherorhusband]willfortunatelylistentothem,then,asregardstherelationsbetweensuchonesasthese,
aswellasthevirtueinherentinindividualhumancharacterandincorrecthumanrelationshipsingeneral,howcouldthesewritingsfailtopromotetheirmutualdevelopmentand
failtoaddweighttotheimportanceoftheThreeMoralPrinciples40andtheFiveHumanRelationships?41ThesearethereasonswhyIalwaysfindsomethingofinterestinwhat
theysayandneverdarelookuponthesewritingsasameresongwriter'sattemptstowriteliterarycompositions.42

ChuHsialsousedthetermpien(changed/deviant)inanothersenseinhiscriticalwritingstomeaninnovationorvariation.Forhim,thestudentofpoetryhasashis
goal,first,toacquiretheabilitytoemulatethegreatmastersand,then,toworkoutofthisemulationinnovationsthatwillnotviolatethecheng(correctness)these
mastersmaintainforthetraditionofpoetryasawhole.Thetradition,withitsrules,isinviolateitisasacredtrustmaintainedbyeachnewgenerationofpoets.The
studentshouldalwaysstrivetoeffectatoneofmagnanimityandrestraintandshouldtrytorealizethosesamepersonalqualitiesofexpressionthatcharacterizethe
worksofthegreatcultureheroesofthepast.Hecultivateshimselfthroughthestudyofthemandachievesselfrealizationhimselfintheactofcomposingpoetrya
glowingexampleforhisownageandalightforthefuturetradition.AgoodsummaryoftheseviewsisfoundinChu's"PrefacetotheLiteraryWorksofWangMei
hsi."bv
Thebestqualitiesofthesuperiormanandtheworstqualitiesofthepettymantakeexternalformjustastheyaredeterminedwithininsuchawaythateveninthemostsubtle
aspectsofspeechandactiontheyalwayscometolight,andhowmuchmorethisistrueintheareasofcareersandofwritingespeciallysoforthosecalled"thebrightand
brilliant."...Ihave...triedthisoutontheancientsbyexaminingwhattheyhadwritten.IntheHaneraIcameupwithPrimeMinisterChuko[ChukoLiang,bw181234],...inthe
T'ang[618907]Mr.TuoftheMinistryofWorks[TuFu],...MinistryPresidentYen[YenChench'ing,bx709784],...MinistryVicePresidentHan[HanY],...and,inourown
dynasty,IcameupwiththeformerAssociateintheAffairsofGovernmentMr.Fan[FanChungyenby,9891052].Althoughthesituationsthesefivegentlemenencounteredinlife
differed,aswerethewaysinwhichtheyestablishedthemselves,ifoneseeksouttheirhearts/minds,hewillfindinallofthemqualitieswecalljusticeandpurityofintention,
perspicacityandfreedomfromhindrance,openheartednessandlackofaffectation:qualitieswhichcouldnotremainhiddenawayandcanbeseenintheircareersandintheir
writingseveninthemostsubtlefeaturesoftheircalligraphy.Onecanlookuponwhattheyhadwrittenandknowwhattheircharacterswere.Ifoneseeksoutsuchthingsamong
peopleofthepresentday,itwouldappearthatsomeonesuchas

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bz

...WangKueiling, AdministratoroftheHouseholdoftheHeirApparent[WangMeihsi,11121171],isanappropriateexample....Inordinarylifeheneverpursuedany
personalpleasuresexceptthathelovedtowritepoetry.Thiswasdirectandsincere,straightforwardandhonest,earnestandcompassionate,andgrandandsweepinginscope.It
wasjustlikehischaracter.Hedidnotindulgeinfrivolousandornamentalwriting,andwhenhediscussedmatters,hebasedhimselfthoroughlyonhisownopinions.Thus,since
hisscopewastremendous,theformalstructureofhispoetrywaswideopenandmanagedtofinditswayinandoutofsurprisingvariations.Superiorandmagnificent,itmoves
withsupernaturalagility.Eventhoseofthisdayandagewhodevotealltheireffortstowriting,surprisinglyenough,veryoftenfailtoequalhim.43

Chuwasespeciallyhostiletoanythinginthetraditionthatsmackedofmannerism.HewarnedthestudentofpoetryawayfromthatoftheSixDynastiesera(222589)
aftertheWesternChinandfromTuFu'slaterpoetry,thatis,thatwrittenafterhissojourninK'ueichouca(766768)poetrythathethoughtwasnotthehonestand
straightforwardexpressionofmagnanimousstatesofmindbuttechnicalexercisesinformasendsinthemselves.
Forancientstyleverse(k ushihcb),onemustlookatthatwrittenduringtheWesternChinandearliersuchworkswrittenthenintheballad(yehfucc)andotherformsareall
beautiful.TuFu'sversewrittenbeforehisK'ueichouperiodisalsobeautiful,butinthatdoneatK'ueichouandlaterheinventshisownrulesandstandardsthismustnotbe
emulated.Su[SuShih]andHuang[HuangT'ingchiencd,10451105]aremerelymodernpoets.Su'stalentisofheroicproportions,butheletseverythingoutallatoncesothat
thereisnottheleastovertoneofmeaning,andHuangjustsquandershimselfondeliberatecalculations.44

ChubelievesthatthepoetryoftheHan,Wei,andWesternChineraspreservedintheWenhsance(Anthologyofliterature)compiledbyHsiaoT'ungcf(501531),is
thebestofthepostOdestradition,andanyonewhoemulatesthispoetrywillachieve,ifhehasenoughtalent,greatpoetryofhisownasdoes,forexample,oneof
Chu'searlyteachers,LiuTzuhuicg(11011147).
Inbothrulesandstandardsandinmoodit[poetrybyLiu]emulatesineverywaytheballadsfoundintheWenhsanandisnotadulteratedbypopularstylesofmorerecenttimes.
Asaresult,itsspiritandtoneareloftyandantiqueinflavor,anditsintonationandrhythmarebeautifulandclear.Fewpeopleofhisowndayandagecouldwriteanythingto
equalit....IhavealwaysmaintainedthateachandeverythingunderHeavenhasitsowndistinctmethodofbeingdone.Thestudentmustkeeptoaproperorderandmake
progressgradually.Somethingsuchasthestudyofpoetryalsomustfollowthisprocedureinitsmethod,and,itishoped,whenonemanagesnottolosesightofthebasic
characteristicsfoundintheindividualstylesoftheancients,afteratimeheshouldbeabletodoinnovationsonthemwhichnodoubtwilldefyeasyestimationofwhathecando.
However,workinginnovationsassuchisaverydifficultmatter.Ifoneactuallyeffects

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innovationswithoutviolatingthecheng(correct/orthodoxquality)ofpoetry,then,inanallencompassingfashionhewillgainamarvelouspowersothattherewillbenothinghe
cannotdo.Ratherthanbeingunfortunateenoughtoviolateonesingleaspectoforthodoxy,itwouldseem,onthecontrary,thatoneshouldkeeptotheageoldandprovenbasic
methodsthatwillkeephimsafeforhisentirelife.Li[LiPo],Tu[TuFu],Han[HanY]andLiu[LiuTsungyanch,773819]atthebeginningsoftheircareersinpoetryallemulated
thepoemsintheWenhsan,andTuandHanwerethemostinnovativewiththem,LiuandLitheleast.Innovationdoesnotlenditselftoemulation,butpoetrythatisnotthe
productofinnovationdoes.Thus,ratherthanstudyfromexamplesofinnovation,itwouldbebettertostudyfromexamplesofpoetrythatarenotinnovations.Thisisthemoral
behindthestoryofhowtheboyofthestateofLuthoughtheshouldemulateLiuhsiaHui.ci45Oh,bewareyoustudentsandbenotbeguiledbythenotionthatyouneednotkeep
totherulesandrashlytakesuchlibertieswiththemthatyoufallvictimtoyourownselfdeception!46

AnumberofpassagesintheChutzuyleialsopraiseLiPoforstayingclosetomodelsintheWenhsanandlamentthefactthatTuFustrayedfromtheminhis
laterworkthefollowingistypical:
LiT'aipaicj[LiPo]absolutelyalwaysemulatedthepoetryintheWenhsanthatiswhyhisisalwaysgood.ThebestofTuTzumei'sck[TuFu's]poetryisalsomodeledafterthe
Wenhsanpoems,butgraduallyhebecamelax,andthepoemsofhisK'ueichouperiodarealtogetherofadifferentorder.47

Inimmediatelysubsequentpassages,ChugoesontocastigateTu'slaterpoetryas"tediouslytrivial,""lawlessandunfit,"orsimply"incomprehensible"thatis,as
manneredintheextreme.
OpposedtothismannerismarethequalitiesthatChuseesinallgreatpoetry,andthesehecharacterizesintermsoftzutecl(ateasewithoneself/obtainedbyoneself),
t'iench'engcm(naturalness/sprungfromnature),ch'aojancn(detachment/transcendency),tzujanco(naturalnessandspontaneity),tzutsaicp(freedom/carefree
spontaneity),andts'ungjungcq(composure/calm).48Themeaningsofthesetermsoverlaptosomeextenttheycombinetomeangenuinepersonalexpressionfree
fromartificeofanykind,ontheonehand,andtranquilityandtranscendenceofselfcenteredegotism,ontheother.Ofcourse,thismeansspontaneitywithintherules
offormandexpressionofthecultivatedindividualtheselfthatstayswithintherulesofmorality(asChuunderstandstheWayoftheSages).Theveryhighest
attainmentinpoetry,accordingtoChu,istheexpressionofasenseofp'ingicrorp'ingtancsAfterexaminingagreatnumberofChu'scriticalstatementscontaining
theseterms,ChangChienctconcludesthatChu'sp'ingtan/p'ingishouldbeinterpretedineightdifferentways,regardedfromeightdifferentangles:(1)P'ingtan
doesnotmeank'utancu(lifenessnessandinsipidity),andp'ingidoesnotmeanch'ingicv(levityandprosaism).(2)P'ingtanandp'ingisignifyahigherpoetic

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cw

cx

cy

realmorworldthando,touseChu'sownexamples,chingli (exquisitebeauty),hungwei (magnificence),orkungcheng (precisionandorderliness)andthe

poetryofT'aoCh'iencz(365427)bestrepresentsthisrealm.(3)Themostpreciousfeatureofp'ingiisthatitisproducedspontaneouslyandnotthroughconscious
effort.(4)Thereinhereinp'ingtan,underprofoundrestraint,suchfeelingsashaofangda(greatvigorandbravery),kanshangdb(greatsorrow),orothersentiments
thatdefyarticulationinordinarymodesofdiscourse.(5)Itisverydifficulttoachieveasenseofp'ingtaninpoetryevensuchagreatmaster,inChu'sopinion,asOu
yangHsiudidnotlightlydaretosetthisasagoalforhimself.(6)P'ingtan,likep'ingi,isawonderfulqualitythatonehastoobtainallbyoneselfwithoutconscious
effort.(7)Thesenseofp'ingiisclosetothatofhsientandc(calmness/placidity)butinwhichonecanoftenseealoftyandfarreachingrealm.(8)P'ingialsooccurs
inprose,butitisofahigherorderwhenitoccursinpoetry.49Theonlyinconsistencyhere,whenwecomparetheseassertionswithwhatwehavealreadyseenof
Chu'stheoryofpoetry,especiallyasitappliestoliteraryhistory,istheplacegiventoT'aoCh'ienattheverytopofthep'ingtan/p'ingiscaleheis,afterall,apost
WesternChinpoet.ChuseemstohaveregardedT'aoasanexceptionalgeniuswhowasabletotranscendthelimitationsofhisowntimeandplace.
AlthoughthescopeofthispaperdoesnotallowadetailedexaminationofChu'scriticismofindividualpoetssomethingthatChangChiendoesinhisbookin
admirablefashion50wehaveexaminedhiscriticismsofthosepoetsChuseemstohaveregardedasthemostsignificant.Eventhisbriefstudygivesageneralsenseof
whatChu'slikesanddislikeswereandthereasonsforthem.
Conclusion
Chu'stheoriesofproseandpoetryarethuscomplementary.Botharepredictedupontheassumptionthatwritingisatonceamediumofpersonalexpressionanda
vehicleofmoralpersuasion.Itshouldbefreeofsuperfluousornamentationandshouldfulfillthesetwofunctionsinaclearanddirectmanner.Bothproseandpoetry
areactivitiesofthecultivatedmanwithmoralityandaestheticscombininginaseeminglyinextricablewaytoproducethiscultivation.Cultivationinbothsenses
derivesfromemulation.TheClassicsprovidetheultimatemodels,withtheBookofOdesprovidingtheessentialfirstguidetothewholelatertraditionofpoetry.
Writingsoftheearlyimperialperiodsupplythesecondarymodelssecondarybut,becauseofthemoredirectlinguisticcontinuitybetweenthemandthelater
tradition,ofmorepracticaltechnicalassistancetothestudentofpoetryandprose.ThegreatcultureheroesofthistimeWesternHanforproseandalloftheHan,
theWei,andtheWesternChinforpoetryarethegreatwriters.Theysetthestandardsfortherestofthetraditionemulationofthemisofabsoluteimportanceinthe
developmentofone'sownliteraryart,bothintermsofformal

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styleandofexpressivequalities.Thisconstitutes,ineffect,aliteraryorthodoxy,whichitisthedutyofeachnewgenerationtorenewandpreserve.Thisduty,however,
wasnotcarriedoutduringlargepartsofliteraryhistorywhenthecorrectmodelswereignoredandheterodoxdevelopmentsinstyleandexpressiontookplaces.
TheseincludeproseaftertheWesternHan,poetryaftertheWesternChin(T'aoCh'ienexcepted)andthewritingofalllaterfigureswhodonotincorporateintheir
ownworksthecorrectstandardsofthepast.Thesethestudentmustguardagainstandshunasheundertakeshisowntraining.Learningtowrite,then,isaformof
scholarship,justasitisforthestudentofmoralphilosophy.Writing,forChuHsi,isathoroughlybookishexperiencethisviewpoint,notsurprisingly,isentirely
consistentwiththerestofhisintellectualandspiritualconcerns.
Notes
ChuHsi'stheoryofliteratureandhispracticalcriticismofauthorsandworkshaveattractedtheattentionofanumberofscholarsinmoderntimes.Ihavefoundthe
followingworksofspecialvalueinthepreparationofthispaper:KuoShaoy,Chungkuowenhsehp'ip'ingshihdd[AhistoryofChineseliterarycriticism],
(Taipei:Wenshihchech'upanshe,de1979reprintofthe19341947ed.),pp.444450and465469LoKentse,dfChungkuowenhsehp'ip'ingshih,dgvol.
3:LiangSungwenhsehp'ip'ingshihdh[AhistoryoftheliterarycriticismoftheNorthernandSouthernSungeras],(Shanghai:Kutienwenhsench'upanshe,di
1961),pp.189199ChangChienChuHsidewenhsehp'ip'ingyenchiudj[AstudyoftheliterarycriticismofChuHsi],(Taipei:CommercialPress,1969).Mr.
Chang'sbookisanexcellentguidetothesourcesofChu'sviewsithassavedmeanimmenseamountoftimeandeffort.
1.ChuHsi,T'ungshuchiehdk[ExplanationstoPenetratingtheBookofChanges]seeChoutzuch'anshudl[CompleteworksofMasterChou],(Basic
SinologicalSeriesed.),10:180.
2.ChouTuni,T'ungshudminChoutzuch'anshu,10:180trans.JamesJ.Y.LiudninChineseTheoriesofLiterature(Chicago:UniversityofChicagoPress,
1975),p.114.
3.SeeKuo,Chungkuowenhsehp'ip'ingshih,pp.353355.
4.ChuHsi,ChuTzuylei[ClassifiedconversationsofMasterChu],(Taipei:Chengchungshuchdoed.,1962reprintofthe1473ed.),139:8a,p.5309.
5.Kuo,Chungkuowenhsehp'ip'ingshih,pp.341342.
6.ChuHsi,ChuTzuylei,139:19a,p.5331.
7.ThisappearstobeChu'sparaphrasetoareductionistformulaofvariousthingsSusaidabouttaoandwenseeKuo,Chungkuowenhsehp'ip'ingshih,
pp.341342.
8.ChuHsi,ChuTzuylei,139:19a,p.5331.
9.Kuo,Chungkuowenhsehp'ip'ingshih,p.342.
10.IsaiahBerlin,TheHedgehogandtheFox:AnEssayonTolstoy'sViewofHistory(NewYork:SimonandSchuster,1953),pp.12.
11.Tsochuandp[Tso'scommentary],DukeHsiang,dqtwentyfifthyear.
12.Analects,15:41.
13.SuShih,Tungp'och'ichidr[SevencollectionsofSuShih'sworks],(SPPYed.),latercollection,14:10atrans.JamesJ.Y.LiuinChineseTheoriesof
Literature,p.130.

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14.FromthePuch(Divination)pieceintheCh'utz'useeWenhsan[Anthologyofliterature],(SPPYed.),33:4btrans.DavidHawkes,Ch'uTz'u:Songsof
theSouth(Boston:BeaconPress,1962),p.89.
15.WhathassurvivedasLin'scollectedwritings,theAihsanchids(Ssuk'uch'anshuchenpen,dtfirstseries,ed.),doesnotseemtocontainthisstatementitis
likelythatiswaspartofaletterfromLintoChuthatwasnotpreservedanothersuchletterdoesnotexist(see6:8b9a).However,Lin'sviewofthegradual''decline"
inwritingduringthecourseoftimetheHanincludedisstatedinapassagepreservedonpages4:4b6a.
16.SeeHanYingdu(fl.c.179157B.C.),Hanshihwaichuandv[Han'sexternalcommentariesontheOdes],(SPTKed.),7:65a.
17.ChuHsi,ChuTzuylei,139:1a1b,pp.52955296.
18.ChuHsi,ChuWenKungwenchidw[CollectionofliteraryworksofMasterChu],SPTKed.),supplementarycollection,2:4a.
19.ChuHsi,ChuTzuylei,137:22a,p.5263.
20.Ibid.,139:20a,p.5333.
21.ChuHsi,ChuWenKungwenchi,37:12a.
22.ChuHsi,ChuTzuylei,139:2b3a,pp.52985299.
23.TheChanges,Poetry,History,SpringandAutumnAnnals,Rites,Music.
24.TheKuoyisattributedtoTsoCh'iuming,dxacontemporaryofConfuciusitrecordseventsinthevariousfeudalstatesfromtheendofWesternChouup
throughtheSpringandAutumnera(c.967c.453B.C.).
25.ChuHsi,ChuTzuylei,139:1a,p.5295.
26.SeeLiu,ChineseTheoriesofLiterature,pp.6365.
27.ChuHsi,ChuTzuylei,139:9a,p.5311.ThereferencetoConfuciusistoAnalects,11:1.
28.ChuHsi,ChuTzuylei,139:4a4b,pp.53015302.
29.AstudyofChuHsi'spoetryhasbeenundertakenbyLiChidyin"ChuHsithePoet,"T'oungPaodz58(1972),pp.55119.SeveralpoemsbyChuarealso
translatedbyWingtsitChaneain"NeoConfucianPhilosophicalPoems,"Renditions4(Spring1975),pp.1216.
30.Lichieb[TheRecordofRites],(Shihsanchingchushueced.),37:10a.
31.ThisparaphrasestheTahsed[Majorpreface]totheBookofOdes.
32.KingChaoreignedfrom1052to1002B.C.andKingMufrom1001to947B.C.sotraditionhasit.Chao'sreignwasmarkedbyluxuriouslivingandextravagant
huntingexpeditions,Mu'sreignedbytours,travel,andcostlyforeignmilitaryexpeditionsbothsignalthedeclineofcentralpoweroftheChoustate.
33.Thisoccurredin770B.C.
34.The"Chounan"[OdesofChouandtheSouth]arethefirstelevenoftheOdesintheClassicandthe"Shaonan"[OdesofShaoandtheSouth]arethenext
fourteen.TheyaretraditionallyattributedtothetimeofKingWen'sreign(11711122B.C.),theverybeginningofChourule.
35.Analects,3:20.
36.The"OdesofP'ei"arethenextnineteenafterthe"Shaonan."P'eiwasthenorthernpartofthedomainoftheformerShangkings.
37.The"MajorPreface"totheBookofOdesstates:"BythetimetheKinglyWayhaddeclined,andproprietyandrightnesshadbeenabandoned,theprincipleof
governmentbymoralinstructionwaslostandeachstatefollowedadifferentsystemof

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government,eachfamilyadifferentcustom.Thereuponthe'ChangedAirs'and'ChangedOdes'arose"(trans.JamesJ.Y.Liu,ChineseTheoriesofLiterature,
p.64).ProfessorLiucomments"Sincetheword'changed'(pien)oftenconnotesdeviationfromthenormandevendisaster,thestatementimpliesthatabnormal
timesproduceabnormalliterature,andthatitisimpossibletoproducenormalorproper(cheng)literatureinatimeofcrisis"(p.64).
38.The"Elegentiae"aredividedintothe"Taya"ee[Greaterelegentiae)andthe"Hsiaoya''ef[Lesserelegentiae]thosethatunderwenta"change"refertothelatter.
39.ChuHsi,ChuWenkungwenchi,76:13a14b.Hsinan(WuyaneginAnhwei)wasChu'sfather'snativeplaceChuusuallyisassociatedwithChienchouehin
Fukien,wherehelivedinhislateryears.
40.TheThreeMoralPrinciplesorThreeBondsorStandards(sankangei)arethosethatgoverntherelationshipsbetweenrulerandsubject,fatherandson,and
husbandandwife.
41.TheFiveHumanRelationships(wutienejthatis,wulunekorwuch'angel)aretheconstantvirtuesofafather'srighteousness(iem),amother'slove(tz'u,enanelder
brother'sfriendship(yueo),ayoungerbrother'srespect(kungep),andason'sfilialpiety(hsiaoeq).
42.ChuHsi,ChuWenKungwenchi,76:33b34b.
43.Ibid.,75:30b31b.
44.ChuHsi,ChuTzuylei,140:1a,p.5339.
45.LiuhsiaHuiHui(Thecompassionateone)ofLiuhsia[Beneaththewillows].HisnamewasChanCh'inerhewasanativeofthestateofLuduringtheWarring
Statesera.Heoncegavesheltertoawomaninneedanddidnottakeadvantageofher.Onalateroccasion,awoman'shousecollapsedduringastorm,andshe
soughtshelternextdoor,buttheyoungmanwholivedalonetherewouldnotgivehershelter.ShecomplainedandaskedhimwhyhedidnotbehaveasdidLiuhsia
Hui,sincenoonethoughtanythingtheworseofhimwhenhegaveawomanshelter.TheyoungmanrepliedthatifhewereaLiuhsiaHuihecoulddoit,butsincehe
wasnot,hecouldnotdoit"IcouldnotrelyonwhatIwasincapableofdoingtoemulatesomethingLiuhsiaHuicoulddo!"Confuciusissupposedtohavesaidof
him:"OfallthosewhomightwanttoemulateLiuhsiaHui,therehasneverbeenanyonemorefittingthanhe."SeeShihMaoshihchuanshues[TheBookofOdes
withMao'scommentariesandfurthersubcommentaris],(BasicSinologicalSeriesed.),19:113.
46.ChuHsi,ChuWenKungwenchi,84:20a20b.
47.ChuHsi,ChuTzuylei,140:2b,p.5342.
48.SeeChangChien,ChuHsidewenhsehp'ingp'ingyenchiu,pp.2932.
49.Ibid.,pp.3234.
50.Ibid.,pp.76115.
Glossary

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21
ChuHsiandReligion
RenJiyu
AfigureofsignalimportanceinthehistoricaldevelopmentofChinesephilosophy,ChuHsiwas,followingConfucius(551479B.C.)andTungChungshua(176104
B.C.),themostsignificantcontributortothecompletionoftheConfuciansystem.Thestudyofhisthought,althoughanacademicmatter,isnonethelessrelevanttothe
actuallifeofthecontemporaryChinesepeople.WhereastheprevailingviewintheChineseacademicworldhasbeenthatChuHsi'sthoughtbelongstotherealmof
philosophy,itisviewedinthispaperasbelongingtotherealmofreligion,withhisphilosophicalideasunderstoodashavingbeenintheserviceofhisreligioussystem.
SocioculturalConditioningofChineseReligion
Unlikethenaturalsciences,religionandphilosophyhavedistinctivenationalfeatures.AcomparisonofChineseculturewiththeculturesofothernationsrevealsboth
similarities1anddifferences.SomedistinctivecharacteristicsofChinesesocietyascomparedwiththeWestarethefollowing:thedurationofChinesefeudalsociety
waslongandstableitsfeudalpatriarchalsystemwasmorefullydevelopedthefeudalautocracyexertedcentralizedpowerpeasantuprisingsweremorefrequentand
widespreadandcapitalismfailedtodevelop.Chinahasarecordedhistoryofnearlyfourthousandyears,morethanhalfofwhichwerepassedunderfeudalism,and
amongtheelementsofancientChinesethoughtthathavedrawntheattentionofthewholeworld,themostconspicuousisitsfeudalculture.Morepenetratingresearch
onChinesefeudalculturewouldrequirethecommoneffortsofscholarsinsuchfieldsaspoliticalscience,economics,andculture.Thepresentstudyaddressesthe
problemsolelyfromtheperspectiveofphilosophyandreligion.
Asstatedabove,oneofthecharacteristicsofthehistoryofChinesefeudalsocietywasitspatriarchalsystem,whichgrewupduringthelaterstagesoftheclan
dominatedcommunalsociety.Ingeneral,undertheconditionsofproductivebackwardness,undevelopedlaborskill,andextremelymeageroutput,thesocialsystem
wastoagreatextentdominatedbybloodrelationships.

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Whereassocialandeconomicdevelopmentenabledmanynationsintheworldtobreakthebondageofbloodrelationshipsandtoestablishtheirstateorganizationon
delimitedterritories,suchwasnotthecaseinChina.Onceitsstateorganizationhadbeenformed,theoldformsofbloodrelationshipleftbytheclansocietywerenot
discardedbut,onthecontrary,asaneffectiveformofsocialorganizationcontinuedtofunction,regulatingandevendominatingtheactivitiesofthestateandsociety
andbecomingthemechanismforadjustingsocialrelations.Socialclashescreatedbyclasscontradictionsandthedisparitybetweenrichandpoorwerealleviated
throughclanrelationships,andthepatriarchalsystemstillfirmlyboundtogetherthemembersofaclasssocietythroughtheirnaturalbloodties.Commoncustoms,
commonpsychology,andcommonnormsofbehaviorretaineduniversalsignificanceinthesociety.Confucians,intheirendeavortomaintainthepatriarchalsystem,
constantlymadeuseofitsoldformsandinvestedthemwithnewcontent.
ThediscussionbeginswiththeWesternChoudynasty(1111770B.C.).HavingtriumphedovertheYinbpeople,theChoupeopleestablishedtheirruleoverthewhole
ofChinaand,asadominatingminority,puttheconqueredmajorityundertheircommand.Effectivelyutilizingthepatriarchalsystemofbloodrelationships,they
enfeoffedthearistocratsoftheirownandrelatedclansandsettledthemontheprincipaleasternterritoriestoestablishsuchstatesasCh'i,cLu,dYen,eandChin.fThis
systemofenfeoffmentlastedforsevenoreighthundredyears,untilitwasabolishedaftertheunificationbytheCh'in(221206B.C.),butthepatriarchalsystemof
bloodrelationshipssurvivedinnewcircumstances.AfterunificationundertheCh'inandHan(206B.C.A.D.220)dynasties,theprimitivereligiousritesinheritedfromthe
classsocietywereaccordedsystematicexplanationsandconsistentreasoning,aswitnessthecompilationoftheLichig(Bookofrites)atthebeginningoftheHan
dynasty.Intheprimitivereligion,therewerenospecialreligiousprofessionals,chieftainshavingbeeninchargeofthesacrifice.Allmembersofaclanparticipatedin
suchactivitiesasprayersforarichharvest,theexorcismofdiseases,andavoidanceofnaturalcalamities.Productiveorsocialactivitieswereatthesametimereligious
activities,andsacrificialceremonieswithinaclanandwarfareagainstexternaltribeswerealsocarriedoutundertheguideofreligiousrites.Thenumerousrituals
recordedinantiquityconstituteaccountsofpopularcustomsofthetime.Inprimitivereligioncanbefoundtheoriginsofceremoniesonsuchoccasionsascapping,
weddings,funerals,sacrifices,militaryexpeditions,theentertainmentofguests,festivalfeasts,andsacrificialbanquets.2
Afterprolongedevolution,thecultureoftheWesternChougraduallydevelopedintothecultureofHuahsia,hwhichtranscendedtherealmoftheChoupeople.After
theKingofChoumovedtotheeast,thecourtlostitssovereignstatusbutthestateofLu,originallythefiefoftheDukeofChoui(d.1094B.C.),preservedtheold
rites,music,culturalrelics,andtraditionalinstitutionsintheirentirety.3ItwasthereforenotbychancethatLuandTsouj

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werethenativestatesofConfuciusandMencius(372289B.C.?),thetwofoundersoftheConfucianschool.
AlthoughtherehavebeendifferentviewsamongscholarsastotherelationbetweenConfuciusandtheSixClassics,4allagreethatConfuciusandhisdisciplestook
partinthearrangementoftheSixClassicsandusedthemastextbookstoteachtheirpupils.AmongtheSixClassics,therecordsandexplanationsoftheprimitive
religionwerespecificallycontainedintheBookofRitesandtheBookofMusic.Morebroadly,theSixClassics,withtheirvariedcontents,alsoexemplifiedan
outlookonHeavenandman,onsociety,andonreligion,attheveryheartofwhichwasthepatriarchalsystem.TheteachingsoftheConfucianClassicssuchas
"veneratingHeavenandimitatingancestors,""honoringthehonorableandbeingkindtokindred,"and"reveringvirtueandsafeguardingthepeople"allborethetraces
oftheprimitivereligion.LaterConfucians,intransmittingtheseClassics,continuallyofferednewexplanationsandprovidedfreshinterpretationsforthemwiththeresult
thattheybecamethenormsguidinghumanlife.TheConfucianClassicshavealwayshadastronglyreligiouscharacter.
TheunificationoftheCh'inandHandynastiesdeterminedthegeneralpatternofpoliticalorganizationinChinaformorethantwothousandyears.TheChinesepeople
havelongsincethoughtthatunityisnormal,divisionabnormal.Nevertheless,theeconomythatprevailedinthefeudalsocietywasanaturaleconomyinwhichthe
produceofthepeasantswas,savefortheportiontobeofferedintributetothestate,alltobeconsumedbyindividualfamiliesandhouseholds.Givenaclosed
economicsystembasedonselfsufficiencyandontheindividualasanisolatedunit,itwouldhavebeenimpossibletomaintainunityhaditnotbeenforthe
instrumentalityofideologicalunity.Historically,theattempttosearchoutideologicalunityrequiredseventyyearsaftertheunificationofCh'inandHanandculminated
whenpreeminentauthoritywasassignedtoConfucianismandadominantpositionwasassumedbythetheologicalteleologyofTungChungshu.DuringtheEastern
HandynastythePaihut'ungk(ComprehensivediscussionsintheWhiteTigerHall)furthertheologizedandsystematizedtheConfucianclassicallearning.Inthepast,
scholarlyaccountsoftheclassicallearningoftheWestern(206B.C.A.D.8)andEasternHandynastieshaveoveremphasizeditstransmissionthroughscholasticor
familysuccession,whileitstheologicalsignificancehasbeenlargelyneglected.Thisisaninadequateapproachtothesubject.
AsaresultoftheprolongeddivisionofaformerlyunitedcountryduringtheperiodsoftheThreeKingdoms(220280)andtheSixDynasties(222589),theinfluence
ofConfucianismdiminished,yettherewasnocorrespondingdeclineinthefeudalpatriarchalsystem.Rather,thestrengthofthenobilityandgentrywasenlargedand,
withit,strictinsistenceontheteachingsoffilialpietyandfraternaldutyandincreasedemphasisonthestudyofgenealogy.Theantagonismbetweennationalitiesand
thefrequentwarfarethatprevailedatthattimepreparedthesoilforthedevelopmentofreligion,andBud

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dhismandTaoismflourished.AftertheunificationoftheSui(581618)andT'ang(618907)dynasties,Confucianism,Buddhism,andTaoismcametobereferredto
togetherasthe"ThreeTeachings,"andonoccasionsofgrandstateceremonies,representativesofthethreeteachingsweresummonedtoengageindiscussionsatthe
imperialcourt.ItwasatthistimethatConfucianismbegantobegenerallyrecognizedasareligion.
ChinesePhilosophyandChineseReligion
WhentheprocessleadingfromtheconfrontationamongthethreeteachingsofConfucianism,Buddhism,andTaoismtotheirmutualinterpenetrationisexaminedfrom
aviewpointofhistoryofhumanknowledge,theconstantprogressanddeepeningofhumanknowledgecanberealizedaswell.
ThehistoryofknowledgeoftheChinesepeopleisonewiththehistoryofChinesephilosophicaldevelopment.InthepreCh'inperiodpeoplefocusedtheirattention
ontheWayofHeavenanddiscussedhowtheuniversehadbeenformed.Thisperiodcorrespondstothechildhoodofhumanknowledge,andTungChungshu's
theologicalteleologydidnotsurpassthatstage,astagestillcosmologicalandnotyetontological.Havingexperiencedseveralgreatsocialupheavalsandpolitical
changes,people'sinterestwasgraduallyattractedtoanoutlookontheWayofHeaventhattookintoaccountthemorecomplicatedsocialcontradictions.Interest
advancedfromtheproblemofhowtheuniversewasformedtotheproblemofmanhimselfinhissocialcontext,thatis,howthepropernatureofmanisformed.A
theoryofhumannaturehadalreadyemergedduringtheSpringandAutumn(722481B.C.)andWarringStates(403222B.C.)periods,butthatwasonlythe
beginning.Intermsofknowledge,therewassteadyprogressfromConfucius'sayingthat"bynaturemenarealikethroughpracticetheybecomedivergent,"5to
Mencius'theoryofthegoodnessofhumannature,6HsnTzu'sl(c.313238B.C.?)theoryoftheevilofhumannature,7YangHsiung'sm(53B.C.A.D.18)theoryofthe
mixingofgoodandevilinhumannature,8andHanY'sntheoryofthethreeclassesofhumannature.9Theoretically,however,nogreatdepthhadyetbeenachieved,
norhadtherebeguntobeexplorationofsuchproblemsasWhatistheoriginofthegoodnessorevilofhumannature?Whatistherelationbetweenhumannatureand
society?Isthereanyrelationbetweenhumannatureandphysiologicalfunctions,orbetweenhumannatureandindividualbehavior?Doeshumannatureundergo
changes,andifso,accordingtowhatlaws?
AfterBuddhismcametoChina,itsvoluminousscripturesweretranslatedintoChinese,andpeoplefoundinthemadepictionoftheworldincomparablybroaderthan
thatfoundintheChineseSixClassics.Thevividaccountsofhumanemotion,volition,andpsychologyfoundintheBuddhistscriptureswerealsofarmorerichand
complexthanwhathadbeenfoundinthediscussionsofhumannaturehandeddownbytheancientChinesesages

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andworthies.PeopleoftheCentralKingdomfoundthemselvesatalosswhentheyheardforthefirsttimeaboutkarma,thetheoryofcauseandeffectwherebypast,
present,andfutureliveswereunderstoodtobeconnected.10Atthesametime,humanknowledgewassteadilymakingprogress.Theevermorecomplicatedrealities
oflifeobligedpeopletoconfrontquestionsoffundamentalsignificance.Whyaretherecalamitiesinsociety?Whyaretheredisparitiesamongpeopleinwealthand
status?Whatistheworldlike,andwhatattitudeshouldonetaketowardsit?Whatisthepurposeofhumanlife?Noconcretesciencecanresolvesuchquestions,
thoughphilosophyandreligionconcernthemselveswiththeattempttodoso.Whetherornottheiranswershavebeencorrectaside,theexponentsofphilosophyand
religionofdifferenttimesandplaceshaveallconsideredthemselvestopossessthecorrectanswers.Theydifferedonlyintheirapproach,thepathofphilosophybeing
speculative,thepathofreligionbeingthatoffaith.Philosophyoffersrationalexplanations,whilereligionprovidesemotionalsatisfaction.Althoughtheoretically
speakingphilosophyandreligioneachhasitsrespectivedomain,medievalphilosophywassubordinatetoreligion,notindependentofit.Thetwodomainscouldnotbe
clearlydifferentiatedbypeopleuntiltheyawakenedfromtheirlonghibernationintheMiddleAges.Onlythencouldtheyrecognizethedistinctionsbetweenphilosophy
andreligionandapprehendthefullsignificanceofphilosophy.Further,thelevelofhumanknowledgeisareflectionofthelevelofscientificknowledgethelevelof
scientificknowledgebeinglowcomparedwiththatofmoderntimes,philosophywasincapableofrationalexplanationresorttoreligionwasinevitable.Eventoday,the
lineofdemarcationbetweenphilosophyandreligionisnotdistinctlydrawnbyeverybody.
AftertheMayFourthMovementof1919,ChinesephilosopherscameintocontactwiththecultureandphilosophyofmodernEuropeandbecameattunedtothe
enormousdifferencesbetweenChineseandWesternphilosophy.Mylateprofessor,Mr.HsiungShihlio(18831968),repeatedlyemphasizedthatEuropean
philosophycouldonlyprovidespeculativeknowledgeandlogicalmethodologybutcouldnotteachpeoplethemodesofpersonalpracticethroughwhichtheymight
attainthespiritualbenefitsofenjoyingpeaceandestablishingone'sowndestiny.Suchaperceptionistrueandvalid,andeveryscholarwhoreallyunderstands
traditionalChineseculturewillhavesensedadifferenceofthiskind,whichexistsasanobjectivereality.WhatneedstobepointedoutnowisthatWesternerstoo
haveaneedforenjoyingpeaceandestablishingdestinyindeed,itisunimaginablethatanycivilizedpeopleshouldlackthespiritualsupportforthem.Westernershave
foundsuchsupportinreligion,whileentrustingphilosophywiththetaskofunderstandingtheworld.
TheWesternworldexperienceditsindustrialrevolutionandwithitthemodernizationofitsscienceanditsproductiveforces,whichthuspreparedtheconditionsfor
philosophyandsciencetobeseparatedfromreligion.But

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inChina,whichexperiencednotsuchanindustrialrevolutionbutrathertheprolongationoffeudalsociety,theconditionsforseparatingphilosophyfromreligionwere
absent,andphilosophyremainedundifferentiatedfromreligionandunderitsdominationthroughoutChina'sfeudalperiod.
MedievalWesternphilosophy,too,hadbeenverymuchconcernedbothwithpersonalpeaceandestablishingdestinyandwiththestudyofcosmology,theobject
beingtounitemanwithHeavensothathemightattainsainthoodandsagehood.Anselm(10331109),forexample,assertedthatfaithwasthebasisfor
understanding,whileunderstandingmightfurnishargumentsforfaith.ThetimeofAnselmcorrespondstothereignsfromJentsungp(r.10231063)toHuitsungq(r.
11011125)oftheSungdynasty,andhewasroughlycontemporarywithChouTunir(10171073),thetwoCh'engs(Ch'engHao,s10321085,andCh'engI,t
(10331107),ChangTsaiu(10201077),andShaoYungv(10111077).ThetimeofThomasAquinas(c.12251274)correspondstothereignsfromLitsungw(r.
12251264)toTutsungx(r.12651274)oftheSouthernSungdynasty,beingsomewhatlaterthanthetimeofChuHsi.Westernscholasticphilosophyhadits
counterpartstothediscriminationbetweenthe"PrincipleofHeaven"andthe"humandesires,"aswellasitstheoriesontheperson,mind,nature,anddestiny.Oriental
andWesternsages,then,seemtocoincidewithoneanother.SomeareinclinedtocompareKantandHegelwiththetwoCh'engs,ChuHsi,LuHsiangshan(Lu
Chiuyan,y11391193),andWangYangming(WangShoujen,z14721529),andsuchaninclinationhasbecomewidespreadsincetheMayFourthMovement.
However,itisinjudicioustocomparedifferentstagesofsocialdevelopment,thatis,thefeudalandcapitalistsocieties,andnotrustworthyconclusionscanbededuced
fromsuchacomparison.TherearealsosomepeoplewhothinkthattheSchoolofPrinciple(Lihseh)aainChinaandtheBuddhistphilosophyofIndiaaresimilar
becausebothareOrientalsystemsofthought.Actually,thesimilaritybetweenancientChineseandIndianthoughtderivedfromtheresemblancebetweentheirstages
ofsocialdevelopment.BothChinaandIndiawerereducedtothestatusofcolonyorsemicolonybeforetheycouldformallyadvancetothestageofmoderncapitalist
society.Thesimilaritybetweenthecivilizationsofthesetwogreatnationslaysolelyinthefactthatbothborethefeaturesofantiquity.
WhatissaidhereisnotintendedtodenythedistinctivecharacteristicsofthenationalcultureofChina,ortosuggestthatculturaldifferencesaredeterminedentirelyby
stagesofsocialdevelopment.Apartfromthefeaturescommontoallmedievalcultures,premodernChineseculturehaditsowndistinctivefeature,namelythefeudal
patriarchalsystem.TheConfucianreligionofChinawascreatedbyitinordertorenderitservice,justasancientIndianphilosophywascharacterizedbyitsserviceto
thecastesystemofIndia.Giventhestrength,tenacity,anddurationofthefeudalpatriarchalsystem,itexertedanenormousinfluenceontraditionalChineseculture,
penetratingittoadepthunimaginabletoWesterners.

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NotonlydidprimitiveChinesethoughtcomeunderitsdomination,butevenBuddhism,whichhadbeenimportedfromabroad,couldnotescapebeingconditionedby
it.DuringtheperiodofmorethantwohundredyearsfromtheEasternChindynasty(317420)tothebeginningoftheT'angdynasty,therearosethecontroversies
overtheBuddhistassertionsthat"amonkshouldnotbowdownbeforeaking,"or"amonkneednotobservesecularcustoms,"andallsuchcontroversiesresultedin
thedefeatofthemonk.Thesamefatebefellthemonasteriesintheirclaimofextraterritorialityandtheexemptionofmonksfromofficialpunishment.Iftherewere
passagesinoriginalBuddhistscripturescontradictorytoChinesepatriarchalethics,theywouldbedeleted,modified,oramendedinthetranslationtomeettheneeds
ofthefeudalpatriarchalsystem.11ThehighestnormforBuddhistsistheAgamapramana*(ThenormofBuddha'steachings),anintendedviolationofwhichwould
resultinfallingintohellorsufferingterribleretribution,yetChineseBuddhistswouldratherrunsuchariskthanoffendagainstfeudalethicsorthesankangwu
ch'angab(theThreeCardinalGuidesandtheFiveConstantVirtues).12
ItiseverywhereevidentthatChinesereligionsandphilosophywereobligedtorenderservicetothefeudalpatriarchyandthekangch'angmingchiaoac(thecardinal
guides,constantvirtues,institutions,andmorals).Forexample,intherevisededitionofPaichangch'ingkueiad(RegulationsatthePaichangMountain),acollection
ofmonasticrulesoftheCh'anaeSchoolofBuddhism,thesovereignisblessedfirst,followedbytheBuddhaandthepatriarchs,thusillustratingthedegreetowhich
Chinesereligionsweresecularized.Thissecularizationisrevealednotonlyinritualsbutalsoinreligioustheorieswhichwerebroughtintoconcertwiththe
contemporaryfeudalpatriarchalsystem.Theessenceofreligionliesinadvocatingunworldliness,whichrequiresitsfollowerstobedifferentfrommembersofthe
secularsocietybothintheirlivinghabitsandintheirworldview.ButCh'an,themostinfluentialBuddhistsectinChina,heldthattheWesternParadisewasnotonthat
furthershorebutonthisone,thatitwasnotoutsidetheactualworldbutwithinit.Deliverancedidnotinvolvegoingtoanotherplacetoleadadifferentlife,butrather
anefforttochangeone'sworldview.ThepracticeofBuddhistmonasticismdidnotmeanleavingthisworldinsearchofaWesternParadiseelsewhere.Itwas
necessaryonlytoadopttheBuddhistworldview,andthemundaneworldofdailyexistencewouldbeoneandthesamewiththeWesternParadise.13
EvenbeforetheSchoolofPrinciplemadeitsformalappearance,Chinesereligionshadbeguntobesecularized.SecularizationwasatrendcommontobothBuddhism
andTaoismafterthemidT'angperiod,withCh'anbecomingthemostwidespreadsectofBuddhismandtheCh'anchenaf(PreservingtheTrueState)sectof
Taoismalsofollowingthepathofsecularization.Later,inthewakeofwidespreaddestitution,clashesbetweennationalities,andfrequentwarsandupheavals,andthe
collapseofthemonasticeconomyduring

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theperiodfromtheendofT'angtotheFiveDynasties(907960),Ch'anwastheonlyBuddhistsectthatnotonlydidnotdeclinebutspreadeverywhere.Fromthe
confrontationofthethreereligionsduringtheearlierT'angdynastytotheirconfluenceintheperiodfromtheendofT'angthroughtheFiveDynasties,thetrendtoward
secularizationgrew.
TheappearanceoftheSchoolofPrinciplesignifiedthecompletionofConfucianism.ItmightseemthattheSchoolofPrinciplesucceededindisplacingBuddhismand
Taoism,thusconcludingthestrugglethathadoccupieditspredecessorsforhundredsofyears,butthissuccesswasonlyapparent.Unlikeapoliticalpower,religion
cannotbeoverthrownbyanyforcewhatsoever.EspeciallyintheMiddleAges,religionasanideologyhadtheutmostvitalityitcouldnotbeobliteratedfromhistory,
asevidencedbythefactthatseveralgreatmovementsto"destroyBuddhism"14inChinesehistoryallresultedinfailureandwereallfollowedbyarekindlingamongthe
massesofanevenmoreferventfaith.AdvocatesoftheSchoolofPrinciplehadnotdeposedBuddhismandTaoismbuthadincorporatedsomeoftheirimportant
elementsandthenerectedasigndeclaringthistobetheConfucianreligion.
TheSchoolofPrinciplehaditsbeginningsinthelaterstagesofChinesefeudalsociety.AccordingtotheSungYanhsehanag(AnthologyofSungandYan
Confucianists),itsforebearswereSunFuah(9921057),ShihChiehai(10051045),andHuYanaj(9931059)thisview,however,wasnotacknowledgedbythe
orthodoxscholarsoftheschool,whosedesignationofChouTuniandtheTwoCh'engsasitsfounderscametobeacceptedastheprevailingview.Thetimeofthe
FiveMastersoftheNorthernSung(9601126)15coincidedwithoneofthegreateventsinthehistoryofthatdynastythereformsofWangAnshihak(1021
1086)whichgaverisetopoliticalstrugglesthatpersisteduntilthefalloftheNorthernSung.Thereasonforthefailureofthereformlaynotmerelyinbureaucratic
mismanagementbutalsointheinevitabledilemmasattendantuponthelaterstagesoffeudalsociety.Regardlessofwhetherornotreformswereenacted,thesituation
couldnothavebeenremedied.ThestateofthepettycourtoftheSouthernSung(11271279)wasevenworse,theconditionoftheeconomymoreparlous,the
popularmoralestillmoredepressed.The"resurgence"oftheSouthernSungwasnomorethananillusion.Philosophyatthattimealsoconfrontedacrisisthatwould
notberesolved.ThismightbedescribedastheidealogicalcrisisofConfucianphilosophy,whichwasasurgentasthesituationcallingforpoliticalreform.Theefforts
ofthescholarsoftheSchoolofPrincipleculminatedinthefoundingoftheConfucianreligion,ahistoricalmissionbegunbythemastersoftheNorthernSungand
broughttocompletionbyChuHsiduringtheSouthernSung.
AnalysisofChuHsi'sTheoreticalSystem
Havinginheritedanddevelopedtheideathat"theUltimatelessisalsotheGreatUltimate"inChouTuni'sT'aichit'ushuoal(Anexplanationofthedia

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gramoftheGreatUltimate),ChuHsiestablishedthetheorythat''principleisonewhileitsmanifestationsarevarious,"thusdemonstratingtherelationbetweenthe
varietyandtheunityofthingsandalsoexpoundinghisidealisticontologyinacomparativelycompleteway.HavinginheritedtheCh'engs'propositionthat"thenatureis
principle,"hehighlightedtheobjectivityanduniversalityof"principle."HavingassimilatedChangTsai'stheorythat"theGreatVoidismaterialforce,"herevised
Chang'sphilosophicalsystembysubordinatingmaterialforcetoprinciple,sothatprinciplebecametherulerofmaterialforce.Thusheestablishedatheoryof
cosmologymoreintegratedthanthatofanypreviousphilosopher.
Inrespecttothetheoryofhumannature,ChuHsiacceptedtheconclusionsofhispredecessorsanddevelopedthemfurther,saying,"thatmanhashislifeisonlydueto
thecombinationofnatureandmaterialforce.Tospeakanalyticallyofthecombination,thenatureissubjecttoprincipleandsoitiswithoutform,whilematerialforceis
subjecttoformandsoithassubstance."16ThismeansthatanactualhumanbeingisformedwhentheHeavenendowednaturepervadesthephysicalnature.The
distinctionbetweenthesetwokindsofnaturewasintendedtosettlethelongstandingdisputeinthehistoryofChinesephilosophyoverwhetherhumannatureisgood
orevil.AccordingtoChuHsi,thegoodnessofhumannaturewhichMenciusadvocated17pertainedtotheHeavenendowednature,forMencius,focusingonlyona
humannaturethatwasgoodandnotknowingofthephysicalnature,couldnotsatisfactorilysolvetheproblemofwhereevilcomesfrom.Asaresult,hisinterpretation
ofhumannaturewasimperfect.HsnTzu'stheorythathumannatureisevil,YangHsiung'stheoryofhumannatureasamixtureofgoodandevil,andHanY'stheory
ofthethreeclassesofhumannatureallreferredtothephysicalnature,andtheydidnotunderstandthattheHeavenendowednature,whichistraceabletothe
Ultimate,isinitselfgood.Consequently,theirexplanationsofhumannaturewerealsoincomplete.ChuHsithoughtthatonlybystrictlydifferentiatingthetwokindsof
humannaturecouldasatisfactoryinterpretationbeattained.ThatiswhyhegavethehighestpraisetothetheoryofChangTsaiandthetwoCh'engsonhumannature,
sayingthat,"SoupontheestablishmentofthetheoryofChangandCh'eng,theargumentsofallpreviousphilosopherscollapsed."18Thus,bytakingtheHeaven
endowednaturetobethepropernatureofman,itwaspossibletofindontologicalgroundsforthetheoryofthegoodnessofhumannature.InChuHsi'ssystem,allthe
myriadthingsaretheembodimentoftheGreatUltimate,andwhentheGreatUltimateisembodiedinman,itiscalledthenature.TheGreatUltimateisthemost
perfectreality,andeverythingsharesitsbrilliantlight.Sinceitisperfect,itsembodimentinhumannatureshouldbeperfectaswell.Andsincethepropernatureofman
isgood,anydefectsinthematerialsubstancecanbediminishedthrougheffort.
ThecruxofChuHsi'stheoryofhumannaturewasthatthenormsoffeudalmorality,suchashumanity,righteousness,loyalty,andfilialpiety,aretheHeavenendowed
nature.Everybodyhasthesemoralendowmentsanditis

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onlybecauseofthepartialityandobscuretionassociatedwiththematerialsubstancethatsomepeopleareunablefullytodevelopandactualizethisHeavenendowed
natureormorality.ChuHsi'sdemonstrationservedtoprovideontologicaljustificationforMencius'theoryofthegoodnessofhumannature.Oncehavingbeen
correctlystated,itshowedpeoplewheretodirecttheireffortsandgaveconfidencetothosewhocouldnotyetfullycorrespondtothenormsoffeudalmorality.
Therefore,drawingadistinctionbetweentheHeavenendowednatureandthephysicalnaturewasinChuHsi'swords"acredittotheSchooloftheSage
[Confucianism]."ChuHsialsothoughtthattheHeavenendowednatureconsistsofhumanity,righteousness,decorum,andwisdom,whicharetheoriginalnaturenot
onlyofmanbutalsooftheuniverse.Asheputit,theyare"thevirtuesofHeavenandEarth.""WhatinrespecttoHeavenarecalledorigination,flourishing,advantage,
andcorrectness(yan,heng,li,chenam)19areinrespecttomancalledhumanity,righteousness,decorum,andwisdom."20Chuofferedatheoreticaljustificationforthe
necessitythateveryoneacceptthefeudalmorality(drawingonHsnTzu'sviewofhumannatureasevilandtheimportanceofreformingpeople)combinedwitha
theoreticalstatementofthepossibilitythateverybodycouldbereformedintoasageorworthy(developingMencius'theoryofthegoodnessofhumannature).
ChuHsialsodevelopedanewperspectiveontherelationbetweenthemind,nature,andfeelings.Hesaid,"Thenatureistheprincipleofthemind,andfeelingsarethe
activitiesofthenature,andthemindisthemasterofboththenatureandfeelings."21Usingthemetaphorofwater,hesaid,"Themindislikewater,thenatureislikethe
tranquillityofwater,andfeelingsarelikeitsflowing."22Withinthenaturearehumanity,righteousness,decorum,andwisdomwhenthesearedisplayedinfeelings,they
becomepityandcommiseration,shameanddislike,thesenseofrightandwrong,andmodestyandyielding.Fromthefactthat"humanity,righteousness,decorum,and
wisdomareallrootedinthemind,"oneseesthemindthroughthenatureandbythefactthatthemindofpityandcommiserationisthebeginningofhumanity,onesees
themindthroughthefeelings.Natureisnothingbutprinciple,andsonothinginitisevil,butwhenitdisplaysitselfinfeelings,therearebothgoodandevilinit.The
mindproperisthe''mindofTao,"anandwhenitisimplicatedwiththefeelings,itbecomesthe"mindofman."Correspondingtothe"mindofTao"andthe"mindof
man,"therearethe"PrincipleofHeaven"and"humandesires."SoChuHsisaid,"Thereisinmanonlyonemind,whichrepresentsitselfasthePrincipleofHeaven
whenitcorrespondstothewayofNature,orashumandesireswhenityieldstoemotionalcravings."23ChuHsiwasdifferentfromthetwoCh'engsinthatthelatter
identifiedthe"mindofTao"withthe"PrincipleofHeaven,"andthe"mindofman"withhumandesires,whereasChuHsiassociatedthe"PrincipleofHeaven"with
moralityandthoughtof"themindofman"notasequivalenttothehumandesires,whichwereabsolutelyevil,butratherashavingthepotentialityfor

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ao

bothgoodandevil.WhenhumandesiresareovercomeandthePrincipleofHeavenisrevived,thereisjen (humanity).
ForChuHsi,thefinalaimofmanistoseekjen.Hesaid,"Toconqueroneselfandtoreturntodecorumisjen.24Thismeansthatoneovercomespersonaldesiresand
recoversthePrincipleofHeaven,andasaresult,thesubstanceofthemindexistseverywhereanditsfunctionreacheseverything."25"Jenisthevirtueofthemindand
theprincipleoflove."26"Thewayofjenisthat,beingthemindofHeavenandEarthcreatingthings,itispresentinthings....Ifitisreallypreservedasitssubstance,it
willbethesourceofeverygoodnessaswellastheoriginofeverymerit,andthatiswhytheteachingsoftheConfucianSchoolmustpersuadeitsscholarstoacquire
jendevotedly."27
ThesequotationsshowhowChuHsiextendedthegenerallawofmantothegenerallawofHeaven(Nature).Atthesametime,heenlargedthegenerallawofnature
toapplytoman.InhisamendedcommentaryontheGreatLearninginhisTahsehchangchap(CommentaryontheGreatLearning),hesaid,
Whatismeantbyextendingknowledgethroughinvestigatingthingsisthatthewaytoextendone'sknowledgeliesindealingwiththingsandplumbingtheirprinciple.Every
intelligenthumanmindhasitsknowledge,whileeverythingintheuniversehasitsprinciple.Onlywhenprinciplehasnotbeenplumbed,knowledgewillnotbecomplete.Thatis
whytheGreatLearningatthebeginningofitsteachingrequiresthatthestudentdealwitheverythingintheuniverseandprobedeeplytoarriveatthelimit.Whenafterlong
strivingonesuddenlyachievesclearrealizationofthepervadingunity,everythingisseenclearlywithinandwithout,initscoarsenessanditsfineness,andthenthetotal
substanceandgreatfunctionofone'smindareallbroughttolight.28

Thustheinvestigationofthingsmeans"dealingwiththingsandplumbingtheirprinciple,"andherepeoplearetaughttostartfromrecognizingconcretethings.The
principlestobeplumbedincludetheprinciplesofabladeofgrassoratreeaswellasthemostfundamentalprinciplesofphilosophy.
AlthoughChuHsistatedthatweshouldplumbtheprinciplesofthemyriadthingsintheuniverse,hefocusedonteachingpeopletoplumbtheprinciplesoffeudal
morality.Hesaid,"Plumbingrealprinciplesincludestheeffortofselfexamination.Ifonemerelytalksaboutplumbingtheprinciplesofthemyriadthingsintheuniverse
withoutbeingconcernedwithselfexamination,heislikeahorsemangoingastray,asitsaysintheIshuaq(Survivingworks)."29Itisevidentnowthatalthoughthis
theoryofinvestigatingthingsincludedtheelementofacquiringknowledgefromexternalobjects,hisstresswasnotonknowingthenaturalworldanddiscoveringits
laws.Hisconcernwasratherwithamethodforcultivatingfeudalmorality.Theobjectwasnottounderstandtheprincipleofthisorthatthing,buttoreachastate
where"everythingisseenclearlywithinandwithout,initscoarsenessanditsfineness,andthe

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totalsubstanceandgreatfunctionofone'smindareallbroughttolight."Suchaconceptualrealmisarealmofsuddenenlightenment,aspiritualrealmofomniscience
andomnipotence.ChuHsisaid,"Whenonespeaksofknowledgehavingarrived,onemeansaknowledgewhichextendstotheprinciplesofallaffairsandthingsinthe
world....Itmustreacheverywhereinalldirections,leavingnothingthatitdoesnotknow,andthenitcanbesaidtohavearrived."Pointingtoalamp,hecontinued,
"Itisjustlikethecandlethere.Itslightshinesallovertheroomthereisnowhereitdoesnotreach."30"Toinvestigatethingsreferstodetails,whiletoextendknowledge
referstothewhole."31Againhesaid,"Themindencompassesthemyriadprinciples,andallprinciplesarecompletewithintheonemind.Ifthemindcannotbe
preserved,principlescannotbeplumbed,andwhenprinciplescannotbeplumbed,themindcannotfunctiontothefullest.''32
ChuHsiwentfromhumanlifetonature,andthenfromnaturebacktoman.Inhisview,Heavenandmansharethesameprincipletheyareinterconnectedand
interpenetrating.HehadgonebeyondthetheologicalteleologyoftheCh'inandHandynastiesbasedontheideaofaunityofHeavenandman.TungChungshuhad
discussedtheunityofHeavenandmanandsaidthatHeavenhadawill,couldbejoyousandangry,andcapableofrewardorpunishment,andthatanybodywho
offendedagainstHeavenwouldbepunished.ChuHsiproceededbyfollowingthisline,buthisreasoningwasmoresophisticated.HisconceptsofHeavenand
principledonotreflectsuchclearpersonificationbutrevealatmanypointsamorereasonable,humanistic,andrationalapproach.Hesaid,"T'aichiar(theGreat
Ultimate)isnothingbutthehighestgoodandperfectprinciple.EverybodyhasinhimselfaT'aichiandeverythinghasinitselfaT'aichi.WhatMasterChoucalled
T'aichiisanappellationforallvirtuesandthehighestgoodinheavenandearth,man,andthings."33Withrespecttotheexistenceofthingsinthenaturalworld,one
canonlyspeakofhowtheyexistandnotoftheirexistencebeingboundupwiththevaluesofgoodorevil.Peopledonotspeakofhowgoodorvirtuousthe
mountains,rivers,orearthare.Forheavenandearth,manandthingstohaveallvirtuesandthehighestgood,theymusthavebeenendowedwithmoralattributes.
ThereforeChuHsisaidagain,"ThemindofHeavenandEarthistocreatethings,andmanandthingsattheirbirthallpossessthismindofHeavenandEarthtobetheir
ownmind.Sointalkingaboutthevirtueofthemind,althoughitiscomprehensive,analytical,thoroughgoing,andcomplete,itcanbecharacterizedinoneword:
jen."34HeavenandEarthandmanalltakethecreationofthingstobetheirmind,andthismindofcreatingthingspenetratesanddisplaysitselfinthemyriadaffairsand
things,inabladeofgrassoratree,andalsoinallaspectsofsocialandpoliticallife.ChuHsiwasgiventousingthemetaphorof"themoonbeingreflectedin
thousandsofrivers"toclarifyhisreasoningthatthesameT'aichi,orthetotalityofallprinciples,isembodiedineverything.IfthisT'aichimustbecharacterized,the
wordisjen.Asheputit,"ThemindofHeavenandEarthhasin

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itselffourvirtues,namely,origination,flourishing,advantage,andcorrectness,andoriginationdominatesalltherest....Themindofmanalsohasinitselffourvirtues,
namely,humanity,righteousness,decorum,andwisdom,andhumanityembracesalltherest....WhenpresentinHeavenandEarth,themindisanunboundedone
whichcreatesthings.Whenpresentinman,itisthemindwhichextendslovetomanandadvantagestothings.ItembracesthefourvirtuesandpermeatestheFour
Beginnings."35
AlthoughthephilosophicalsystemofChuHsibeganwiththemyriadthingsintheuniverseandproceededfromtheinvestigationofthingsandtheextensionof
knowledge,itultimatelyneverdepartedfromitsprimarypurpose.Stymiedbyareturntotheordinaryethicalconventionsofdailylife,itrevertedintheendtothe
cultivationoffeudalmoralitytheobjectofwhichwastoattainjen.Toinvestigatethingstoextendknowledgewassolelyforthepurposeofprobingprincipleand
therebyfulfillingthenature.KnowingdestinymeantknowingHeaven.Inthisview,themyriadthingsintheuniverse,beingoriginallymanifestationsofjen,werefullof
vitalityandharmony,afactthatwasnotapparentonlybecausepeopleweredeficientincultivationanddelinquentinselfexamination.Origination,flourishing,
advantage,andcorrectnesswerethefourvirtuesofHeavenandEarth,whileoriginationembracedalltherest.Humanity,righteousness,decorum,andwisdomwere
thefourvirtuesofhumannature,whilehumanitycontrolledalltherest.TheessenceofthemindwasalsotheessenceofHeaven,orinChuHsi'swords,"Mindisthe
virtueofHeaven."NowandthenheintentionallydrewattentiontotheinterrelationbetweenHeavenandman.Thiswasthecommonandfundamentalworldoutlookof
SungConfucians.ChouTuniwouldnotcutthegrassinfrontofhiswindow,36saying,"TheyhavelifeandvitalityasIhave."TheCh'engbrotherssaid,"Jencanbe
seenbylookingatchickens,"37andCh'engHaosaid,"Jenmeansformingonebodywiththings."38
ChuHsicriticizedthescholarsoftheCh'engSchoolfortwosortsofdeviationthathadappearedininterpretationsoftheirmasters'theoryofjen.Thefirstdeviation,
representedbyYangShihas(10531135),involvedunderstandingthesubstanceofjenintermsofthingsandtheselfformingonebody.Theotherdeviation,
representedbyHsiehLiangtsoat(1050c.1120),involvedunderstandingjenastheconsciousnessofthemind.InChuHsi'sownview,Heavenandmanare
interpenetrating,andbothrealizeandembodythejenwhichisthemindtocreatethings.Theproblemattendantuponunderstandingjenintermsofthingsandtheself
formingonebodyisthatinsuchanideathereareobscuritiesthat"mightleadtotheidentificationofthingsandtheself"andtothemisunderstandingthatjen,beinga
given,requiresnoeffort.Thenpeoplewouldbemuddleheaded,lazy,anddeficientinvigilanteffort.And"ifjenisunderstoodasconsciousness,theobscurities
involvedinthatviewmayleadtomistakingdesiresforprinciple,"adeviationwhichisstillmoreharmful.ItisclearlyaCh'anidea.ChuHsiagainandagaincriticizedthe
Ch'anideathatconsciousnessisthenatureandtheirnotionthat"inthe

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eye,itisseeingintheear,itishearinginthehand,itisgraspinginthefootitisrunning."AccordingtoChuHsi,suchactivitiesareirrelevanttofeudalmoralvalues,
andsotheyarenotnature.Thedifferencebetweenmanandanimalsisjustthatmanhastheideaofvalue.Onlywhenseeing,hearing,speaking,andactingarein
correspondencewiththemoralnormaretheyjendevoidofmoralcontent,theyarerelevantonlytoanimalsinsteadofman.ChangTsaisaid,"Allpeoplearemy
brothersandsisters,andallthingsaremycompanions"39and"WeshouldestablishourmindsonbehalfofHeavenandEarthandestablishourdestinyforthe
people."40AndChuHsitaughtpeopletopreserveintheirmindsasenseofpityandcommiseration.
Atheorythathasexertedwidespreadinfluenceinasocietycanneverbeafussaboutnothingitmusthavedevelopedoutofexperience.Eveninthebeginningstageof
theNorthernSung,conditionswerealreadycritical,andtherewereconstantdomestictroublesandoutsideinvasions.WangAnshih'sreforms,whichhadinvolvedthe
wholepoliticalscene,underwentupsanddownsuntiltheendoftheNorthernSungdynasty,reflectingthepoliticalcrisisatthattime.Thefailurescouldnotsimplybe
attributedtoinappropriatemanagementofthereforms.DuringtheNorthernSungdynastytheeconomylanguishedandpeoplewereindirepoverty.Therewasno
remedy,regardlessofwhetherornotareformwascarriedout.TheFiveMastersoftheNorthernSungwerecontemporaneouswiththepoliticalreformsofWang
Anshih,buttheirtheories,unlikethepoliticalreforms,provedsuccessful.TheyandlaterChuHsioftheSouthernSunggraduallyperfectedtheideologicalsystemof
theConfucianreligion.ThepettycourtoftheSouthernSungdynastywasinastateevenworsethanthecourtoftheNorthernSung.Withamoredifficulteconomy
andamoredepressedpopularmorale,the"resurgence"ofSouthernSungwasonlyanillusionandidletalk.InneithertheNorthernnortheSouthernSungperioddid
socialrealitiesgivegroundforoptimism,butthewordsoftheSungConfuciansconveynosenseofbitternessorrestlessness.Theymanifestedthesubtleactivating
forceofnatureinallofitsvibrancyandthespiritoflifeinallofitsvitality,andthespiritualcultivationtowhichtheydevotedthemselveswasdesignedtoenablethemto
progressfromnaturallyfollowingtheMeanwithabrightcountenanceanduprightposturetodisplayingthedispositionsofsagesandworthies.Intheperiodoftheend
ofT'angandthefollowingFiveDynasties,whenpeoplehadnomeansoflivelihoodandevenresortedtocannibalism,Ch'anflourishedwidelyandpreached
everywhereitsdoctrineofbecomingaBuddhaoraBuddhistpatriarchwithoutreadingscripturesorpracticingmeditation.Suchpracticesillustratethatthereligious
worldviewwasadistortedreflectionoftheactualworld.
SomeyearsagoIwroteinanarticleentitled"OntheFormationoftheConfucianReligion"41thatallreligionspostulatetheexistenceoftwoworlds,namely,a
supramundanespiritualworldwhichistheKingdomofHeaven,thePureLand,ortheotherworld,and,ontheotherhand,theactualworld.Insomereligionsthe
descriptionoftheotherworldisveryvividandconcrete,

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analmostunlimitedenhancementofallthepositiveelementsintheactualworld.Somereligionsdescribetheotherworldasasubjectiveandspiritualstate,an
inclinationseeninChineseBuddhismandTaoismfollowingtheSuiandT'angperiods.Insuchareligiousview,leavingtheworlddidnotmeanabandoningitand
searchingforpeaceinsomeotherworldorWesternParadise.Itwasnecessarysimplytoadoptareligiousworldviewindailylife,andthepresentmundaneworld
wouldinitselfbethemostjoyousrealmoftheWesternParadise.42InthisvieweverypersonisaBuddhaifheisenlightenedbytheBuddhistdoctrineandadoptsa
religiousworldview.TheBuddhaiswithinthismundaneworld,notoutsideofit.
TheSchoolofPrincipleoftheSungandMingwasjustlikethat.Itpointedtotheexistenceofaspiritualstate,the"extremelyloftyandbrilliantwayoffollowingthe
goldenmean."Oneneedonlyremoldhisworldviewinordertobecomeasageitwasunnecessarytoremoldtheworld.ButtheBuddhisttheorythatonecould
renouncetheworldwithoutleavingitofitselfdestroyedthetheoreticalintegrityofBuddhistdoctrine.Peoplecouldnothelpquestioningmonasticismif"carryingwater
andhaulingfirewoodisthemarvelousway."Wasn'ttherenderingofservicetoone'sfatherandsovereignalsothemarvelousway?Thegreatestsocialcrisisthatthe
ChinesefeudalsocietyfacedwaspreciselytheproblemofhowtostrengthenandconsolidatetheorderoftheThreeCardinalGuidesbyallmeans,frompolitical
measurestoideologicalformulations.BothBuddhismandTaoismwerewillingtodotheirbesttoassistinsolvingthisgreatproblem,buttheiradvocacyofleavingthe
worldinevitablyrepresentedabarrier.Buthavinggonefromtheideathatthroughcarryingwaterorhaulingfirewoodonecanperceiveone'snatureandbecomea
Buddhatotheideathatthroughrenderingservicetoone'sfatherandsovereignonecanbecomeasageoraworthy,thebarrierthatremainsbecomesasthinaspaper.
Itisonlynecessarytobreakthroughthispaperthinbarrierandthewayisopened.Confucianism,Buddhism,andTaoismconverge.Viewedhistorically,itwasnot
onlyConfucianismthatpromptedtheunityofthethreeteachingssuchunitywasalsoadvocatedbyBuddhismandTaoism.Thiswasageneraltrendinthe
developmentofculture,notsomethingthatanyindividualmighthavedetermined.NowtheSchoolofPrinciplebecameConfucianism,andtheoldtraditionof
veneratingHeavenandemulatingancestorswasinvestedwithfreshcontent.
ChuHsiandNewChina
FromtheremotepastChuHsiinheritedtheorthodoxyofChuSzuau(tworiversinConfucius'nativestateofLu),andfromhisimmediatepredecessorshereceivedthe
traditionofILoav(tworiversinHonan,thenativeplaceofthetwoCh'engs),becomingthemostinfluentialphilosopherafterConfucius.Hisgreatinfluencewasof
coursetheresultofhistoricalconditionsandnotsolelyamatterofhisownpersonalability.IntheperiodoftheMayFourthMove

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ment,peopleraisedthecry"DownwiththeConfucianShop,"thoughinrealityConfuciusboretheblameforothers.Atthattimethestruggletobreaktheholdofold
customsinvolvedChuHsiratherthanConfuciusbecausenearlyallthecrimesforwhichpeopledenouncedthe"ConfucianShop"werethoseofChuHsiandthe
SchoolofPrincipleandhadnothingwhatevertodowithConfucius.
Chinesesocietyhadhardlypassedthroughastageofcapitalismbeforepassingrapidlyintosocialism.LackingtheWesterntraditionofsomefourhundredyearsof
struggleagainstmedievalecclesiasticalpowerandauthorityhasresultedinnotafewproblemsforChina'ssocialistconstruction.ThetwogreatslogansoftheMay
FourthMovementwere"Science"and"Democracy."Whenthesixtiethanniversaryofthemovementwascelebratedsomeyearsago,itwaspointedoutthatthesetwo
greataimswerestilltobeachieved.ThefeudalcultureandideologyofChinaandtheConfucianreligion,whichwassocloselyboundupwiththefeudalsystem,have
beenfarmoretenaciousthanwehadanticipated.ObservingthecourseChinahasfollowedoverthepasthundredyearsandalsotracingthecoursethecountry
followedfornearlyeighthundredyearsafterChuHsimustbeasourceofinspirationforeveryChineseandforeveryonewhostudiesthehistoryofChinese
philosophy.Itseemsthatphilosophyandreligionaresomethingextremelylofty,andtheproblemswhicharediscussedandthecategorieswhichareraisedallremote
fromtheworld,butasamatteroffact,theyarejustamirroroftheactualworld.
TheConfucianreligionwasaproductofthelaterstagesofChinesefeudalsocietyand,havingadapteditselftothecircumstancesofthattime,itbecameareligionwith
Chinesefeatures.YenYanaw(16351704)oftheCh'ingdynasty(16441912)alsopointedthisoutsaying,"ItwasnotthatBuddhismapproximatedtheSchoolof
Principle,butthatCh'engI'sSchoolofPrincipleapproximatedBuddhism."OfChuHsihesaid,"Heunconsciouslycommittedallthemistakesforwhichhehad
reproachedBuddhismandTaoism,forinstance,practicingquietsittingforhalfadaytoobservethedispositionbeforethearousalofpleasure,anger,sorrow,joy."43
HereYenYanwastalkingonlyaboutoneaspectofCh'engChuConfucianism.ChuHsiregardedcreationasthegreatvirtueofHeavenandEarth,whichhavein
themthemindtocreatethings.Thereisalsoinmanthemindtolovethings,amindendowedbyHeaven,andthatisjen.Withoutjen,amancannotbehumanwithout
jen,HeavenandEarthcannotbeHeavenandEarth.ChuHsi'slearningwasnotmerelyasearchforpureknowledge.Hehimselfbroughttofulfillmenttheteachingsof
ancientsagesthroughpracticeandapplication.HisunderstandingofthesayingintheAnalectsthat"jencanbeknownthroughexaminingerrors"44maybetakenasan
example.
Astothesayingaboutexaminingerrors...itwouldseemthatitdoesnotreferonlytooneparticularperson.Itisageneraltheorywhichexplainsthatthe

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errorsmadebymanareallduetowhatimpelshimtopartiality,as,forexample,liberalityorparsimony,restraintorindulgence.Soonceanerrorhasbeenmade,thereisonlythe
selfishnessofhumandesire.Ifonecanperceivethroughthisthedefecttowhichpartialityhasinclinedhim...onecanalsoperceivetheprevailingpowerofthePrincipleof
Heaven....Hencethesayingthatbyexaminingerrors,onemayknowjen.Thismeansthatbyexaminingman'serrorsandknowingwhatimpelshimtopartiality,onecanknowjen
aswell,butitdoesnotimplythatjencanbeknownonlyinthisway.

ChuHsihadnotonlygivensuchanexplanationtotheoriginalphraseintheAnalects,buthadalsoexperienceditpersonallyintheteachingsoftheSage.He
continued,
Asforexaminingone'sownerrors,Imyselfhadtriedbutfounditunsatisfactory.IfIhavetoexaminemyerrorsafterhavingmadethem,theerrorshavealreadybecomereal,andit
istoolatetoexaminethem.Ishalllongregretit.Thisisnotthewayformetocultivatemymind,butonthecontrary,servestoinjureit.If,beforemakingerrors,Iexaminein
advancewhatcustomarilyimpelsmetopartialitythenmymindisstillcleanandstainless,requiringnocultivationorrefinement.Itseemsthatthemethodcustomarilyemployedby
theSageforteachingpeopletocultivatethemindandtoattainjenwouldnothavebeensofragmentedasfirsttohaveoneseekoutthedefecttowhichhispartialityinclinedhim
andthentoexaminehismindattentively.45

ItisclearthatthelearningofChuHsiemergednotoutoftalkbutoutofactualpersonalexperience,thatitwasalearningnotofpurespeculationbutofguidancefor
behavior,andthatitwasreligionratherthanphilosophy.Religionteachesnottalkbutaction.FromthetheoryofTungChungshuandtheConfuciantheologyofthe
Paihut'ung,itcanbeseenthatthe"Heaven"oftheHandynastywasapersonifiedgod,anideawhichreflectsthelevelofknowledgeofmantwothousandyears
ago.Bycomparison,the"Heaven"ofChuHsiisnotalifelike,personifiedgod,butarationalgodofthefeudalpatriarchy.Thisgodisnotinhumanshapebuthas
humannatureand"themindtocreatethingsinabundance."TheobjectsofworshipintheConfucianreligionareHeaven,Earth,thesovereign,parents,andteachers,
whichmightseemtobeamanifestationofpluralism,butactuallytheyareonlyunusualproductsofthefeudalpatriarchalsystem.Individuallyspeaking,thesovereign
representsthefeudalstateparentsrepresentthefamilialauthoritywhichisthenucleusofChinesefeudalpatriarchyHeavenisthetheologicalsupportforsovereignty
EarthistheundergirdingforHeavenandtheteacherisonewhospeaksfortheotherfourandpossessesthesupremerighttointerpretfeudalism.Itisthesamewith
Buddhism,whichveneratestheBuddha,theDharma(law),andtheSangha(clergy)asitsTriratna:itwouldbeimpossibletopropagatetheBuddhaandtheDharma
withouttheSangha.
TheConfucianreligionisdifferentfromotherreligions,anditeven

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upholdsthebannerofantireligion.Ittakesthephysicalnaturetobethesourceofevil,thisbeingConfucians'versionoforiginalsin.Inadvocatingasceticism,itteaches
peopletohavelittleregardforthemateriallifebuttobeobedienttothePrincipleofHeaven.Itteachesthemnottobeconcernedwithreformingtheexternalworldbut
rathertonourishandexaminetheirownmindstodetectasingleerroneousthought.ChuHsi'stheorieswerenotwellunderstoodforaperiodoftime,andsotheywere
putunderprohibition.Thisdidnotlastlong,however,andbeforelongtheprohibitionwaslifted,andhisteachingswerepromotedbythestatethroughouttheYan,
Ming,andCh'ingdynasties,withhisworksbeingusedastextbooksforintellectualsintheirpreparationforcivilserviceexaminations.Thushisviewswerealso
inculcatedintotheintelligentsiaatlarge.
Thedevelopmentofproductiveforcesandtheeconomyrequiresbreakingthebondageoffeudalismtoopenthewaytocapitalism.DuringthereignsofWanliax
(15731620)oftheMingandCh'ienlungay(17361795)oftheCh'ing,bothindustryandcommercedevelopedconsiderablyincertainareas.Hadthisdevelopment
notbeenhindered,Chinamighthavekeptpacewiththeworldatthattimeandenteredintocapitalism.ButtheforcesoffeudalisminChinaweresostubbornand
strongthateverytimeanewemergingforcegrewup,itwasrepressed.HistoriansusedtosaythatChinesescienceandtechnologybegantolagbehindafterthe
OpiumWarof1842,butactuallytheyhadbeguntolosetheirpreeminentpositionbythemiddleoftheMingperiod.GunpowderhadbeenfirstinventedinChina,but
theMingcourthadtopurchasecannonsfromtheWest.Chinesenavigation,thoughoriginallyadvanced,becamebackwardaftertheMingdynasty,andthosewho
circumnavigatedtheworldwerenotChinese.Inrespecttoastronomyandthecalendar,Chinahadbeenoneofthemoreadvancedcountriesintheworldbutafterthe
Mingperiod,calendricalcalculationalsobecamelessprecisethanitwasintheWest.AlthoughtherewerevariousreasonsforthebackwardnessofChinesescience
andtechnology,theconstrictinginfluenceofSungConfucianthoughtshouldnotbeunderestimated.
ChuHsi'stheoryofinvestigatingthingscouldnevergiverisetoscienceitcouldonlyservethefeudalpatriarchalsystem.Likewise,histheoryofjencouldnotfoster
reformers,tosaynothingofrevolutionaries.Hisviewsoninvestigatingthingsandplumbingprinciple,orontheperson,themind,nature,andendowmentwereaimedat
defendingthefeudalorderofethics.
Generallyspeaking,socialismcomesaftercapitalism.NewChina,however,didnotpassthroughadevelopedcapitalistsocietybutwasestablishedonthefoundation
ofsemifeudalismandsemicolonialism.Undertheregimeofthepeople'sdemocracy,thefeudalsystemofprivatecontroloflandwasabolishedwithoutmuchtrouble,
buttheinfluenceofpatriarchalfeudalismwasnotadequatelyestimated,andtherehasnotbeenenoughtimetodistinguishcarefullybetweenthefinetraditionandthe
drossoffeudalculture.Theessenceofthecultureofeverynationistheculturalwealthwhichthemasseshaveaccumulatedorcreatedthroughagesthisrepresentsthe
finetraditionof

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eachrespectivenationalculture,whilethedrosshasbeenleftbyafewprivilegedexploiterswhousedthenameofthewholenationtopursuetheirpersonaladvantage.
Manyreprehensibleactivitiesinthe"GreatCulturalRevolution,"whichlastedfortenyearsandattractedworldwideattention,weredoneonthebasisoffeudalistic
ideologyintheguiseofMarxism.
AtthecoreofChinesefeudalismwasthefeudalpatriarchalsystemwithitstheoryoftheThreeCardinalGuides,atheorywhichisincompatiblewithsocialism.This
sametheoryisattheheartofConfucianism.Ifthepeasantsareundertheoppressionoftheauthoritiesofthestate,clan,anddeities,theycannotenjoydemocracyif
themassesarenotliberatedfrompatriarchaloppressionbutarestillsubjectedtothedominationofthisorthatclanorfamily,theyhavenoaccesstodemocracy.In
thattherightofyoungmenandwomentoenjoyfreedomofmarriageisstillinterferedwithbytheirparentsortheoldforcesinthesociety,thenewmarriagelawis
designedtosafeguardlegallytherightofmatrimonialfreedomforyoungpeople.Patriarchyanddespoticleadershiparealsovestigesofthefeudalpatriarchalsystem.
SuchproblemsnolongerafflictWesternsocieties,butinNewChinatheystillhavetheirinfluenceandareanimpedimenttosocialprogress.
TheWesternworldhasitsowndifficulties,suchastheweaknessoffamilytiesandlackofaplaceforoldpeople.Somepeoplehavefoundmuchtoadmireinthe
Orientalfamilysystem.Inthenewrelationshipswithinasocialistfamily,theoldarerespectedandtheyoungarecherished,andthereareequalityandmutualaid
amongitsmembers,whilesonsordaughtersareresponsibleforsupportingtheirparents.Suchafamilyrelationshipisdifferentfromtheabsolutepaternalismoffeudal
patriarchy.Therespectpaidtoparentsinasocialistsocietyisnotidenticalwithfeudalfilialpiety,becauseinfeudalpatriarchy,sonsanddaughtersbelongtoandlive
fortheirparents.Itshouldbenotedlikewisethatatheorymayhavedifferentfunctionswhenitisappliedtodifferentsocialcontexts.WhentheschoolsofChuHsiand
WangYangmingwerepropagatedinJapantheyexertedaprogressivefunction.IntheWest,Chineseculturehasexertedvariousinfluencesondifferentnationsin
differentperiods.Thereasonliesinthefactthatanationmustdependuponitstraditionalcultureasthesupportforitsexistenceanddevelopment,whereasaculture
importedfromoutsidecanonlyassumeanancillaryandsupportiverole.ThethoughtofChuHsi,whetherinitspositiveornegativeaspects,couldneverexerta
decisiveinfluenceonforeigncultures.However,havingbeenencouragedandinculcatedinChinabyofficialauthoritiesfornearlyeighthundredyears,thetheoryofthe
ThreeCardinalGuidesandtheworshipof"Heaven,Earth,sovereign,parents,andteachers"haveconditionedpeople'smindsprofoundlyandalmostirreversibly.In
thisrespect,thepersonalfeelingsofascholarofNewChinacannotcoincidewiththeimpressionsofscholarswhostandoutsidetheperimetersofthisculture.
Thissymposiumistodiscussphilosophicalproblems,andwhileitseemsthatwhatIamdealingwithhereisnotpurelyphilosophical,itispreciselythethoughtofChu
Hsi.Hetaughtpeopletoproceedfromtheinvestigationof

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thingstotheextensionofknowledge,attainingsincerityofthought,rectificationofthemind,cultivationoftheself,regulationofthefamily,orderingofthestate,andat
lastbringingpeacetotheworld.Theconstructionofasocialistcountrybelongstothecategoryof"orderingthestateandbringingpeacetotheworld,"butthiscannot
becarriedoutaccordingtoChuHsi'sscheme.Histeachingshavebeenespousedforsomeeighthundredyears,buttheydidnotsolvetheproblemofhowtogivethe
Chinesepeopleenoughtoeatandwear,ortomakethemstanduptruly.TherearesomeusefulelementsinChuHsi'ssystemofthought,butthesystemofConfucian
religionwhichhefoundedisnotpracticable.
Notes
1.Thehistoryofsocialdevelopmentshowsthat,generallyspeaking,humansocietymustundergofivestages:primitivesociety,slavesociety,feudalsociety,capitalist
society,andsocialistcommunistsociety.
2.RecentinvestigationsdoneamongthenationalminoritiesofChinaservetoverifytherecordsintheancientritualtexts.
3.Tsochuanaz[Tso'scommentary],DukeChao,basecondyear.HanHsanTzubbofthestateofChin,havingseentherichculturalrelicsandancientrecords
preservedinthestateofLuwherehewasvisiting,exclaimed,"TheritesofChouareallinLunow!"SeeCh'unch'iuTsochuanchichiehbc[Collectedexplanations
ofTso'scommentaryontheSpringandAutumnAnnuals],(Shanghai:ShanghaiPeople'sPress,1977),ch.4,p.1208.
4.TheBookofOdes,theBookofHistory,theBookofChanges,theBookofRites,theBookofMusic,andtheSpringandAutumnAnnals.
5.Analects,17:2.
6.BookofMencius,6A:6.
7.HsnTzu,ch.23.
8.Fayenbd[Modelsayings],ch.3.
9.HanCh'anglich'anchibe[CompleteworksofHanY],(SPPYed.),11:5b6a.
10.SeeYanHungbf(328376),HouHanshubg[HistoryoftheLaterHandynasty],(SPTKed.),10:5b.
11.SeeChenYinch',bh"APostscripttotheNidana*ofUtpalaBecomingaBuddhistNun,"inHanliut'angchibi[CollectedwritingsattheColdWillowHall],
(Shanghai:KuchibjPress,1980),p.155.HajimeNakamura,bk"TheInfluenceofConfucianThoughtontheChineseTranslationofBuddhistScriptures,"inStudieson
WorldReligions,1982,no.2,pp.2634.
12.TheThreeCardinalGuidespertaintotherelationshipsbetweentherulerandminister,fatherandtheson,andhusbandandthewife.TheFiveConstantVirtuesare
affectionbetweenparentandchild,righteousnessbetweenrulerandminister,orderbetweenseniorsandjuniors,separatefunctionsforhusbandandwife,andgood
faithamongfriends,withtraditionalemphasisonloyaltytotherulerandfilialpietytofather.
13."Bodhi(wisdom)isonlytobefoundinone'smindwhatuseisthereofsearchingelsewhereforthemystictruth?Itissaidthatifonecultivateshimselfaccordingly,

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bl

bm

theWesternParadisewillbebeforeone'seyes"(thePlatformScripture,P'inch'ien Tripitaka,"Teng" 4,p.7).

14.ThesovereignswhotookmeasurestodestroyBuddhismwereEmperorT'aiwubn(r.424457)oftheNorthernWeidynasty(386535),EmperorWubo(r.561
578)oftheNorthernChoudynasty(557581),EmperorWutsungbpoftheT'angdynastyandEmperorShihtsungbq(r.955959)oftheLaterChoudynasty,(951
960).Theyarecalledinhistorythe"threeWusandoneTsung."
15.TheFiveMastersoftheNorthernSungwereChouTuni,Ch'engHao,Ch'engI,ChangTsai,andShaoYung.
16.ChuWenKungwenchibr[CollectionofliteraryworksofMasterChu],(SPTKed.),44:1b,inreplytoTs'aiChit'ung.bs
17.BookofMencius,6A:6.
18.ChuTzuyleibt[ClassifiedconversationsofMasterChu],(1872ed.)4:15a.
19.TheFourQualitiesofthefirsthexagram,ch'ienbu(heaven,male),intheBookofChanges.
20.ChuWenKungwenchi,67:21b22a,"OnHumanity."
21.ChuTzuylei,5:7b.
22.Ibid.,5:12a.
23.Ibid.,78:22a.
24.QuotingtheAnalects,12:1.
25.ChuWenKungwenchi,67:21b22b,"OnHumanity."
26.Ibid.,67:22a.
27.Ibid.
28.Tahsehchangchu,commentaryonthefifthchapter.
29.ChuTzuylei,18:11aalludingtotheIshu,intheErhCh'engch'anshubv[CompleteworksofthetwoCh'engs],(SPPYed.).
30.Ibid.,15:14b.
31.Ibid.,15:9b.
32.Ibid.,9:7a.
33.Ibid.,94:7a.
34.ChuWenKungwenchi,67:21b,"OnHumanity."
35.Ibid.,67:22a.IntheBookofMencius,2A:6,itistaughtthatpityandcompassionarethebeginningofhumanity,shameanddislikethebeginningofrighteousness,
modestyandyieldingthebeginningofdecorum,andthesenseofrightandwrongthebeginningofwisdom.
36.Ishu,3:2a.
37.Ibid.,3:1a.
38.Ibid.,2A:3a.
39."Hsiming"bw[Westerninscription],intheChangTzuch'anshubx[CompleteworksofMasterChang],ch.1.
40.ChangTzuyluby[RecordedsayingsofMasterChang],(SPTKed.),pt.2,6b.
41.SocialSciencesinChina(inChinese)(Beijing,1980),no.1,pp.6174.
42.SeethePlatformScripture,P'inch'iehTripitaka,"Teng"4,p.7.
43.YenYan,Ts'unhsehp'ienbz[Treatiseonthepreservationoflearning],(Beijing:KuchiPress,1957),pp.6274.
44.Analects,4:7.
45.ChuWenKungwenchi,67:15ab.

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Glossary

Page377

22
ChuHsionBuddhism
CharlesWeihsunFu
Inapreviouspaper,''MoralityorBeyond:TheNeoConfucianConfrontationwithMahayana*Buddhism,"ImadeanobservationthattheNeoConfucian
confrontationwithSiniticMahayanais"perhapsthemostinterestingandsignificantcaseofideological'loveandhate'inthewholehistoryofChinesephilosophyand
religion."1Incontinuationwiththemainlineofmyphilosophicalinvestigationandreasoningthere,Iwish,inthisessay,toexaminecriticallyChuHsi'scritiqueof
Buddhism,Ch'ana(Zen)inparticular.2VeryfewNeoConfucianrepresentativesintheSung(9601279),Yan(12771368),andMing(13681644)dynastieshad
studiedBuddhismashardandseriouslyasChuHsidid,norhadanyofthemattemptedagenuinephilosophicalattackuponBuddhismasthoroughlyanddevastatingly
ashedid.3HeoftencomparedhisNeoConfucianmissionofdefendingtheConfuciantraditionagainstCh'anBuddhism,whichheregardedasthemostattractivebut
dangerousheterodoxteaching,toMencius'(372289B.C.?)vehementrefutationofMoTzub(fl.479438B.C.)andYangChuc(440360B.C.?).4Andheoften
deploredthefactthatagreatnumberofConfucianstudentsandscholarsinhistimeshadbeenonebyonedrawnintoCh'anBuddhism,whichtendedtoovershadow
theConfucianWayinphilosophyandpractice.5ProfessorCh'ienMudremarks,"ChuHsihadaveryclearandtrueunderstandingofCh'an.Allthedistinctions
subsequentlymadebytheMingNeoConfucianistsoriginateinChuHsi'sowndistinction....ChuHsibegantostudyCh'anatthestageofpuberty,buthisrealization
oftheshortcomingsofCh'anwassodeepthathenaturallyfeltthathecouldnolongerabideinit.TohimbelongsthegreatcreditofkeepingChinafromturningintoa
Ch'annation."6
InhislettertoChiangYung(ChiangYanshih,e11241172),ChuHsiadmittedthathehimselfhadbeenattractedbyBuddhism(andTaoism)formorethantenyears
butthat"IhavebeguntofindtheprincipaldirectionIshouldtakeaftermyacquaintanceinrecentyearswiththosewhoknowtheWay."7Healsosaidelsewherethat
hehadbeguntotakeaprofoundinterestinCh'anattheageoffifteenorsixteen,andthathehadgraduallyrealizedtheshortcomingsofCh'anafterhemethisteacher
LiT'ung(LiYenp'ing,f

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8

10931163),whoadvisedhimtostudytheConfuciansayings. AccordingtoChaoShihhsia, LimadeaspecificinstructiontoChuHsiconcerningtheideological

dangersofBuddhism:"WhatdistinguishesourConfucianlearningfromtheheterodoxdoctrineliesin'Principleisonebutitsmanifestationsaremany.'Weneednot
worryaboutwhether'Principleisone'canbewellmaintainedwhatisdifficultandcrucialistoseethepointthat'itsmanifestationsaremany.'"9ChuHsihimself
recalled:"WhenIfirstcametoseeMasterLi,Italkedaboutallsortsofphilosophicalreasonings(taolih).MasterLisaid,'Whydoyouengageyourselfinsomuch
vainreasoningwhilefailingtounderstandthingsnearathand?ThereisnothingmysteriousabouttheWay.Justtrytocomprehendthemeaningofthetaskofeveryday
sociomoralpractice,andyouwillseetheWay.'Ittookmealongtimetorealizewhathesaidhere."10ChuHsi'sacquaintancewithLiT'ungcanbesaidtoconstitute
thefirstturningpointofhisownphilosophicaldestinyitwasindeedthroughLi'sConfucianinstructionthatChuHsiwasablegraduallytoleavebehindBuddhism(and
Taoism)foranauthenticpursuitoftheConfucianWay.ThatLi'sinfluenceonChuHsi'sexistentialcommitmenttoConfucianismisindeliblystrongcanbeeasily
detectedfromthosephilosophicalpoemsChuHsicomposedbeforeandafterhisacquaintancewithhisteacher.Forinstance,amonganumberofpoemshe
composedshortlybeforehisfirstmeetingwithLi,thefollowingonesmacksofaBuddhistflavor:
TemporarilyIamfreedfromsecularworriesandattachments,
AndtranscendentallyIamonewiththeWay.
Thedoorisclosedandthebamboowoodsarequiet
Thebirdsaresingingwhilethemountainrainissubsiding.
Realizingtheabsolutelyunconditioned(wuweifai)
Mybodyandmindarenowatease.11

JusttwoyearsafterhisfirstmeetingwithLi,ChuHsicomposedseveralpoems.ThelasttwolinesofoneoftheseclearlyexpresshisnewlydiscoveredConfucian
identity:"Mysecularworriesaredecreasingdaybyday/Thereisnoneedtoresideintheemptymountain."12The"emptymountain"hererefers,ofcourse,tothe
Buddhist(aswellasTaoist)wayoflifedetachedfromeverydayhumanaffairs.
AfterLiT'ung'sdeath,ChuHsigraduallyturnedtotheNeoConfucianlineofthinkingofCh'engIj(10331107)forafreshphilosophicalguidanceandturnedaway
fromLi'steachingsof"silentsittingforthepurificationofthemind"andof"observingthestateofnonactivationofhumanfeelings(weifak)."Aswehavelearnedfrom
ProfessorMouTsungsan'slcarefulanalysis,13ChuHsi'searnestinquiryintothenatureandmeaningofboththestatesofnonactivationandactivationofhumanfeelings
(ifam)andof''equilibriumandharmony"(chunghon)inkeepingverycloselywithCh'engI'sphilosophicallineeventuallyledhimtoanewinterpretationof
"principleisone

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o

butitsmanifestationsaremany"onthegroundoflich'i (principle/vitalforce)metaphysics.ChuHsi'suniqueresolutionoftheproblemofequilibrium/harmonycanbe
saidtomakeupthesecondandfinalturningpointofhisphilosophicaldevelopment.Anditisbasedonhisnewlyestablishedlich'imetaphysicsthatChuHsinow
thinksthathecanmakeanalloutefforttoattackBuddhisminalmostallaspects,notablyinmetaphysicalthinking,theoryofmind/nature,methodofpersonal
cultivation,theoryofconductandaction,andtheoryofenlightenment.
LackingacompleteandsolidknowledgeofIndianandChineseBuddhismasawholeinitslongandcomplicateddoctrinaldevelopment,ChuHsiisnotentirely
successfulinhiscriticismofBuddhism.14ThisisparticularlytrueinthecaseofhisoftenmisleadingorinaccuratetreatmentofSiniticMahayana*metaphysicsand
theoryofmind/nature,asweshallseeshortly.ButheisextremelysuccessfulinhiscriticalexpositionoftheSiniticMahayanafailuretotackleeverydaysociomoral
problems,which,inhisNeoConfucianjudgment,onlytheConfuciantraditionisabletoresolvecompletelyandperfectly.
ThecentralthreadthatrunsthroughChuHsi'scritiqueofBuddhismishisNeoConfucianthesisof"principleisonebutitsmanifestationsaremany"deeplyrootedinli
ch'imetaphysics,whichhehasbroughtintocompletionoutofCh'engI'sunfinishedphilosophicalthought.InhisJapaneseworkBuddhismandConfucianism,
ProfessorArakiKengopinsightfullyobservesthat"animportantmotivebehindtheestablishmentofChuHsi'sphilosophyishiseagernesstopointouttheinhumanityof
Ch'anexperiencebasedonthesimplisticviewoftheidentityofprimordialityandactuality,aswellastocapturetheencounterofprimordialityandactualityonthelevel
ofthingsnearathandineverydaylife."15Hefurtherstatesthat''theideologicaltransitionfromTahui[Tsungkao,q10891163]toChuHsishouldberegardedasa
changeofthewaytoactualizetheprimordialityratherthanasthevictoryoftheConfucianlearningovertheBuddhist."16ItendtoagreewithAraki'sobservationhere,
andIthinkthatwhathecalls"primordiality"(theoriginalmind/nature)and"actuality"(everydayactualizationoftheoriginalmind/nature)canberespectivelyidentified
with"principleisone"and"manifestationsaremany,"thoughhenevermakesthispointexplicitly.SharingwithProfessorArakitheviewthatChuHsi'smissionliesina
NeoConfuciantransformationoftheCh'anBuddhistwayofactualizingtheoriginalmind/nature,Iwouldarguethat,ifChuHsi'scritiqueofBuddhismishardhitting
andconstitutesagenuinecounterchallengetoSiniticMahayana,especiallyCh'an,whichdidchallengetheConfuciantraditionandhelptocausetheformationofthe
NeoConfucianWay,theverysuccessofthecritiquemostlyconsistsofhisabilitytoexposetheBuddhistfailuretoresolvetheproblemofeveryday(sociomoral)
actualizationoftheoriginalmind/nature,or,inotherwords,theproblemofhowtomanifestconcretelytheselfsameprincipleoftheWay(taoli)ineveryday
sociomoralpractice.ToextendthevariousconnotationsofChuHsi'snotionsof"oneprinciple"and"manymanifestations,"

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wecansaythattheformerrefersto"sublimetranscendence,""reachingthehigherspiritualstage,"''suddenawakening,""whatisaboveforms"(hsingerhshangr)or
themetaphysicallyprimordial,"theheavenly(ormoral)nature,"Taos(theWay),theSupremeUltimate,themindoftheWay(Taohsint),andsoon,whilethelatter
refersto"theeverydayMean,""stepwiselearningfrombelow,""gradualcultivation,""whatiswithinforms"(hsingerhhsiau)orthephenomenallymanifest,"the
physicalnature"orch'iendowment,concretethings(ch'iv),yinyangw(passiveandactivecosmicforces)andtheFiveAgents(Water,Fire,Wood,Metal,andEarth),
thehumanmind(jenhsinx),andsoforth.DespitethefactthatChuHsi'scritiqueofBuddhismisattemptedonthegroundoflich'imetaphysics,thephilosophical
strengthofhiscritiqueratherliesinhisabilitytoshowthepracticalsociomoralsuperiorityoftheConfucianwayofmanifestingtheprinciplehoweverthismaybe
divulgedovertheBuddhistway.MyprincipalcontentionisthatneitherChuHsinorSiniticMahayana*thinkers(includingCh'anMasters)canwininsofarastheir
disputeovermetaphysicsandtheoryofmind/natureisconcerned.ChuHsican,nonetheless,claimagreatethicalvictoryregardingthequestionof"actualizationofthe
primordiality"or"makingtheprinciplemanifestineverydaysociomoralpractice."ItisinthisverysensethatLiT'ung'sadvicetoChuHsithat"whatisdifficultand
crucialistoseethepointthat'itsmanifestationsaremany'"canbesaidtoexertalastinginfluenceonChuHsi'scriticismofBuddhism,irrespectiveofwhetherChuHsi
himselfwasfullyawareofhisteacher'sinfluence.And,ifthereisanygoodpointatallinChuHsi'scriticismofLuHsiangshan's(LuChiuyan,y11391193)mind
learning(hsinhsehz)asCh'anorientedorasavainteachingofsuddenawakening,attheexpenseofgradualcultivationintermsof"holdingontoreverential
attentivenessoronemindedness"and"extensionofknowledgethroughinvestigationofthings,"17ithastodowiththequestionofhowtomaketheprinciplemanifest,
inspiteofthetraditionalunderstandingthattheessentialdifferencebetweenChuandLuisthatbetweenthethesisof"thenatureisprinciple"andthethesisof"themind
isprinciple."Letusnowexamine,inthisphilosophicallight,ChuHsi'scritiqueofBuddhisminthefollowingorder:metaphysics,theoryofmind/nature(or
metapsychology),methodofpersonalcultivation,theoryofconductandaction,andtheoryofenlightenment(orsoteriology).(Forthesakeofsimplification,thetwo
Westernterms"metapsychology,"whichisborrowedfromFreudianpsychoanalysis,and"soteriology,"whichisborrowedfromChristianity,canbeusedas
terminologicallyinterchangeablewith"theoryofmind/nature"and"theoryofenlightenment"respectively.)
Tobeginwiththemetaphysicalissue,ChuHsi,asthegreatestNeoConfucianmetaphysician,seemstoseemoreclearlythananyotherNeoConfucianthinkerthatthe
fundamentaldifferencebetweenConfucianismandBuddhismismetaphysicalinnature.ChuHsisays,

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ThosewhorefuteBuddhismtodayrelyuponthedistinctionbetweenrighteousnessastheessenceoftheConfucianWayandselfinterestastheessenceoftheBuddhist
Way....Thisdistinctionisrathersecondary....BuddhiststakeEmptinessastheessenceoftheirmetaphysicalview....Theirmetaphysicalviewisalreadywrong,consequently
allotherdoctrinestheymaintainhavetobeequallywrong.HowcanitbesufficienttodistinguishConfucianismfromBuddhismintermsofrighteousness/selfinterestalone?18

LuHsiangshansaysthatBuddhistsandConfucianistssharethesameviewandthattheonlydifferenceliesinthedistinctionbetweenrighteousnessandselfinterest.Ithinkthis
iswrong.IfwhatLusayswereright,weConfucianistsandtheBuddhistswouldthenmaintainoneandthesamedoctrine.Ifthiswerethecase,cantherebeanydifferenceatall
evenintermsoftherighteousness/selfinterestdistinction?Thetruthisthatthefundamentalpointisdifferent:WeConfucianistssayallmetaphysicalprinciplesarerealwhile
theysayallprinciplesareempty.19

ChuHsiisherehighlycriticalofLuHsiangshan'sfailuretoseethemetaphysical,ratherthanethical,differenceasthemostfundamentalandessentialbetweenthetwo
traditions.HeapparentlyfeelsthatLu's"themindisprinciple"thesisisalreadyverymuchcontaminatedbyBuddhistSiniticMahayana*metaphysicsand
metapsychologyandthatonlyhisownlich'imetaphysicscanserveastheultimategroundorstandardfortheConfucianrefutationofBuddhismasdoctrinally
heterodoxandideologicallydangerous.
AccordingtoChuHsi,themetaphysicaldifferencebetweenConfucianismandBuddhismis,firstofall,thatwhileConfucianismmaintainsthemoralmetaphysical
realityofthePrincipleofHeavenorSupremeUltimate,Buddhismreduceseverything,whateverthatis,to"emptyannihilation."20FromChuHsi'svantagepoint,the
Buddhistssimplyhavenounderstandingofthemoralmetaphysicalrealityofwhatcanbecalled"thefountainhead"ororiginalsourceoftheevercreativeproduction
andreproductionofallbeings,humanandnonhuman,intheentireuniversethefountainheadthatisdivulgedinaNeoConfucianwayandexpressedasHeavenly
PrincipleorSupremeUltimate.TheBuddhistscouldneverunderstandthedeepandprofoundmoralmetaphysicalmeaningofthefamouslineintheClassicofPoetry,
quotedintheDoctrineoftheMean,"Thehawkfliesuptoheavenandthefishesleapinthedeep,''21whichbeautifullyillustratestheevercreativeoperationsofthe
HeavenlyPrincipleinthewholeuniverse.NorcouldtheycomprehendConfucius'words"Likethisstream,everythingisflowingonceaselessly,dayandnight,"forthey
findnorealprinciplebeyondorwithinthetranscienceorimpermanenceofthecycleofbirthanddeath.ChuHsisays,"Wherethereisathing,thereisandmustbea
specificprinciple.Thosemultipleprinciples...allissuefromthatfountainhead."22ThisfountainheadisnoneotherthanwhatthetraditionalConfucianistshavecalled
theMandateof

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Heaven,whichisnowmetaphysicalizedbyChuHsiasprincipleorSupremeUltimate.ThisfountainheadistheultimatefoundationoftheConfucianandNeo
ConfucianWayandalwaysallowstwocomplementary"objective"(themoralmetaphysicalapproach)and"subjective"(theexistentialmind/natureapproach)
waysofhumandivulging:"thenatureisprinciple"and"themindisprinciple."ChuHsi'shighlycelebratedphilosophicalpoem,''FeelingsArisingfromReadingBooks,"
inProfessorWingtsitChan'saafollowingtranslation,subtlyexpressesthemoralmetaphysicalpositionoftheConfucianWayagainstMahayana*Buddhist
metaphysicsofEmptiness:
Thesquarepondofhalfamouab[onethirdofanacre]opensuplikeamirror.
Skylightandcloudshadowsmovetogethertoandfro.
Letusask:Howcanitbecleartosuchadegree?
Becausethereislivingwatercomingfromthefountainhead.23

Basedonhislich'imetaphysics,ChuHsiisfurtherabletosaythattoConfucianismnotonlyisprinciplemetaphysicallyrealbutch'iactheprimordialvitalforce
penetratingintoallpartsoftheworldandmanisphenomenallyrealaswell,andthat,incriticalcontrast,theBuddhistsneverseeintothephenomenalrealityofall
thingsbutmerelytrytodetecttheirillusoryorunrealnature.ContrastingTaoismwithBuddhism,ChuHsithinksthattheformeratleastpartiallypreservestheChinese
wayofviewingHeavenandEarth,bystressingbothbeing(yuad)andnonbeing,(wuae),whilethelattercompletelyreducesthephenomenalrealityofeverythingtopure
nothing.ToChuHsitheMahayanaBuddhistnotionofEmptinesscanonlybeconstruedtomean"totalnothing,""falseillusion,"or"unrealvacuity."Hesays,"LaoTzuaf
[sixthorfourthcenturyB.C.?]stillspeaksofbeing....BuddhistsregardHeavenandEarthasillusoryandfalse,andtaketheFourElements(Earth,Water,Fire,and
Air)asnomorethanprovisionallyintermingledwitheachother.Thatmeans:totalnothingatall!"24Healsosays,"AccordingtoBuddhism,allisjustnothing....
'Formsareemptyandemptinessisforms.'Fromtenthousandeventsandthingsdowntoman'sonehundredbonesandnineapertures,theyareallreducedtonothing.
TheBuddhistseatfoodalldaylongandyettheysaythattheyhaveneverbittenagrainofricetheywearclothingaroundthemselves,andyettheysaythattheyhave
neverputonanypieceofcloth."25
NoMahayanaBuddhistwouldeveracceptChuHsi'sidentificationofEmptinesswithtotalnothingorunreality.TheywouldrathercompareChuHsi'slackof
understandingoftheMahayananotionofEmptinesstotheNeoTaoistKuoHsiang'sag(d.312)distortionofChuangTzu'sah(369286B.C.?)TaoorNothingnessas
sheernonexistence.ChuHsi'sdistortionofEmptinessastotalnothingisdefinitelyinfluencedbyChangTsai'sai(10201077)ch'imonismormetaphysicsofvitalforce.
ChangsaidthatwhatisreallywrongwithBuddhistmetaphysicsisthatit"neverstudiesexhaustivelytheprinci

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26

ple,butconsiderseverythingtobetheresultofsubjectiveillusion." Healsosaid,"TheBuddhistswouldneverbeabletounderstandheavenlysequenceor
orderliness,whichistheprincipleofchange,manifestedin'thesuccessivemovementsofyinandyang(cosmicforcesofweaknessandstrength)whichcovertheentire
universe,penetratedayandnight,andformthestandardofthegreatMeanintheThreeUltimatesofHeaven,Earth,andMan.'"27AbsorbingChangTsai'sch'i
monismintohislich'imetaphysics,ChuHsiisverysurethathecaneasilybrushoffBuddhism,asChangdoes,asmetaphysicallyasheerannihilationism,foritfailsto
accountforthephenomenalrealityoftheprimordialch'iinitsperpetualintegration/disintegration,intheorderlypatternofyinyanginteractionandthesuccessive
movementsandtransmutationoftheFiveAgents.
AnotherimportantpointinChuHsi'scritiqueofBuddhistmetaphysicsisthat"whileConfucianistsregardtheprincipleasneitherproducednorperishable,Buddhist
takethe'spiritualconsciousness'(shenshihaj)asneitherproducednorimperishable."28SiniticMahayana*Buddhistsare,ChuHsisays,impelledtopositan
imperishable"spiritualconsciousness"despitetheirassertionthateverythingisempty(unreal),becausetheyare,inOuyangHsiu'sak(10071072)words,afraidof
deathanddying.ButfromtheConfucianmetaphysicalpointofview,"whench'iintegrates,thereisbirthwhench'idisintegrates,thereisdeath,"29andthereisno
reasontopresupposetheeternalexistenceofthesocalledspiritualconsciousnessforthesakeofescapingfromthecycleofbirthanddeath.Inshort,therespective
metaphysicalpositionsofConfucianismandBuddhismcanbesummedupinCh'engI'swords''ConfuciansagesrelyuponHeaven,whereasBuddhistsrelyuponthe
mind."30
FromtheSiniticMahayanapointofview,ChuHsi'sNeoConfuciancritiqueofBuddhistmetaphysicsassheerannihilationismonlyexposeshishastyanderroneous
identificationofEmptinesswithtotalnothingaswellashislackofunderstandingoftheessentialdistinctionbetweenIndianandSiniticMahayanainmetaphysical
thinking.First,inregardtotheMahayananotionofEmptinessasexplicatedinthePrajinaparamitasutra*(Perfectionofwisdomscripture)andNagarjuna's*
Mulamadhyamakakarik*("Middle"wisdomtreatise),itisentirelyfreefromthemanmadedualityofbeingandnonbeing,realityandunreality,(logical)truthand
untruth,nirvana*andsamsara*(cycleofbirthanddeath),conditioned(samskrta*)andunconditioned(asamskrta*)statesofbeing,andsoonthismanmade
dualityistobeexplainedasaninevitableresultofthenonenlightenedbeing'sconceptualfabricationsofallthingsandonesidedfixationsoflanguage,thought,and
realityonthemundanelevel(samvrti*)ofhumanthinking.TheteachingofEmptinessistheIndianMahayanawayofreorientingtheearlyBuddhistnotionsofthe
nonsubstantiality("noself")andrelationalorigination,inordertouncoverthetruenatureofalldharmas(experientialfactorsofexistence)asultimatelyequalandthe
same,thatis,ontologicallynondifferentiatablefromoneanother.The

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teachingofEmptinessisprovisionallyemployedasapedagogicalskillinmeanstoremoveortranscendallonesidedspeculations,whichariseasaresultofthe
nonenlightenedman'sdualisticthinking.TheteachingofEmptinessisselfcancellableinthesensethatitistobeleftbehindas"nullandvoid"assoonasallkindsof
metaphysicalthinkingonthesocalled"Absolute,"whateverthatmaybe,arecriticallyexposedasonesided.AstheChineseMadhyamika*("Middle"school)master
Chitsangal(549623)says,"Therefutationofallonesidedviewsisitselfthecorrectview."31Emptinessisnotreally"empty''if"empty"hereismistakenas"unreal"or
"nonexistent"itistransmetaphysicallybeyondthedualityofrealityandunreality,emptinessandnonemptiness,existenceandnonexistence,andsoon.IfEmptinessis
onesidedlyhypostatizedas"empty,"thenitbecomeswhatiscalled"stubborn(onesided)emptiness,"whichhasnothingtodowith"trueEmptiness."TrueEmptiness,
Suchness(orThusness),andthelikealltransmetaphysicallypointtotheultimateincomprehensibilityofthetruenatureofalldharmas(things,events,phenomena).
Paradoxically,theveryincomprehensibilityhereopensupwhatLaoTzucalls"thegatewaytoinfinitewonders."32Thus,fromtheMahayanapointofview,true
Emptinessandwondrousbeingareoneandthesamething.ItisinthissensethattheteachingofEmptinessalwaysremainsopenendedandhelpstoenlargeour
metaphysicalvision,allowingushumanstoseethingsastheyareinthefunctionalformofholisticmultiperspectivism.Butthe"negativistic"residueisnotthoroughly
removedinIndianMahayana*,asisevidencedbythefollowingquotationfromtheDiamondSutra*:
Asstars,afaultofvision,asalamp,
Amockshow,dewdrops,orabubble,
Adream,alighteningflash,orcloud,
Soshouldoneviewwhatisconditioned.33

ItisonlyaftertheriseofSiniticMahayanathephilosophyofwhichcovers,amongothers,theAwakeningofFaith,the"rounded"teachingsofT'ient'aiamandHua
yen,anand,ofcourse,Ch'anBuddhismthattheunfinishedmetaphysicaltaskofIndianMahayanaisaccomplished,byshiftingtheemphasisfrom"trueEmptiness"to
"wondrousbeing,"ormorestrongly,bytransformingtheformerintothelatter.ProbablyundertheprofoundinfluenceofTaoismandNeoTaoism,particularlythe
philosophyofChuangTzu,SiniticMahayanathinkersdevelopedafullfledgedneoMahayana*metaphysicaltheorystillasapedagogicalskillinmeanswhichcan
becharacterizedasfunctionallymultiperspectival.Itendtothinkthat,generallyspeaking,ChinesemetaphysicsasrepresentedbytheThreeTeachingsof
Confucianism,Taoism,andSiniticMahayanaisessentiallyfunctionalandmultiperspectivalinnature.Chinesemetaphysicsismultiperspectivalormultidimensionalin

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34

thesensethatitisalwaysopenendedandallowsvarioushigherorlowerwaysofseeingthingsastheyare. InChinesemetaphysics,thePrincipleoftheWay
takestheplaceofwhatiscalled"Truth"asamatterofobjectiveknowledgeinWesternmetaphysics.Chinesemetaphysicsisalsofunctionalinthesensethatthe
metaphysicaltermscoinedandemployedbyChinesephilosophersarebasicallynonsubstantiveornonhypostaticinnatureandoftencontainmultidimensional
connotationsatthesametime,examplesbeingT'ien(Heavenao),Tao,yinyang,yuwu,andsoon.ItisespeciallyobviousinthecaseofSiniticMahayana*that
functionalterms,suchast'iyungap(substancefunction),itoaq(oneandmany),lishihar(principleandevents),andk'ungchiachungas(theempty,theprovisional,
andthemiddle),areflexiblyemployedtoshowthevarious,multiperspectivalwaysofseeingtheontologicalsamenessofwhatWhiteheadcalls"process"and''reality."
TheT'ient'aidoctrineoftheharmoniousunityoftheThreeTruths(theempty,theprovisional,andthemiddle),itsallaffirmingexpression"Everybeing,beitacoloror
afragrance,isnoneotherthanawondrousmanifestationoftheMiddleWay,"theHuayendoctrineoftheFourDharmaRealms35intheirnonobstructed
interpenetration,orCh'anexpressionslike"Everydayisagoodday"or"EverydaymindednessisitselftheWay,"makeitabundantlycleartous,ifnottoChuHsiand
nearlyallNeoConfucianists,that,inprincipleatleast,SiniticMahayanaleavesnoroomforanymisunderstandingthatEmptinessisnothingbuttotalnothingor
unreality.
SiniticMahayanathinkerswouldevenmakeaforcefulphilosophicalpointthattheirmetaphysicalteachingsasapedagogicalskillinmeansareperfectlyopenended
andinvolvenoonesidedhumandivulgingofthetransmetaphysicallyincomprehensible,andthereforethattheseteachingsarefarsuperiortoConfucianmetaphysics,
whichattemptstomoralizeonesidedlytheultimatesuchnessorasisnessofallthingsastheyare.TheSiniticMahayanaclaimheremayormaynotbetrue.Inany
case,asfarashumanmetaphysicaldivulgingsofthe"Absolute"areconcerned,Confucianmoralmetaphysics,Taoistnaturalism,andSiniticMahayanateachingof"true
Emptinessiswondrousbeing"canberegardedasthethreemetaphysicallycomplementarywaysofseeingthingsastheyareinthefunctionalformofholistic
multiperspectivismwithintheChinesephilosophicaltradition.And,fromthemetaphilosophicalpointofview,ConfucianandNeoConfucianthinkersmust
acknowledgethegreatchallengeofSiniticMahayanametaphysicshere.
ItisveryinterestingandsignificanttonotethatChuHsionsomeoccasionsdoesmakeacleardistinctionbetweentrueEmptinessandstubbornemptiness,whichhe
calls"mysterious(orvain)emptiness."Hesays,
MahayanaBuddhistsspeakof"mysteriousemptiness"theyalsospeakoftrueEmptiness.Themysteriousemptinessissimplypurevacuuminwhichthereisutterlynothing.
TrueEmptinessisratherthatthereissomethingreal,andthis

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trueEmptinessisquitesimilartowhatweConfucianistsspeakof.Buttheydon'tcareanybitaboutheaven,earth,andthefourdirectionstheyonlycareaboutonesinglemind.36

ChuHsionlycreatesmoreproblemsforhimselfwiththisstatement.Foronething,heisapparentlyconfusingtwodifferentissuessociomoralandmetaphysical.That
thesetwoissuescanbeseparatedfromeachotherisverydifficultforthefollowersoftheConfucianWaytocomprehend,forthesimplereasonthatConfucian
metaphysicsisalwaysmoraloriented.WhetherornotSiniticMahayanists*careaboutanythingatallhasnothingtodowithwhetherornottheyareabletoseethings
astheyareinthemetaphysicalsense.ChuHsihimselfafterallacknowledgesthemetaphysicalsimilaritybetweenConfucianismandSiniticMahayana*,onthe
conditionthattheMahayananotionofEmptinessisnottobemisconstruedas"mysteriousemptiness."Since,accordingtoChuHsi,thissimilarityexists,whyhasn'the
triedtodojusticetoSiniticMahayanametaphysicsbyclarifyingthepoint?Why,instead,hasheratherstressed"mysteriousemptiness"astotalnothing,whichno
BuddhistthinkersletaloneSiniticMahayanistswouldacceptastheirownview?ChuHsi'srepeatedpointthatthefundamentaldifferencebetweenthetwo
traditionsismetaphysicalandnotsimplyethicalcanstillstand,foritiscertainlytruethatConfucianmetaphysicsismoralorientedwhileSiniticMahayanametaphysics
istransmoral,ifnotamoral,innature.Butifhewantstochangethispointandtriestorediscoverthemetaphysicalsimilaritybetweenthetwotraditions,thenhemust,
firstofall,removetheconfusionoverthetwodifferentissuesinquestion.IfChuHsiwereclearaboutthemetaphysicalsimilaritybetweenConfucianismandSinitic
Mahayanaintermsoffunctionalmultiperspectivism,wouldn'thehavetoagreewithLuHsiangshanthattheessentialdifferencebetweenthetwotraditionsliesinthe
distinctionbetweenrighteousnessandselfinterest?Wouldn'thehavetoadmitthatthephilosophicalsuperiorityofConfucianismoverSiniticMahayanacanonlybein
thefieldofethics,andnotinthatofmetaphysics?
AstoChuHsi'scriticismoftheSiniticMahayanatheoryofimperishable"spiritualconsciousness,"itisalsobasedonatotalmisunderstanding.MatureSinitic
Mahayanathinkersseldomusetheterm"spiritualconsciousness,"whichwasprobablyoftenusedbytheearlyChineseBuddhists.Thosemetapsychologicalterms
frequentlyemployedinSiniticMahayanaare:"thematrixofTathagata*,""Buddhanature,""theessentialnatureofthemind,''"Onemind,""nomind,"and"themind
ofnonabiding"butthesetermsareandmustbetransmetaphysicallyemptiedoftheir"ownbeing."Transmetaphysically,alldharmas,including"Buddhanature"and
thelike,aretrulyempty,andcannotbesaidtoexistornotexist.Infact,nophilosophicalmindedSiniticMahayanist*wouldeverdeviatefromtheteachingof
Emptinessandasserttheexistenceofanyhypostaticmetaphychologicalentity.TheMahayanatheoryofBuddhanatureorthelikeisnomorethanapedagogical

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skillinmeanscreatedtoprovideametapsychologicalbasisforman'sexistentialselfawakeningto"trueEmptinessiswondrousbeing."Ifandwhenoneisultimately
enlightened,thetheoryitselfwillhavetobeleftbehindas"nullandvoid."Inotherwords,fromtheperspectiveofultimateenlightenment,alldharmasaretrulyempty
andthequestionofexistenceornonexistenceofBuddhanatureorthelikedoesnotarisefromtheperspectiveofnonenlightenment,however,itisofpedagogical
necessityprovisionallyto"posit''themetapsychologicalrealityofthesocalledBuddhanatureor"(themindof)Tathagatagarbha*"37forthesakeoftheaverage
man'sexistentialselfawakening.ChuHsi'smisunderstandingthatSiniticMahayanists*asserttheexistenceofanimperishable"spiritualconsciousness"isnotseparable
fromhismisunderstandingoftheMahayana*teachingofEmptiness.Sincethispointinvolvesthemetapsychologicalissue,letusturntoChuHsi'soverallcritiqueof
theSiniticMahayanatheoryofmind/nature.
InhisShihshihlunat(TreatiseonBuddhism),PartI,ChuHsipresentshiscritiqueoftheBuddhisttheoryofmind/nature,buttheoriginaltextiscorruptedhereand
there.Insteadofcitingthistext,IwouldrathertakethefollowingsayingofChuHsiashisgeneralstatementconcerningtheessentialdifferencebetweenConfucianism
andBuddhismintermsofthetheoryofmind/nature.
AsShangts'ai[HsiehLiangtso,au1050c.1120]said,"WhatBuddhistscallnatureiswhatConfuciansagescallmind.WhatBuddhistscallmindiswhatConfuciansagescallwill
(orintention)."38Themindissimplythatwhichobtainstheprinciple.Buddhistshaveneverrecognizedthisveryprincipletheyonlyregardmentalawarenessandphysical
movementsasthenature.Takeseeing,hearing,speech,andbehavior,forexample.ToConfuciansages,seeinghastheprincipleofseeing,hearinghastheprincipleofhearing,
speechhastheprincipleofspeech,movementhastheprincipleofmovement,andthinkinghastheprincipleofthinking....Buddhistsonlytakethatwhichcansee,hear,speak,
think,andmoveasthenature.Itdoesn'tmattertothemwhetherornotthesightisclear,whetherornotthehearingisgood,whetherornotthespeechisproper,andwhetheror
notthethinkingiswise.Whatevercomestothemhorizontallyorvertically,theyalltakeitasthenature.Theyaremostafraidoftheotherpeople'smentioningtheprinciplethey
justwanttodoawaywithit....ThisisexactlythesameasKaoTzu'savthesis39of"whatisinborniscalledhumannature."40

Inthispassageaswellasinmanyotherplaces,ChuHsiattackstheSiniticMahayanatheoryofmind/nature,againfromthestandpointoflich'imetaphysics.
Buddhistsaresaidtototallymisunderstand,asKaoTzudoes,humannature,bywronglyidentifyingitwithnaturalinstinct,orwith,inChuHsi'sownwords,"mental
awarenessandphysicalmovements."TheycannotrealizethetruththattheprimordialnatureofmanisimpartedbyHeaven,whichisexpressibleinNeoConfucianism
asthePrincipleof

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Heaven.Whatconstitutesman'sprimordialnatureistheFourfoldMoralPrincipleofhumankindness,righteousness,propriety,and(moral)knowledgeeverinherentin
man'smind,41whichunitesboththenatureandthefeelings.Withoutbeingabletorealizethemoralmetaphysicalmeaningof"whatisimpartedbyHeaveniscalled
humannature"intheDoctrineoftheMean,chan1,SiniticMahayanists*havemisledusintobelievingthat"naturaloramoralfunctioningofthemindisitselfthe
nature."AsProfessorCh'ienMuremarks,"ChuTzu'sinsistencethat'thenatureisprinciple'isspeciallyintendedtoopposetheCh'anlearningof'seeingthenatureright
inthenaturalfunctioningofthemind.'"42ChuHsisays,''BuddhistsabandontheTaomind,buttrytoseektheprecarioushumanmindandmakeitfunctionamorally
takeawaytheessentialbutretainthecrudetakehumankindness,righteousness,propriety,and(moral)knowledgeasthenonnature,butregardtheamoral,psycho
physicalfunctioningbeforetheireyesasthenature.Allthesehavetodowiththeirmisconceptionofthefountainhead."43Healsosays,
WhatweConfucianistsnourishishumankindness,righteousness,propriety,and(moral)knowledgewhattheyBuddhistsnourishismerelytheseeing,hearing,speech,and
movement.TousConfucianists,therearewithinthewholeprinciplemanyprinciplesoftheWay,eachprinciplehavingitsspecificfeaturesandspecificdistinctionsbetweenright
andwrong....Buttheyonlyseesomethingchaotic,withoutinvolvinganyspecificprinciplesoranyspecificdistinctionsbetweenrightandwrong.Thehorizontalisright,and
theverticalisequallyrightthestraightisright,andthecurvedisequallyright.Toseethingsinviolationoftheprincipleisthisverynaturetoseethingsinaccordancewiththe
principleisalsothisverynature....Therefore,theyaremuddleheadedandthereisnothingrightinthem.TheyonlyrecognizethathumanmindandnevercareabouttheTao
mind.Theyalsosaythatthemindisallpervasiveandallpenetrating,but,withrespecttothemoralrelationshipbetweenrulerandminister,parentandchild,elderandyounger
brother,husbandandwife,theirmindfailstopervadeorpenetrateintoanything.44

ThegistofChuHsi'scriticismhereisthatBuddhistsfailtoseethespecificdistinctionsbetweenrightandwrongineachandeveryhumansituationbecausetheyhave
nevertriedtorealizethat"thenatureisprinciple"andthatthemindpossessestenthousandprinciplesmanifestingtheultimatePrincipleofHeaven.Itisbecausethe
mindpossessestenthousandspecificprinciplesthatonecan,ontheonehand,"preserveone'smindofTaoandnourishone'snature"totheutmost,and,ontheother,
fullyexploreallthespecificprinciplesrightwithinthingsthemselves.ToChuHsitheHeavenlyPrinciplemanifestsitselfintermsofboththespecificprinciplesofmoral
oughtnessandspecificprinciplesofnonmoralreasoninherentintenthousandthings.ChuHsisays,"Weregardthemindandprincipleasone,whereastheyregardthe
mindandprincipleasdual....Theyseethemindasemptyandpossessingno

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45

principleatall,whileweseethatalthoughthemindisemptyitdoespossessallthetenthousandprinciplescompletelywithinitself." ChuHsi'ssayinghereisnone
otherthanhisuniqueNeoConfucianreinterpretationorreorientationofMencius'famouswords,"Alltenthousandthingsarealreadycompletewithinmyself."46
AnotherimportantpointinChuHsi'scritiqueofSiniticMahayana*theoryofmind/natureisthatitnotonlyneglectstheTaomindbutfailstorealizethelimitationsof
man'sphysicalnatureandtheselfishnessofhismaterialdesire.ChuHsisays,"Thelearningoftheheterodoxschool...doesnotinvestigatethelimitationsofman's
physicalquality(ch'ichihaw),feelings,anddesirecapriciouswillandmisconductisconsideredperfectlyreasonable.Thiskindoflearningisparticularlydamagingto
humanaffairs.SomeConfucianistsinourtimealsotendtofollowintheBuddhistwrongsteps.Wemustbecareful."47ChuHsiisprobablyreferringtothefollowersof
LuHsiangshan'steachingof"themindisprinciple"whenhecompares"someConfucianistsinourtime"toCh'anBuddhistsintermsofthetotallackofunderstanding
man'sphysicalnature.InanotherplaceChuHsisays,''Althoughthemindandprincipleareone,thistruthwillnotbeseenclearlyifnoattentionispaidtothe
selfishnessofch'iendowment(ch'ipingax)andmaterialdesire....ThatiswhytheGreatLearningemphasizesinvestigationofthings."48ProfessorCh'ienMumakes
asignificantremarkonChuHsi'ssayinghere,statingthatHsiangshanholdsthatthemindisprinciplethisthesisisfundamentallydifferentfromtheCh'anthesis.Butif
onedoesnotrecognizethatthereisstillselfishnessinman'sch'iendowmentandmaterialdesire,thenonewillnotknowthatthereareoccasionsonwhichthemind
doesnotfollowtheprinciple.Further,theprinciplespreadsitselfoutintotenthousandspecificprinciplesamidstheaven,earth,andtenthousandthingsand
phenomena.Ifonedoesnotmakeseriouseffortsinthetaskofinvestigationofthingsbutsimplysaysthatthismindpossessestenthousandprinciples,thenthismind
willbecomereallyemptyandindistinguishablefromtheCh'anmind."49Hereagain,weseeametaphysicalandmetapsychologicalreasonforChuHsi'scriticismofLu's
"themindisprinciple"thesisasmoreCh'annisticthanConfucian.ChuHsi'sowntheoryofmind/nature,whichinvolvesthedistinctionbetweentheTaomindandthe
humanmind,is,ofcourse,groundeduponlich'imetaphysics.
ButthemostimportantpartofChuHsi'scritiqueofBuddhistmetapsychologyisthat,likeKaoTzu,YangChu,andsomemisguidedNeoConfucianistslikeHuHung
(HuWufeng,ay11061161),Buddhiststendtopromotethetheoryofhumannatureasneithergoodnorevil,asagainsttheMenciantheoryofhumannatureas
originallygood,whichmustbeacceptedastheorthodoxdoctrinebyallfollowersoftheConfucianWay.ChuHsisays,
Primordially,thePrincipleofHeavendoesnothavehumandesireasoppositetoitbutsincethereisselfishhumandesire,thePrincipleofHeavencannothelp

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competingwithhumandesireforgrowthordecline.Primordially,gooddoesnothaveevilasoppositetoitbutsincethereisevil,goodcannothelpcompetingwithevilforeither
riseorfall....Originally,thereisonlygoodandnoevilthereisonlytheMandateofHeavenandnohumandesire....ItisallrighttosaythattheMandateofHeavenisnot
confinedtothings.ButtosaythatitisnotconfinedtogoodistofailtoknowthereasonwhyHeavenisHeaven.Buttosaythatgoodcannotdefinehumannatureistofailto
knowtheoriginalsourceofgood.InKnowingWords(chihyenaz)thiskindofargument[HuHung'spointthatneithergoodnorevilcandefinehumannature]runsintoconflict
withtheotherpointsinmanyplacesofthesamework.Hu'sargumentisalmostnodifferentfromthethesis[ofhumannatureasneithergoodnorevil]maintainedbyKaoTzu,
YangChu,Buddhism,andSuTungp'o[SuShihba10361101].50

FromChuHsi'spointofview,theBuddhistthesisthathumannatureisneithergoodnorevilfallsinto"emptysilence"andcreatesanunbridgeablegapbetweenthe
primordialnatureandtheactivationofhumanfeelings.(ChuHsisometimessays,"Thenonactivationofhumanfeelingsisthenatureandtheactivationofhumanfeelings
isgood."51)IfChuHsihadlivedinWangYangming's(WangShoujen,bb14721529)timeandheardWang'swords"theoriginalsubstanceofhumannatureis
neithergoodnorevil,"52hewouldcertainlyhaveequatedWang'stheoryofmind/naturewiththeCh'anBuddhistone.
IsChuHsi'scritiqueofSiniticMahayana*metapsychologyfairandsound?Firstofall,noSiniticMahayanathinkerswouldaccepthiscriticismoftheBuddhistthesis
ofhumannatureas"neithergoodnorevil,"for,theywouldretort,thecriticismhereisbasedonatotalmisunderstandingordistortionoftheSiniticMahayanatheoryof
mind/nature,whichindeedshareswithConfucianismtheviewthatman'soriginalnatureororiginalmindisabsolutelygoodbeyondthedualityofgoodandevilinthe
relativesense.Transmetaphysicallyspeaking,alldharmasaretrulyemptyandthequestionoftheexistence/nonexistenceofBuddhanatureorthelikedoesnotarise.
Buthumanly(existentially)speaking,itisnecessarytodevelop,withinMahayanaBuddhism,afullfledgedtheoryofmind/natureasametapsychologicalbasisfor
man'sselfawakeningtohisoriginalmindornature.TheSiniticMahayanadeepeningandenrichmentoftheIndianMahayanatheoryofBuddhanatureorTathagata
garbha*,bystressingtheprimordialgoodnessandabsolutepurityofman'smind/nature,musthavebeenundertheprofoundinfluenceofthetraditionalChinese
typicallyMencianapproachtotheproblemofhumannatureandmind.Despitehisnondualisticapproach,Huinengbc(638713),theSixthPatriarchofCh'an,used,
forinstance,theterms"theoriginalmind"and"theoriginalnature"bothofwhichhadbeenusedbythefollowersofMenciusforalongtimetopointtotheabsolute
goodnessofBuddhanatureorOnemind.Thus,thedifferencebetweenConfucianandSiniticMahayanatheoriesofmind/naturedoesnotlieinthedistinctionbetween
''originallygood"and"neithergoodnorevil"butratherliesinthedistinc

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tionbetween"morallygood"and"transmorally(notamorally)good"beyondthedualityofgoodandevilintherelativesense.ItisinthissensethatWangYangming's
thesisthat"theoriginalsubstanceofthemindisneithergoodnorevil''stillremainsverymuchConfucianindistinctiontotheCh'anthesis,becauseofhisprimary
emphasisonthespontaneousextensionofman'smoralandnottransmoralmindindealingwithhumanaffairs.InwronglyidentifyingSiniticMahayana*
metapsychologywithKaoTzu'stheory,ChuHsifailstoseetheessentialdistinctionbetween"transmorallygood"and"neithergoodnorevil(intheamoralsense)."
ChuHsi'scriticismthattoCh'anBuddhism"thenaturalfunctioningofthemindisitselfthenature"isalsoverysuperficial,fornoSiniticMahayanists*haveeverheld
thisview.Onthecontrary,justliketheNeoConfucianiststheyhaveconsistentlyappliedthetypicallyChinesethesisof"substance(orreality)andfunction(or
manifestation)"totheirtheoryofmind/nature.Forinstance,thefamousCh'anexpression,"Choppingwoodandcarryingwater:thesearenoneotherthanawondrous
functioningoftheenlightenedmind,"mustbeconstruedtomeanthattheoriginalmindisthesubstancewhileitseverydayconcretemanifestationsintermsofwhatChu
Hsicalls"mentalawarenessandphysicalmovements"arethefunctionoftheoriginalmind.Again,inthePlatformScriptureHuinengsays,"tonienbd['instant
thought,'hereusedasatransitiveverb]istonientheoriginalnatureofSuchness.SuchnessisthesubstanceofniennienisthefunctionofSuchness."53
Transmetaphysically,SuchnessisthesameasEmptinessorDharmanaturemetapsychologically,itisnoneotherthantheoriginalmind/natureofman.ChuHsi's
criticisminquestion,therefore,totallymissestheSiniticMahayanatheoryofmind/natureasgroundeduponthesubstance/functionrelationship.AndChuHsi's
followingwordsonlycreatemoreconfusionwithregardtohisoversimplificationof"thenaturalfunctioningofthemindisitselfthenature."
Buddhiststhemselvessaythattheydounderstandthemindandseeintothenature.Butwhycantheirmindornaturenotbeextendedinmoralpractice?Becausetheyhave
dividedthenatureandthefunctionintotwoseparatematters....ItisnottruethatBuddhistsdonotseeintothenature,butwhentheycometodealwiththeproblemofeveryday
functioningofthemind,theyjustsaythatnothingcanbedone.Therefore,theyabandontheruleranddeserttheirparents....Thisisbecauseintheircasethenatureandthe
functiondonotmatcheachother.54

InsayingherethatCh'anBuddhists"separatethenatureandthefunctionastwodifferentmatters,"ChuHsiseemstohaveforgottenwhathesaysinotherplacesabout
thesocallednaturalfunctioningofthemindisitselfthenatureinCh'an.AndinthissayingChuHsiagainconfusestwodifferentissues:sociomoraland
metapsychological(asanextensionofthemetaphysicalissue).

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WhetherornotCh'anBuddhists"abandontheirruleranddeserttheirparents"isasociomoralissue,whereaswhetherornottheyseeintothenatureisa
metapsychologicalissue.Furthermore,howwouldChuHsiexplaintheapparentinconsistencybetweenhiswordsthat"itisnottruethatBuddhistsdonotseeintothe
nature"andthat"thenaturalfunctioningofthemindisitselfthenature"thelatterbeingsaidbyChuHsitobeCh'an'sfalseviewofhumannature?
AstoChuHsi'scriticismthatCh'anBuddhistspaylittleattentiontothelimitationsofman'sphysicalnatureandtheselfishnessofhismaterialdesire,itisinmanyways
veryhardhitting,foritistruethatbecauseoftheirprimaryemphasisonsuddenawakeninghereandnowtheytendtooverlookenormousindividuallimitationsor
difficultiesinvolvedintheirownstudents'spiritualcultivationforultimateenlightenment,whichistransmoralbutcanneverbeamoral.Hiscriticismherecanalsoapply
totheLuWangschoolof"themindisprinciple,"thecultivationallaxityofwhicheventuallyledtotheCh'anlike,naturalisticaffirmationof"readymade,innate
knowledgeofthegood"afterWangYangming.Likethe"twoway"theoryintheAwakeningofFaithsimultaneous"permeationofSuchnessintoignorance''and
"permeationofignoranceintoSuchness"ChuHsi'sowntheoryofhumannaturethatdealswiththelimitationsofman'sphysicalquality(despitetheprimordial
goodnessofhisheavenlynature)canrealisticallybesaidtomakeupforthehighmindedandoveroptimisticviewheldbybothCh'anBuddhismandtheLuHsiang
shanWangYangmingSchool.
Asfarasthemethodofpersonalcultivationisconcerned,ChuHsi'scriticismofBuddhisminalmostallcasesfocusesontheCh'anteachingofsuddenawakening,and
canbesummedupintermsofthefollowinginseparablepoints:(1)Ch'anBuddhistsonlyaspiretoachievethehigherspiritualstagewithoutbeingengagedinstepwise
learning(ofthePrinciple)frombelow,(2)theytotallyneglectthetaskof"investigationofthingsandextensionofknowledge,"(3)theyonlysitquietlywithoutbeing
abletorealizetheimportanceofthemethodof"reverentialonemindednesstostraightentheinternalandrighteousnesstosquaretheexternal,"55and(4)thesudden
awakeningtheyteachtendstodisregardthespiritualandmoralsignificanceofthemethodofgradualcultivation.
First,ChuHsiishighlycriticalofCh'anBuddhistsinthatthey"onlyspeakof'achievingthehigherspiritualstage'whileneglecting'stepwiselearningfrombelow.'"Butif
oneneglectsstepwiselearningfrombelow,howcanoneachievethehigherspiritualstage?56ChuHsievenraisesagreatdoubtabouttheirabilitytoachievethehigher
spiritualstage,forhereasonsthattheysimplylackapropermethodofpersonalcultivation.HethereforeexpresseshiscompleteagreementwithCh'engHao'sbe
(10321085)wordsthat"Ch'anBuddhistsonlyaspiretoachievethehigherspiritualstage,butisthereanythinggoodintheiraspirationtoachievethehigherspiritual
stage?"57

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Second,fromChuHsi'spointofviewof"thenatureisPrinciple,"onemainreasonwhyCh'anBuddhistsfailtoachievethehigherspiritualstageisthatthey"simplydo
notengageinthetaskofinvestigationofthings."58InhislettertoHsShunchih,bfChuHsistressesthispointtoindicateoneessentialdifferencebetweenConfucianism
andCh'anBuddhism.Hesays,
Thelearningofthesagesfirstconsistsinthepursuitofjenbg(humanity)andinvestigationofthings.Therefore,theycan,atthemomentthefeelingsareactivated,naturallysee
thedistinctionbetweenrightandwrongorappropriatenessandinappropriateness,withoutmissinganything....Nowtellme:wheredoesthisoneinstantthought(nein)ofCh'an
comefrom?Canitbecalled"theoriginalmind"?Canitbecalled"thePrincipleofHeaven"?Thisisjustanotherselfishintentionaddedtotheprecedingone....Thisisentirely
differentfromtheConfuciansages'pursuitofjen,investigationofthings,andspiritualnurturinginaccordancewiththeprinciple.59

ToChuHsiandhisfollowers,theConfucianlearningconsistsof"investigationofthingsandextensionofknowledge"or"thoroughexplorationoftheprincipleright
withinthings,"asthefirstandnecessarysteptobetakenforone'spersonalcultivationthisapproachis,ofcourse,clearlydistinguishablefromthelearningas
awakeningapproachtakenbybothCh'anBuddhismandtheLuWangschool.
Third,followingCh'engI'smethodof"spiritualnurturingrequiresreverentialonemindednesswhiletheadvancementoflearningconsistsinextensionofknowledge,"60
ChuHsicriticizesCh'anthatitnotonlyneglectsthetaskofinvestigationofthingsbutfailstomaintainreverentialonemindedness.Instead,Ch'anBuddhistsvainly
practicequietsittingorsittingmeditation.IncontrasttoCh'an,ChuHsisays,theConfucianlearning"takesabidinginreverentialonemindednessasthebasisand
appliesexhaustiveexplorationoftheprincipleinordertoenrichthemethodofpersonalcultivation."61ChuHsitriedtoshowthedifferencebetweentheConfucian
methodofmoralselfvigilanceandtheCh'anmethodofquietsitting.
Ch'anBuddhistswanttoemptythisverymind,andthereligiousTaoistswanttopreservethisveryvitalforce:alltheseareavainartifice.Justtrytobemorallywatchfuland
careful,thenthemindwillnaturallybepreservedforever,withnoneedofanyartificialarrangement...Question:ItseemsthatCh'anBuddhistsarealsoabletopracticeself
vigilance.ChuHsisays:Theydoitonlyinthequietplacetheirpracticeisdifferentfromours.Theyonlytrytofindanexpedientshortcut,andescapeintotheplaceofquiet
seclusion.62

LikemanyotherNeoConfucianists,ChuHsioccasionallypraisedhighlytheCh'anBuddhistwayofspiritualcultivationintermsofsittingmeditationandrigorous
trainingofthemind.Hesays,forinstance,that"Ch'anBuddhistsindeedmakestrenuouseffortsinthismindtraining"63andthat"once

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theyattaintheirTao,thoseCh'anBuddhistmonksandtheirfollowerssimplyenterintodeepmountains,liveongrassandwood,andnourishtheirmindformanyyears.
Whatagreatoutlooktheyexhibitwhentheycomeout!Sonatural,bright,andcharming!Thatiswhytheworldlingscanonlylookatthemwithasenseofaweand
admiration."64ChuHsiactuallydeploredthefactthatsomanyConfucianstudentsandscholars,includinghimselfwhenyoung,hadbeenattractedbyCh'anbecauseof
thepracticalsuccessofCh'andisciplineforenlightenment.ButChuHsipointsoutthesociomoralmeaninglessnessoftheCh'anwayofpersonalcultivation,saying,
"Ch'anBuddhistswanttoknowdeathfirst[beforeknowinglife].Theymerelylearntomaintaintheunmovedmind.KaoTzu'slearningisexactlylikethis."65In
contrast,allfollowersoftheConfucianWaymustpreservetheirmindandnourishtheirnatureforthesakeofrealizingthePrincipleofHeaven,whichistobehumanly
manifestedthrougheverydaysociomoralpractice.Thus,inspiteofhisoccasionalappreciationforthesuccessofCh'andiscipline,ChuHsimakesitclearthatthe
Ch'anmethodofquietsittingmustbereplacedwiththeConfucianmethodof"reverentialonemindednesstostraightentheinternalandrighteousnesstosquarethe
external."AsChuHsisays,"WhatCh'anBuddhistscall'reverentialonemindednesstostraightentheinternal'isjustspaciouslyempty,andcontainsnothingatall.In
contrast,whatthesagescall'reverentialonemindednesstostraightentheinternal'isdeepandprofound,pureandbright,andcontainsallthetenthousandprinciples
onlythenitispossibletopractice'righteousnesstosquaretheexternal.'"66Inotherwords,Ch'anBuddhistssimplyfailtorealizeboth''reverentialonemindednessto
straightentheinternalandrighteousnesstosquaretheexternal,"primarilybecausetheirmethodofpersonalcultivationlacksapropersociomoralobjectivegrounded
uponthePrincipleofHeaven.
Finally,ChuHsistronglyattackstheCh'anteachingofsuddenawakeninginthatitcompletelyneglectsthesociomoralimportanceofgradualcultivation,whichrequires
alifelongtaskofovercomingthelimitationsofman'sphysicalnatureaswellashisselfishdesire.Thecompleteandperfecttransformationofthehumanmindintothe
TaomindnecessitatesastepwiseConfucianlearninginvestigationofthingsandthoroughexplorationoftheprincipleanddaytodaymoralcultivation.Ihave
translatedsomeofChuHsi'smostimportantsayingsonthispointasfollows:
"Seeingintoman'snature"isaCh'anBuddhistexpressionitmeans"seeingjustonceandforall."Bycontrast,theConfucianistsspeakof"knowingman'snature"afterknowing
thenature,thenaturestillrequiresafullnourishmentuntilitisexertedtotheutmost.TheConfuciantaskhereisgradualandstepwise,andcannotbeamatterofoneortwodays'
effort.Indailylife,oncetheeffortslackensitwillbringmuchdamagetothemindatthatveryincipientmoment....NowthefollowersofCh'anBuddhismtendtosayto
themselvesthattheyhave,withoutanydoubt,seenintotheirnature,yettheirhabitual

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natureanddesirestillremainsnodifferentfromtheaverageman's.Isn'tittheresultofanemptytalkabout"tryingtouseabroomwithoutseeinganydust?"

IwouldsaythatextensionofknowledgeandinvestigationofthingsarethebeginningofthelearningaccordingtotheGreatLearning....Sincetheknowledgeextendedis
shallowordeepindegree,howcanitbethecasethatourinnateknowledgeofthegoodwhichisthesameasthatoflegendarysageemperorsYaobhandShunbiisallofasudden
seen?Ifitwerethecase,itwouldbejustlikeCh'anBuddhistemptytalkabout"hearingjustonceamountstoawakeningonethousandtimes"or"directattainmentof
enlightenmentbyoneinstantleap."ThisisnotthegenuineConfuciantaskof"enlighteningone'sgoodnature''and"makingoneselfsincere."68

IwouldsaythatnottoexpectthestudentstomakeajumpiswhataccordswiththeoriginalnatureofthePrincipleofHeaventhisisnotthesages'specialarrangement....Take
theexampleofasmalltree.Ithas,ofcourse,thenatureoftree,butitisalsothetree'snaturethatitsgrowthrequiresagradualnourishment.Whatiscalled"expectingtheCh'an
noviceinstantlytoattainBuddhahoodonthespot"isjustlikespoutingoutamouthfulofwateronasmalltreewithawishfulthinkingthatitwillinstantlyreachthesky.Doesthis
makeanysenseatall?Evenifthereweresuchamagicaltechnique,stillitcannotbesaidtofollowtheprinciple.Wecanagaindetectselfishnessandselfprofitinthissortof
technique.69

ProfessorCh'ienMumakesaverythoughtfulremarkonthelastcitedsaying:"Itcannotbesaidthat,humannaturebeingoriginallygood,allmencanbecomeYaoor
Shunwithnoneedtocarefullyundertakethetaskof'knowingthewords'and'nourishingone'svitalforce.'SomeMingNeoConfucianistsassertthat'thewholestreet
isfullofsages'orthat'theteaboyhimselfisasage.'70FromChuHsi'spointofview,allthesewouldbeclosetotheCh'anlearning."71Thedisputebetweenthe
Ch'engChuSchoolandtheLuWangSchoolwithinNeoConfucianisminvolvesthemethodicalquestionofpersonalcultivation:gradualcultivationorsudden
awakening?ThisNeoConfuciandisputeissomewhatsimilartothedisputebetweentheSouthernSchoolofHuinengandtheNorthernSchoolofShenhsiubj(605?
706)intheCh'antradition.ChuHsi'swarningthattheteachingofsuddenawakening,oftenattheexpenseofgradualcultivation,inbothCh'anandNeoConfucianism
tendstobringdamagetoConfuciansociomoralpracticedeservesourspecialattention,foritseemstomethatChuHsi'scriticismofCh'anBuddhismandtheLu
WangSchoolismostforcefulandextremelysignificantwhenhecomestogripswiththequestionofpersonalcultivationandconductasanimportantandindispensable
partofeverydaysociomoralpractice.ChuHsicanindeedciteConfucius'example,thatevenConfuciuswasableto"followwhatevermymindheartdesireswithout
oversteppingtheboundaryofright"72onlyafterhereachedtheageofseventy,insupportofhismethodofgradualcultivation.Theprosandconsofthedispute
betweenthe"sudden"and"grad

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ual"teachingscannotbeseenclearlywithoutreferencetothequestionofeverydaysociomoralpracticeinconcretetermsofsituationalappropriatenessofhuman
action.
Wehaveseenthat,asfarasmetaphysicalthinking,theoryofmind/nature,andmethodofpersonalcultivationareconcerned,ChuHsi'scriticismofSiniticMahayana*
BuddhismcanbealwayshardhittingandforcefulonlywhenthecriticisminvolveshissevereattackupontheBuddhistfailuretoactualizetheprimordialityineveryday
sociomoralpracticeasamatterofrealizationoftheWayofjenibk(humankindnessmanifestedthroughgradationalandsituationalapplication).ChuHsisays,
ThelearningofCh'anismostdamagingtotheWay.ChuangTzuandLaoTzudidnotcompletelyabandonmoralprinciples,butinBuddhismhumanmoralityisalreadydamaged.
AstoCh'an,ithasfromtheoutsetwipedoutallmoralprincipleswithnothingleft.ItisinthissensethatthedamageCh'anhasbroughttousismostserious....Itisunnecessary
tomakeadetailedinvestigationinordertounderstandthenatureofthelearningofBuddhismandTaoism.TheirabandonmentoftheThreeBonds[rulerasthebondofminister,
fatherasthebondofson,andhusbandasthebondofwife]andFiveConstantRelationships[parentchild,rulerminister,husbandwife,seniorjunior,friendfriend]aloneis
alreadyagravesin,letalonetheothersinstheyhavecommitted.73

ChuHsi'ssociomoralcriticismofBuddhismandTaoismherewellcorrespondswithLuHsiangshan'scriticismbasedontherighteousness/selfinterestdistinction,
despitethefactthatChuHsihimselfthinksthatthefundamentaldifferencebetweenConfucianismandBuddhismismetaphysicalratherthanethicalinnature.
AnessentialpartofChuHsi'ssociomoralcriticismofBuddhismisthatitviolatesConfucianjeni,whichmustfunctionasthehighestgoverningprincipleofhuman
conductandsituationalaction.Jenashumanityorhumankindnessconstitutestheessentialnatureofman,andiasmoraloughtnessis,inConfucianterms,a
gradationalextensionandsituationalapplicationofjeninaccordwiththetimelyMean.LikeMoTzu'sdoctrineof"mutuallove,"Buddhistteachingofcompassion
(karuna*)equalizesallkindsofhumanlovefromloveforparentsthroughloveforallmankindtoloveforanimalsandallothersentientbeingsandentirelyignores
thehuman(sociomoral)necessityofgradationallyandsituationallymanifestingjenorthePrincipleofHeaven.ChuHsisays,"YangChudidnotevenpluckoutasingle
hairtobenefittheworld,andyethesaidthattheworldcannotbebenefitedbyasinglehair.ITzubladvocatedthedoctrineofnongradationallove,andyethesaidthat
thislovebeginswithfamilialaffection.74Buddhistswanttoabandontherelationshipofparents,andyettheyspeakoftheParentsScripture:allthesearejust
quibbles!"75Healsosays,"WhatBuddhistscallcompassionhasnorelationwiththeworldlyconditionsatalltheysimplyloveeverythingwithoutanydistinction.Asto
loveforparents,theytakeitasinvolvingtheworldlycondi

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tionsandthereforekeepingthemfromenlightenmenttheythereforedeserttheirparentsandfailtoservethem.Butwhentheyseethatatigerishungry,theygivetheir
ownbodyawaytothetigerinordertofeedit.Whatkindofmoralprincipleisthis?"76Again,"Thereforeitissaid,'Therealityofjenliesinservingone'sparents.'77Itis
alsosaid,'Filialpietyandbrotherlyrespectarethestartingpointforthepracticeofjen.'78Thisiswhysubstance[Principleisone]andfunction[itsmanifestationsare
many]areofoneandthesamesourceandthemanifestandthesubtleallownogapbetweenthem.79TheBuddhisttalkabout'trueawakening'and'abilitytorealize
jen'isindeedsublimeandbeautiful.Butwhereistheirfoundation?"80ToChuHsi,jenorthePrincipleofHeavenisthesubstancewhileeverydaysociomoralpractice
isthefunction,beginningwithfilialpietyandbrotherlyrespectandendingwithloveforallmankind.Butjenortheprinciplemustbegradationallymanifestedasa
matterofmoraloughtness(ibm)theBuddhistleapbeyondthegradationalmanifestationofjenorprincipleis,therefore,adangerousviolationofthebasicmoral
contextofhumanity.
ToshowthatBuddhiststhemselvesdounderstand,howeversuperficially,themeaningof"gradationalmanifestationofjen"(jeni),ChuHsimakesanironicalremark:
"IntheworldonlythisPrincipleoftheWaygoverns,andnoonecanescapefromit.TakethecommunityofBuddhistsandreligiousTaoists,forexample.Although
theyhavetriedtoabandonhumanmorality,theysimplycannotescapefromit.Theybehavelikehavingnoparentsorchildren,buttheyservetheirmastersandtreat
theirdisciples.Theseniordisciplesarecalled'elderbrothersunderthemaster'andthejuniordisciples'youngerbrothersunderthemaster.'Buttoprotectunauthentic
sagesorworthiesinCh'anBuddhismisindirectlytopreservetheauthenticones."81ChuHsisaysfurther,"Buddhistssaythattheywanttoabandonrelationships
betweenrulerandminister,parentandson.Buttheystillcannotabandonthem.TakeBuddhisttemples,forinstance.Therestillexistthe'elders'andthelike.Andthe
rankdistinctionsthereareverystrict.SohowcantheBuddhistsabandonhumanrelationsatall?Whatevertheysayanddoisjusthypocritical."82TheBuddhistfailure
torealizetheconcrete,gradationalmanifestationsofjenorthePrincipleofHeavenmeansthatthereisatotallackof"righteousnesstosquaretheexternal''inBuddhist
practice,andthisverylackalsomeansthattheBuddhistwayof"reverentialonemindednesstostraightentheinternal"isequallywrong.ChuHsisaysthus,"Ifthereis
norighteousnesstosquaretheexternal,thenevenreverentialonemindednesscannotberight....Ch'engHaosays,'Buddhistsonlyaspiretoreachthehigherspiritual
stagewithoutengagingthemselvesinstepwiselearningfrombelow.Buthowcantheiraspirationtoreachthehigherstageberightatall?'"83
ChuHsifurthercriticizesCh'anBuddhisminthatitsnondualistictranscendenceofallsociomoraldistinctionsbetweenrightandwrong,goodandevil,andsoonturns
everythingupsidedownindailyconductandsituational

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action.SincethispartofChuHsi'scriticismismostcrucialinhisdefenseoftheConfucianWayagainsttheBuddhist,Ihavetranslatedsomeofthemostimportantand
relevantsayingsasfollows:
TheCh'anlaymanP'angYn bn[740808]praised"spiritualpenetrationandwondrousfunctioninginwoodchoppingandwatercarrying."...Butauthenticspiritualpenetration
andwondrousfunctioningliesincarryingthewaterandchoppingthewoodrightly.Ifthewaterisnotcarriedrightlyandthewoodisnotchoppedrightly,thenhowcantheaction
bespirituallypenetratingandwondrouslyfunctioning?WhatCh'anBuddhistscall"thefunctioningisitselfthenature"isjustlikethis.Theynevercareaboutthedistinction
betweenrightandwrong,andonlytakewearingclothing,eatingfood,workingandresting,seeingandhearing,andothermovementsastheWay....Theydon'taskwhether
theseactsormovementsaccordwiththePrincipleoftheWay.Bycontrast,weConfucianistsmustseekthePrincipleoftheWayrightwithintheseactionsormovements.Thereal
Waycanbemanifestedonlyinthismanner.84

WhatCh'anBuddhistsseeisnothingmorethan"amaster"whoisalwaysalert.Astotheactionstakenbythisvery"master,"whichdonotaccordwiththeprinciple,theysimply
don'tcare.Letustaketheexampleoftheheavenlynatureoftherelationshipbetweenfatherandson.Whenthefatherisinsultedbysomeone,hissonshouldcometohelphim.
ButthisisnotwhatCh'anBuddhistswoulddo.Tothem,ifthesonhasthemindofhelpinghisfather,heisattachedtohumanaffectionandhismindbecomesdeluded.Ifthe
"master''iseveralertonlyinthisway,whatkindofPrincipleoftheWaycanbefoundhere?85

ItcannotbesaidthatCh'anBuddhistsdonotseeintoman'snature,butwhentheycometodealwiththefunctioningofthemind,theysaythatwhateverisdoneisjustright.
Therefore,theyabandontheirruleranddeserttheirparentsandthereisnothingtheywon'tdo.Thisisbecausethenatureandthefunctioningtheyspeakofhavenothingtodo
witheachother.86

WeConfucianistsmaintainjustonerealandtruePrincipleoftheWay.BuddhistsalsosaythattheirownPrincipleoftheWayistrueandreal.Theysay,forinstance,"Onlythisis
real,theotherthingsarenottrue."87ButtheyspeakofthePrincipleoftheWayonesidedly.Theyonlyrecognizethehumanmind.Tothem,thereisnoTaomind,norarethere
humankindness,righteousness,propriety,andknowledge,letalonecommiseration,shameanddislike,deference,andright/wrong.Whatwedebatewiththemissimplythis.88

Buddhistssaytothemselvesthattheirmindisshiningandbright.Butwithoutknowingtheaffectionbetweenparentsandchildrenortherighteousnessbetweenrulerand
minister,theirassertionthattheirmindisshiningandbrightonlyinjurestheWay.89ThehumanmindisthemindthatmakesnodistinctionbetweenrightandwrongtheTaomind
isthemindthatmakessuchadistinction.Buddhistscannotbesaidtobedepraved,buttheirproblemisthattheydonothavethemindthatmakesthedistinctionbetweenright
andwrong.90

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TheteachingofourSagetakes"returningtopropriety"astheessential.Ifoneonlyknowshowto"restrainoneself"onetendstofallintoemptyquietudeoftheBuddhist
kind....ThelearningofBuddhismonlyinvolves"restrainingoneself"withoutreferencetothetaskof"returningtopropriety.''Therefore,theirconductoractiondoesnotaccord
withtheMean.Consequently,theymistaketherelationshipbetweenrulerandministerasthatbetweenparentandchildandmistaketherelationshipbetweenparentandchildas
thatbetweenrulerandminister.So,alldistinctionsbecomeconfused....Therefore,whoeverrestrainshimselfmustreturn(restore)hisownpersontowhataccordswiththe
sociomoralstandardorcriterion.Thisisthemeaningof"torestrainoneselfandreturntotheproprietyofjen."91

Wehaveseenpreviouslythat,withrespecttothemethodofpersonalcultivation,ChuHsitosomeextentacknowledgesthatCh'anBuddhistsarequitecapableof
maintainingreverentialonemindednessandreachingthehigherspiritualstagethoughoftenattheexpenseof"righteousnesstosquaretheexternal"and"stepwise
learningfrombelow."Hecontends,however,thattheirfailuretoaccomplishthetaskof"righteousnesstosquaretheexternal"and"stepwiselearningfrombelow"
makestheirreverentialonemindednessandhigherspiritualstagesociomorallymeaningless.Hereagain,withrespecttotheoryofconductandaction,ChuHsialso
acknowledgesthatCh'anBuddhistsdooftenrestrainthemselvesandseeintotheoriginalnature.But,heargues,theyhavefailedtofulfillthesociomoraltaskof
"returningtopropriety,"andtheyhavenotrealizedthehumannecessityoftransformingthe"spiritualpenetratingnessandwondrousfunctioning"oftheirmindinto
sociomoralmanifestationoractualizationoftheprimordial,whichisnoneotherthanjenorthePrincipleofHeaven.Sincetheyhavefailedtodoso,theirselfrestraint
andinsightintothenaturealsoturnouttobesociomorallyworthless.Thus,despitehisoriginalpointthatthedifferencebetweenConfucianismandBuddhismis
fundamentallymetaphysical,therealstrengthofChuHsi'scritiqueofBuddhismratherliesinhiscriticalexpositionofthesociomoralweaknessoftheBuddhist
traditionevenafteritunderwentaradicalsinicizationbyshiftingtheemphasisfrom"trueEmptiness"to"wondrousbeing"ineverydaylife.Inshort,thecentralfocus
ofChuHsi'scriticismofBuddhismisonthesociomoralissue.
Itseemstome,inthisconnection,thatthegreatestcontributionofChuHsi'sownphilosophydoesnot,asheclaims,lieinmetaphysicsortheoryofmind/nature,but
ratherliesinhisabilitytotackletoConfucianproblemof"situationalweighing"(ch'anbo)oftheconstantmoralstandardorprinciple(chingbp).ChuHsimaynotbe
abletoclaimthephilosophicalsuperiorityofhislich'imetaphysicsandtheoryoftwofoldnatureoverthenondualisticmetaphysical/metapsychologicalviews
respectivelyheldbySiniticMahayana*andtheLuWangSchool.Nonetheless,thegreatstrengthofhismethodofgradualcultivationandparticularlythistheory
throughinaratherincompleteformofconductandaction,whichIwishprovisionallytocall"chingch'an

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situationism,"canbefullyappreciatedifethicallycontrastedwithCh'anBuddhism,theLuWangSchool,oranyotherschoolthattakesa"simpleandeasy"approach
tothesociomoralissues,whichonlybecomemoreandmorecomplicatedinaccordancewithsociohistoricalchanges.ChuHsiiscertainlyentitledtocriticizetheCh'an
Buddhistnondualistictranscendenceofthedistinctionbetweenrightandwronginhumanactionfortheveryreasonthateverydaysociomoralpractice,whichalways
requiresthefulfillmentoftheethicalconditionofsituationalappropriatenessinanydecisionmakingoractiontaking,mustbebasedonacorrectunderstandingofthe
situationaldistinctionbetweenrightandwrong.Tothegreatmajorityofnonsagelyhumanindividuals,establishmentofsuchacorrectunderstandingcannotbea
"simpleandeasy"matterofsuddenselfawakening,whethermoral(LuWang)ortransmoral(Ch'an)itisratheralifelongtaskinvolvingconstantinvestigationof
thingsandgradualextensionof(moral)knowledgeforthesakeofproperlyweighingthesituationalmeaningofthemoralprinciplethatisConfucianjeni,asChuHsi
hasstronglyrecommended.ItisprimarilybecauseChuHsipaysmuchmoreattentionthananyotherNeoConfucianthinkertotheevercomplicatedproblemof
chingch'anineverydaysociomoralpracticetheproblemthatallofusnonsagelyhumansmustdealwithfromtimetotimethatheisabletodevelophisunique
theoryofgraduallearningandcultivation,inordertoresolvetheproblemintheConfucianmanner.
WenowcometoexaminethefinalpartofChuHsi'scriticismofBuddhism,whichconcernstheoryofenlightenmentorsoteriology.LikemanyotherNeo
Confucianists,ChuHsioftenpraisesCh'anBuddhistsveryhighlyfortheirsoteriologicalaccomplishment,thattheycanbeevenhappierthanmostNeoConfucianists
becauseoftheirabilitytoovercomesecularworriesandattachmentsaswellastotranscendthedualityoflifeanddeath,manandtheworld,andsoon.ChuHsisays,
"LookatthoseCh'anBuddhists.AlthoughtheyhavenoPrincipleoftheWay,theyhavewhattheywantandrejoiceinitthroughouttheirlife.Thisisbecausetheyare
abletorealizewhatismetaphysicallyprimordialwithinphenomenalforms."92ChuHsiseemstoadmit,atleastinthisplace,thatinsofarasmetaphysicalthinkingis
concerned,SiniticMahayanists*canreachtheirownconclusionandlivehappilyonthisconclusion.Soteriologicallyspeaking,thereisnoguaranteethatNeo
ConfucianistscanbeashappyasCh'anBuddhistsaresimplybecausetheyknowtheConfucianPrincipleoftheWay.ChuHsisometimeslamentedthatmany
Confucianscholarsandstudentswereoftenluredbymaterialgainsorseculartitlesandfailedtorecovertheiroriginalmindornature,insharpcontrasttothoseCh'an
fellowswhoattainedBuddhistenlightenment.ChuHsisays,"ManyofourNeoConfucianoldtimershavebeenbenefitedbystudiesofCh'anBuddhism,andremain
unchangedduringthemostdifficultperiodsoftheirlife.ThisisbecausetheCh'anBuddhistwayofbraveryandvigor,purityandsteadfastness,canhelpmanremain
stoicallycontentandindiffer

Page401
93

ent,withoutbeingtemptedandcontrolledbyexternalthings." ButChuHsiinsiststhatanauthenticfolloweroftheConfucianWayshouldneverbeenviousofthe
soteriologicalachievementofCh'anBuddhism,fortheConfucianultimateconcernandcommitmentisessentiallydifferentfromtheBuddhist.
Firstofall,whileBuddhisthappinessliesintransmoralwhichisinfactamoralorevenimmoralfromtheConfucianpointofviewliberationofthemindfromwhatis
calledthedustyworld,Confucianhappinessconsistsinthesuperiorman'sgradualrealizationofthePrincipleofHeavenbyconscientiouslyfulfillinghissociomoral
dutiesasamatterofheavenlyassignmentormoraldestiny.Man'severydaypracticeofjenishouldnaturallyleadtosupremehappinessintheConfuciansense.Or,to
makethepointmorestrongly,man'severydaysociomoralpractice(fortheeventualrealizationofthewayofinnersagehoodandouterkingship)andsupreme
happinessoflifeareoneandthesamething.
AccordingtoChuHsi,theessentialdifferencebetweenConfucianismandBuddhismintermsofultimateconcernandcommitmentcanbesummedupthus:
"ConfucianismisultimatelyconcernedwithhumanaffairswhileBuddhismisultimatelyconcernedwiththeproblemoflifeanddeath."94Theformerisexistentially
committedtotheconstantmoralperfectingofmanandsociety,whereasthelatteriscommittedtohumanconquestoftransiencyanddeath.ChuHsicriticallycontrasts
theConfucianandBuddhistviewsoflifeanddeathasfollows:
ThecreativetransformationofHeavenandEarthislikenedtoagreatfurnace,inwhichhumanandnonhumanbeingsneverceasetogrowandregrow.Thispointstotheprinciple
ofreality,andweneednotworryaboutthecessationofthiscreativetransformation.Now,Buddhistsseeitasavast,vacuous,andquietthing,andmistakethe"awarenessor
consciousness"posteriortothedeathofhumanandnonhumanbeingstobetheprincipleofreality.Isn'tthiswrong?Now,whatourConfuciansagesandworthiescall"togo
backinfulfillmentanddieinpeace"isnoneotherthannottomissthePrincipleofHeavenmanhasreceived,sothathecandiewithoutanyregretorshame.Thisdoesnotmean
thatthereisonerealthing"spiritualconsciousness''whichcanbepreservedandheldonafterman'sdeathsothatwhatBuddhistscall"theimperishable"canresideateaseina
darkandemptyplace.OurConfucianWaythat"whetheronediesyoungoroldmakenodifference"andthat"onecultivatesone'spersonallifesoastoawaittheMandateof
Heaven"95isspontaneouslynatural,andshouldnotbeconfusedwiththeheterodoxwaythatfocusesonlyon"thegreatmatteroflifeanddeathwhichistransitoryandruns
fast."96

AlthoughheiswrongabouttheBuddhistapproachtotheproblemofimmortality("spiritualconsciousness")inthispassage,asIhavepointedoutpreviously,ChuHsi's
criticismofBuddhismasunnecessarilyoverconcernedwithman'sspiritualconquestofthecycleoflifeanddeathdeservesouratten

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tion,forhiscriticismhereisconsistentwithConfucius'pointthatmanshouldbeconcernedwithhowtodealwithhumanliferatherthanbeworriedaboutwhattodo
aboutdeath.97ChuHsimaynotbeabletodemonstratethesoteriologicalsuperiorityoftheConfucianWayovertheBuddhistWay,buthehasatleastsucceededin
criticallyexposingtheescapisttendencyinandselfishmotivebehindmost,ifnotall,Buddhists'onesided(transmoral)conquestofdeathandattainmentofpersonal
happinessandpeace.ChuHsisays,"TheshortcomingofBuddhismliesinitsselfishaversion....Itsshortcomingliesinitsindifferenceandaversiontothisworldly
mattersanditsintentiontoemptythemcompletely."98Healsosays,"Whatiscalled'nature'isthePrincipleofHeavenandEarth'sproducingthings,asexpressedby
wordslike'theMandateofHeavenissolemnlyunceasing'or'Greatindeedistheevercreative,primordialsource,wherefromallthingsareproduced.'99...Howcan
itbeselfishlyownedbyoneself?...Buddhistswanttoemptytheirdeludedmindinordertoseeintotheirtruenature.Iamafraidtheywillonlylosethetruenature
afterdeath.Isn'ttheirintentionegoisticandselfinterested?"100AlthoughnoCh'anBuddhistwouldeversaythathisattainmentofenlightenmentmeanspreservationof
hisown"truenature"afterdeathforthisisratherChuHsi'smisunderstandingitisnotthateasyforhimtosaythatthereisnottheslightestegoisticmotiveinvolved
inhispersonalaversiontoeverydayhumanaffairs.BuddhismmaybeabletocontinuetoviewithConfucianismforsoteriologicalsupremacyitmayalsobeableto
continuetochallengeConfucianisminmetaphysicalthinkingandtheoryofmind/nature.Butitstransmoralattainmentofenlightenmenttendstoneglecteveryday
sociomoralpractice,gradationallybeginningwithfamilialloveandendingwithloveforallmankind.ItisinthissensethatChuHsi'sNeoConfuciancounterchallenge
toSiniticMahayana*Buddhism,primarilyintermsofsociomoralpracticeandultimateconcern/commitment,hasyettobemetbyBuddhistthinkersandscholars.
Toconclude,IwouldliketorepeatwhatIstatedattheendofthepaper"MoralityorBeyond,"whichappearedeightyearsago:
ItseemstomethatMahayanaBuddhistsshouldlearnagoodlessonfromthechallengeofNeoConfucianismandengageinanecessaryandurgentinquiryintothemoral
dimensionoftheirowntradition,byshiftingtheirtraditionalemphasisontranscendentaltruthtoanewemphasisonworldlytruthintermsofeverydaysociomoralpractice.This
shiftofemphasisisnotanimpossibletask,ifMahayanaBuddhistshaveaperfectunderstandingoftheprincipleoftheMiddleWayaswellasoftherealmeaningofthetwofold
truthintheirtradition.Inthepast,theytendedtoregardmorality(sila*)asprimarilyameans,discipline,orprerequisitetowardtheultimategoal.Itisnowtimeforthemtodevelop
anewandmodernphilosophyoftheMiddleWaybyplacingequalemphasisonmoralityaswellasonwisdom(prajna*)andmeditation(dhyana*).Further,anewmoralwine
shouldbeputintotheancientbottlefullofkaruna*(universalcompassion).ButitremainstobeseenwhetherMahayanaBuddhistscanworkoutinthis

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101

modernageanethicalsystemtotacklemost,ifnotall,humanandsecularproblemstheyencounterineverydaylife.

Notes
1.SeePhilosophyEastandWest,vol.23,no.3(July1973),p.375.
2.ChuHsi'swritingandrecordedsayingsonBuddhismcanbefoundinnumerousplacesintheChuTzuyleibq[ClassifiedconversationsofMasterChu].Among
themostimportantprimarysourcesjusttociteafewarehiscommentsonBuddhismintheChutzuylei,chan126hislettertoWuTounanbrinChuTzu
wenchibs[CollectedliteraryworksofMasterChu],(SPPYed.),entitledChuTzutach'anbt[CompletecollectionofMasterChu],(Taipei:ChunghuabuBook
Co.)59:22affandhislettertoCh'enWeitaobvinChuTzuwenchi,59:27aff.AmongthemostnotablesecondarysourcesinChineseandJapaneselanguagesare
TokiwaDaijo*,bwShinaniokerubukkyo*tojukyo*dokyo*bx[BuddhisminrelationtoConfucianismandTaoisminChina],(Tokyo:Toyo*Bunko*,by1930)
ArakiKengo,Bukkyo*tojukyobz[BuddhismandConfucianism],(Kyoto:HeirakujiShoten,ca1963)andCh'ienMu,ChuTzuhsinhsehancb[AnewstudyinChu
Hsi],(Taipei:SanminccBookCo.,1971),Bk.III.
3.Tomypresentknowledge,noneoftheNeoConfucianthinkershadeverstudiedBuddhismasawhole.ChuHsiwasatleastabletostudyagreatnumberofCh'an
texts,inadditiontosomeofthemostimportantMahayana*Buddhistwritings.ButasProfessorTokiwacriticallyremarks,ChuHsioftenmisunderstoodordistorted
themeaningsofmanyofthoseBuddhisttextshehadstudied.SeeTokiwa'sbook(mentionedinn.2),pp.374378.ChuHsiwasquitefamiliarwithHuayenand
Ch'anteachings,buthisknowledgeofSiniticMahayanaletaloneBuddhismasawholebeyondthesetwoschoolswasquitepoor.
4.SeeCh'ienMu,ChuTzuhsinhsehan,Bk.III,pp.489490,510,552,and555.ItisimportanttonotethatChuHsi'sChinssulucd[Reflectionsonthingsat
hand]hasonespecialchapter(13)on"SiftingtheHeterodoxDoctrines,"inWingtsitChan,trans.,ReflectionsonThingsatHand(NewYork:ColumbiaUniversity
Press,1967),pp.279288.
5.SeeCh'ienMu,ChuTzuhsinhsehan,Bk.III,pp.509,and552.
6.Ibid.,p.490.Ch'ien'swordsthat"ChuHsihasaveryclearandtrueunderstandingofCh'an"seemtobeanoverstatement.
7.ChuTzuwenchi,38:34a.
8.Ch'ienMu,ChuTzuhsinhsehan,Bk.III,p.1.
9.Ibid.,p.2.
10.Ibid.,p.23.
11.ChuTzuwenchi,1:8b.SeealsoCh'ienMu,ChuTzuhsinhsehan,Bk.III,p.7.
12.ChuTzuwenchi,2:2a.SeealsoCh'ienMu,ChuTzuhsinhsehan,Bk.III,p.19.
13.MouTsungsan,Hsint'iyhsingt'ice[Thesubstanceofmindandthesubstanceofnature],(Taipei:ChengchungcfBookCo.,1969),Bk.III,chs.2(sec.16),
3(sec.14),and4(sec.14.)
14.Asweshallsee,ChuHsioftenfailstodistinguishIndianBuddhismfromChineseBuddhism,and,inparticular,IndianMahayanafromSiniticMahayana.Whenhe
mentionsBuddhism,itsometimesreferstoBuddhismingeneral,sometimesto

Page404

SiniticMahayana*,andsometimestoCh'anBuddhismonly.Butheisprobablyunawareofthenecessitytoclarifyorspecifythemeaningoftheterm"Buddhism."
15.ArakiKengo,Bukkyo*tojukyo*,p.255.
16.Ibid.,p.256.
17.ItisawellknownfactthatChuHsioftenidentified,rightlyorwrongly,LuHsiangshan'smindlearningwithCh'anBuddhism.
18.ChuTzuylei(Taipei:ChengchungBookCo.1970,2nded.),126:28b,p.4872.
19.Ibid.,124:7bp.4766.
20.Ibid.,113:11b,p.4380.
21.ThefamouslineappearsintheClassicofPoetry,odeno.192,andintheDoctrineoftheMean,ch.33.Confucius'wordsappearinAnalects,9:16.
22.Ibid.,62:16a,p.2377.
23.WingtsitChan,"NeoConfucianPhilosophicalPoems,"Renditions(CenterforTranslationProjects,TheChineseUniversityofHongKong),no.4(Spring,
1975),p.12.
24.ChuTzuylei,126:5b,p.4826.
25.Ibid.
26.ChangTzuch'anshucg[CompleteworksofMasterChang],(SPPYed.),2:2a.
27.Ibid.,2:2b.
28.ChuTzuylei,126:8a,p.4831.
29.Ibid.,126:5b,p.4826.
30.Ishuch[survivingworks],218:1b,intheErhCh'engch'anshuci[CompleteworksoftheCh'engbrothers],(SPPYed.).
31.SeeChitsang,Sanlunhsanicj[TheprofoundmeaningoftheThreeTreatisesPhilosophy],Daizokyo*,ckno.1852(col.45,p.1).
32.LaoTzu,ch.1.
33.EdwardConze,trans.,BuddhistWisdomBooks(London:GeorgeAllen&Unwin,1958),p.68.
34.IhavetriedtocharacterizeChinesemetaphysicsingeneralasholisticmultiperspectivisminthefuntionalforminthefollowingpapers:"CreativeHermeneutics:
TaoistMetaphysicsandHeidegger,"JournalofChinesePhilosophy3(1976),pp.115143"TheTransOntoTheoLogicalFoundationsofLanguagein
HeideggerandTaoism,"JournalofChinesePhilosophy5(1978),pp.301333"TheUnderlyingStructureofMetaphysicalLanguage:ACaseExaminationof
ChinesePhilosophyandWhitehead,"JournalofChinesePhilosophy6(1979),pp.339366"HeideggerandZenclonBeingandNothingness:ACriticalEssayin
TransmetaphysicalDialectics,"inNathanKatz,ed.,BuddhistandWesternPhilosophy(NewDelhi:SterlingPublishers,1981),pp.172201and"Chinese
BuddhismasaExistentialPhenomenology,''inAnnaTeresaTymieniecka,ed.,AnalectaHusserliana(inpress).
35.ThefourDharmarealmsrefertothefourfoldof"theDharmarealmofphenomena(events,oraffairs),""TheDharmarealmofPrinciple(whichisEmptiness),"
"theDharmarealmofthenonobstructedinterpenetrationofPrincipleandphenomena,"and"theDharmarealmofthenonobstructedinterpenetrationofphenomena
andphenomena,"thesefourmultiperspectivallyconstitutingthetrue,selfsameDharmarealm.
36.ChuTzuylei,126:6a,p.4827.
37.Tathagatagarbha*(thewombormatrixofTathagata*)isafunctionalterm,which

Page405

isemployedtoexpressthedynamicworkingofBuddhanatureinherentineachandeverysentientbeingastheseedorpotentialforultimateenlightenment.Thus,
"thewombofTathagata*"TathagatabeinganhonorifictitleoftheBuddhameaning"thuscomeorthusgoneenlightened"givesusametapsychological
explanationofwhyandhowallsentientbeingscanattainenlightenmentorbuddhahoodatleastinprinciple.
38.SeeShangts'aiylucm[RecordedsayingsofHsiehLiangtso],comp.byChuHsi(Taipei:KuangwencnBookCo.,1972),2:11b,p.64.
39.KaoTzu'snaturalisticthesiscanbefoundintheBookofMencius,6B:16.SeealsoWingtsitChan,ASourceBookinChinesePhilosophy(Princeton,N.J.:
PrincetonUniversityPress,1963),pp.5153.
40.ChuTzuylei,126:11b,p.4838.TheTreatiseonBuddhism[Shihshihlun]isintheChuTzuwenchi,extracollection,ch.8.
41.ForMencius'teachingofhumankindness(humanity),righteousness,propriety,and(moral)knowledge,whichChuHsireinterpretsasthefourfoldmoralprinciple
manifestingthePrincipleofHeaven,seeWingtsitChan,SourceBook,p.65.
42.Ch'ienMu,ChuTzuhsinhsehan,Bk.III,p.498.
43.ChuTzuylei,126:13a,p.4841.
44.Ibid.,126:13b,p.4842ff.
45.Ibid.,126:8a,p.4831.
46.TheBookofMencius,7A:4.SeealsoWingtsitChan,SourceBook,p.79.
47.ChuTzuylei,12:6ab,pp.327328.
48.Ibid.,126:8a,p.4831.
49.Ch'ienMu,ChuTzuhsinhsehan,Bk.III,p.495.
50.ChuTzuwenchi,42:4ab.
51.ChuTzuylei,55:1b,p.2076.
52.Ch'uanhsiluco[Instructionforpracticalliving],pt.3,sec.315.SeealsoWingtsitChan,InstructionsforPracticalLiving(NewYork:ColumbiaUniversity
Press,1963),p.139.
53.Mytranslation.SeealsoPhilipB.Yampolsky,trans.,ThePlatformSutraoftheSixthPatriarch(NewYork:ColumbiaUniversityPress,1967),p.139.
54.ChuTzuylei,126:28a,p.4871.
55.Fortheoriginofthemethod,seethesecondhexagram(earth),theBookofChanges.SeealsoWingtsitChan,SourceBook,p.264.
56.ChuTzuylei,44:20b,p.1812.
57.Ibid.,126:18a,p.4851.SeealsoIshu,13:1b.
58.ChuTzuylei,15:17a,p.483.
59.ChuTzuwenchi,39:17b.
60.SeeIshu,18:5b.
61.ChuTzuylei,126:8b,p.4832.
62.Ibid.,113:4a,p.4365.
63.Ibid.,125:4b,p.4792.
64.Ch'ienMu,ChuTzuhsinhsehan,Bk.III,p.553.
65.ChuTzuylei,126:15b,p.4846.
66.Ibid.,126:7b,p.4830.
67.ChuTzuwenchi,72:31band72:32b.
68.Ibid.,72:43ab.
69.Ibid.,43:12a.

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70.Thewords"Thewholestreetisfullofsages"appearinWangYangming'sInstructionsforPracticalLiving,pt.3,sec.313.SeeWingtsitChan,trans.,the
sametitle,p.239."TheteaboyhimselfistheWay"[''theWay"requotedbyCh'ienMuhereas"asage"]appearsinLoChinhsiylucp[RecordedsayingsofLo
Chinhsi,15151588),(Taipei:KuangwenBookCo.,1967),1:48b.
71.Ch'ienMu,ChuTzuhsinhsehan,Bk.III,p.521.
72.Analects,2:4.
73.ChuTzuylei,126:6b,p.4828.
74.FortherespectiveteachingsofYangChuandITzu,seetheBookofMencius,3A:5and3B:9,inWingtsitChan,SourceBook,pp.7172.
75.ChuTzuylei,52:34b,p.2018.
76.Ibid.,126:21b,p.4858.
77.SeetheBookofMencius,4A:27.
78.Analects,1:2.
79.SeeCh'engI'sprefacetohisIchuancq[CommentariesontheBookofChanges].
80.ChuTzuwenchi,43:9a.
81.ChuTzuylei,126:7a,p.4829.
82.Ibid.,126:24a,p.4863.
83.Ibid.,126:18a,p.4851.ThequotationfromCh'engHaoappearsintheIshu,13:1b.
84.Ibid.,62:15b16a,pp.23762377.
85.Ibid.,126:11a,p.4837.
86.Ibid.,126:28a,p.4871.
87.ThisexpressionappearsintheFahuachingcr[Lotusscripture].SeeDaizokyo*,no.262(vol.9,p.8).
88.ChuTzuylei,126:14a,p.4843.
89.Ibid.,12:9a,p.333.
90.Ibid.,12:18a,p.351.
91.Ibid.,41:3b4b,pp.16661668.Thewords"torestrainoneselfandreturntoproprietyisjen"appearintheAnalects,12:1.
92.Ibid.,62:16a,p.2377.
93.Ibid.,132:17b.
94.ChuTzuwenchi,43:11a.
95.ThesetwoquotationsarefromtheBookofMencius,7A:1.
96.ChuTzuwenchi,45:20ab.
97.SeeAnalects,11:11.
98.ChuTzuylei,126:5b,p.4826.
99.ThesetwoquotationsarerespectivelyfromtheClassicofPoetry,odeno.267,andtheBookofChanges,firsthexagram(heaven).
100.ChuTzuwenchi,43:10a.
101.PhilosophyEastandWest,vol.23,no.3(July1973),p.395.Oneortwowordsareslightlychangedhere.Transcendental(orhigher)truthandworldly(or
conventional)truthconstitutethetwoinseparableaspectsoftheMadhyamika*teachingoftwofoldtruth,whichphilosophicallyexpressestheMiddleWay.

Page407

Glossary

Page408

23
ChuHsiandHisWorld
BrianMcKnight
ChuHsiwasamanofideas,athinker.Assuchhisclosesttieswereoftenwithmenlongdead.Evenwhenhedealtwithhiscontemporariesmuchofhisdiscourse
concernedideas.OnthisintellectualsideofChuHsi,andindeedonmostotherfacetsofhislife,Iamillqualifiedtocommentbeforesuchadistinguishedgatheringof
intellectualhistorians.WhatIwilltrytodoismoremodest,tosharesomeoftheresultsofrecentworkonotherfacetsofthehistoryofhistimeseconomic,social,
andpoliticalsothatitmaybepossibletoexploresomeofthewaysinwhichChuHsiexemplifiedthetrendsofhistimesandotherwaysinwhichhewasatypical.
Perhapsthefirstthingtobesaidabouthislifetimeisthatitwasatimeofpeacethatwashauntedbywar.War,andmoreparticularlytheoccupationoftheoldChinese
heartlandbyforeignpeoples,laylikeashadowacrosstheSouthernSung(11271279).ChuHsiwasbornintoatimeoftroubles.Onlyafewmonthsbeforehisbirth
intheninthmonthof1130,thefugitiveSung(9601279)courthadbeendriventotheseacoastinWenchouainLiangcheb,1whiletheenemyravagedtherich
prefecturesonlyafewhundredli2tothenorthwest.3Whenhediedin1200thecloudsofwarweregathering,createdbythefoolishirridentismofHanT'ochoud
(11511202).Andinhismiddleyears,immediatelyfollowinghisdecisivebreakwithBuddhism,ChuwasdeeplyinvolvedinthedebatesurroundingtheChin(1115
1234)invasionof1161.Hispassionatelyarguedviewsofthissituationareoneclearreminderofhisinvolvementintheissuesoftheday.
Andyet,althoughChuHsi'slifewaspunctuatedbyconflictswiththeChin,andalthoughhearguedhispositiononwarwiththenorthatvarioustimesduringhisadult
life,theyearsofhislifewerebasicallyanageofpeace.BythetimehepassedfromboyhoodtoadolescencetheborderwiththeChinhadstabilized.Hedidnotliveto
seetheSunginvadethenorthintheearlythirteenthcentury.Onlytheinvasionof11611164marredalargelytranquilera.
Theagewaspeaceful,butthetroublesofthelateNorthernSung(9601126),andtheinvasionthatdestroyedit,helpedshapetheconditionsofhis

Page409

lifetime.Asworkrecentlydonemakesclear,therewasawidespreadchangeinvaluesandpracticeamongtheChineseeliteintheaftermathofthepartisanpolitical
strugglesofthelateNorthernSung.Socialvalues,educationalpractices,attitudestowardspolitics,andeconomicrelationswereallaffectedbythesechanges.Chu
Hsi'slifespansthefloweringofthenewtrendsandisillustrativeofsomeofthem.
Beforedealingspecificallywiththesechanges,however,itmaybeusefultoreviewbrieflytheeconomicandpoliticalconditionsoftheyears1130to1200.
Economicallythisperiodisconsideredaneraofgrowth,buttheratesofgrowthandotherindicatorsofeconomicconditionsvariedfromregiontoregionandover
time.TheovershadowingeconomicinfluenceoftheearlyyearsofChu'slifewastheconflictwiththeChin.Oneimmediateeffectofthewarfarewasasharpdecrease
inthesupplyofcoinage.Governmentissuesofcoinagefelloffsharply.Thedesperategovernmentrespondedbyissuingbillsofexchangedesignedtoassuredelivery
ofrationstothetroopsand,insomeareas,byissuingpapermoney.Inbothinstancesthefailuretobacktheissuesadequatelyledtorapiddeclinesinvalue.The
resultantriseincommoditypriceswasperhapsespeciallysevereinSzechuan.Inotherareasofthecountrythisriseinpricescontinuedonlyuntilaround1140,after
whichcommoditypricesbegantodecline.
Waragaindisruptedthemonetarysysteminthe1160s,whentheChininvasionof1161withitsattendanthighmilitarycostsledforthefirsttimetothewidespreaduse
ofpapermoneyintheeconomicheartlandoftheSungempire.Papermoneyhadlongbeeninuseincertainpartsoftheempire,butitwastheeventsof1161thatled
directlytothegrowthofitsuseinthewholeoftheSungstate.Insufficientlybacked,thepapernotesdepreciated.Thedepreciationinturndrovecoinsoutof
circulation,eitherthroughtheirbeingmelteddownfortheiringredientsortheirbeingexportedtotheChinstateortoJapan.Theresultwasagradualriseincommodity
pricesfortheremainderofthecentury.4
Thesemonetarychangesstemmedfromfiscalemergencymeasuresforcedonthestatebymilitaryexpenditures.Thegovernmentwaswellawareofthedangersof
resortingtotheuseoftheprintingpressandthoughitwasdriventocheapenitsmoneyasanemergencymeasure,thelongerrangesearchforfiscalstabilityrestedon
atleastthreebasesacontinuingdependenceonthelandtax(whichbroughtwithitsomeattemptstoreassesslandholdingsandtoreallocatefiscalresponsibilities),
anincreaseddependenceonthesaltmonopoly,andtheencouragementofforeigntrade.
SaltmonopolyincomeplayedamajorroleinSouthernSungfinances.In1160thestatederivedanincomeofmorethan20,000,000stringsofcashfromsalt,and
althoughthiswasslightlysmallerthantheannualincomeforsaltduringtheperiod10771079,itstillrepresentedonethirdofthestate'scashincome.Thisincome
continuedtoincreaseinthefollowingperiod.5
EncouragingforeigntradehadbeenaSungpolicyfromthebeginningof

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thedynasty,butittookonaddedimportanceundertheconditionsofthe1130s.ThegovernmentrespondedbyissuingmonkcertificatestotheMaritimeTrade
CommissionstobeusedascapitalinforeigntradeandbyestablishingnewMaritimeTradingCommissions,atWenchouin1131,atChiangyinein1146,andat
Sungchiangin11631164.Thestatewasalsoactiveinprovidingcommercialfacilities,and,throughshipregistration,regularantipiracypatrols,andperiodic
campaignsagainstpiratestrongholds,increatingconditionsconducivetolargescaletrade.6
IncomefromforeigntradeformedasmallifimportantpartofoverallrevenuesduringtheSouthernSungthelandtaxesweretherealkeytofiscalstability.Intryingto
assureasteadyincomefromsuchtaxestheSouthernSungauthoritiesattimesattemptedtohavelandholdingsreassessed.Theintenttoreassesswasexpressedinthe
openingyearsoftheSouthernSung,butnoseriousactionwastakenforalmosttwodecades.Then,intheearly1140sLiCh'unnienproposedasurveyingscheme
called"regulatingboundaries"(chingchiehf).Thepolicywasadoptedandremainedatleastnominallyinforceforeightyears,despitelocalresistance.Asomewhat
similarschemewasenforcedinFukienduringthereignofHsiaotsungg(r.11631189).7
Thestatesoughtinotherwaystobolsteritsincomefromlandtaxesandothersources.Thiswasanerawhentherewasanattempttoreducethefiscalprivilegesof
variousgroups,includingBuddhistsandTaoists,thehouseholdsofofficials,andsomepeoplewhoweredisadvantagedsuchashouseholdsheadedbywomen.8Itis
apparent,however,thatthestatewasonlyverypartiallysuccessfulinincreasingtheefficiencyofrevenuecollection.Inanattempttomakecollectionmoreeffectivethe
state,inthekeyeconomicareasoftheempire,placedbothtaxcollectionandpolicingpowersinthehandsofthesamevillageofficers,whoservedconcurrentlyintwo
differentposts.9Thatgrossundercollectionpersistedissuggestedbythehugeamountsofnewincomegeneratedinsomeareasunderthe"PublicFields"schemeofthe
closingdecadesoftheSung,andthegreatincreaseatthattimein"harmoniouspurchases,"thatis,compulsorypurchaseatpricessetbythegovernment.10Obviouslya
greatdealofland,atleastinsomeregions,hadremainedoffthetaxrolls.
Inpartthiswidespreadevasionreflectedchangesinsocialstructureandsocialattitudesthatfollowedthepartisaninfightingofthereformandantireformmovements
ofthelateNorthernSung,andinpartitreflectedmoreimmediatechangesinpatternsoflandownershipandlandutilizationthatresultedfromtheChininvasionsofthe
1120s.IntheyearsjustpriortoandfollowingChuHsi'sbirthin1130awaveofrefugeesfledfromtheoldNorthernSungterritoriesintothesouth.Themajor
destinationwasthelowerYangtzevalleyregion,centeringonHangchowandtherichalluviallandsthatstretchedawaytothenorthandwest.Onepredictableresult
wasajumpinlandprices,particularlyinHangchowbutalsoinotherfavoredareassuchastheregionsurroundingLakeT'ai.hManyoftheemigrswerepowerfuloffi

Page411

cialsormembersoftheimperialclan.Theirconnectionsandpositionputtheminanadvantageouspositiontocompeteforlandedproperty.Theycouldtrywith
varyingdegreesofsuccesstowithholdlandfromregistrationortoevadetaxesinotherways.Anysavingsgainedinthiswaywerethenavailableforfurther
capitalizationintheland,andthisinturnbyraisingtheiryieldsaddedtotheirwealth.
Theeconomicandsocialimpactoftheirleveragedcapitalwasfurtherincreasedbyashiftingovernmentemphasisifnotingovernmentpolicy.DuringtheNorthern
Sungthegovernmentwasoccasionallyquiteactiveinwaterconservancyprojects.AlthoughsucheffortscontinuedintheSouthernSungtheyweredwarfedbythe
effectsofprivatelyfinancedpolder(dikedfield)construction.TheincreasedconstructionofpoldersintheChiangnaniregion11isoneofthestrikingfeaturesof
SouthernSungeconomicdevelopment.Suchconstructionincreasedthevalueoftheenclosedlandsbutaddedtotheproblemsofthosefarmingneighboring
unenclosedlands,sinceinadequatedrainagechannelssharplyincreasedtherisksofflooding.12
Weseeemergingasharperdivisionbetweentherichandpowerful,whowereabletobuildpoldersandimprovetheproductivityoftheirproperties,andthoseleft
outside,whohadtosuffertheconsequences.Oddlyenough,theemergenceofthisgroupoflandlords,oftenabsenteelandlords,didnotnecessarilyleadtotheir
dominationoflocallife.Inthepastsomehistorians,particularlyinJapan,havetendedtovisualizetheselandlordsasexercisingaharsh,evenasocalledfeudal,control
overtheirtenants.Recently,ayounghistoriannamedJosephMcDermotthasgoneovertheevidenceagain.Heconcludesthatthesocialsituationonthelocallevel
wasfarmorecomplicatedthanhaspreviouslybeensupposed,bothintermsofvariationsbetweenregionsandintermsofvarietywithinregions.Moreover,the
evidenceheadducessuggeststhatinareaslikethataroundLakeT'ai,withmanylargelandlords,actualpowertomakedecisionsoftenrestednotwiththelandlordat
allbutwithhisnominalunderlings,oftenhisbailiffsandevenhistenants.McDermottsuggeststhattheSouthernSungcanbeseenasconsistingofatleastsixdifferent
regions,onthebasisofdifferentrelationshipsbetweenlandlordandtenant,thatlandownershipwasfarmorewidelydistributedinsouthChinathansomescholarshave
beenwillingtoadmit,andthattherewasavarietyofdifferentkindsoftenantswithdistinctivepatternsofrelationshipstoandobligationstowardtheirlandlords.13
PerhapsitwouldbemostreasonableifwevisualizedthemajorityofthesouthChinesepeasantryduringtheperiodofChuHsi'slifeasbeingpartownersandpart
tenants,thatistosayaspeoplewhoownedsomeland,butnotenoughtosupporttheirfamilies.Theamountbeyondtheirownpropertynecessarytotheirsupport
theyrentedfromothers,thusbecomingtenants,butnottenantsonlarge"manors"asisoftensupposed.
Inonlyfourregionsisthereevidenceofanysignificantnumberoflandlordswhoownedmorethanseveralhundredmou.14Evenintheseregionsthe

Page412

evidencefortheexistenceofmanors(astheseareusuallyconceived)isambiguousatbest.IntheLakeT'aibasinregionthelargelandholdingsmostlyconsistedof
manytinyplotsscatteredoverseveraldistricts.InFukienmostofthelandisreportedtohavebelongedtoBuddhistmonasteries.Theseinstitutionsseemtohavelost
asmuchashalftheirlandduringthecourseoftheSungthebeneficiarieswereprobablyofficialsandmerchants,butsuchmenrarelyownedmorethanseveralhundred
mou.InwesternChinghukWest15therewerelandlordswholaidclaimtolargecontiguousblocksoflandbutwhocouldnotfindtenantstocultivateit.OnlyforFu
choulinsouthernChiangnanWest16dowefindclearevidenceofacountrysidedominatedbylargecontiguous"manorial"landholdings.
Largecontiguouslanded"manors"wererelativelyraresoapparentlyweretenantserfswhowereboundtotheland.Somescholarshaveassertedthatsuchbondage
wascommoninthesouthernSung,indeedthatsuchbondagewasthenorm.Suchassertionsignoretheexistenceatthistimeoftwodistinctivetypesoftenants,the
landguest(tik'om)andthetenantguest(tienk'on).Thelandguestwaslegallyclassedashismaster'sservant.Thetenantguestwaslegallyclassedashismaster's
tenant,astatusinferiortothemasterbutbynomeanstobeequatedwiththestatusofservant.
Bondagetothelanddidoccur.ItseemstohavebeenmostcommonintheleastdevelopedpartsofsouthChinasuchaKuangnanoWest,17K'ueichou,pChinghu
North,18andChinghuSouth.19Inthemoredevelopedandeconomicallysignificantregionsofthesouth,landbondageseemstohavebeenlesscommon.
Thesepatternsoflandholdingandlandlordtenantrelationshipareimportantforwhattheytellusaboutlocalpoliticalandsociallife.Hereweseetheworkingout,in
theperiodofChuHsi'slifetime,ofpatternsthatderivefromchangesbornultimatelyfromtheimpactofthelateNorthernSungpartisanconflicts.Inhisrecent,asyet
unpublished,workRobertHartwelloftheUniversityofPennsylvaniahassuggestedthatthepartisandebacleofthelateNorthernSungledtoareorientationofthe
politicaleliteintheirattitudestowardsthegovernmentandgovernmentservice.HisthesisisthatpriortotheriseofWangAnshihq(10211086)Sungpoliticsonthe
nationallevelwasdominatedbyagroupoffamiliesclaimingdescentfromfamiliesimportantduringtheT'ang(618907).Thesefamiliestendedtoseekmarriage
bondswithinthisnationwideelitestratumandfocusedtheirambitionsonnationalaffairsandnationalservice.Theeventsoftheperiod10681100,however,
suggestedthatnationalambitionswerechancy.Theoldnationallyorientedelitebegantofocusitshopesandplansmoreontheirhomeregions.Theysoughtmarriage
allianceswithintheirhomeregions,andindeedtendedtopursuecareersingovernmentservicethatwereregionallyorientedandoftenoccurredlargelywithinthe
confinesofoneregion.Insodoingtheywerealteringtheirmarriagepracticestoconformtothosealreadydominantamongthelocalelite.20

Page413

ThesemarriagepracticeswillmakemoresenseifwedismissfromourmindsthepictureoftheChinesefamilythathasbeendrawnbysuchanthropologistsasMaurice
Freedman.AsaresultoftheworkofFreedmanandhisfollowerstheChinesekinshipsystemisdescribedintextbooksasanextremepatrilinealsystem.RobinFox
sumsupthisviewsuccinctlybydescribingthesystemasoneinwhichawoman"onmarriagetransferredfromthelineagevillage...ofherbirth,andthistransferwas
forgood.Asfarasherownlineagewasconcerned,shewaslosttoitcompletelyandshecameundertheabsolutejurisdictionofherhusband'slineage."21Forthe
Sungperiodthisjustwillnotdo.AsPatriciaEbreyhasrecentlyshown,Sungfamiliesremainedinterestedintheirdaughters'livesandroutinelyintervenediftheywere
widowed.22
AsEbreypointsout,themenofSungdidnotdividetheirkinintoagnates(relativesthroughthemaleline),cognates(relativesbybloodonthemother'saide),and
affines(relativesbymarriage).Nordidtheydividetheirkinintobloodrelatives(consanguines)andrelativesbymarriage(affines)asAmericansdo.Ratherthey
thoughtofkineitherasagnates(tsujen,rtsungtsus)orasotherrelatives(ch'inch'itorattimesmorespecificallywaich'iu).
Anexaminationoflegaltextssuggests,accordingtoEbrey,that(1)apersonwasassumedtobeequallytiedtorelativesthroughhismotherandhiswife,(2)hewas
consideredequallyrelatedtorelativesofhissoninlawandhisdaughterinlaw,and(3)hewastiedtothemostnonagnativerelativesthroughhismotherandwife,
nextthroughhisdaughters,considerablylessthroughhissisters,andthenveryminimallythroughanyotherconnection.
InChuHsi'sworldthesewaysofdefiningwhowaskinwerereflectedinconcernformarrieddaughtersandintheestablishingofcontinuingtiesofpotentialsupport
withnonagnatickin.TheinterestinmarrieddaughtersisinturnreflectedintheSungdowrysystem.ThelongdebatebetweenProfessorsNiidaNoboruvandShiga
ShuzowonwhetherornotSungwomeninheritedpropertyisinpartmoot.23ProfessorShuzohasarguedthatwhatunmarriedgirlsreceivedwasnotaninheritance
sharebutadowry,butthesalientpointisthattothemenofChuHsi'sagethisdowrywasthoughtofasatypeofinheritanceshare.Thedowriesareevencalledfen,x
orportions,justasarethesharesofmaleheirs.Womenattimesbroughtlandaspartsoftheirdowriesandhadtherighttokeepcontroloverwhattheybrought.
YanTs'aiy(c.1140c.1190)suggestsonereasonwhythemenofChuHsi'sworldwantedtopasssubstantialamountsofpropertyontotheirdaughters.Property
carriedwithitobligationsofsupport."Nowadays,hesayspeoplesometimeshaveincapablesonsandtheyhavetodependontheirdaughters'familiesforsupport,
eventheirburialsandsacrificesaftertheirdeathsfallingtotheirdaughters.Sohowcanonesaythathavingdaughtersisnotcomparabletohavingsons?"24Evenifitdid
notcometosuchapoint,inthelocallyorientedsocietyoftwelfthcenturyChina,theothersortsofsupportthatmightcomefromrelativesthroughmarriagemightbe
important.

Page414

WithintheregionsthatwerethefocusoftheirmarriagealliancesandoftheirmajorsocialandpoliticalconcerntheelitefamiliesofChuHsi'sagesoughtfirstforthe
preservationoftheirfamilystatusandfortunes.Inpracticethismeantamixedstrategyofdirectingsomesonsintothepathofthecivilserviceexaminationsystembut
othersintocommerceorothermoneymakingactivities.WorkrecentlydonebyRobertHymesattheUniversityofPennsylvania25suggeststhatfamiliesmayhave
directedsomesonsintotheexaminationlifelessintheexpectationthattheymightendupwithachinshihz(doctorateinletters)degreeandanofficethanthatthey
mightearnlesserdegreesthatdidnotleadtocivilserviceappointmentsbutdidbringwiththemacertainscholarlycachet,thusmakingitpossibleforthefamiliesof
theirbearerstointeractonmoreequaltermswithlocalofficials.Hymes'sstudyalsoindicatesthatthisinterlockinggroupoflocallyprominantfamiliesmaywellhave
thoroughlydominatedthehigherlevelsofthecivilservicealso,inthatmostofthechinshihwhosekincanbediscoveredhadsomesortofrelationship,bybloodor
marriage,withdegreeholders.Earlierviews,whichstressedtheopennessofthecivilservicesystemtonewblood,definedasmenwithouttiestothoseinoffice,needs
tobereinterpretedinthelightofHymes'swork.26
Allthishaslittletodowith"virtue"inthephilosophicalsense.PatriciaEbrey,inanimportantbutasyetunpublishedstudywhichcentersonatranslationoftheFamily
PreceptsoftheYanFamilyofYanTs'ai,arguespersuasivelythat,formembersofthelocalelite(shihtafuaa)group,therealissuewasthepreservationofthe
familyfortunes.YanTs'ai,thequintessentialrepresentativeofthisgroup,arguesforhisviewsonthebasisofcommonsense,nottheClassics,andrevealsthebreadth
ofhishumanitybyhisstressontoleratingthefoiblesandattitudesofothers.27Here,asattimeselsewhere,itfitwiththeinterestsofallconcernedtoobscurethe
disparitiesthatexistedbetweentheviewsofdifferentsubgroupswithintheshihtafu.Thegapbetweenthephilosophersandtheordinarymembersofthegroupwas
obscuredbytheuseofacommonvocabulary,whichmeantdifferentthingstothedifferentmembers.
ThusitisnotsurprisingthatweseetheworldChuHsilivedinasonedominatedonthelocallevelbyminorelitefamilieswhowereabletopreservetheireconomic
positionforgenerationaftergenerationbydirectingsomemembersintomoneymakingtasks,andtheirconnectionswiththeofficialworldbydirectingothers(who
periodicallygainedlowerdegreesifnotoffices)intocivilservicecompetition.
LocaleliteleadershipstatusinthetimeofChuHsiwasattestedbythevoluntaryparticipationofelitefamiliesinprojectsofvaluetothecommunity.Inthecasesof
somefamiliesthatrosetoprominencearoundthetimeofChuHsi'sbirth,thefoundationoftheirclaimstoleadershiprestedonmilitaryactivitiesinbehalfoftheSung,
especiallytheorganizingandleadingoflocalmilitiagroupsinthetroubledfirstdecadeoftheSouthernSung.Inmorepeacefultimessuchactsofleadershipweremore
apttotaketheformofthe

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endowingoflocalinstitutions,therepairoflocalfacilities,andtheprovisionofwelfareandreliefintimesofnaturaldisasters.Bridges,waterworks,roads,schools,
communitygranaries,allbenefitedfromthefinancialsupportofthelocalelite.
OfparticularinterestinlightofChuHsi'sattitudesistheinvolvementofthelocaleliteofhislifetimeinthesupportofBuddhist(andtoalesserextentTaoist)institutions.
RobertHymes'sanalysisofthecommunityserviceactionsoftheeliteinFuchou,Chianghsi,throwslightontheirattitudestowardreligionandtowardreligious
institutions.BuddhismseemstohaveflourishedmightilyintheareaduringtheSouthernSung.HymesnotedalmostahundredtemplesinFuchouthatwerebuiltor
rebuilt,receiveddonationsofland,orwereofficiallygrantedtitlesduringtheSung.Heestimatesthatthisisnomorethanhalfthetotalnumber.Whererecordsare
sufficienttoanalyzemorethoroughlytheworkdoneonthesetemples,itappearsthatlocallaysupportwastheruleratherthantheexception,andmanyofthefamilies
namedareknowntohavebeenmembersofthelocaleliteofthearea.28
Attimessuchparticipationmayhavebeenamarkofsocialconsciousnessratherthanpiety,butatothertimesitisclearthebeliefinBuddhismwaswidelyshared.
EvenstoutConfuciansparticipatedinsuchactivities,albeitattimeswithashowofambivalence.TheintertwiningoftheBuddhistclergyandthelocaleliteisreflectedin
otherways:intheuseofBuddhistmonksasmanagersintherepairoflocalfacilities,orintheirbeingthemajorsponsorsoffacilitieslikebridges,andthebuildingby
officialauthoritiesofBuddhistshrinestoblesstheresultsofsuchworks.Hymesquotesafascinatingpassagefromthe1220s,agenerationafterthedeathofChuHsi,
whichshowsthemixtureofreligiousandliteraticoncernsthatmightbeinvolvedinaproject.
Inthesouthernpartofthedistrict(seat)thereisaBuddhisttemple.Thetemplehadapagoda,calledT'aiho,abwhichdirectlyfacedthedistrictschool.Bytraditionithadcometo
becalledtheWritingBrush.Itwasbuiltin1142,butafteronlysixtyeightyearssuddenlycollapsed.Inthefourexaminationsfrom1208ontherewasnotone(fromthisdistrict)
whoachievedthechinshih.People'sheartswerealarmed...theyallsaid:"WemustraiseuptheWritingBrush!"Thereforetheymadeajointpetitionandcametorequestme
(thedistrictadministrator)torestoreittoitsformerstate.IconsequentlydeputedtheprefecturalgraduateHsTehsin,acagentlemanofthedistrict(named)LiuHsieh,adandthe
monksTsunghsin,aeTsungan,afandMiaotuanag(toorganizeit)...Onthetopstonewererecordedthenamesofallthosetopasstheexaminationssincethebeginningofthe
dynasty,andthethousandnamesoftheBuddha.ItwasnamedtheThousandBuddhaPagoda....Workwasbeguninthefallof1222,andinthespring(of1223)ithadjustbeen
completed,whentheSouthernPalaceannouncement[theannouncementofchinshih]includedthenamesofHsMengling,ahT'uHui,aiandWanK'ai,ajallpassingtogether.
Thenpeoplesaid:"HowquicklytheWritingBrushhasresponded!"29

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Theelitemightalsoseektheservicesofmonksortemplesincaringforthetombsoftheirancestors.AttimesthesetemplesmightbecometheprivateMeritCloisters
oftheelitefamilyinvolved.
Finally,Hymesnotesthatthelocalelitealsowasasupplierofrecruitstotheclergy,bothBuddhistandTaoist.WehaveexamplesofConfucianscholars,andeven
chinshihgraduates,whoendedtheirlivesasBuddhistmonks,oftenimportantandpowerfulones.Membersoflocalelitelineagessomeofwhosememberswere
bureaucratsareknowntohavebeenhighBuddhistandTaoistclergy.Inshort,religionplayedanimportantandpervasiveroleinthelifeofSouthernSungChina,
includingthatofthesupposedlyConfucianelite.30
OnethemethatseemstorunthroughmanyofthedescriptionsoftheSouthern(asopposedtotheNorthern)Sungiswhatwemightcalllocalismorlocalconcern,a
deliberateindrawingofthefocusofattention,not,certainly,totheexclusionofnationalmatters,butnonethelesstherewasachangeinthebalanceofconcern.Onthe
microscopiclevelthischangewasreflectedinthealteredmarriagepatternsdescribedabove.Onalevelabovethisthedecentralizationwasreflectedintheemergence
duringChuHsi'slifetimeofwhatmightbecalledprotoprovinces,intheformoffourcommandsystems,centeredonterritorialarmiesandthehinterlandsneededto
supportthem.Thesecommandsystemsgraduallyassumedmanyofthefunctionsofthecentralgovernment.InthecaseofSzechuanthecommandsystemeven
conducteditsowncivilserviceexaminations.Thesystemswereintegratedwiththecentraladministrationbygivingtheirofficialscentralgovernmenttitles,with
commissionsondetachedservicefortheiractualworkintheregion.Althoughthisuseofcommandswasobviouslyinitiallyaresponsetotheexigenciesofthewar
againsttheChinthatwasragingasChuHsiwasborn,itremainedinusebecauseitmadesenseinanempirewhoseeconomicsystemwassocomplexandwhose
populationwassogreatthatwiththecommunicationtechnologyofthetimeclosecentralizedcontrolwasnolongerfeasible.(Thiscomplexityisperhapsbestreflected
inShibaYoshinobu'sakSodai*shogyoshi*kenkyu*.al)31TheNorthernSungcentralgovernmentcareerpattern,ofnationallyorientedcareerswithinspecific
branchesofthebureaucracy(suchasjudicial,fiscal)wasreplacedduringChuHsi'slifetimebyintraregionalcareersinadiversityofbureaucraticbranches.Policywas
adaptedtoregionalproblemsandreflectedtheassertedneedsoflocalinterestgroups.32
Belowthisregionalleveltherewasafurtherdecentralizingchange,theweakeningoftheroleoftheprefecture,whichhadtheeffectofincreasingthealreadyimportant
roleofthedistrictasanadministrativeunit.Thisinturnmadeitpossibleforlocalelitestoinfluenceadministrationsintheirfavor.
Thewar,whichcontributedtotheemergenceofthisnewlocalpattern,alsohelpedcausechangesinthecentraladministration.Thechaosofthelate1120shad
resulted,bythetimeofChuHsi'sbirth,inthelossordestructionofmostgovernmentrecords.Asaresultonlythepersonalcopieskeptbycleri

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calpersonnelwereextantduringtheperiodofrecovery,andtheclerksusedthissituationtoincreasetheircontrolovergovernmentaffairs.Ingeneralthishasbeen
interpretedasabanefulinfluenceonSouthernSungadministration.JamesLiuamhasstronglystatedthegrowthofcorruptionduringtheSouthernSung,andMiyazaki
Ichisadaaninhisearlierwritingsagreed,thoughlateinhislifehecametofeelthatclericalpowerwasinevitableandnotwhollyharmful.33Wecanputthesituationin
perspectiveifwethinkofthe''corruption"oftheclerksasaformofpersonalfavoritismincontrasttoobjectiveimpersonaladministration.Seeninthatlighttheroleof
theclerksmerelymirrorsalargersituation,forduringChuHsi'slifetimeacivilservicepersonnelselectionsystememergedinwhichfavoritism,intheformoftheyinao
(protection)privilege,playedalargerrolethanitdidintheNorthernSung.
TheworksofJohnChafeeandRobertHymessuggestthattheSungcivilservicewasbynomeansanegalitarianandequalizingroadtosocialmobilitythedissertation
recentlycompletedbyRichardDavisofPrincetonmakesastrongcounterargument.Infact,asPatriciaEbreyhaspointedout,theargumentislargelyamatterof
conflictingdefinitions.34Thestatementthatmobilitywaslowiscorrect,ifbymobilityonemeansmovementfromthenonshihtafulevelsofsocietyintothecivil
service.Thestatementthatmobilitywashighiscorrectifbymobilityonemeansmovementfrombeinganondegreeholdingshihtafufamilytodegreeholding.The
patternwhichfitsbothargumentssuggeststhatsuccessfulcandidates,althoughoccasionallydrawnfromnonshihtafufamilies,tendedtocomelargelyfrom
establishedlocalelitefamilies,andthattheselocalelitefamiliestendedtohaveaffinialifnotconsanguinerelativeswhohadcivilservicedegrees.Entrancetothe
examinationsalsoinvolvedsecuringrecommendations,whichagaintendedtotheclosureofthesystem.Thisformofclosurewasitselflargelysufficientduringthe
NorthernSungtomaketheexaminationsystemtherouteintoofficefavoredbytherulingelitefortheiroffspring.Althoughagreatmanyofficialsenteredserviceby
otherroutes,andespeciallythroughprotection,myownanalysissuggeststhatveryfewmencouldhopetoreachpolicymakinglevelsintheadministrationwithoutan
examinationdegree.35
However,byChuHsi'slifetimethespreadofprintingandconsequentlyofliteracy,combinedwiththeNorthernSungprosperityandpopulationgrowth,hadproduced
asituationinwhichcompetitionwithintheexaminationshadbecomeforbiddinglyfierce.Iwouldsuggestthattherulingelite,nolongerabletodependonexamination
successbytheirdescendants,stressedevermoreheavilytheprotectionrouteintooffice,andmoreimportantly,permittedmenwhoenteredinthiswaytoreachat
leastmiddleleveloffices.RichardDaviscitesanumberofexamplesfromtheShihapclanofmenwhoreachedofficesofsomeimportancewithoutdegrees.36
Davisalsoarguesthatuniversityreforms,andsuchinnovationsasthepahsingaq37systemofrecruitmentunderHuitsungar(r.11001125),wereinpartaimedatand
hadtheeffectofopeningthesystemtooutsiders.Hedoes,how

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38

ever,admitthat"schemesintendedtobenefitthehumble...couldbemanipulatedbytheelitetotheirownadvantage." Untilthesereformshavebeenfurtherstudied
itwouldbeprematuretodecideonthemotivesoftheirsponsorsandtheireffectsinpractice.Whatwecansafelysayisthatcompetitionintheexaminationshad
becomeextreme,thattheoddsagainstsuccesshadprobablyincreased,andthatfamilieswithintheelitesocialstratum,boththecivilserviceeliteandthelocalshihta
fuelite,respondedinavarietyofwaystothechangedsituation.Thosealreadyinthecivilservicemightseektomanipulatethesystemtosecuretheirfamiliescontinued
prominence.Thoseexcludedfromthemagiccircleofthebureaucracy,bythenepotismofincumbentsandbytheexcessivecompetitionoftheexaminations,reactedat
timesbyoptingoutofthestruggle.ChuHsiisinseveralwaysakeyfigureinprovidingalegitimizingrationaleforandaninstitutionalbasisforsuchrenunciation.
Intheendthefavoritismreflectedinthesevariouschangestouchedtheimperialclanitself.DuringChuHsi'slifetimetheclanuseditspowertoerectforitselfan
economicbase,particularlyintherichYangtzedeltaarea(asnotedabove).Italsoatthistimebegantoenterthecivilserviceinincreasingnumbers,especiallythrough
theexaminationsystembutalsothroughspecificactsofimperialgrace.39
Oddlyenoughthegeneralpatternofthedecentralizationofpowerwasaccompaniedbyanactualincreaseinthepowerofthechiefministers,whocametohold
controloverbothmilitaryandcivilaffairsintheirhands.40Butthischange,whichrancountertothetrendtowarddecentralization,fittedinperfectlywiththetrend
towardfavoritism.Therewasacontinuingproblemwithattemptsbychiefministerstopacktheupperlevelsofthebureaucracywiththeirprotegs.
WhatwastheplaceofChuHsiinthischangingsocial,political,andeconomiclandscape?Inwhatwayswasherepresentativeofhistimes,andinwhatwaysdidhe
standoutasamaverick?TheidealwaytoanswerthesequestionswouldbetopresentafulllengthportraitofChuHsi,atruebiography.Oddlyenoughnoneseems
evertohavebeenwritten.TheclosestthingtosuchaworkmaybeCh'ienMu'sasChuTzuhsinhsehanat(AnewstudyofChuHsi),buteventhatimpressivework
focusesverylargelyonChuHsi'sideas,totherelativeneglectofhislifeitself.IamnotgoingtoattemptheretheaudacioustaskofdescribingChuHsi'swholelifetime
inthefewpagesavailabletome.RatherIwillfocusononebriefperiodinhislife,centeringontheLunghsingaureignperiod(11631164).ByexaminingChuHsi'slife
duringabriefspanofyears,fromthespringof1162tothespringof1164,wecanseeincameothemanandhisbeliefs.
LiCh'iavhascalledChuHsi"bytemperamentaTaoistrecluse."41Theseyearsshowboththesideofthemanofwhichthisisafittingdescription,andthetraitsand
concernswhichimpelledhimattimestoviolatehisdesirefor

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aw

ax

freedomfrominvolvement.Intheearlyspringof1162hewaslivingquietlyinWufu villageinCh'ungan countyinFukienonthesalaryhereceivedfromasinecure

asthesuperintendentoftheSouthernPeakTemple.42Ashiswritingsofthisperiodshow,hewasdeeplyconcernedaboutthewarthenraginginthenorthbetweenthe
ChinandtheSung,butthishadlittleeffectonthepaceorstyleofhislife.Inlaterspring,aboutthetimewhenthetenureofhissinecureexpired,Chutravelleddown
therivervalleyseveralhundredlitoChienanaycountytovisithisteacherLiYenp'ing(LiTung,az10931163).AftermeetinginChienan,whereLiYenp'ing's
youngestsonLiHsinfubawasregistrar(chupubb),thetwophilosopherstravelledtogetherbacktoLiYenp'ing'shomeinYenp'ingcounty.Theretheyapparently
spentseveralmonthstogether,discussingConfucianismnodoubt,butalsothenationalaffairsofthemoment.ThesemonthsshowChuHsiinarolenotunknownfrom
earliertimesbutmademorecommonbydevelopmentsofthelateNorthernSung,theretiredgentlemanphilosopherwhohasrefusedtoparticipateactivelyinstate
affairs.Bythestyleofhislifehewasalreadyintheprocessoflegitimizingthereclusivealternativetostateservice,whichbecamemoreandmorepopularasentrance
tothecivilservicebecameincreasinglydifficulttoobtain.
Arecluseisnotahermit.WefindChuHsiintheseyearsenjoyingthecompanyofothersbothinprospectandinretrospect.Inonecharmingpreface,whichhewrote
duringthelastmonthof1162fortheworksofhisboyhoodfriendHuangTzuheng,bcherecallsnostalgicallythedaysofhisyouthwhenthetwoyoungsterstraveled
abouttogether,"playedlutesandsangsongs,listeningtooneanother,androamingaboutwithoutcaringifitweremorningorevening."Herecallstheirdiscussing,as
boysoffifteenwilldo,theprofoundproblemsandquestionsoftheirlives.43Moreimmediatelyintheseyearshewasinvolvedwiththechildrenofhisfamily,asa
teacher.
Here,inhisroleasteacher,wefindChuHsiagainverymuchapart,cause,andsymptomofthedevelopmentsofhisworld.Hiserawasoneinwhichthegeneralized
valuesinheritedfromthepast,andenshrinedintheConfucianClassics,wererelatedinincreasinglyproblematicwaystoanexternalworldofgrowingcomplexityand
rapidchange.ThesociologistRobinWilliamshaspointedoutthatonecommonreactionunderthesecircumstancesisfundamentalismthereassertionofbasicvalues
andtheidentificationofthesegeneralizedvalueswiththespecificgoalsofthefundamentalists.44ItwasthefortuneofSouthernSungChinathatthefundamentalistpar
excellenceoftheiragewasalsooneofitsmostbrilliantthinkers.ChuHsi'sfundamentalisticreassertionofConfucianvaluesneedsnospecialcomment,butwecansee
hiscommitmentinaparticularlyrevealinglightifwelookattheworkshefinishedduringthebriefspanoftimeonwhichthispaperfocuses.Itwasintheseyearsthathe
completedhisprimersontheAnalects.InhisprefacetohisLunyyaoibd(essentialmeaningsoftheAnalects),afterabriefresumeofthe

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historyofcommentariesontheAnalects,hespeaksofhisdifficultiesasaboyofthirteenorfourteeningraspingtheideasoftheClassics,andhislatersearchfor
understanding.Then,
intheLunghsingperiodatthetimeofthechangingofthereigntitle,Iwasinseclusion,andhadnopost.WithoneortwolikemindedmenIworkedatthistask.ZealouslyIput
fortheffort.IexpungedotherwritingsthanthoseoftheNorthernSungConfucianscholars[Ch'engI,be10331107andCh'engHao,bf10321085].Andthewritingsof(theCh'eng
brothers')disciplesandfriendsIsupplementedandfixed,andmadeofthemabookIcalledtheLunyyaoi.SinceIamoftheopinionthatifscholarsreadthisbook[theAnalects]
theymustgetadetailed(explanation)ofthemeaningofcharactersandspecialtermsfromcommentariesmany(suchexplanations)offeredincommentariescannotbeneglected
andexpunged.However,insofarastheessentialmeaningof(theAnalects)isconcernedthisbookalmost(offersusacompletepicture).45

HisconcernthatstudentsbeproperlytrainedinthemostbasicworksisreflectedevenmoreclearlyintheprefacehewroteatthistimetohisLunyhsnmeng
k'ouibg(AcatechismontheAnalectsforyoungstudents).
IhadalreadywrittenaprefacetotheLunyyaoiinordertoprovideitforotherstoread.OndayswhenIhadleisureIreadittomychildren.Generallyspeaking,whenthe
variousseniorscholarswrote,theydidnotwriteforchildren.Thereforetheircommentariesarebrief(inphilological)explanationbutdetailedinexpoundingtheessentialmeanings.
WhenbeginningstudentsreadthesentencesoftheClassicstheyarenotabletounderstandthem.Theymustagainreadthecommentaries.Whenaskedaboutthemeaningofthe
worksthestudentsareallconfused.Thiscanhardlybeanappropriatewaytoteachtheyoung.ThereforeIeditedandwrotesoastocompletethiswork.Beingbasedonthe
commentariesmyworkisameanstomasterthemeaningsofthewordsandterms.ByconsultingworkswhichexplainthelanguageusedIhavecorrectedthepronunciations.
ThereafterIbroughtthingstogetherfromthewritingsofthevariousphilosophersinordertomakecleartheessentials(oftheAnalects).Eachsentence'smeaningwasappended
totheoriginalsentence.Eachsection'sintentwassetattheendofthemainsection.AlsoItookthingsthatIhadheardfrommyteachersandfriendsthroughoutmywholelife
andwhichhadbeenofbenefittome,andoccasionallyIaddedoneortwoitems.Thebeginningsandendings,thesubtleandcrude,thelargeandsmall,thedetailedandthe
cursory,becauseofmyoriginalintentioninwritingthebookImerelyaimedatmakingchildren'sstudyoftheAnalectseasier.ThereforeIcalleditthehsnmengk'oui.SinceI
justuseditinourfamilyschoolIdonotdaretomakeitavailabletoothersthanchildren....Thecommentariesandexplanationsofthisbookareclearanddetailed.Ifitisstudied
everydayallwillbecomprehensible.Theexpoundingoftheessentialmeaningofthebookisrefinedandconcise.Intonethemandtheywillallbeunderstandable.Onthosepoints
wehavealreadyunderstoodthoroughly,althoughweknowthem,weoughtstilltostudythem....Beanxiousbutdonotdesiretohurry.Bemethodicalanddonotbelazy.Donot
beledby

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vulgarteachings,andsodesert(Confucianteachings),thinkingthatConfucianteachingsareimpracticalanddull.Donotbebewilderedbyheresies....ThewordsoftheSageare
theepitomeofgreatness,centrality,exhaustiveness,andrectitude.Theycanserveasthestandardfortenthousandgenerations.46

Astheseprefacesmakeclear,ChuHsi'sfaithrestedupontworockstheunquestionedcorrectnessofbasicConfucianvaluesandthefundamentalroleofeducation
ininculcatingthesevaluesintheyoung.TohimConfucianismwasagoodswordandshield.Hewasthechampionofaparticulartradition,usingtraditioninthesense
ofauniverseofsymbolsthatintegrated,explained,andjustifiedcertaininstitutionalarrangementsandthevaluesappropriatetothem.TheChineseworldofhistime
wasabattlefieldbetweenanumberof"traditions,"usingthatwordinthesensegivenabove.Thesharpnessoftheconflictbetweenthesetraditionswasheightenedby
theseverityofexternalnationalproblems,andbytheincreasingcompetitionforcertainhighlydesiredsocialgoods,inparticularaccesstoofficethroughthe
examinations.ItwaspartofChuHsi'sgeniustohaverecognizedthecentral,longrangeroleofeducationasafactorintheseconflictsbetweenalternatetraditions.
ChuHsi'sownfundamentalisticstancewasbotharesponsetotheclashoftraditions(andthesocialgroupsthatwerethebearersofthesetraditions)andananswerto
theconflict.
Alienatedcriticismofthoseinpowerisacommonresponseunderthesecircumstances,butChuHsiwentbeyondthatinprovidingalongtermsolutionembodiedin
institutionalformanewsystemofschooling,newincontentandtosomeextentinform.Itisnotaccidentalthatthemanwhoworkedatrevivingtheschoolsduring
hisfirsttermofofficiallife,asregistrarinT'ungan,bhandwholaterinhislifewastoinitiatetherevival(inanewform)oftheshuyanbi(academy)institution,wasin
theyearsonwhichwearefocusing,developingcurricularmaterialsonveryfundamentalConfuciantexts,bothforolderstudentsandfortheveryyoung.AsLinda
WaltonVargohasshowninastudyoftheriseofshuyaninMingbjprefectureintheSungandYan(12771368),thedevelopmentofeducationalinstitutions
inculcatingNeoConfucianismwasthekeyinstitutionalfeatureintheriseofanorthodoxyduringthelateSung.ThefundamentalistreassertionofConfucianvalues,as
understoodbyChuHsi,wonintheconflictof"traditions"becauseitstruckattheveryrootofculturalcontinuity,thetrainingofscholarsandteacherswhoarethekey
figuresinthetransmissionofculturalvaluesfromonegenerationtothenext.47
ChuHsisoughttoinfluencedevelopmentsintheworldhelivedinwithoutparticipatinginthem.Inthelongrunhisapproachwasenormouslysuccessfulintheshorter
termhewasunabletostayoutoftheflowofevents.Hewasfreetotravelabout,tovisithisteacher,anddiscussatleisurethefinerpointsoftheClassics,butevenin
peacefulFukien,hecouldnotavoidatleastintellectualandemotionalinvolvementinlargeraffairs.

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bk

Intheninthmonthof1161,afewmonthsbeforeourstoryopened,theChinEmperorHailing (r.11491160)invadedSungterritorywithagreatarmydividedinto
twocolumns.48Hailinghimselfledtheeasterncolumn,whichrapidlyoverrananumberofSungprefectures.Thiseasterncolumneventuallydroveallthewaysouthto
theYangtzeRiver.Meanwhile,however,theSungwerescoringaseriesofvictoriesinthefarWest,aidedbytimelydefectionsamongChineseofficersinChinservice.
AndintheChinhomelandacoupwasbrewing.
WhenhehadmovedsouthHailinghadsentagentstomurdersomeofhisrelatives.AmongtheintendedvictimswasWanyenWulu,blagrandsonoftheChin
founderAkutaandabitterenemyofHailing.HishandforcedbyHailing'sassassinationplot,Wulurebelledlittlemorethanamonthafterthebeginningofthe
southerninvasion.Hailing'spreparationsfortheinvasionhadgreatlyburdenedthepeopleinChinterritory,andWuluhadlittletroubleinseizingtheChincapital,
wherehewasproclaimedemperor.Meanwhile,althoughHailingcontinuedtowinvictoriesinthesouth,hefounditimpossibletocrosstheYangtzesuccessfully.His
lastseriouseffortculminatedinthedestructionofhisnavalfleetbytheSungforces.Shortlythereafterhewasmurderedbyhissubordinates.
Thewar,however,draggedon,withtheSungarmiessuccessful,butnotdecisivelyso.TheSungEmperor,Kaotsung,bm(r.11271162)theninhismidfifties,was
findingtheburdenofhisroleincreasinglyirksome.Inthefifthmonthof1162(aboutthetimeChuHsiwasendinghislongvisitwithhisteacher)Kaotsungnamedhis
adoptedsonChaoPots'ungbnheirapparent.AmonthlaterKaotsungabdicated,andtheheirapparent,theEmperorHsiaotsung,ascendedthethrone.Thus,mid
summerof1162foundtheSungwithbothaproblemandanopportunity.Shouldthestateprosecutethewarvigorouslyinhopesnotsimplyofdefeatingtheenemy
invasionsbutperhapswiththepromiseofregainingterritorylosttotheChininthe1120s,orshouldanaccommodationbesought?Thequestionsparkedbitter
debate.ItbroughtChuHsioutofhisselfimposedseclusionandintothethickofthedispute.
ChuHsihadbythistimelefthisteacherandreturnedtohishome.But,aswastheirhabit,thetwomencontinuedtocorrespond,writinglettersalmostmonthly.The
secondletteroftheseriesthatbeganafterChuHsi'sreturnhomewaswrittenontheverydaywhen,somehundredsoflitothenorth,thenewlyenthronedemperor
Hsiaotsungwasissuingacallfor"frankwords"onproblemsofstate.Twomonthslater,inamemorialdatedeighthmonth,seventhday(September17,1162),Chu
responded.Hewasnewlywithoutapost,thetermofhissinecureassuperintendentofaTaoisttemplehavingbeencompletedinthefifthmonth,buthespokeoutin
nouncertaintermsonstatetroublesandtheirsolutions.HisdeepestconcernwasabouttheChinenemy.TheChinhadoccupied"territorywhichwasoursofold,even
thoughthroughmisfortunewelostit."Tonegotiateforthelostterritoriesfromaposi

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tionofweaknesswouldbebothshamefulandstupid.Because"theSungisnotablethroughitsownstrengthtorecovertheancestrallands,itthinksofbeggingfortheir
returnfromtheenemysoastoestablishourstate.UnworthythoughIamIhumblythinkyourmajestywouldbeashamedtodothis."Suchanapproachwouldbe
stupidbecause,evenifbysomefluketheChinagreedandreturnedthelostlands,aweakSungstatewouldbeincapableofholdingontothem.Onthecontrary,a
Sungstatestrongandvirtuousenoughtoseizethedisputedterritorybyforcewouldfindthelandsreturningtothemnaturally,andwouldhavenodifficultyinholdingon
tothem.TheSungpolicyofnegotiatingwhilehostilitiescontinueistheworstpossiblesolution.ItnecessarilyleavesChinesecouncilsdividedbetweenadvocatesof
peaceandadvocatesofwar,confusesthosenotfullycommittedtoeitherpolicy,andenormouslystrengthensthehandoftheenemybothonthebattlefieldandatthe
conferencetable.Thepropersolution,accordingtoChu,wasneitherwaratallcostsnorpeaceatanyprice.Ratheritwasacoldwar.RecalltheSungenvoys,he
advised.ShuttheSungborders.Concentrateoninternalreformandmilitarypreparations.SuchapolicywouldheartenthepeopleofSung,"officersandhighofficials,
soldiersandthecommonpeople,thefarandthenear,thosewithinandthosewithout."WithafewyearstheresurgentSungstatewouldfindthelostterritories
returningofthemselves.49Somemonthslaterheelaboratedonhisposition.
Ihavenotedthatthepeopleofthepresentwhodiscussstatepoliciesonlyhavethreepositions:theysay"attack"theysay"defend",ortheysay''seekpeace".Butintheaffairs
ofthisworldwhatisprofitablecarrieswithitinjury,andwhatcanbeadvantageouscarrieswithitlosses.Thus,withinthesethreepositionstherearetwopointsforeach.The
(policy)ofattackingontheonehandinvolvesadvancing,butitcarrieswithitthedangerofrecklessness.Thedefensive(policy)certainlymaybeastratagemwhichwillgiveyou
control(overaffairs),butitalsocarrieswithittheproblemofhavingtobemaintainedoveranextendedperiod.Andasforthe(policyof)seekingpeace,thisistheworst
alternative.Therightsandwrongs(ofthesepositions)areatcrosspurposestheirpossibilitiesandimpossibilitiescanceloneanotherout.Intheconfusionthesetalkersadorn
theirprivate(intentions)sothatthedeceptioncannotbeovercome.EvenwithYourMajesty'sdiscerningintelligenceyoustillwillnotbeabletowardoffdoubts....

TheanswerforChuHsiwasapolicyof"nowar,nopeace.""Whatneedstobedoneatpresentisnottofight,forwelackthemeanswherebytorequitetheenemy,
andnottoadoptadefensivepolicy,sincewelackthemeanstoexercisesufficientcontrol."Tosueforpeacewasevenmoredangerous.TheEmperoroughttoforbid
discussionofpeaceasanalternative,andcashiertheadvocatesofpeace.50
TousethejargonofourdaywemightsaythatChuHsiwasstrategicallyahawkandtacticallyadove.Whenhediscussesthespecificaspectsofhispol

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icyhisConfucianconvictionsbecomeevident.Tohimthemostcriticalmatteristheattitudeoftheemperor,andthatisbasedontheemperor'shavingbeenproperly
educated.Theemperormustmakehisstandonthebasisoffundamentalprinciples.Inpracticaltermsthiswouldmeanthe"rectificationofnames,"thatis,the
establishingoftheproperrelationshipsbetweenrulerandminister,rulerandsubject.Ifthisweredoneoneresultwouldbeforthrightness.Therewerethosewhosaid,
"Pretendpeace,talkit,andwaitforanopportunitytostriketheenemy."Suchduplicitywasfoolish,sinceitnecessarilyledtodividedcouncilsandopinions,andmade
concertedactivityatatimeofopportunityquiteimpossible.Theemperorhadtotakehisstandonprinciple,toestablishtheWayamongmenbyenforcingtheproper
relationships,andtoconcentrateoninternalreformsandstrengths.Then,whenopportunitydidarrive,itcouldnotbemissed.Then,becausetheemperor'sintentions
werecleartoall,thepeopleandtheofficialswouldstandunitedinthefaceoftheenemy.Seeninthelightofsuchsolidarity,attackanddefensewerebutpartsofan
overallpolicy,andevenindefeattherewouldbeamorefundamentalvictory.51
ChuHsiwascertainlyahawk,butamostthoughtfulone.Hisfundamentalcommitment,whichperhapscametohimfromhisfather,wasrevanchism,andthetoneof
hiswritingscanonlybecalledprotonationalist.HisanalysisoftheproblemandhisoperationalsuggestionsareConfucianinthebestsenseofthatword.Perhapswe
mightcredithisteacherinthiscase,sinceitseemsthatChudiddiscusshisresponsetotheemperorwithLiYenp'ing,anotherbelieverinthenecessityofconfrontation
ifnotwarwithChin.
ChuHsi'spolicieswereignored.TheemperorinsteadacceptedtheargumentsofhisministerShihHaobo(11061194).Shih'sposition,infact,hasanumberofpoints
incommonwithChuHsi's,anddespitetheirdifferencesinoutlookitwouldseemthatChuHsirespectedShihHao,anditisclearthatShihHaosupportedChuHsi.
Butthepolicyofnegotiationwon.InthewordsofShihHao:
Today,themightof[our]armedforcesisnotyetefficacious,thatof[our]peoplehasyettoberejuvenated[frompreviouswars],and[our]resourcesarestillinadequate.Werewe
tosuddenlyneglecttheinternalwhileengagingtheexternal,evenif[itledto]restorationoftheentirerealm,itwouldstillbeofnobenefit.52

ChuHsididnottakehisdefeatlightly.Shortlyafterhisfamousfirstinterviewwiththeemperor,ChuwroteanangrylettertohisfriendWeiYanlu.bp
Thepeacetalkshavealreadybeendecidedupon!Wildlyimproperwordshavefloodedinalldirections.Thisisnotabundleofreedsonwhichwecancrossastream.Theother
dayIranintoChouK'uei.bqIupbraidedhimtohisfaceforhislackofrighteousness.Hesaid,"Thisisthebigtalkofsomebodywhodoesnotholdpower.Now,underthepressure
ofcircumstances,weforthetime

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53

beingonlyplanforthemoment."Isaidtohim,"Thestateisachargefortenthousandyears.HowcanaCivilCouncillormakeplansforthemoment?"

MenlikeChuHsiwereespeciallyembittered,asheremarkedinalettertoCouncilorLo,brwhen,evenintimesofquietandgoodharvests,thewealthofthepeople
wasdrainedoffbythe"stingy,grasping"Sunggovernmentandhandedovertotheenemy.54
Thisconcernaboutthewar,directlymirroredinhiscommentsonthequestionofnegotiation,isalsoreflected,thoughlessopenly,inthetwoothercriticalthemesinhis
addressestothethronetheproblemoffavoritismatcourtandthedangersofBuddhism.InthegeneraldiscussionofSouthernSungpoliticaldevelopmentsI
suggestedthatsomeevidencesuggeststhatduringChuHsi'slifetimetherewasasubtleshiftintheattitudeoftheSungelitetowardtheexaminationsystem.Members
ofthelocaleliteswhowerenotabletoplacerelativesintheelitethroughtheexaminations,inpartbecauseoftheincreasedintensityofcompetitions,reactedinpartby
turningtheirbacksontheexaminationsystem,condemningitasatravestythatfocusedmen'sattentionsonperipheralaspectsoftheeducationalprocessandwholly
disregardedthecultivationoftheself,whichwastheonlytrueendofeducation.ChuHsiandhiseducationalcrusadearecentrallyinvolvedinthisprocessofalienated
rejection.Someofthoseelitememberswhohadsucceededinenteringtheranksofthehighcivilserviceoftenreactedinquiteanotherway.Toalimiteddegreeat
leasttheymayhavedowngradedtheexaminationsalso,byenhancingtheroleoftheprotectionprivilegesothattheirkinmighthavesuccessfulpoliticalcareerswithout
subjectingthemselvestothechancyvagariesoftheunacceptablycompetitiveexaminations.Toppositionswerestillfilledbyexaminationgraduates,butmenwhohad
enteredtheserviceinotherwayscouldatleasthopetoreachmiddlepositionsinthebureaucracy.Theresultofthiswasasortofinstitutionalizedfavoritism.The
increasingnumberofimperialclanmembersinthecivilserviceismerelyevidencethatevenemperorswerenotimmunetothemoodoftheage.Beginninginthe1150s
increasingnumbersofimperialclanmemberssecuredexaminationdegrees,butnotbysubjectingthemselvestothebittercompetitionoftheregularexaminations.
ImperialclanmemberswereprivilegedtositforseparateexaminationsconductedbytheCourtofImperialFamilyAffairs.In1163therearesaidtohavebeenseven
hundredclanmemberssittingforthedegree.SmallwonderthatbytheendoftheSouthernSungMingchoualonecouldboastonehundredandfortyimperialclan
memberswhohadgainedthechinshihdegree.55
Suchfavoritismfitinwith,andindeedmagnified,thetendencytowardthepackingofofficesthathadbecomerampantduringthepartisanstrugglesofthelateNorthern
Sung.TheSouthernSungsymbolofthelengthstowhichthiscouldgowasthefigureofHanT'ochou,thenondegreemanwhorosetopowerthroughfavoritismand
proceededtopackofficeswithhissupporters(tothebestofhisability)whilepersecutinghisopponents.56

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ToChuHsithistrendwasanathema.Hephrasedhisobjectionstotheresultsofsuchfavoritismintermsofthe"closingofthechannelsofcommunication"andthe
makingofappointmentsonthebasisoflongacquaintanceratherthanonthebasisofability.Hefocusedonthedetrimentaleffectsofthisdevelopmentonreformin
localareasandthemakingofnationalforeignpolicy,buthisobjectionsareatheartgeneralones.Inaddressestothethronehedealtatlengthwiththisissue.The
fundamentalgroundofhispositionisthepassagefromtheopeningsectionoftheGreatLearning.
Wishingtoorderwelltheirstates,(theancients)firstregulatedtheirfamilies.Wishingtoregulatetheirfamiliestheyfirstcultivatedtheirpersons.Wishingtocultivatetheir
personstheyfirstrectifiedtheirhearts.Wishingtorectifytheirheartstheyfirstsoughttobesincereintheirthoughts.Wishingtobesincereintheirthoughtstheyfirstextended
totheutmosttheirknowledge.Suchextensionofknowledgelayintheinvestigationofthings.57

InthespecificconditionsofthemomentChuHsisaysthat
whetherthepeoplearedistressedorhavegoodfortuneis,Ifeel,determinedbywhetherornotthelocalofficialsareexcellent.Thisbeingthecasethecircuitintendantsarethekey
elementsforlocalgovernance.TheCourtisthefoundationforthecircuitintendants.(Thus,if)onewantsthepeopletobesecureinthelandswhicharetheirfundament,thisthen
iscenteredinthisCourt.YourMajestymayfeelthatthecircuitintendantsofthepresentarecorrupt,actcruelly,andinjurethepeople,(but)whoamongthemisnotarelativeora
hangeronofthechiefministersandthecensors?WhenthesepeoplelosetheirpowerYourMajestyshouldremainawareoftheirprivateintercourse,andeliminateit.Howcould
thosestillinpowernotbeofthesamesortofpersons?...YourMajestymaydesiretolearnaboutthis,butwhowillinformyou?Astoaffectingthepeople,Ifeelthatthematter
offirstimportanceistherectificationoftheCourt.Thentheseotherflawscanbereformedofthemselvesinatrice,andYourMajesty'sintentionwillhavebeenfulfilled.Whatin
timespastwasstyled"summoningseveralworthies"iswhattheworldoftodaycalls(summoning)loyalofficialsandoutstandingofficers.Astothemeanswherebytorectifythe
Court,howcouldtherebeanymoreimportantthanthis?58

Chugoesontospeakabouttheimportanceofusingmenaccordingtotheirspecialabilities,ineffectanapplicationoftherectificationofnames.Theemperoris
enjoinednottorelyonmenjustbecauseoflongandintimateassociationsincethatwouldresultinabiasedhearingofthoseofficialswhowerenotpartsofthelong
standingcliques,andalsoagainstbeingmovedbyprivateandparticularcharity,byfavoritismundertheguiseofkindness,sincethatwouldpreventreceptionofthe
warningsofthoseoutsidethemagiccircle.Theemperorhavingthusrectifiedhimselfsothatheapproachedaffairswithoutselfconcernandwithnopartialitywould
createapatternofopen,unbiaseddiscussion,"andtheCourtwillberectified.Withinandwithout,distant

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andnear,nonewilldarenottobeuniformlyupright."TheCourthavingbeenrectified,therectificationwouldspreadondown,firsttothecircuits,andthroughthemto
theprefecturesandsubprefectures.Suchlocalreformationwasespeciallyneededatjustthatmoment,whenagreatplagueoflocustsafflictedthenation.Eliminationof
favoritism,andtheproperuseofpersonnelwhichwouldfollowfromthat,arerootedintheemperor'srectificationofhimself.59Theprocessofthisrectificationofself
isfoundeduponandinturninteractswithatriumvirateofprinciplesthatsumupthepropergovernanceoftheworld."Teaching,"saysChuHsi,"isthemeansbywhich
principlesareilluminated,andsoprovidesguidancepriortoevents.Thedeterminationofpolicyisthemeansbywhichappropriateattitudesarenourishedandso
providesguidanceafterevents.Theappointingofthevirtuousisthemeansbywhichthegovernmentisaided,andprovidesthewarpandwoofofactionduringevents.
Theaffairsoftheworlddonotgobeyondthese(principles)."Thus,ChuHsi'sdiscussionofthethirdoftheseprinciples,properpersonnelpractices,isaccompanied
byalongdiscourseonthefirst,appropriateeducation,andinparticular,theeducationoftheemperor.Intermsofthepressingproblemsofthatmomentthelackof
propereducationfortheemperormakesitimpossibleforhimtoformcorrectjudgements,sincehelacksasolidfoundationorstartingpoint.Thus,withregardto
relationswiththeChin,
inthemidstofdarknessthesetalkers(aboutpeaceandwar)adorntheirownprivate(intentions)sothattheirlistenerscannotseethroughtheirdeceptions.Eventhoughthe
emperorisenlightenedhewillnotbeabletomakeajudgement.Thus,whilethisisgoingonhewilllackardentintention.Ifeelthatinthismatterthereasonthatthingsarethus
stemsfromafailuretodiscriminatethefundamentalsofrighteousnessandprinciple,andtoaprecipitatesurrendertotheepiphenomenaofprofitandinjury.ThereforeIsaythatin
theeducationofaruler,comingtounderstandprincipleshouldbeplacedfirst.Principlehavingbeenunderstood,thenwhatoughttobedonewillbedone,andwhatoughtnotto
bedonewillbestopped.60

ThekeytotheunderstandingofprincipleissetforthintheGreatLearning,andconsistsintheinvestigationofthings.Thegraspingofprinciple,distilledoutofastudy
ofthings,leadstotherectificationofself,whichmakesitpossiblefortherulertomakecorrectjudgements,andthisinturnleadstotherectificationoftheCourt.61
InpursuitofthisChuHsinaturallysuggeststhattherulerdevotehimselftothestudyoftheConfucianClassics.HisanxietythattherulerstudytheClassicsisincreased
byhisconcernthatHsiaotsungwasbeingmisledbyotherdoctrines.AthirdthemeinthesewritingsisChuHsi'sconcernabouttheharmfulinfluenceofBuddhistand
toalesserextentTaoiststudies.Wemustrememberthatin1162ChuHsihadonlyrecentlysucceededinfreeinghimselffromhispreviousinterestinBuddhism.Itis
alsopertinenttoremarkthathishomeregion,inwhichuptothispointhehadspentalmosthisentire

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life,wasnotedasanareawheretheBuddhistestablishmentwasextremelyflourishing.MostofthearablelandinFukienwasreportedlyownedbyBuddhisttemples.
ItissaidthatinChangchoubstheyownedsixseventhsofthelandandinFuchoubtonefifth.62Theadministrationwasawareofsomeoftheproblemsthisentailed,
andindeedhadmovedtoalleviatethem.OnthedayofHsiaotsung'sinaugurationtherewasanedictconcerningthesaleofsurplusBuddhisttemplelandsmandated
andmanagedbythelocalauthorities.TheeconomicandsocialproblemsstemmingfromthelargenumberofBuddhistsintheregionisstressedbyWangYingch'enbu
(11181178)inaletterof1162."Generally,ifafamilyamongthepeoplehasthreesons,sometimesone,sometimestwoofthemwillbecomeBuddhistmonks."This
wasdonebecauseofthelandpovertyoftheregion.63
NodoubttheflourishingstateoftheBuddhistestablishmentinFukienindicatesthathere,asintheHuichoubvareastudiedbyHymes,theBuddhistsreceived
substantialsupportfromthelocalelite.Giventheenvironmentinwhichhegrewup,andthefavorableattitudetowardBuddhismofmanyofhispeers,itishardly
surprisingthattheyoungChuHsiwasseriouslyinfluencedbyBuddhistteachings.Nor,onthesamegrounds,isitsurprisingthatafterhisconversionfromthereligionof
BuddhismtothequasireligionofNeoConfucianism,heshouldbesooutspokenlycriticalofBuddhism.
HehadgrownupwiththereligioninFukien.HewasdistressedtohearthatitwasinfluencingthemindofHsiaotsung.Inhismemorialstothethronehesaid,
YourMajestynourishesthebeginningofvirtue.Yourimperialdocumentsaremodels,likebalancestones,notexceedingwhatneedstobesaid,wellsoundingandsoon.Inrecent
yearsyoursagemindhasbeenseekingtheessentialsofthegreatWay.(Yetitissaidthat)youhavetosomeextendpaidheedtoBuddhistandTaoistworks.(I)shunwhatIlearn
byrumor(so)Idonotknowifthisistrueornot.Butmyself,IfeelthatifthisiswhathasbeengoingonitisnotthewaytoreceivetheHeavenlyGift.Upliftingthesagespirits
treasurewasthesourceoftheflourishingofYaoandShun.bwNow,torecordandchantelegant(words)isnotthemeanswherebytoinvestigatethesource,andtobringforththe
Wayofgoodorder.(Whatis)emptyandwithoutsubstance(emptinessandnirvana)isnotthemeanswherebytogetatrealityandestablishthecorrect.

Theproperansweris,ofcourse,tocultivatetheWayoftheConfuciansages,andChuHsigoesontodiscourseatlengthaboutboththesubstanceandthemethodby
whichthisshouldbedone.64
OnesuspectsthatHsiaotsungfoundthisConfucianmoralizingunutterablyboring.Hemadenogreatsecretofhisattitudes.TheanecdotistChouMibx(12321298)
recountsanincidentthatsupposedlyoccurredduringaspringtourofWestLake.Ayoungimperialacademystudenthaddashedoffapoemthatclosedwiththelines
"ThenextdayIputawayfrommethedregsofthewine,andonthepathcameseekingthefloweredhairpin."Hsiaotsung

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laughedandsaid,"Thispoemisreallygood.ButthatlastphraseisarealbitofConfuciansourness,"sohealteredittoread,"ThenextdayIagainrescuedthedregsof
thewine,andonthepathcameseekingthefloweredhairpin."65
AlthoughHsiaotsungwascertainlynotwhollyConfucianinhisattitudes,hewasnotinsensitivetothestrongpointsinChuHsi'sarguments.Hisreputationasoneof
thebestemperorsoftheSouthernSungissupportedbytheactionshetookorhadalreadytakenonsomeoftheproblemsraisedbyChu.Onthespecificsubjectof
thewarhesidedwithShihHao,buthealsobegansomeinternalchangesdesignedtostrengthenthestate.
Theproblemsoffavoritism,ofthepackingoftheadministrationwithsupporters,andoftherestrictingofthechannelsofcommunicationwerereducedbyHsiao
tsung'spolicyofneverallowinganychiefministertoremaininpowerforanygreatlengthoftime.Thetenuresofmostsuchmendidnotexceedoneyear.66
Therewasalsoanawarenessintheseyearsofproblemsofinstitutionalizedfavoritismthatmightarisethroughsystemsofrecommendationandsystemsofirregular,i.e.
nonexamination,entrancetothecivilservice.HsiaotsungapprovedpolicychangesaimedatreducingtheseproblemsbothbeforeandafterChuHsiraisedthegeneral
issueinhisaddressestothethrone.67
ThisconcerndidnotpreventHsiaotsungfromfavoringmembersoftheimperialclan.Thegreatactofgraceaccompanyinghisaccessiongrantedfavorstosome
imperialclanmemberswhowereexaminationcandidatesandtoclanmemberswhohadlackedofficialrank.68Healsoextendedhisgracetoothermembersofthe
clan,69andtotherelativesofimperialwomen.70
TheneedforinternalstrengtheningwasalsoadesideratumthatdidnotneedrepetitionbyChuHsi.ChuHsicamefromoneofthefewregionsoftheempirethatwas
notsufferingsevereproblems.Hsiaotsungissuedamultitudeofordersgrantingrelieftolocalareasduringhisfirsttwoyearsonthethrone.Amidstthiscollectionthe
Fukienregionismentionedonlyonce.71LiangcheandHuainansufferedparticularly,notjustfromtheinvasionbutalsofromlocustsandexcessiverains.Thestate
respondedbyissuingavarietyofreliefordersandbyadoptingpoliciesdesignedtoprovidelongtermhelptorefugees.72
Locustsandexcessiverainswere,ofcourse,notsimplydisasters,butalsosigns.InthesesameyearsHsiaotsunghadalsotoworryaboutahostofotherinauspicious
phenomenaastronomicalanomalies,palacefires,thunder,andevenanearthquakeinthecapitalarea.73Theemperorissuedanappropriatelycontriteedictin
responsetotheplagueoflocusts.74Herecognizedthatsuchsignsmightpointtospecifictypesofproblems,inparticulartoimproperlyhandledlegalcases.75
JudicialimproprietywassimplyonefacetofanotherproblemraisedbyChuHsi,corruptioninadministration.Again,theemperordidnotneedChuHsitobelaborthe
point.Others,beforeandafter,submittedmemorialsdealingwithspecificexamplesofsuchcorruption,especiallyonthelocallevel.76

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77

Hsiaotsungrespondedinpartbytryingtoencourageandrewardworthyofficials.

Allthesemeasureswerewhollywithinthetraditionalpatternsofimperialgovernance,asweretheattemptsinthesesameyearstopromotebetterandlessexpensive
governmentbyreducingnumbersofpersonnel,especiallyclerks.78Beyondthat,HsiaotsungalsofittedhimselfintheseopeningyearsofhisreignintotheConfucian
imperialpattern,andshowedhimselfsensitivetotheissuesraisedbyChuHsibyapprovingpoliciesthattouchedoneducationintheconventionalsenseandby
allowinghimselftobesubjectedtolecturesontheConfucianClassics.79
Norwastheemperor,despitehispersonalinterestinBuddhism,unawareofthesocialandeconomicproblemsitmightpose.EvenbeforeChuHsi'scomments
officialshadpointedouttohimtheproblemscreatedbyextensiveBuddhistlandholdingsintheareaaroundthecapital,80andalthoughsomemonthsafterhisaccession
heissuedadecreeforgivingcertaindebtsofthemonasteriesinFukien,81healsoapprovedanorderinthefollowingyearcallingforthesellingoffundergovernment
auspicesofcertainFukientemplelands.82
ThenewemperorcouldthushavejustifiablyrespondedtotheadviceofChuHsibypointingtohisownrecord.Onanumberofpointshehadalreadytakenactions
consonantwiththegeneralprinciplesunderlyingChu'sadvice.OnlyontheissueofthewarwasChuHsilargelyignored.Indeed,inadelightfullyironicresponse,Chu
Hsi'sideaswerenotused,butChuhimselfwasnominatedforapositionintheWarCollege.ChuHsi,ofcourse,declined,andbeganadecadeofproductivewriting.
Hispeculiarrelationshiptotheactiveworld,tryingtoinfluenceitwithoutparticipatinginit,isthusascharacteristicoftheclosingofthisbriefperiodwithwhichwehave
beenconcernedasitwasofitsbeginning.In1164wefindhimagainhomeinFukien,againholdingasinecureasthesuperintendentofaTaoisttemple,andagain
involvedinwritingonfamilylife.Butnow,intwosymbolicwayshiscoursehadchanged.Hisfirstaudiencewiththeemperorsignaledhispotentialimportanceasa
spokesmanonnationalaffairs.Andhewasagainateacher,but,sadly,hehadlosthisroleasstudent.Inthelatefallof1163LiYenp'ingfellgravelyill,andonthe
fifteenthdayofthetenthmonth(November12,1163)hedied.Theyear1164wastoopenwithChuHsiarrivingtomournhismaster.
TheChuHsiwhoemergesfromthisreadingisacomplexmanwhoatthesametimeembodiedandindeedinsomecaseshelpedtoleadthesocialtrendsofhistimes,
butalsoinotherwayswasfarfromrepresentative.LiketheelitemembershypothesizedbyHartwell,hespentthegreatpartofhislifeinhishomeregion,Fukien,but
whenhedidconsenttotakeanactiveroleinaffairsheusuallyservedoutsideit.ConsonantwiththepictureHartwelldraws,ChuHsimarriedagirlfromhissectionof
Fukien.ChuHsiwasoneoftheforemostleadersofthemovementtoestablishaneducationalsystemthatwasfun

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damentalist,stressedcharacterandbehavioraltraining,anddownplayedtheimportanceoftheexaminations.Inthishewasthecreativespokesmanandrepresentative
ofthesocialgroupsthat,perhapsoutoffrustrationwiththecompetitivenessoftheexaminations,wereseekingvalidstylesoflifeoutsidetheofficialworld.Andyethe
wasanexaminationgraduatehimself,whodidnotscrupletoseeksupportfromagovernmenthewouldnotserve.HebitterlycondemnedthefavoritismattheCourt,
whichaswehaveseenmayhavebeenevenmoreseriousduringhisagethaninsomeothersbecauseofthegrowingroleofprotectioninfillingcivilserviceposts,but
hecouldalsowriteinthewarmesttermstothankthoseinthegovernmentwhohadintervenedtohelphimgethissinecures.TohisbenefactorCh'enhewrotethathe
was"reverentlyrespectfulinreceivingthetemplescroll.""Ihavereceivedgreatkindnessfromyou.CertainlyIdonotdaretobeneglectful,andyetIknownothowI
canmakerecompense....Now,becauseofyourstrengthIhavesecuredagovernmentstipend.83
Heseemsinsumtohavebeenmarginalinhisplace,andambivalentinhisattitudes.Helivedalifethatwasveryclearlylocallyandregionallyorientedandthat
embodiedarejectionofmuchthatwascharacteristicofthecentralgovernmentanditsbureaucracy,andyethisconcernforChinaandhisfeelingofintellectualkinship
withhisNorthernSungpredecessorsinevitablyledhimtosuggestnationalsolutionsfornationalproblems.
Notes
1.RoughlycorrespondstopresentdayChekiang.
2.Aliisonethirdofamile.
3.PerhapsthebestsurveyavailableinEnglishontheSungChinwarisfoundinEdwardKaplan,"YehFeibyandtheFoundingoftheSouthernSung"(Universityof
IowaPh.D.dissertation,1970).
4.P'engHsinwei,bzChungkuohuopishihca[AhistoryofChinesemoney],(Shanghai:Ch'nleincbPress,1954),esp.pp.299ff.
5.EdmundH.Worthy,"RegionalControlintheSouthernSungSaltAdministration,"inJohnW.Haeger,ed.,CrisisandProsperityinSungChina(Tucson:
UniversityofArizonaPress,1975),esp.pp.111112.SeealsoYukiTetsu,cc"Sodai*notonan*kanmaienho*"cd[Thesoutheasternofficialsalessaltlawofthe
Sungdynasty],Rekishigakuchirigakunempoce[Thehistoricalgeographicalannal]96/4(1980).
6.LiuMingshu,cf"Sungtaihaishangt'ungshangtsak'ao"cg[AstudyoftheseabornecommerceoftheSungdynasty],inChungkuowenhuayenchiuhuik'anch
[ResearchesonChineseculture],5(September1945),p.52.OnthesegeneraldevelopmentsseeLoJungpang,ci"China'sEmergenceasaSeaPower,"Far
EasternQuarterly,vol.14,no.4(1955).
7.SudoYoshiyuki,cj"NamSo*kyoto*nozeiseitotochishoyu"ck[TheSouthernSunglocaltaxationsystemandlandownership],inSudoYoshiyuki,Sodai*
keizaishikenkyucl[ResearchinSungeconomichistory],(Tokyo:TokyoUniversityPress,1962),pp.474500.

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8.BrianE.McKnight,"FiscalPrivilegesandtheSocialOrderinSungChina,"inHaeger,CrisisandProsperity,pp.79101.
9.BrianE.McKnight,VillageandBureaucracyinSouthernSungChina(Chicago:UniversityofChicagoPress,1971),esp.ch.5.Defactoprivilegesnaturally
continuedtoexist.SomeofthebestworkonsuchquestionsisbeingdonebyYanagidaSetsuko.cmSeeforexampleherrecentarticle"Sodainokandento
keiseiko"cn[TheofficialfieldsoftheSungdynastyandthepowerfulhouseholds],Gakushuendaigakubungakubukenkyunempo[GakushuencoUniversityliterature
facultyresearchannal]26.
10.JohnStuermer,"PolderConstructionandthePatternofLandOwnershipintheT'aihucpBasisduringtheSouthernSungDynasty"(UniversityofPennsylvania
Ph.D.dissertation,1980),esp.p.177ff.
11.TheYangtzedeltaarealyingbetweentheriverandthehillsofsouthernChekiang.
12.ForNorthernSungwatercontrolinthisregionseeMiraMihelich,"PoldersandthePoliticsofLandReclamationinSoutheastChinaduringtheNorthernSung
Dynasty"(CornellUniversityPh.D.dissertation,1979).ForSouthernSungdevelopmentsseeStuermer,PolderConstruction.
13.TheoriginaldebateinJapaninvolvedSudoYoshiyukiofTokyoUniversityandMiyazakiIchisadaofKyotoUniversityandtheirfollowers.YanagidaSetsuko
broughtamorebalancedperspectivetothedebatebyshowingthatinpartthedifferencesbetweenthetwoschoolsarosebecausetheirevidenceconcerneddifferent
regionsofChina.SeeYanagidaSetsuko,"Kyakkonitsuite"cq[Onguesthouseholds],Shigakuzasshicr[Journalofhistoricalstudies],68/4(1959),pp.138
YanagidaSetsuko,"Sodai*tochishoyu*seinimirarerufutatsunokatasenshintohenkyo*"cs[TwoformsofSunglandholding:advancedandfrontier],Toyo*
bunkakenkyujokiyo*ct[JournaloftheAsianCultureResearchInstitute]29,pp.95130.Yanagidaalsogivesausefulsurveyofthedebate.Seeher"Miyazaki
shigakutokinseiron"cu[ThehistoricalstudiesofMiyazakiandrecentdiscussions],inNoharaShiro,cved.,KindaiNihonniokerurekishigakunohattatsucw[The
developmentofhistoricalstudiesinpresentdayJapan](Tokyo:AokicxBookCo.,1976).ForausefulsurveyinEnglishseePeterGolas,''RuralChinaintheSung,"
JournalofAsianStudies,vol.39,no.2(1980),pp.291326.NowYanagida'sfineworkhasbeentakenonestepfurther.Muchofmydiscussionisbasedon
JosephMcDermott,"LandTenureandRuralControlintheLiangcheRegionduringtheSouthernSung"(CambridgeUniversityPh.D.dissertation,1979).McDermott
hasexpandedsomeofthismaterialinanasyetunpublishedarticle(personalcopy).
14.Onemouequalsapproximatelyoneseventhofanacre.
15.CorrespondsroughlytopresentdayHupei.
16.CorrespondsroughlytopresentdayKiangsi.
17.CorrespondsroughlytopresentdayKwangsi.
18.CorrespondsroughlytopresentdayHupei.
19.CorrespondsroughlytopresentdayHunan.
20.ThebestrecentstudiesoftheT'angandpreT'angelitehaveconcludedthatmostlaterclaimstobedescendedfromtheT'angaristocracywerebogus.SeeDavid
Johnson,TheMedievalChineseOligarchy(Boulder,Colo.WestviewPress,1977),pp.141148DavidJohnson,"TheLastYearsofaGreatClan,"Harvard
JournalofAsiaticStudies,vol.37,no.1(June1977),pp.7581.ForacomplementarydiscussionofthedeclineofthesegreatfamiliesseePatriciaEbrey,The
AristocraticFamiliesofEarlyImperialChina(Cambridge:CambridgeUniversityPress,1978),esp.112115.

Page433

Evenifsuchrelationshipscouldbetraced,thesocialmeaningofmembershipinthegroupwouldhavebeenentirelydifferentunderSungconditions,andinany
eventsuchrelationshipisreallyperipheraltothemajorpointrelevanthere,whichismarriageandcareerpatterns.
21.RobinFox,KinshipandMarriage(Baltimore:PenguinBooks,1967),pp.116117.SeealsoMauriceFreedman,LineageOrganizationinSoutheastern
China(London:AthlonePress,1958).
22.PatriciaEbrey,"WomenintheKinshipSystemoftheSouthernSungUpperClass,"inRichardGuisso,ed.,WomeninChina(Toronto:UniversityofToronto
Press,1982).
23.ShigaShuzo,Chugoku*kazokuho*nogenricy[TheprinciplesofChinesefamilylaw],(Tokyo:Sobunsha*,cz1968)NiidaNoboru,"Sodai*nokazanho*ni
okerunyoshinochiida[PositionofwomenintheSungdynastylawsonfamilyproperty],inhisChugoku*hoseishi*kenkyu*db[ResearchonChineselegalhistory],
vol.3(Tokyo:TokyoUniversityPress,1962),pp.365392.
24.YanTs'ai,Yanshihshihfandc[FamilypreceptsoftheYanfamily],(PreciousWorksoftheFourLibrariesed.),pt.1,25b.Trans.PatriciaEbrey,"Preserving
theFamily:YanTs'aiandtheCultureoftheSungUpperClass"(unpublishedmanuscript),p.297.
25.MuchofthefollowingdiscussionoflocalelitecharacteristicsandactivitiesisbasedonHymes'sdissertation.SeeRobertHymes,"ProminenceandPowerinSung
China"(UniversityofPennsylvaniaPh.D.dissertation,1979).
26.IamthinkinghereparticularlyoftheworkofE.A.Kracke,Jr.,especiallyhistwoarticles,"FamilyversusMeritintheChineseCivilServiceExaminationsduring
theEmpire,"HarvardJournalofAsiaticStudies,vol.10(1947),and"Region,Family,andIndividualintheChineseExaminationSystem,"inJohnK.Fairbank,ed.,
ChineseThoughtandInstitutions(Chicago:UniversityofChicagoPress,1957).
27.Ebrey,"PreservingtheFamily."
28.Hymes,"Prominence,"esp.p.50ff.
29.ChangHsingyen,ddIhuanghsienchihde[GazeteerofIhuangCounty],(T'ungchihdfed.,1871),45b.39a40a.CitedbyHymes,"Prominence,"p.289.
30.Hymes,"Prominence,"pp.285295.
31.Hymes,ShibaYoshinobu,Sodai*shogyoshi*kenkyu*(Tokyo:KazamadgBookCo.,1968).
32.FortheSouthernSungseeHartwell,"Demographic,Political,andSocialTransformation."
33.JamesT.C.Liu,"TheSungViewsontheControlofGovernmentClerks,"JournaloftheEconomicandSocialHistoryoftheOrient,vol.10,nos.23(1967)
pp.317344.
34.OnSungexaminationsandopportunityseeJohnW.Chafee,"EducationandExaminationsinSungSociety(9601279),"(UniversityofChicagoPh.D.
dissertation,1979).SeealsoHymes,"Prominence,"esp.pp.46105andRichardL.Davis,"TheShihLineageattheSouthernSungCourt"(PrincetonUniversity
Ph.D.dissertation,1980).
35.BrianE.McKnight,"AdministratorsofHangchowundertheNorthernSung:aCaseStudy,"HarvardJournalofAsiaticStudies,vol.30(1970).ForthisstudyI
analyzedbiographicalinformationontheapproximatelyonehundredadministratorsofHangchowduringtheNorthernSung.Oftheeightythreemenonwhom
pertinent

Page434
dh

informationisavailable,seventyfour(83%)weredegreeholders.OfthefivemenwhohadadministeredHangchowbeforeChentsung (r.9981022)cameto
power(997)onlyonehadadegree.(OfthosethereservingbetweentheenthronementofChentsungandtheendoftheNorthernSungninetytwopercentwere
degreeholders.ThestatisticsaresimilartothosefromFuchouandMingchou.
36.Davis,"ShihLineage,"pp.120,201.
37.Pahsingmeanstheeightvirtuesoffilialpiety,brotherliness,kindliness,maritalconcord,dutifulness,sympathy,andmoderation.
38.Davis,"ShihLineage,"p.24.
39.YangShufan,diChungkuowenkuanchihtushihdj[HistoryoftheChinesecivilservicesystem],(Taipei:1976),p.326.
40.Ch'ienMu,"LunSungtaihsiangch'uan"dk[AdiscussionofthepowerofSungchiefministers],inSungshihyenchiuchi,dl[CollectedresearchonSunghistory],
vol.1,pp.455462.
41.LiChi,"ChuHsithePoet,"T'oungpao,dmvol.58(1972),p.64.
42.ThebiographicalinformationusedhereisdrawnlargelyfromWangMaohungdn(16081741),ChuTzunienp'udo[AchronologicalbiographyofMasterChu],
(Shanghai:CommercialPress,1937),supplementedbymaterialsfromHuangKandp(11521221),ChuTzuhsingchuangdq[AbiographicalaccountofMaster
Chu],(Seoul:Uryumunhwasa,dr1950)Ch'ienMu,ChuTzuhsinhsehan(Taipei:SanmindsBookCo.,1971)LiT'ung,LiYenp'ingchidt[Collectedworksof
LiT'ung],(Shanghai:CommercialPress,1935)HuangTsunghsidu(16101695),SungYanhsehandv[ConfuciansoftheSungandYan],(Taipei:Basic
SinologicalSeriesed.,1965).
43.ChuHsi,ChuTzuwenchidw[CollectionofliteraryworksofMasterChu],(SPPYed.entitledChuTzutach'andx[CompleteliteraryworksofMasterChu]),
75:5a.
44.RobinWilliams,"ChangeandStabilityinValuesandValueSystems,"inBernardBarberandAlexInkeles,StabilityandSocialChange(Boston:Little,Brown,
andCompany,1971),p.152.
45.ChuTzuwenchi,75:6b.
46.Ibid.,75:7a.
47.LindaWaltonVargo,"Education,SocialChange,andNeoConfucianisminSungYanChina"(UniversityofPennsylvaniaPh.D.dissertation,1978).
48.T'aoChinsheng,dyChinHailingtitefaSungyTs'aishihchanitek'aoshihdz[AstudyoftheChinemperorHailing'sattackagainsttheSungandthebattle
ofTs'aishih],(Taipei:SchoolofArts,NationalTaiwanUniversity,1965),esp.p.89ff.
49.ChuTzuwenchi,11:6a7a.
50.Ibid.,13:2aff.
51.Ibid.
52.ShihHao,Moufengchenyinmanluea[NotesbytheHiddenScholarofMouPeak]8:3b.CitedbyDavis,"ShihLineage,"p.97.
53.ChuTzuwenchi,24:10a.
54.Ibid.,supplementarycollection,5:11a.
55.HsSung,ebed.,Sunghuiyaochikaoec[CollectedSungdocuments],(Taipei:WorldBookCo.,1965),hsanched[Civilserviceselection]section18.22a
Davis,"ShihLineage,"p.38.
56.ConradSchirokauer,"NeoConfuciansUnderAttack:TheCondemnationoftheWeihseh,"eeinHaeger,CrisisandProsperity.

Page435

57.JamesLegge,TheGreatLearning,inTheChineseClassics,vol.1,p.358.
58.ChuTzuwenchi,11:7ab.
59.Ibid.,11:8a.
60.Ibid.,13:2a.
61.Ibid.,13:1a.
62.ChizukaMasaaki,ef"Sodai*Hokennoshakaitojiin"eg[BuddhisttemplesandthesocietyofFukienintheSungdynasty],Toyoshi*kenkyu*eh[Researcheson
Asianhistory],vol.15,no.2(1957).
63.WangYingch'en,Wentingchiei[CollectedworksofWangYingch'en],(Ts'ungshuchich'engej[Collectionofseries]ed.),pp.145146.
64.ChuTzuwenchi,11:3a.
65.ChouMi,Wulinchiushihek[AnecdotesofHangchou],inMengYanlao,Tungchingmenghualu(waissuchungel)[ArecordofdreamsoftheEastern
Capital,fouraddedworks],(Shanghai:KutienwenhsehemPress,1956),p.376.
66.WangTei,en"SungHsiaotsungchich'ishihtai"co[SungHsiaotsungandhistimes],inSungshihyenchiuchi,vol.10(Taipei:Chunghuats'ungshuweiyuan
hui,ep1978)pp.245302.
67.HsSung,Sunghuiyao,chihkuaneq[governmentoffices]section,10:7a,11.71b,26.1b,26.2a.
68.Ibid.,hsanchsection,18.21a.
69.Ibid.,hsanchsection,18.22btihsi[imperiallineage]section,6:33a,8.38ab.
70.Ibid.,houfeier[palacewomen]section,2:13a14a.
71.Ibid.,shihhuoes[fiscalaffairs]section,63:20a22b.
72.Ibid.,shihhuosection,1:42b,3:8ab,9b14b,6:17a,18:1b,61:76b,63:20ab,125a,127a,68:62a,62b,63ab,125a,125b,69:61b,62atihsietsection,
9:31a33ajuiieu[portents]section,3:6a,43b,44a.
73.Ibid.,juiisection,2.6a,2:18b,36a,3:5b,6a,38b,43b,44a.
74.Ibid.,tihsisection,9:31a33a.
75.Ibid.,juiisection,3:6a.
76.Ibid.,shihhuosection,9:10a,11:21a,65:94b,69:26b.
77.Ibid.,chihkuansection,30:12a,48:36b.
78.Ibid.,chihkuansection,6:10a,9:10b11a,10:7b,28bhsanchusection,23:17b,24:22b.
79.Ibid.,ch'ungjuev[eminentConfucius]section,1:37a,38ab,7:9aff.
80.Ibid.,shihhuosection,10:16b.
81.Ibid.,shihhuosection,63:20b.
82.Wang,Wentingchi,13:145148.
83.ChuTzuwenchi,24:10b.
Glossary

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Page437

24
TheProblemofOrthodoxyinChuHsi'sPhilosophy
ShuhsienLiu
ItisawellknownfactthatChuHsiwasthepersonmainlyresponsiblefortheestablishmentoftheorthodoxlineoftransmissionoftheWay,thesocalledTaot'ung,a
intheConfuciantradition.WingtsitChanbhasreportedthat"theline,withminorvariations,isthis:Fuhsic...Shennungd...theYellowEmperor...Yaoe...
Shunf...Yg...T'angh...Weni...Wuj...DukeofChoun...Confucius...TsengTzul...Tzussum...Mencius...Choun...Ch'engso...ChuHsi."1Ina
veryinfluentialessay,Chungyungchangchhsp(PrefacetotheCommentaryontheDoctrineoftheMean)ChuHsisaid,
TheorthodoxlineoftransmissionoftheWayhadalonghistory.ItwasreportedintheClassics:YaotaughtShunthatyoumustholdfasttotheMean,andShuntaughtYthat
thehumanmindisprecarious,andthemoralmindissubtlehaveabsoluterefinementandsinglenessofmind,holdfasttotheMean....Fromthenon,suchinsightswerepassed
onfromonesagetoanother....EventhoughourMasterConfucius[551479B.C.]didnothavetheposition[ofaking],yethehadsucceededthesagesinthepast,andopened
upnewcoursesforstudentsinthefuturehisachievementwasgreatereventhanthatofYaoorShun.ButinhistimetherewereonlyYenYanq[521490B.C.?]andTsengShenr
[505436B.C.?]whohadlearnedabouttheWayandtransmittedtheline.TheninthesecondgenerationofMasterTseng'sdisciplestherewasConfucius'grandsonTzussu[492
421B.C.?]....Stillanothertwogenerations,therewasMencius....AfterMencius(372289B.C.?)died,thelineoftransmissionwasbroken....ItwasnotuntiltheCh'eng
brothers[Ch'engHao,s10321088,andCh'engI,t10331107],whostudiedandregainedtheinsightthatthelineoftransmissionwhichwasdiscontinuedforathousandyearswas
revived.2

ProfessorChanhasnotedthatalthoughtheideaofTaot'ungmaybetracedbacktoMencius,HanYu(768824),LiAov(fl.798),andthenCh'engI,ChuHsiwas
thefirstNeoConfucianphilosophertousethetermTaot'ung,3andthisideawastakenseriouslybyhisdisciples.Chansaid:

Page438
w

AccordingtoChuHsi'spupilHuangKan [11521221],"thetransmissionofthecorrectorthodoxtraditionoftheWayrequiredthepropermen.FromtheChoudynasty[1111249
B.C.]on,therehavebeenonlyseveralpeoplecapableofinheritingthecorrecttraditionandtransmittingtheWay,andonlyoneortwocouldenabletheWaytobecomeprominent.
AfterConfucius,TsengTzuandTzussuperpetuateditinitssubtlety,butitwasnotprominentuntilMencius.AfterMencius,ChouTunix[10371073],thetwoCh'engs,and
ChangTsaiy[10201077]continuedtheinterruptedtradition,butonlywithourMasterdiditbecomeprominent."ThisviewwasacceptedintheHistoryofSungandbypractically
allNeoConfucianists.4

ProfessorChanfurtherpointedoutthatChuHsiexcludedtheHan(206B.C.A.D.220)andT'ang(618907)ConfucianistsincludingHanY,LiAo,andalsoShao
Yungz(10111077),SsumaKuangaa(10191086),andothersoftheSungdynasty(9101279)fromthelineoftransmissionforphilosophicalreasons.5Hispoints
areverywelltaken.
ThequestionsIwouldliketoraiseareonadifferentlevel.WeknowthatChuHsitaughtsomethingquitedifferentfromConfucius,Mencius,andevenfromCh'engI,
hisownmentortowhomhewasgreatlyindebted.HiscontemporaryandrivalLuHsiangshan(LuChinyan,ab11371193)evenchargedthathehadsmuggled
certainTaoistandBuddhistideasintohisphilosophy.6Myquestionis,then,arethereanyrealphilosophicalgroundsforhimtoclaimthathisthoughtsmaybetraced
backtopreCh'in(221206B.C.)ConfucianphilosopherssuchasConfuciusandMencius?Orwashemerelyborrowingtheirnamestopromoteideasthatwere
radicallydifferentfromwhattheyhadtaught?EspeciallyinviewofthefactthatthestatementChuHsiquotedinhisessay"Thehumanmindisprecarious,andthe
moralmindissubtlehaveabsoluterefinementandsinglenessofmind,holdfasttotheMean"7isnowknowntohavebeentakenfromafabricateddocument,we
musthaveseriousdoubts.Furthermore,ifChuHsiistoberegardedastherepresentativeofSungNeoConfucianphilosophy,anevenmoreseriousquestionwould
arise:IsthesocalledNeoConfucianphilosophytrulyaConfucianphilosophyorisitratheraradicallynewphilosophybasedonTaoistandBuddhistideaswithonly
aConfuciancloak?Indeed,itisnotuncommonforConfucianscholarsthemselvestoattacktheirowncolleaguesasbeingConfucianonthesurfacebutBuddhistin
essence.AlltheseissuesneedtobeclarifiedotherwisethereisnowayforustocomeupwithaclearpictureofSungMing(13681644)NeoConfucianism.Finally,
whenallthesmokeiscleared,IwouldliketoreevaluateChuHsi'spositioninthattraditionespeciallywithregardtotheorthodoxlineoftransmissionhehimselfhelped
toestablishandthatdominatedChinesethoughtforseveralhundredyears.Inotherwords,theproblemsatissueare:IstheretrulyanycontinuitybetweenNeo
ConfucianismintheSungandMingdynastiesandclassicalConfucianisminthelateChouperiodrepresentedbyConfuciusandMencius,whomtheNeo
Confucianistsclaimedtohavefollowedclosely?Andaretheretrulyessential

Page439

differencesbetweenNeoConfucianphilosophiesontheonehandandBuddhistandTaoistphilosophiesontheotherhand?Theseareimportantquestionswhichmust
beansweredbyanyseriousstudentofintellectualhistoryofSungandMingthought.AsChuHsihadalwaysbeeninthethickofthings,itwouldbemostinstructiveto
studyhisthoughttofindcluestoanswerthesequestions.
First,letusexamineChuHsi'sattitudetowardBuddhism.Asiswellknown,ChuHsiwasfascinatedbyBuddhismwhenhewasyoung,butherenouncedBuddhismin
favorofConfucianismafterhestudiedunderLiT'ungac(10931163).8FromthenonhemadestrongcriticismsagainstBuddhism,andyeteveninhislateryears,he
stillheldahighopinionofBuddhism.Forexample,hesaid,
TheBuddhistssimplydonotconcernthemselveswithmanythings.Theironlyconcernistheself.Althoughtheirteachingsareincorrect,yettheirintentionistotakecareofthe
problemoftheself.Thatiswhytheyattractedanumberoftalents,whilewedonothavefollowers.Today'sConfucianistswhocanstillholdfasttotheClassicsmerelyknowhow
toreadanddiscussthetexts,andwhentheystudyhistory,theyknowonlyhowtocalculateaboutwhatisprofitableorharmful.ButtheBuddhistswantreallytotakecareofthe
selfandtobegintheirdisciplinewiththeself.Iftheselfisnotbeingtakencareof,whatistheusetotalkaboutothers'strengthorshortcomings?9

Chualsorecognizedthat"theBuddhistsspendalotofeffortstodisciplinethemind."10WhatisespeciallyinterestingisthatChuHsineverdeniedthatConfucianists
maylearnfromtheBuddhists.Hesaid,
AtfirstBuddhismhadonlywordstherewasnotthedisciplineofpreservationandcultivation.ItwasnotuntiltheSixthPatriarch[ofCh'anad'Zen']intheT'angdynastythat
disciplineofpreservationandcultivationwasbeingtaught.Atfirst,Confucianscholarsalsoonlyhadwordstheydidnotpracticedisciplineoftheself.ItwasnotuntilCh'engI
ch'uan[Ch'engI]thatdisciplineoftheselfwasbeingtaught.ThereforeitissaidthatCh'engIch'uanhadstolenfromBuddhismforhisownuse.11

Itappearsthatvulgarscholarshadastheironlygoaltheseekingofprofit.Buddhists,however,turnedtheirattentionawayfromthinkingabouthowtomakeaprofitor
toadvancetheircareersintheworld.Therefore,BuddhismhadagreatdealofattractionforNeoConfucianphilosophers,astheprimarygoaloftheirswasnone
otherthantofindawayofselfrealization.NowondersomanyNeoConfucianphilosophersdriftedalongthepathsofBuddhismandTaoismformanyyearsbefore
theyreturnedtotheClassicsandfoundthattheConfucianwaywasselfsufficient.ItisforthisreasonthatwecaneasilyfindanumberofsimilaritiesbetweenNeo
ConfucianismontheonehandandBuddhismandTaoismontheother.ButonceaNeoConfucianphilosopher

Page440

declaredthathehadrediscoveredtheConfucianway,thenmoreoftenthannothewouldhavesomeverystrongwordsagainstBuddhism.ChuHsiseemstohave
followedthispattern.HavingbeenonceattractedbyBuddhism,herealizedevenmoredeeplythedangersofBuddhistteachings,astheyappearedtobe"verycloseto
theprinciplesandyettheyproducedagooddealofconfusionaboutlearningoftruths."12WhenweexaminethegroundsforChuHsi'soppositiontoBuddhism,we
havetoconcludethatthereareindeedessentialdifferencesbetweenNeoConfucianismontheonehandandBuddhismontheotherhand.EventhoughmanyofChu
Hsi'scriticismsofBuddhismwereunfairandnotsupportedbygoodevidence,theyweretruereflectionsofChuHsi'sfeelingstowardBuddhism.13Wemaysaythat
ChuHsihadonlyarathersuperficialunderstandingofBuddhismandthathewasmerelyinstinctivelyreactingtosomethingthatposedaseriousthreattotheverythings
thathehadtriedhardtodefend.Ifsuchisthecase,thensurelyitisimpossibletoseeChuHsiasadisguisedBuddhistthinkerwithonlyaConfuciancloak.Ashedid
notevenknowmuchaboutBuddhism,howcouldhebeabletosellitsmessagesunderadifferentcover?Whatremainsforustodo,then,istolocatethedifferences
betweenthesetwodifferentlinesofthought.
Letusstartwiththemostobvious.TheConfucianistsvaluehighlythefunctionofhumaninstitutions,whiletheBuddhistsholdanegativeoratbestapassiveattitude
towardthem.ChuHsisaid,
ItisnotnecessarytoexaminethedoctrinesofBuddhismandTaoismdeeplytounderstandthem.ThemerefactthattheydiscardtheThreeBonds[betweenrulerandminister,
fatherandson,andhusbandandwife]andtheFiveConstantVirtues[righteousnessonthepartofthefather,deeploveonthepartofthemother,friendlinessonthepartofthe
elderbrother,respectonthepartoftheyoungerbrother,andfilialpietyonthepartoftheson]isalreadyacrimeofthegreatestmagnitude.Nothingmoreneedbesaidaboutthe
rest.14

Andthesedifferencesaremanifestationsofprofoundontologicaldifferencesbetweenthetwoschools.Bothschoolstakeproblemsofthemindandofhumannatureto
beofcrucialimportance,andyettheyhavereachedcompletelydifferentconclusions.
Ts'aoaskedhowtotellthedifferencebetweenConfucianismandBuddhism.Theteachersaid:"Justtakethedoctrine'WhatHeavenimpartstomaniscalledhumannature.'The
Buddhistssimplydonotunderstandthis,anddogmaticallysaythatnatureisemptyconsciousness.WhatweConfucianiststalkaboutareconcreteprinciples,andfromourpoint
ofviewtheyarewrong.Theysay,'Wewillnotbeaffectedbyasinglespeckofdust[suchasdistinctionofrightandwrongorsubjectandobject]...andwillnotdiscardasingle
elementofexistence(dharma)[suchastheminister'sloyaltytotherulerortheson'sfilialpietytothefather].'Ifoneisnotaffectedbyanyspeckofdust,howisitpossibleforhim
nottodiscardasingleelementofexistence?Whenhearrivesatwhatis

Page441
calledtherealmofEmptiness,hedoesnotfindanysolution.Takethehumanmind,forexample.ThereisnecessarilyinittheFiveRelationsbetweenthefatherandson,rulerand
minister,oldandyoung,husbandandwife,andfriends.WhentheBuddhistsarethoroughintheiraction,theywillshownoaffectionintheserelationships,whereaswe
Confucianistsarethoroughgoinginouraction.Thereisaffectionbetweenfatherandson,righteousnessbetweenrulerandminister,orderbetweenoldandyoung,attentionto
theirseparatefunctionsbetweenhusbandandwife,andfaithfulnessbetweenfriends.WeConfucianistsrecognizeonlythemoralprinciplesofsincerityandgenuineness.
Sincerityistheessenceofallgooddeeds.15

RegardlessofwhetherChuHsi'sinterpretationofBuddhistteachingsiscorrectorhiscriticismofthemsound,thedifferencebetweenthetwopositionscannotbe
overlooked.ChuHsiseesthecontrastbetweenthesetwopositionsasfollows:"TheBuddhistsarecharacterizedbyvacuity,whereasweConfucianistsare
characterizedbyconcreteness.TheBuddhistsarecharacterizedbyduality(ofAbsoluteEmptinessandtheillusoryworld),whereasweConfucianistsarecharacterized
byunity(oneprinciplegoverningall).TheBuddhistsconsiderfactsandprinciplesasunimportantandpaynoattentiontothem."16EventhoughtheBuddhistsmay
evaluatethedifferencesbetweenthetwopositionsdifferently,theymustalsorecognizethatthereareessentialdifferencesbetweenthetwoapproaches.Whilethe
ultimatecommitmentfortheConfucianistsisjenae(humanity),17theBuddhists'ultimatecommitmentisk'ungaf(shunyaorEmptiness).Whiletheprinciplethe
Confucianistsrealizeishsingliag(principleinherentinhumannature),thatunderstoodbytheBuddhistsisk'ungliah(principleasEmptiness).Whilethefunctionofthe
mindfortheConfucianistsistorealizeinitselftheprinciplesofwhatisontologicallyreal,thatfortheBuddhistsistoprovidethebasisforanillusoryphenomenalworld
throughthetransformationoftheconsciousnesses.WhiletheprimarygoaloftheConfucianistsisrealizationtothefullestextentoftheintrinsicvalueinlife,thatforthe
Buddhistsistotranscendthebitterseaoflifeanddeath.Inshort,thebasicorientationsofthetwoapproachesaredifferent,andsuchdifferencesarerecognizedby
bothsides.SurelytheConfucianistsmaylearnorevenborrowsomethingfromtheBuddhists,andtheBuddhistshavemadeadjustmenttotheConfuciantraditions,but
theguidingprinciplesofthetwoschoolsaredifferent.Thisfactshouldneverbeobscuredbyapparentsimilaritiesthatcaneasilybefoundinthesetwoschools.
Now,aswehaveestablishedthatNeoConfucianismisnottobetakenasadisguisedformofBuddhism,wemustgoonestepfurthertoexaminetheclaimthatNeo
ConfucianismisthetrueheiroftheclassicalConfucianismofConfuciusandMencius,theoriginofwhichmayevenbetracedbacktoancientsageemperors.Our
investigationshowsthatthehistoricalgroundsforChuHsitomakesuchaclaimareextremelyweak.Lackinganysolidevidencetosubstantiatetheclaimofthe
historicalexistenceofHsiadynasty(21831752B.C.?),scholarscurrentlymaintainthatauthentichistorybeginswiththe

Page442

Shangdynasty(17511112B.C.?)beyondthispointistheageoflegendstheauthenticityofwhicharehighlyquestionable.ButChuHsi'slineoftransmissionofthe
orthodoxyisbasedpreciselyonsuchimprobablestories.NotonlydidChuHsiandotherNeoConfucianphilosophersuseapocryphalsourcestheyhadatendency
toreadtheirownthoughtsintotheClassics.Forexample,intheBookofOdes,werethetwolines''TheMandateofHeaven,/Howbeautifulandunceasing!"18Chu
HsiremarkedthattheMandateofHeavenmeansthe"Way"orthemoralorderofHeavenhowever,inearlyChou(1111249B.C.)thebeliefinananthropomorphic
Godwasstillquitestrong.Again,intheAnalectsitwasreportedthat"Confucius,standingbyastream,said,'Itpassesonlikethis,neverceasingdayornight!'"19
WhatwasConfuciusthinkingabout?WashethinkingoftheunceasingoperationoftheuniverseassuggestedbyChuHsiandCh'engI?Itseemsfarfetchedtothink
thatConfucius'remarkwasmeanttobeacharacterizationoftheWayitself(Taot'iai).20Therefore,fromastrictlyhistoricalperspectivewemayeasilydismissthestory
aboutthelineoftransmissionoftheorthodoxyasabigchunkofnonsense.Butforscholarsofamoresophisticatedmind,theinvestigationoftheproblemcannotstop
here.Infact,therealsearchhasnotyetbegun,becausetheproblematissueisnotahistoricalone.Thecruxofthematteractuallyliesinone'sexistentialdecisionover
one'sultimatecommitmentorphilosophicalfaith.AndtheultimateconcernofSunglearningincontrasttoHanlearningisbeyondanydoubtaphilosophicalone,nota
historicalone.
PaulTillich'sdistinctionbetweenChristologyandJesusologyishighlyinstructiveforourpurposes.21ChristologyconcernsthereligiousfaithinChrist,whosemessageis
thattheendofthislifeisthebeginningofanotherlife,muchricherthanthislife,whileJesusologystudiesthehistoricalJesusbytryingtocollectmoreorlessprobable
evidenceconcerningtheman.Tillichsays,
ThesearchforthehistoricalJesuswasanattempttodiscoveraminimumofreliablefactsaboutthemanJesusofNazareth,inordertoprovideasafefoundationfortheChristian
faith.Thisattemptwasafailure.HistoricalresearchprovidedprobabilitiesaboutJesusofahigherorlowerdegree.Onthebasisoftheseprobabilities,itsketched"LivesofJesus."
ButtheyweremorelikenovelsthanbiographiestheycertainlycouldnotprovideasafefoundationfortheChristianfaith.Christianityisnotbasedontheacceptanceofa
historicalnovelitisbasedonthewitnesstothemessianiccharacterofJesusbypeoplewhowerenotinterestedatallinabiographyoftheMessiah.22

Bythesametoken,Confucianismisnotbasedontheacceptanceofahistoricallegenditisbasedonthewitnesstotheclearcharacterofthesagelymindwhichfound
itsmanifestationsamongtheancientsageemperorsandwhichisinherentineverybody.Hence,accuracyofhistoricaldetailsisnotthatimportantforthosewhohad
faithinthemanifestationofthesagelymindinthehumanworld.SurelyIdonotmeanthattheproblemsofConfucianistsare

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exactlythesameasthoseofChristians,asthemessagestheytrytoconveyaredifferent.Butwithoutanydoubttheirproblemsareparalleltooneanother.The
ConfucianmessagemustbetracedbacktoConfuciusastheChristianmessagemustbetracedbacktoJesusastheChrist.ItisthroughastudyoftheidealsConfucius
embodiedthatwemayhopetofindthecontinuitybetweenNeoConfucianismandclassicalConfucianism.
WhenwegobacktothetimeofConfucius,wefindthatConfuciushimselfalreadycomplainedaboutthelackofevidencetosubstantiatehisclaimofknowledgeofthe
spiritandpracticeofpropriety(liaj)intheHsiaandShangdynasties,butheneverwaveredinhisfaithinthefunctionofproprietyasameanstoeducatepeople.23This
showsthateventhoughConfuciusshowedagenuineloveofhistory,yetwhathecaredformostweretheidealsembodiedinthehistoricallegendsashesawthem.
ThesameattitudewasadoptedbyNeoConfucianphilosophers.InestablishingthelineoftransmissionoftheorthodoxyChuHsimadeitclearthathewasfollowingin
Confucius'steps,andheexplicitlystatedthatConfucius'achievementswereevenmoreimportantthanthoseoftheancientsageemperors,astheConfucianideals
weremostclearlyembodiedinthepersonofConfucius.NowtheproblemliesinwhethertheseConfucianidealsdefendedbyNeoConfucianscholarsaretrulythe
idealsrepresentedbyConfuciushimself.TheNeoConfucianphilosophersfirmlybelievedthattheycouldunderstandthesagelymindeventhoughtheirtimewas
behindthetimeoftheSagebymorethanathousandyears.AlthoughtherewasavarietyofopinionsamongNeoConfucianphilosophers,itisnotdifficulttofindsome
commoncharacteristics.Forthesakeofconvenience,Ishallmentiononlytwo.Theyallbelievedthatman'smoralnatureisgood24andthatitisanendowmentfrom
HeaventheyalsobelievedthatHeavenistheultimatecreativeprinciple,whichworksincessantlyintheuniverse,thatcanbegraspedbythemind.Now,ourburdenis
toshow,ifwecanfindthem,thefoundationofsuchthoughtsinConfuciushimself.
Onthesurface,itseemsthatwecanonlygiveanegativeanswer.ItwasreportedintheAnalectsthatTzukungaksaid,"WecanhearourMaster's[views]onculture
anditsmanifestation,butwecannothearhisviewsonhumannatureandtheWayofHeaven[becausethesesubjectsarebeyondthecomprehensionofmost
people]."25ButthemaininterestsoftheNeoConfucianphilosopherslayexactlyinwhatConfuciustalkedaboutleastbeforehisstudentshumannatureandtheWay
ofHeaven.Ifwelookintothemattermoredeeply,however,weshallfindthatthereareindeedseedsinConfucius'thoughtthatmaybeinterpretedinsuchawaythat
theyarethoroughlyconsistentwiththeviewsofNeoConfucianphilosophers.Forexample,itwasreportedintheAnalects:"Confuciussaid,'Shen,althereisone
threadthatrunsthroughmydoctrines.'TsengTzusaid,'Yes.'AfterConfuciushadleft,thedisciplesaskedhim,'Whatdidhemean?'TsengTzureplied,'TheWayof
ourMasterisnoneotherthanconscientiousness(chungam)andaltruism(shuan).'"26WingtsitChan'scommentisasfollows:"Allscholarsagree...

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onthemeaningsofchungandshu,whicharebestexpressedbyChuHsi,namely,chungmeansthefulldevelopmentofone's[originallygood]mindandshumeans
theextensionofthatmindtoothers."27AlthoughConfuciusneverspecifiedtheonethreadthatranthroughhisdoctrines,itisnotdifficulttofigureoutwhatitisby
lookingforcrossreferencesintheAnalects.Forexample,hesaid,"Amanofhumanity[jen],wishingtoestablishhisowncharacter,alsoestablishesthecharacterof
others,andwishingtobeprominenthimself,alsohelpsotherstobeprominent."28WingtsitChanpointedoutthat"LiuPaonanao(17911855)iscorrectinequating
chungwithConfucius'saying,'Establishone'sowncharacter,'andshuwith'Alsoestablishthecharacterofothers.'"29Ifsuchinterpretationisnotincorrect,then
chungandshumustbethetwosidesofthesamecoin,fortheyaremanifestationsofjen.AndjeniswithoutanydoubtConfucius'ultimateconcern,ashesays,''Ifa
manisnothumane(jen),whathashetodowithceremonies(li)?Ifheisnothumane,whathashetodowithmusic?"30Ceremoniesandmusicarethetwomost
importantmeansthatConfuciusreliesontoeducatepeople,andjenisclearlythespiritunderthepracticeofceremoniesandmusic.Again,hesays,
Wealthandhonorarewhateverymandesires.Butiftheyhavebeenobtainedinviolationofmoralprinciples,theymustnotbekept.Povertyandhumblepositionarewhatevery
mandislikes.Butiftheycanbeavoidedonlyinviolationofmoralprinciples,theymustnotbeavoided.Ifasuperiormandepartsfromhumanity,howcanhefulfilthatname?A
superiormanneverabandonshumanityevenforthelapseofasinglemeal.Inmomentsofhaste,heactsaccordingtoit.Intimesofdifficultyorconfusion,heactsaccordingto
it.31

FromsuchevidencewecannotbutconcludethatjenisConfucius'ultimatecommitmentaswellasthatonethreadthatrunsthroughallhisdoctrines.Therefore,even
thoughConfuciusneverquitesaidthathumannatureisgood,hedoesbelievethatthereisgreatpotentialityinmanandthattheprimarygoalofamanistodevelopthe
greatpotentialitywithinhimselfandtohelpotherstodeveloptheirpotentiality.ConfuciuswasthefirstChinesephilosophertogivejenanewmeaningandmakeitthe
primaryvirtue,thefoundationofallothervirtues.TheNeoConfucianphilosophersshowedthesamecommitmenttoandfaithinjen.Hereitisclearthattheywere
indeedthefollowersofConfucius,onlytheyattemptedtoaddnewdimensionsintheunderstandingofjenandtriedtodescribejeninmorepreciseterms.
NowweshallexamineConfucius'attitudetowardHeaven.ItseemsnaiveforNeoConfucianscholarstobelieveuncriticallythatthesocalled"ten
wings"(commentaries)oftheBookofChangeswereConfucius'ownwritingsandthenconsideralltheviewsexpressedthereintorepresentConfucius'ownposition.
ItisbetterforustosticktothemostreliablesourcetostudyConfuciustheAnalects.OnthesurfaceitseemsthatConfuciusstillbelievedinthetraditionalconcept
ofHeavenasapersonalGod,ashesaid,"Heavenpro

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ap

32

ducedthevirtuethatisinmewhatcanHuanT'ui dotome?" AndwhenhisbelovedstudentYenYandied,hecomplainedbitterly,"Alas,Heavenisdestroying

me!Heavenisdestroyingme!"33Butwemustbecomeskepticalwhenwefindthathealsosaid,"HewhocommitsasinagainstHeavenhasnogodtoprayto."34It
wasalsoreportedthat"Confuciusneverdiscussedstrangephenomena,physicalexploits,disorder,orspiritualbeings.''35Heavendoesnotseemtointerveneineither
humanaffairsornaturalevents.WefindanextremelyinterestingconversationrecordedintheAnalects."Confuciussaid,'Idonotwishtosayanything.'Tzukung
said,'Ifyoudonotsayanything,whatcanwelittlediscipleseverlearntopassontoothers?'Confuciussaid,'DoesnotHeaven(T'ien,aq'Nature')sayanything?The
fourseasonsruntheircourseandallthingsareproduced.DoesHeavensayanything?'"36ItisclearthatConfuciuswastakingHeavenashismodel,whileHeaven
seemstobetheultimatecreativeforceworkingincessantlybutquietlyintheuniverse.Heavenhereshowsanimpersonalratherthanapersonalcharacter.Butitwould
gotoofartointerpretConfuciusastakingatotallynaturalisticpositioninregardtounderstandingHeaven,ashesaid,"Thesuperiormanstandsinaweofthreethings.
HestandsinaweoftheMandateofHeavenhestandsinaweofgreatmenandhestandsinaweofthewordsofthesages."37Again,hedescribedhisownlearning
processthroughouthislifeasfollows:"Atfifteenmymindwassetonlearning.Atthirtymycharacterhadbeenformed.AtfortyIhadnomoreperplexities.AtfiftyI
knewtheMandateofHeaven(T'ienmingar).AtsixtyIwasateasewithwhateverIheard.AtseventyIcouldfollowmyheart'sdesirewithouttransgressingmoral
principles."38SurelyConfuciusstillregardedHeavenasatranscendentsource.Confucius'originalityliesinhisbeliefthatthereisnoneedtodepartfromhumanwaysin
ordertoknowtheMandateofHeaven.Confuciusputtheemphasisentirelyonmanhimself.Hesaid,"ItismanthatcanmaketheWaygreat,andnottheWaythat
canmakemangreat."39AndthefollowingexchangewasrecordedintheAnalects:"Chilu[Tzuluas]askedaboutservingspiritualbeings.Confuciussaid,'Ifweare
notyetabletoserveman,howcanweservespiritualbeings?''Iventuretoaskaboutdeath.'Confuciussaid,'Ifwedonotyetknowaboutlife,howcanweknow
aboutdeath?'"40HerewefindamodelforfuturegenerationsofConfucianscholarstofollow.Confuciustaughtahumanismwithoutcuttingoffitstieswitha
transcendentcreativesourceinHeaven.OnereadsmessagesfromHeaveninordertofindguidanceforselfrealizationinlife.HereagainNeoConfucianphilosophers
followedtheleadoftheMaster.TheymaybeguiltyofreadingtoomanythingsintothetextsoftheClassics,butinspirittheyaresurelytheheirsofConfucius'
teachings.F
Contrarytocurrentopinion,whichholdsthatConfucianscholarsfollowedtraditionsslavishlywithoutshowingcreativesparks,greatConfucianphilosopherswere
neversatisfiedwithwhatwashandeddownfromthepast.Eachgenerationbrokenewgroundandcontinuallyaddednewdimensiontothetradition.Forexample,
MenciussurelywentbeyondConfuciusbystating

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explicitlythathumannatureisgood.Byhumannaturehemeantthedistinctlyhumannaturethatdistinguishesmanfromotheranimals.Hebelievedthateveryonehasthe
FourBeginningsofHumanity,Righteousness,Propriety,andWisdominhismind.41Byfullydevelopinghispotentiality,mancanthenknowHeaven.AsMenciussays,
"Hewhoexertshismindtotheutmostknowshisnature.HewhoknowshisnatureknowsHeaven.Topreserveone'smindandtonourishone'snatureisthewayto
serveHeaven."42Mind(hsinat),nature(hsingau),Heaven(T'ien)nowformaninseparabletrio.TheDoctrineoftheMeanwentevenfurtherbysayingthat"what
Heaven(T'ien,Nature)impartstomaniscalledhumannature.TofollowournatureiscalledtheWay(Taoav).CultivatingtheWayiscallededucation."43The
MandateofHeavennowiscompletelyinternalizedinhumannature.''SincerityistheWayofHeaven.Tothinkhowtobesincereisthewayofman."44Mannotonly
knowsHeaven,butactsafterthemodelofHeaven.Thus,
onlythosewhoareabsolutelysincerecanfullydeveloptheirnature.Iftheycanfullydeveloptheirnature,theycanthenfullydevelopthenatureofothers.Iftheycanfully
developthenatureofothers,theycanthenfullydevelopthenatureofthings.Iftheycanfullydevelopthenatureofthings,theycanthenassistinthetransformingand
nourishingprocessofHeavenandEarth.IftheycanassistinthetransformingandnourishingprocessofHeavenandEarth,theycanthusformatrinitywithHeavenandEarth.45

TheideaofHeavenastheultimatecreativeontologicalprinciplewasfurtherdevelopedinthecommentariesoftheBookofChanges.Itissaidthat"thegreat
characteristicofHeavenandEarthistoproduce."46Again,"Thesuccessivemovementofyinawandyangax(passiveandactivecosmicforces)constitutestheWay
(Tao).WhatissuesfromtheWayisgood,andthatwhichrealizesitistheindividualnature."47Fromthesesourceswecantracethedevelopmentofacreative
metaphysics,onewhichholdsthatonlythroughtherealizationoftheselfcanthecreativemessageofHeavenbecomesmanifest.ButintheHandynastyscholars
turnedtheirattentiontotextualstudiesandinstitutionalconsiderations.Theywerealsointerestedincosmologicalspeculationsthatdegeneratedintoastrological
speculationsorevensuperstitions.DuringtheWei(220265)andChin(265420)dynastiesNeoTaoismandthenBuddhismbecamethemainstreams.The
innermostConfucianmessagewasbeingforgotten.ItwasundersuchcircumstancesthatweseetheemergenceofNeoConfucianismintheSungdynasty.
BecausetheNeoConfucianmovementaroseasaConfucianresponsetoBuddhismandTaoism,naturallytheNeoConfucianphilosophersreceivedcertainstimuli
fromandinsomewayswereprofoundlyinfluencedbythesetwoschools.Butthemessagestheyspreadweredifferent.TheNeoConfucianistsbelievedthatmanis
endowedwithagoodnatureandthatitisimpartedfromHeaven,whichisnoneotherthantheultimatecreativeprinci

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plethatworksincessantlyintheuniverse.SuchmessageswereindeedonesthatwecanfindintheClassics,onlytheexpressionsofthemwerequitedifferent.The
NeoConfucianphilosophersweretotallyuninhibitedinborrowingfromTaoismandBuddhism,andtheywerevigorousintheirdrivetoopenupnewvistasfor
Confucianism.ThisexplainswhyChouTuniborrowedtheDiagramoftheGreatUltimatefromanunmistakableTaoistsourceandturnedittoConfucianuse.48The
Ch'engbrothersmighthaveborrowedthetermliay(principle)fromtheHuayenazSchoolofBuddhism,49buttheygaveacompletelynewmeaningtoit.Whatismost
importantforNeoConfucianscholarsisthattheessentialConfucianmessagemustbefullyrealizedintheselftextualstudiesorscholarlylearningareofonly
secondaryimportance.Forexample,LuHsiangshansaid,"Ifinourstudyweknowthefundamentals,thenalltheSixClassicsaremyfootnotes."50Thereasonwhy
Luheldsuchanattitudemaybeseenfromthefollowingquotation:
Thefourdirectionsplusupwardanddownwardconstitutethespatialcontinuum(y ba).Whathasgonebyinthepastandwhatistocomeinthefutureconstitutethetemporal
continuum(choubb).Theuniverse(thesecontinua)ismymind,andmymindistheuniverse.Sagesappearedtensofthousandsofgenerationsago.Theysharedthismindthey
sharedthisprinciple.Sageswillappeartensofthousandsofgenerationstocome.Theywillsharethismindtheywillsharethisprinciple.Overthefourseassagesappear.They
sharethismindtheysharethisprinciple.51

Lufirmlybelievedthatbecausewecanfindandgraspprinciplesinourownmind,itwasnotthatimportantforustostudytheClassics.SurelyChuHsiwouldnotgo
asfarasLu.Infact,oneofhiscriticismsagainstLuwasthatLu'sattitudeofcompletelyneglectingClassicalstudieswouldhaveharmfulconsequences.ButChuHsi's
mainconcernwasalso"thestudyfortheself."EventhoughhespentalotoftimeandenergywritingcommentariesfortheClassics,itisbynomeanstruetosaythathe
heldaslavishattitudetowardtheClassics.WhenhedefendedChouTuni'sessay"AnExplanationoftheDiagramoftheGreatUltimate"againstLu'schargesthatthe
diagramwastakenfromaTaoistsourceanddidnothaveanyfoundationintheteachingsofthesages,hesaid,
WhenFuhsiinventedthetrigramsandKingWendevelopedthesystem,theynevertalkedanythingabouttheGreatUltimate(T'aichibc)butConfuciustalkedaboutit.When
ConfuciusgaveinterpretationstotheBookofChanges,henevertalkedabouttheUltimateofNonbeing(wuchibd),butMasterChoutalkedaboutit.Isitnottruethattheancient
sagesandthemodernsageswerefollowingthesameprinciples?IfwecantrulyseetherealityoftheGreatUltimate,thenweknowthatthosewhodonottalkaboutitarenot
doingtoolittle,whilethosewhotalkaboutitarenotdoingtoomuch.Whyshouldwehavesomanytroublesconcerningthisissue?52

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WhatisinterestinghereisthatthesewordscouldhavebeensaidbyLuHsiangshanhimself.True,ChuHsihonoredtheClassics,butonlybecausehebelievedthat
thereweretruthsembodiedinthem.WhenhewrotethecommentariesfortheClassics,hewastryingtomanifestthetruthshesawasembodiedinthem.Thiswas
creativework,notjustameaninglessparaphrasingofthetextsthemselves.Butwhatareimportantarethemessagescarriedbythetexts.OnthisscoreChuandLudid
notreallydiffermuchfromeachother.EvenLuneversaidthatweneednotstudytheClassicsatallhesimplyfeltthattheemphasisshouldnotbelaidonpedantic
classicalstudiesperse.ButevenChuwasmerelyusingtheClassicsforpedagogicalpurposes,becausehealsofirmlybelievedthatthemindhastheabilitytogethold
ofprinciples.HewastryingtorelivetheexperiencesofthesagesthroughstudyingtheClassicswithaviewtorecoveringtheintendedmeaningsinthetexts.Although
thereareindeedsignificantdifferencesbetweenChuandLu,theyagreedoninterpretingtheClassicsinsuchawaythattheConfucianmessagecanberealizedinone's
life.Onthisscoretheywereallies.
NowwecanclearlydefinetherelationshipbetweenclassicalConfucianismandSungMingNeoConfucianism.NeoConfucianphilosophersclaimedthattheywere
transmittingtheWayofConfuciusandMencius,asConfuciusclaimedthathewastransmittingtheWayofsageemperorsinthepastYaoandShun,KingWenand
KingWu.Thewordsmaybedifferent,butthespiritremainsthesame.IntheirstudiesoftheClassicsNeoConfucianscholarssometimesseemedtohavedone
violencetothetextsbygivingnewinterpretations,newmeaningsnotintendedbytheoriginalauthors,buttheyhadreasonsforsodoing.Theybelievedthatinessence
thesagelymindisnotdifferentfromourmindsandthattheprinciplesembodiedinthewordsanddeedsofsagesinthepastarenotdifferentfromthosetoberealized
inourownlives.AndwedofindthattheNeoConfucianunderstandingofmenthroughjenandtheirunderstandingofT'ien(Heaven)havetheirseedsinthethought
ofConfuciusasrecordedintheAnalects.True,theydidbreaksomenewground.Forexample,classicalConfucianismneveridentifiedjenwithshengshengbe
(creativecreativity)asNeoConfucianscholarsdid.ButwefindnothinginclassicalConfucianismthatcontradictsorprecludessuchdevelopmentinNeoConfucian
thought.Therefore,wemustagreewiththeNeoConfucianphilosopherswhentheyclaimthatthereiscontinuitybetweenclassicalConfucianismandNeo
ConfucianismandthattheyteachsomethingquitedifferentfromBuddhistandTaoistthoughts,asthesetwoschoolsdonotbelieveintheclassicalandNeoConfucian
viewsofHeavenastheultimatecreativeontologicalprincipleintheuniverseandmanasbeingendowedwithhumanityinhismindandnature.
ByusingthesetwocriteriawecantelleasilywhoaretrueConfucianistsandwhoarenot.AcaseinpointwouldbeWangYangmingbf(14721529)intheMing
dynasty.Eventhoughhesaidthat"intheoriginalsubstanceofthemindthereisnodistinctionbetweengoodandevil,"53wecannotsaythat

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WangwasgivingexpressiontoaBuddhistview,asWangclearlysubmittedtotheConfucianviewsofHeavenandman.Whathereallymeantwasonlythatwecannot
giveadequatecharacterizationofthesupremegood,asitisbeyondgoodandevil.54Oncehewroteafamouspoemasfollows:
Thesoundless,odorlessmomentofsolitaryselfknowledge
ContainsthegroundofHeaven,Earth,andallbeings.
Foolishishewholeaveshisinexhaustibletreasure,
Withabowl,movingfromdoortodoor,imitatingthebeggar.55

WeshouldnevertakeWangtobeaTaoistorBuddhistsimplybecauseheusedsuchseeminglyTaoistimagesas"soundlessandodorless"andsuchBuddhist
metaphorsas"inexhaustibletreasure"thethrustofhisthoughtistotallyconsistentwithMencius'thoughtthathumannatureisgood,andhecouldhaveeasilyfoundhis
precedentinConfucius'teachingwithoutwordsandtheconcludingremarksintheDoctrineoftheMean:
TheBookofOdessays,"Icherishyourbrilliantvirtue,whichmakesnogreatdisplayinsoundorappearance."Confuciussaid,"Ininfluencingpeople,theuseofsoundor
appearanceisofsecondaryimportance."TheBookofOdessays,"Hisvirtueisaslightashair."Still,ahairiscomparable."TheoperationsofHeavenhaveneithersoundnor
smell.''56

Ofcourse,wecanalwaysarguethateventheDoctrineoftheMeanmayhavealreadybeeninfluencedbyTaoistthought.Butsucharguments,eveniftheycouldbe
provedtobetrue,couldonlyservetoconfusetheissues.Thecruxofthematterliesinwhetherthedocumentasawholeastransmittedtoposterityisessentially
ConfucianorTaoistincharacter.Thefactisthatnoschoolofthought,unlessitisdead,canaffordtoremainunchanged.Inordertorevitalizeitselfortoenlargeits
perspective,itcannotbutlearnfromcompetingmovementswithaviewtoaddingnewdimensionstoitsowntradition.Onlyifithaslosttheessentialcharacterofits
ownschoolandadoptedthebasicoutlookofanotherschoolwemayconcludethataconversionhashappened.Infact,twoschoolsofthoughtintertwiningovera
longtimemaysharequiteafewideasthatfromanoutsideviewpointmayappeartoteachthesamething.Butifweprobesomewhatdeeper,wewouldfindthatthey
areactuallyspreadingverydifferentmessages.Forexample,boththeTaoistsandtheConfucianiststaughtwuweibg(takingno[artificial]action),buttheymeant
somethingquitedifferentbytheterm.TheTaoistssawnothingpositiveinhumaninstitutions,whiletheConfucianistsbelievedthatthesystemofritualsandmusicisso
naturalformanthatitcouldfunctionsosmoothlythatnoothermeanswouldbeneededforasagekingtorunstateaffairs.Letuslookattheproblemfromstillanother
angle.ProfessorMouTsungsanbhclaimsthatallthethreemajortraditionsinChinaConfucianism,Taoism,andBuddhism

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57

assertedthepossibilityofwhathecalled"intellectualintuition." Itisquitepossiblethatfromanoutsider'sviewpointthesethreetraditionsmaybeseentohavetaught
verysimilarideas.Butthesesimilaritiesshouldnotmisleadustoconcludethatthethreetraditionsarereallyteachingexactlythesamething,orthereisnoneedtofind
essentialdifferencesamongthesetraditions.Mypersonalviewisthatwemustseethedevelopmentofideasfromadynamic,historicalpointofview:schoolswith
vitalityconstantlyenlargethemselvesandabsorbcertaininsightsfromrivalschools,butthisfactdoesnotmakethedifferencesamongtheschoolsdisappear.
IntheaboveIhaveshownthatthereissomejustificationfortheNeoConfucianistsinSungtoclaimthattheyinheritedthelineoftransmissionfromtheclassical
ConfucianismofConfuciusandMencius.Naturally,Idonotmeanthatthereisnotanalternativewaytoclaimadifferentlineoforthodoxy.Infact,afterConfucius
dieditissaidthatConfucianismwassplitintoeightdifferentbranches,andinHsnTzu'sbi(313238B.C.)dayshecouldhaveclaimedtheorthodoxyforhimselfagainst
therivalschoolofMenciusthenintheearlyCh'ingdynasty(16441912)peoplelikeYenYanbj(16351704)claimedthatthewholemovementduringtheSungand
MingdynastieswentwideoffthemarkandgaveadistortedpictureofConfucianteachings.ButifyouweretogointothecircleoffaithofSungMingConfucianism,
youwouldseeclearlythattheprogramwasdefinitelynotjustanarbitraryconcoctionwithoutarationaleamongitsproponents.
WhendefinitecriteriahavebeenestablishedtodistinguishNeoConfucianismfromBuddhismandTaoism,manycontroversiesareseentobeunnecessaryand
avoidable.Forexample,duringthefamousdebatesbetweenChuHsiandLuHsiangshan,eachsidechargedtheothersidewithteachingBuddhistideas.58These
criticismsareunfounded.ThedifferencesaredifferenceswithintheNeoConfuciantradition,notthosebetweenConfucianismandBuddhism.Theirchargesagainst
eachotheronlyshowedtheiremotionaldissatisfactionagainstarivalschoolwithinthesametradition,astheywerereallyworriedthattheirorthodoxywouldbe
usurpedbysomeimpuredoctrinemixedupwithBuddhistandTaoistthoughts.
OurnextproblemiswhetheritwasChuHsiorhisrivalLuHsiangshanwhoreallyrepresentedtheorthodoxteachingsofConfuciusandMencius.Onthesurfacethis
wasneveraproblem,aswehaveseenthatasamatterofhistoricalfactChuHsialmostsinglehandedlyestablishedthelineoftransmissionoftheorthodoxywhich
wasunquestionablyacceptedbyposterity.Lu,ontheotherhand,wascompletelyignoredbyscholarsuntilhisthoughtswereagainrecognizedtosomeextentby
WangYangming.59HenevergainedsuchaprominentpositionthathecouldbecomparedwithChuHsi.ButtheproblemwasreopenedbyProfessorMouTsung
san'smonumentalworkonNeoConfucianphilosophy,Hsint'iyhsingt'ibk(Substanceofmindandsubstanceofhumannature),60andwemustreexaminethe
problemcarefullybeforewecanreachaconclusion.

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ProfessorMoupointedoutthatalthoughChuHsibelongedinthegeneralmovementofNeoConfucianism,yetwhathesucceededanddevelopedwereCh'engI's
ideas,whichwerequitedifferentfromwhatMenciushadtaught.Ch'engImaintainedthat"loveisfeelingwhereashumanityisthenature."61Feeling(ch'ingbl)and
nature(hsing)pertaintotwodifferentlevels.ChuHsifurtherdevelopedCh'engI'sideasbyidentifyingnaturewithprinciple(li)andfeelingwithmaterialforce(ch'ibm)
themind(hsin)forChuHsiisconstitutedofthemostsubtlekindofmaterialforce,andithastheabilitytocomprehendtheprinciplesinthings.62Butwhenwegoback
toMenciuswefindthatMenciusneverusedthetermch'inginthesensethatCh'engIandChuHsiusedit.Ch'ingforMenciusmeansonlych'ingshihbn(whatisthe
case).AndMenciushimselfnevermadethedistinctionbetweenthefeeling(ch'ing)ofcommiserationandthemindheart(hsin)ofcommiseration.WhatMencius
advocatesisthatifwecanrecoverourlostmind,thenourfeelingsofcommiseration,righteousness,propriety,andwisdomwillnaturallydevelopintothevirtuesof
jen,i,liboandchih.bpForMencius,thereisnodistinctionbetweentheoriginalmindandtheessentialnatureofman.Whenwefailtofollowthenaturallygood
tendenciesofourmindandnaturebecauseofbadinfluencesfromtheenvironment,thenevilswillensue.Ch'iforMenciusis"thestrong,movingpower."63According
tohim,"Ifnourishedbyuprightnessandnotinjured,itwillfillupallbetweenheavenandearth."64FromthesestatementswemayinferthatMenciusdidnotseemto
makeadistinctionbetweench'i(materialforce)andli(principle)thematerialforcethatfilledupheavenandearthisnaturallyembodiedwithprinciplesuntilitis
obstructedbyadverseinfluencessothatitwilldeviatefromprinciples.HenceforMencius,themind,thenature,principle,andmaterialforceallgotogetherwhenthey
canperformtheirproperfunctionaccordingtotheiressentialcharacterwithoutobstructions.ThisphilosophywaslabelledbyProfessorMouasteachinga
straightforwardsystemthatimpliesacreativemetaphysicsthattakestheultimateontologicalprincipletobebothactiveandexisting.65
Incontrasttothissystem,ChuHsiseesliandch'iaspertainingtotwodifferentlevels.Principles,whichbelonginametaphysicalrealm,arepure,clean,devoidof
content,andvastinscope,whilematerialforceisthatwhichmakesthingsrealandconcrete.Whenthismetaphysicsisappliedtotheanalysisofman,wegetthe
tripartitestructureofthemind,thenatureandfeelings.Onlythenatureisprinciplefeelingsarelargelyconstitutedofmaterialforce,butthemindismadeofthemost
subtlekindofmaterialforceandhenceithastheabilitytocomprehendprinciplesandisthekeytobringingabouttheunitybetweenthenatureandfeelings.The
functionofthemindistoappropriateprinciplesandmakethemworkinone'slife.Therefore,ChuHsi'sphilosophypresupposesadualismthatwecannotfindin
Mencius'thought.However,ChuHsididmakeitclearthateventhoughliandch'imustbekeptdistinctfromeachothertheycannotbeseparatedfromeachother.It
wouldbequitewrongtoreadaPlatonicdualismintohisthought.

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Still,thereisnodenialthathisthoughtwasquitedifferentfromMencius'thoughtinspiteofthefactthathewrotehiscommentaryfortheBookofMencius.ForChu
Hsi,itisfutileforthemindtoremaininitselfitmustdirectitselftowardprinciplesinordertofindanyguidanceforbehavior.Therefore,hecondemnedthosewhoput
theirexclusiveattentiononthemind.Andashesawit,theBuddhistshadmadegreatcontributionincontrollingthemind.Hence,heidentifiedallthosewhoput
emphasisonthemindwiththeBuddhists.ThiswaswhyhethoughtLuwasspreadingthemessageofBuddhistteachings.Thus,whatChuaccomplishedwasa
subjectobjectrelatedsysteminwhichthevitalforceofthemindcanrelateitselftoprinciplesthatonlyexistbutdonotact.66
ItwasobviousthatLucouldnotbetakenasaBuddhist,ashefirmlybelievedthatthereisintrinsicvalueinhumanlifeandthatmanisendowedwithhumanityinhis
mindheart.Furthermore,itissimplynotthecasethatLudidnotpayanyattentiontotheconceptofli,ashedeclared,"PrincipleisendowedinmebyHeaven,not
drilledintomefromoutside."67Andhesaid,
Themindisoneandprincipleisone.Perfecttruthisreducedtoaunitytheessentialprincipleisneveraduality.Themindandprinciplecanneverbeseparatedintotwo.Thatis
whyConfuciussaid,"Thereisonethreadthatrunsthroughmydoctrines,"68andMenciussaid,"TheWayisoneandonlyone."69[QuotingConfucius],Menciusalsosaid,
"Therearebuttwowaystobepursued,thatofhumanity(jen)andthatofinhumanity."70Todoinacertainwayishumanity.Nottodoinacertainwayistheoppositeof
humanity.Humanityisthesameasthemindandprinciple.''Seekandyoufindit"71meanstofindthisprinciple."Thosewhoarethefirsttoknow"knowthisprinciple,and"those
whoarethefirsttounderstand"understandthisprinciple.72Itisthisprinciplethatconstitutestheloveforparents,reverenceforelders,andthesenseofalarmandcommiseration
whenoneseesachildabouttofallintoawell.Itisthisprinciplethatmakespeopleashamedofshamefulthingsandhatewhatshouldbehated.Itisthisprinciplethatenables
peopletoknowwhatisrighttoberightandwhatiswrongtobewrong.Itisthisprinciplethatmakespeopledeferentialwhendeferenceisdueandhumblewhenhumilityiscalled
for.Seriousness(ching)bqisthisprinciple.Righteousnessisalsothisprinciple.Whatisinternalisthisprinciple.Whatisexternalisalsothisprinciple.Thereforeitissaid,
"Straight,square,andgreat,[thesuperiorman]workshisoperation,withoutrepeatedeffort,[andis]ineveryrespectadvantageous."73Menciussaid,"Theabilitypossessedby
menwithouttheirhavingacquireditbylearningisinnateability,andtheknowledgepossessedbythemwithoutdeliberationisinnateknowledge."74Theseareendowedinusby
Heaven."Weoriginallyhavethemwithus,"and"theyarenotdrilledintousfromoutside."75ThereforeMenciussaid,"Allthingsarealreadycompleteinoneself.Thereisno
greaterjoythantoexamineoneselfandbesincere(orabsolutelyreal)."7677

Lu'sideasallcamedirectlyfromConfuciusandMencius.HowcanwechargehimwithteachingBuddhistideas?HisviewsbothofmanandofHeavenare

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totallyconsistentwiththeConfuciantraditionassetdownintheDoctrineoftheMeanandthe"AppendedRemarks"totheBookofChanges.Ashesaid,"TheWay
fillstheuniverse.Itdoesnothideorescapefromanything.WithreferencetoHeaven,itiscalledyinandyang.WithreferencetoEarth,itiscalledstrengthand
weakness.Withreferencetoman,itiscalledhumanityandrighteousness.Thushumanityandrighteousnessaretheoriginalmindofman.78
Strangelyenough,ifwefollowChuHsiandacceptMencius'thoughtasrepresentingtheorthodoxlineofConfucianism,thenLustandsmuchclosertoMenciusthan
ChuHsi.Lubelievedthatprinciplesnaturallyflowoutofthemind,andsohedidnotseetheneedtodrawasharpdistinctionbetweenthemindandprincipleasChu
Hsidid.Hesaid,"Mylearningisdifferentfromthatofothersinthefactthatwithmeeverywordcomesspontaneously.AlthoughIhaveutteredtensofthousandsof
words,theyallareexpressionsofwhatiswithinme,andnothingmorehasbeenadded.Recentlysomeonehascommentedofmethatasidefrom[Mencius']saying,
'Firstbuildupthenoblerpartofyournature,'Ihadnothingclever.WhenIheardthis,Isaid,'Verytrueindeed.'"79
NotonlybecausemanyofLu'squotationscamedirectlyfromMenciusorbecausehisspiritwasveryclosetothatofMencius,butalsoforimportantphilosophical
reasonswemustsaythatLu'sthoughtshouldberegardedasmorerepresentativeoftheorthodoxNeoConfucianpositionifweshouldacceptthetenetsofthe
school,asChuHsi'sapproachmustpresupposewhatLuHsiangshantaughtbutnottheotherwayaround.OnceLucommentedonhisdifferencewithChuHsias
follows:
ChuYanhuibr[ChuHsi]oncewrotetooneofhisstudentssaying,"LuTzuchingbs[LuHsiangshan]taughtpeopleonlythedoctrineofhonoringthemoralnature.Therefore
thosewhohavestudiedunderhimaremostlyscholarswhoputtheirbeliefsintopractice.Butheneglectedtofollowthepathofstudyandinquiry.Inmyteachingisitnottrue
thatIhaveputsomewhatmoreemphasisonfollowingthepathofstudyandinquiry?Asaconsequence,mypupilsoftendonotapproachhisinputtingbeliefsintopractice."
FromthisitisclearthatYanhuiwantedtoavoidtwodefects[failuretohonorthemoralnatureandfailuretopractice]andcombinethetwomerits[followingthepathofstudy
andinquiryandpracticingone'sbeliefs].Idonotbelievethistobepossible.Ifonedoesnotknowhowtohonorhismoralnature,howcanhetalkaboutfollowingthepathof
studyandinquiry?80

ThesecriticismswouldnotbesoundifChuHsirefusedtoaccepttheprincipleof"honoringthemoralnature,"butChuHsiinfactwaspursuingthesagelyideal.For
himfollowingthepathofstudyandinquirywasonlyameanstoapproachtherealizationofsuchanideal.InChuHsi'sfamouscommentaryonthefifthchapterofthe
GreatLearning,hesaid,

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Theabovefifthchapterofcommentaryexplainsthemeaningoftheinvestigationofthingsandtheextensionofknowledge,whichisnowlost.Ihaveventuredtotaketheviewof
MasterCh'engIandsupplementitasfollows:Themeaningoftheexpression"Theperfectionofknowledgedependsontheinvestigationofthings(k owubt)"isthis:Ifwewishto
extendourknowledgetotheutmost,wemustinvestigatetheprinciplesofallthingswecomeintocontactwith,fortheintelligentmindofmaniscertainlyformedtoknow,and
thereisnotasinglethinginwhichitsprinciplesdonotinhere.Itisonlybecauseallprinciplesarenotinvestigatedthatman'sknowledgeisincomplete.Forthisreason,thefirst
stepintheeducationoftheadultistoinstructthelearner,inregardtoallthingsintheworld,toproceedfromwhatknowledgehehasoftheirprinciples,andinvestigatefurther
untilhereachesthelimit.Afterexertinghimselfinthiswayforalongtime,hewillonedayachieveawideandfarreachingpenetration.Thenthequalitiesofallthings,whether
internalorexternal,therefinedorthecoarse,willallbeapprehended,andthemind,initstotalsubstanceandgreatfunctioning,willbeperfectlyintelligent.Thisiscalledthe
investigationofthings.Thisiscalledtheperfectionofknowledge.81

ItisacontroversialmatterwhetheranythinghasbeenlostfromthetextoftheGreatLearning,butitisclearthatinthesupplementChuHsiwrotehewasexpressing
hisownideasbasedontheinsightofCh'engIashehadunderstoodit.ItwouldbeabsurdtointerpretChuHsitomeanthatmancanbeomniscientafterhehasmade
avigorousefforttoinvestigatethingsandtoextendknowledge.WhatChuHsimeansisthatonemayrealizetheontologicalprinciplethatgovernstheoperationofthe
universewithinhisownmindafteralongsearchonthepathofstudyandinquiry.Butthiscanbeachievedonlybytheactofaleapoffaith.Byfollowinganinductive
approachwemaybuildupcertainempiricalknowledgeoftheworldorevenformulateaunifiedtheoryofthephysicaluniverse,butthesearenotenoughtoestablisha
metaphysicsofcreativity.Bythesamemethodwealsomaylearnagreatdealaboutmoralpracticeinthesociety,butnottherealizationofthemoralprinciplewithin
theself.SinceChangTsai,NeoConfucianphilosophershadmadeasharpdistinctionbetweeninformativeknowledgeandmoralorontologicalknowledge.82Andthe
insightcanbetracedbacktoMencius'distinctionbetweenthenoblerandthesmallerpartsofman.83Onlybytherealizationofthemoralandcreativenaturewithin
mancanhetrulygrasptheprofoundmessageoftheWayofHeaven.LuHsiangshan'sapproachfollowedcloselyMencius'approachbothinformandinspirit,while
ChuHsitookaroundaboutway.ButifChuHsididnothaveanintrinsicfaithinthenoblerpartofman'snature,allthestudiesandinquiriesintheworldwouldnot
leadhimtothekindof"wideandfarreachingpenetration"thathepraisedinhisremark.ItseemsthatChuHsibelievesthatonecanlearnaboutone'sownmindonly
throughitsabilitytoreflecttheprinciplesinthings,sohedismissesallthoseapproachesthatgodirectlytothemindasCh'an(Zen)teachings.Hedoesnotseemto
realizethathisownapproachwouldnotworkifitdidnotpresuppose

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Lu'sapproach,whichisessentiallynodifferentfromMencius'approach.CanChuHsithendismissMencius'teachingsasCh'anteachings?ItappearsthatChuHsi
enjoysmuchmorethesofterlightfromthemoonwhilerefusingtoacknowledgethattheoriginofsuchlightisthesunitself.Itisironicthatonewhoalmost
singlehandedlyestablishedtheorthodoxlineoftransmissionoftheWayshouldteachonlyafeeblereflectionoftheWay,ifwemaybeallowedtousethemetaphorto
characterizeChuHsi'spositionwithintheNeoConfucianmovement.
Tosay,however,thatLu'spositionisclosertotheorthodoxlineoftransmissionfromMenciusdoesnotentailtheconclusionthattherearenotseriouslimitationsand
shortcomingsinhisthought.True,therealizationofthemoralnatureistheprimaryconcernforNeoConfucianphilosophers,butitisnottheironlyconcern.Onemust
constantlyenlargehisvisionandsharpenhisskillssothathecanhelptheWaytoprevailintheworld,andhemustalsotakegoodcareofhisphysicalnature.Mencius'
righteousnessdoesnotexistonlyinatranscendentrealmitisrealizableinthismundaneworldamidstthepursuitofprofit.84Lu'smeritliesinhisfirmgripofthe
essence,buthisdoorandcourtarecertainlytoonarrow.HisrelativeneglectofthepathofstudyandinquirybecomeshisAchilles'heel.Historyshowedthathewas
nocompetitionforChuHsi,whoaccumulatedsomanyrichesinhisformidablescholarlypursuit.FromaneducationalpointofviewChuHsi'sgradualapproachalso
hasitsmerit.OneneedsexternalhelpaswellashardworkbeforehecanevenreachthatpointofenlightenmentthatwastheonlyconcernforLuHsiangshan.And
onemustrealizehismoralnatureamidsttheentanglementofthephysicalnature.Ifonedoesnotpayenoughattentiontohisphysicalnature,thenwhatheclaimstobe
themanifestationofhismoralnaturemayverywellbeonlyareflectionofhisphysicalnature.AlthoughChuHsi'spositiondeviatedsomewhatfromtheMencian
orthodoxy,yetheaddedvaluablenewdimensionstoConfucianism.Itwasthroughhisgreatscholarship,hisindefatigablehardwork,andhisunquestionableintegrity
thatNeoConfucianismafterhisdeathwashonoredtobetheorthodoxlineofConfucianism.Theresultwasamostremarkablephenomenoninthedevelopmentof
ChineseintellectualhistorythatProfessorMouTsungsancharacterizesas"thesidebranch[taking]thepositionoftheorthodoxy."85Throughacarefulexaminationof
thematerialsavailableandreflectionontheproblemoforthodoxyinChuHsi'sphilosophy,IcannotbutagreetoProfessorMou'sobservation.Afterall,ChuHsi's
philosophyhasbeenhonoredastheunchallengedorthodoxyinConfucianismforthemorethansixhundredyearssincetheearlyYandynasty(12771368).
Notes
1.WingtsitChan,"ChuHsi'sCompletionofNeoConfucianism"inFrancoiseAubin,ed.tudesSongSungStudiesinMemoriamtienneBalazs,Ser.II,No.1

Page456

(1973),p.75.Forageneralreviewoftheformationoftheorthodoxlineoftransmission,alsoseeWm.TheodoredeBary,NeoConfucianOrthodoxyandthe
LearningoftheMindandHeart(NewYork:ColumbiaUniversityPress,1981),pp.213.
2.ChuTzuwenchibu[CollectionofliteraryworksofMasterChu],(SPPYed.entitledChuTzutach'an[CompleteliteraryworksofMasterChu]),76:2122b.
LegendaryemperorsYaoandShunweresupposedtohavereignedinthethirdmillenniumB.C.LegendaryemperorYwassupposedtohavebeenthefounderofthe
Hsiadynasty(21831752B.C.?).BothYenYanandTsengShen(505c.436B.C.)wereConfucius'disciples.Tsussu(492431B.C.?),Confucius'grandson,was
supposedtohavebeentheauthoroftheDoctrineoftheMean.
3.Chan,"ChuHsi'sCompletionofNeoConfucianism,"p.75.
4.Ibid.
5.Ibid.,pp.7576.
6."LettertoChuYanhui,"Hsiangshanch'anchibv[CompleteworksofLuHsiangshan],(SPPYed.),2:5b11a.
7.BookofHistory,ch.3,"CounselsofGreatY."
8.Cf.WangMaohungbw(16681741),ChuTzunienp'ubx[ChronologicalbiographyofMasterChu],(WorldBookCo.ed.)1A:79,1113.
9.ChuTzuyleiby[ClassifiedconversationsofMasterChu],(Taipei:ChengchungbzBookCo.,1970),8:10a,p.225.
10.Ibid.,125:4bp.4792.TheSixthPatriarchofZeninChinawasHuinengca(638713).Hewasoriginallyanilliteratefuelwoodpeddler.Thestoryofhisachieving
suddenenlightenmentwastoldinLiutsut'anchingcb[TheplatformscriptureoftheSixthPatriarch).
11.Ibid.,126:29a,p.4873.
12."PrefacetotheChungyungchangch."
13.Forexample,ChuHsiwascertainlywrongwhenhechargedthattheBuddhistshadplagiarizedfromtheLiehTzuccandtheChuangTzu.cdSeeChuTzuylei,
126:3b,p.4822.
14.ChuTzuylei,126:7a,p.4829.WingtsitChantrans.andcomp.,ASourceBookinChinesePhilosophy(Princeton,N.J.:PrincetonUniversityPress,1963),
p.646.ForthesakeofconvenienceIwouldliketoquotefromtheSourceBookwhereverpossible.HereafterthebookwillbereferredtoasChan,SourceBook.
15.ChuTzuylei,126:8b9a,pp.48324833Chan,SourceBook,pp.647648.ThequotationabouthumannatureisfromtheDoctrineoftheMean,ch.1.
16.Ibid.,126:7b,p.4828Chan,SourceBook,p.648.
17.SeeShuhsienLiu,"TheReligiousImportofConfucianPhilosophy:ItsTraditionalOutlookandContemporarySignificance,"PhilosophyEastandWest21
(April1971),pp.157175.
18.BookofOdes,odeno.267,"TheMandateofHeaven"Chan,SourceBook,p.6.
19.Analects,9:16Chan,SourceBook,p.36.
20.ChuTzuylei,36:21b,p.1556.
21.PaulTillich,SystematicTheology(Chicago:UniversityofChicagoPress,3vols.,1951,1957,1963),Vol.I,pp.135137Vol.II,pp.97118.
22.Ibid.,Vol.II,p.105.
23.Confuciussaid,"IcandescribethecivilizationoftheHsiadynasty,butthedescendantstateofCh'icecannotrenderadequatecorroboration.Icandescribethe
civilizationoftheYindynasty[17511112B.C.],butthedescendantstateofSungcf

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cannotrenderadequatecorroboration.Andallbecauseofthedeficiencyoftheirrecordsandwisemen.WerethosesufficientthenIcouldcorroboratemy
views"(Analects,3:9).QuotedfromFungYulan,cgAHistoryofChinesePhilosophy,trans.DerkBodde(Princeton,N.J.:PrincetonUniversityPress,2vols.
1952,1953),vol.I,p.55.
24.ThispointwasstressedbyMencius,6A:6.Cf.Chan,SourceBook,pp.5354.
25.Analects,5:11Chan,SourceBook,p.28.Tzukung(520c.450B.C.?)wasConfucius'pupil.HisfamilynamewasTuanmu,chprivatenameTz'u,ciandcourtesy
nameTzukung.Hewasnotedforhiseloquenceanddiplomaticskills.
26.Ibid.,4:15Chan,SourceBook,p.27.ShenwastheprivatenameofTsengTzu.Hewasnotedforfilialpiety,andtheGreatLearningandtheBookofFilial
Pietywereascribedtohim.
27.Chan,SourceBook,p.27.
28.Analects,6:28Chan,SourceBook,p.31.
29.Chan,SourceBook,p.27.
30.Analects,3:3Chan,SourceBook,p.24.Evenfromastatisticalpointofviewjenwaswithoutanydoubtthemostcentralandthemostdiscussedvirtueinthe
Analects.
31.Ibid.,4:5Chan,SourceBook,p.26.
32.Ibid.,7:22Chan,SourceBook,p.32.HuanT'uiwasamilitaryofficerinthestateofSungwhoattemptedtokillConfuciusbyfellingatree.Confuciuswasthen
fiftynineyearsold.
33.Ibid.,11:8Chan,SourceBook,p.36.YenYanwasConfucius'pupil.Hewasaquietscholar,notedforhisvirtue.Unfortunately,hediedearly.
34.Ibid.,3:13Chan,SourceBook,p.25.
35.Ibid.,7:20Chan,SourceBook,p.32.
36.Ibid.,17:19Chan,SourceBook,p.47.
37.Ibid.,16:8Chan,SourceBook,p.45.
38.Ibid.,2:4Chan,SourceBook,p.22.
39.Ibid.,15:28Chan,SourceBook,p.44.
40.Ibid.,11:11Chan,SourceBook,p.36.
41.BookofMencius,2A:6Chan,SourceBook,p.65:"Thefeelingofcommiserationisthebeginningofhumanitythefeelingofshameanddislikeisthebeginningof
righteousnessthefeelingofdeferenceandcomplianceisthebeginningofproprietyandthefeelingofrightandwrongisthebeginningofwisdom.Menhavethese
FourBeginningsjustastheyhavetheirfourlimbs."
42.BookofMencius,7A:1Chan,SourceBook,p.78.
43.DoctrineoftheMean,ch.1Chan,SourceBook,p.98.
44.Ibid.,ch.20Chan,SourceBook,p.107.
45.Ibid.,ch.22Chan,SourceBook,pp.107108.
46.BookofChanges,"AppendedRemarks,"pt.2,ch.1Chan,SourceBook,p.268.
47.Ibid.,"AppendedRemarks,"pt.1,ch.5Chan,SourceBook,p.266.
48.Cf.Fung,AHistoryofChinesePhilosophy,Vol.II,pp.435442.ChouTuniwrotethefamousessay"T'aichit'ushou"cj[AnexplanationoftheDiagramof
theGreatUltimate.ThisexplanationhasprovidedtheessentialoutlineofNeoConfucianmetaphysicsandcosmology.FewshortChinesetreatiseslikethishave
exertedsomuchinfluence.ThisessayisfoundintheChouTzuch'anshuck[CompleteworksofMasterChou],ch.1.Foratranslationofthetext,seeChan,
SourceBook,pp.463464.
49.Cf.WingtsitChan,"TheEvolutionoftheNeoConfucianConceptofLias

Page458
cl

Principle,"TsingHua JournalofChineseStudies,NewSeriesIV,no.2(February1964),123149.
50.Hsiangshanch'anchi34:1bChan,SourceBook,p.580.TheSixClassicswerethebooksofOdes,History,Rites,Changes,theChoulicm[RitesofChou],
andtheSpringandAutumnAnnals.TheancientSixClassicshadtheBookofMusic,nowlost,insteadoftheChouli.
51.Ibid.,22:5aChan,SourceBook,pp.579580.
52.ChuTzuwenchi,36:8a.
53.WangYangming,InstructionsforPracticalLivingandOtherNeoConfucianWritings,trans.WingtsitChan(NewYork:ColumbiaUniversityPress,
1963),sec.315,p.243.
54.Ibid.,sec.101.pp.6364:"TheTeachersaid,'Thestateofhavingneithergoodnorevilisthatofprincipleintranquillity.Goodandevilappearwhenthevital
forceisperturbed.Ifthevitalforceisnotperturbed,thereisneithergoodnorevil,andthisiscalledthehighestgood.'"
55.WangWench'engKungch'anshucn[CompleteworksofWangYangming),(SPTKed.),20:629ab,trans.JuliaChing,coToAcquireWisdom:TheWayof
WangYangming(NewYork:ColumbiaUniversityPress,1976),p.242.
56.DoctrineoftheMean,ch.33Chan,SourceBook,p.113.ThetwoquotationsfromtheBookofOdesweretakenfromodeno.241andno.260,respectively.
57.MouTsungsan,ChihtichihchiaoyChungkuochehsehcp[IntellectualintuitionandChinesephilosophy],(Taipei:CommercialPress,1971),p.346.
58.ForadetaileddiscussionofthedebatesbetweenChuHsiandLuHsiangshan,seeCh'ienMu,cqChuTzuhsinhsehancr[AnewstudyofChuHsi],(Taipei:
SanmincsBookCo.,1971),Bk.III,pp.293356.SeealsoMouTsungsan,Ts'ungLuHsiangshantaoLiuCh'ishanct[FromLuHsiangshantoLiuTsung
chou],(Taipei:StudentBookCo.,1979),pp.81212andShuhsienLiu,ChuTzuchehsehssuhsiangtifachenywanch'engcu[Thedevelopmentand
completionofMasterChu'sphilosophicalthought],(Taipei:StudentBookCo.,1982),pp.427479.
59.WangWench'engKungch'anshu,7:242b243a,"PrefacetotheCollectedWritingsofLuChiuyan(LuHsiangshan),"trans.JuliaChing,ToAcquire
Wisdom:TheWayofWangYangming,pp.206208.
60.MouTsungsan,Hsint'iyhsingt'i(Taipei:ChengchungBookCo.,196869).SeealsomyreviewoftheworkinPhilosophyEastandWest20(October
1970),419422.
61.Ishucv[Survivingworks],18:1a(Chan,SourceBook,p.559),intheErhCh'engch'anshucw[CompleteworksofthetwoCh'engs],(SPPYed.).
62.SeeShuhsienLiu,"TheFunctionoftheMindinChuHsi'sPhilosophy,"JournalofChinesePhilosophy5(1978),pp.195208.ChuHsisaid,"Themindis
constitutedofthemostsubtlekindofthematerialforce"(ChuTzuylei,5:3b,p.198).Healsosaid,"Thewholesubstanceofthemindisclearlyvacuousandbright
itcomprisestensofthousandsofprinciples"(Ibid.,5:11a,p.213).
63.BookofMencius,2A:2Chan,SourceBook,p.63.
64.Ibid.
65.MouTsungsan,Hsint'iyhsingt'i,Bk.I,pp.7074.
66.Ibid.
67.Hsiangshanch'anchi,1:3aChan,SourceBook,p.574.
68.Analects,4:15.

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69.BookofMencius,3A:1.
70.Ibid.,4A:2.
71.Ibid.,6A:6.
72.Referringtoibid.,5a:7.
73.BookofChanges,commentaryonsecondhexagram,k'uncx(earth).
74.BookofMencius,7A:15.
75.Ibid.,6A:6.
76.Ibid.,7A:4.
77.Hsiangshanch'anchi,1:3b4aChan,SourceBook,p.574.
78.Ibid.,1:6bChan,SourceBook,p.575.
79.Ibid.,34:5aChan,SourceBook,p.582.
80.Ibid.,34:4b5aChan,SourceBook,p.582.
81.Chan,SourceBook,p.89.
82."Knowledgegainedthroughenlightenmentwhichistheresultofsincerityistheinnateknowledgeofone'snaturalcharacter.Itisnotthesmallknowledgeofwhatis
heardorwhatisseen"(Chengmengcy[Correctingyouthfulignorance],ch.6Chan,SourceBook,p.507).
83.BookofMencius,6A:15Chan,SourceBook,p.59.
84.Ibid.,1b:5Chan,SourceBook,p.61.
85.MouTsungsan,Hsint'iyhsingti,Bk.I,pp.4160.
Glossary

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Page461

25
AReappraisalofChuHsi'sPhilosophy
Ts'aiJenhou
TheBackgroundofChuHsi'sPhilosophy
ThePhilosophicalDevelopmentoftheThreeForerunnersofNorthernSung
InthesixhundredyearsofdevelopmentofNeoConfucianismfromtheSung(9601279)totheMingdynasty(13681644),ChouTunia(10171073),ChangTsaib
(10201077),Ch'engHaoc(10321085),andCh'engId(10331107)oftheNorthernSung(9601126)HuHunge(11061161),ChuHsi(11301200),andLu
Hsiangshang(LuChiuyan,f11391193)oftheSouthernSung(11271179)andWangYangming(WangShoujen,g14721529)andLiuTsungchouh(1578
1645)oftheMingdynastywerethecentralfigures.Theyweremutuallyrelatedandcloselyconnected,andtheywereresponsivetooneanotherinrespecttothe
developmentofphilosophicalproblems.1WiththefundamentalteachingsoftheConfucianClassicsinmind,theConfucianistsofNorthernSungdevelopedtheir
philosophicalthoughts.TheystartedwiththenotionsoftheWayofHeaven(T'ientaoi)andsincerity(ch'engj)oftheDoctrineoftheMeanandtheBookof
Changes.Thentheyturnedbacktothenotionsofjenk(humanity),hsinl(mind),andhsingm(nature)oftheAnalectsandtheBookofMencius,andfinallyendedwith
thenotionoftheexaminationofthings(kowun)andtheinvestigationofprincipletotheutmost(ch'iunglio)oftheGreatLearning.2IntheriseofSungNeo
Confucianism,culturalandmoralconsciousnessgosidebyside,andthereareanumberofdistinguishedscholars.Thosewhocouldtrulyunderstandanddevelopthe
fundamentalteachingsofConfucius(551479B.C.),Mencius(372289B.C.?),andpreCh'in(221206B.C.)Confucianists,andwhocouldlaydownthephilosophical
patternofNeoConfucianismwerethethreeforerunnersofNorthernSung,namelyChouTuni,ChangTsai,andCh'engHao.
ChouTuni,withhis"tacitunderstandingofthemysteryofTao,"p3explainedch'ienyanq(theoriginator)andch'ientaor(theWayofHeaven)of

Page462

theBookofChangesintermsofsincerityoftheDoctrineoftheMeanandthusrevivedthemetaphysicalinsightofpreCh'inConfucianism.ChangTsai,whose
thoughtscomprehendedthewholeprocessofcreationandpenetratedtheWayofHeaven,nature,andtheMandateofHeaven,talkedoftherealityofnature(hsing
t'is)directlyintermsoftherealityofTao,andachievedanappropriateunderstandingofthejenofConfuciusandthe''originalmind"ofMencius.Finally,Ch'engHao,
withhiswellroundedandintegrativeintelligence,developedthenotionofipent(onesource)4andcompletedthemodeloftheteachingofConfucianismthat"mind,
nature,andHeavenareone."5
Taomanifestsinonenesswhetherfromthesubjectiveorobjectivepointofview.Taoisnothingotherthanthemoralcreativityof"ontocosmologicalreality"6or
penetrationofcosmologicalcreation.Consequently,theobjectivesincerityandtheWayofHeavenandthesubjectivejen,mind,andnatureareall(1)statically
ontologicalbeings,(2)dynamicallycosmologicalprincipleofcreation,and(3)therealityofcreationofmoralcreativity.7
ThePrincipleofHeaven(T'ienliu),whichCh'engHaoissaidtohaverealizedhimself,haspreciselythesethreemeanings.Therefore,thePrincipleofHeavenisaterm
offarreachingandpregnantsignificance.OthertermsliketheWayofHeaven,theMandateofHeaven,theGreatUltimate(T'aichiv),therealityoftheGreatVacuity
(T'aihsw),sincerity,spirit(shenx),equilibrium(chungy),jen,nature,andmindallcouldbecoveredbythisPrincipleofHeaven,whichistherealitypossessing
creativityandconsciousness.8ThewaythatCh'engHaorealizedtheoriginalrealityofthePrincipleofHeaven(Tao,nature,mind)existentiallyechoedtheinsightofthe
lifeofpreCh'inConfucianismandthusrevitalizedandreaffirmedtheoriginalpatternsoftheAnalects,theBookofMencius,theDoctrineoftheMean,andthe
BookofChanges.Ontheotherhand,itcontinuednaturallythephilosphicaltrendopenedupbyChouTuni,and,havingabsorbedthecontributionsofChangTsai,
completedasystemofNeoConfucianphilosophy.ThisideaofthePrincipleofHeavenisthegroundforcallingtheConfucianismofSungthroughMingthe"Schoolof
Principle"orthe"SchoolofNatureandPrinciple."However,thePrincipleofHeavenisnotjustaprinciple.Itisalsomindandspiritbecauseitisthereality"whichis
absolutelyquietandinactiveandwhichwhenacteduponimmediatelypenetratesallthings."9Itisthemysteriousrealityof"thedeepandendless[Mandateof
Heaven],"10thatis,therealitywhichhascreativityandconsciousness.Itisbothbeing(becauseitcouldpromotethecontinuousproductionofmaterialforce'ch'i'zand
hascreativity)andactivity.11
ChangeofDirection
WhentheCh'engbrotherswereteachingtogether,theirideascamemainlyfromCh'engHao.Afterhisdeath,Ch'engItaughtindependentlyformorethantwentytwo
yearsandgraduallydevelopedhisownlineofthought.Followinghisownsimple,straightforward,analyticalwayofthinking,heunder

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stoodTaoandnatureasmerelyprinciple.Asmerelyprinciple,itisconsequentlyneithermindnorspirit,andTaoandnaturecannolongerbesaidtobethatwhichis
absolutelyquietandinactiveandwhichwhenacteduponimmediatelypenetratesallthings.Withoutsuchmeaning,Taoasprinciplebecomesmerelybeing,withoutany
activity.12HencetheideathatTaoisontocosmologicalcreativityislost.Thesameistrueofnature.Furthermore,Ch'engIsplitMencius'ideaoftheoriginalmindas
natureintothreeparts:mind,nature,andfeeling.Tohim,natureismereprincipleandbelongstowhatexistsbeforephysicalform,whilemindandfeelingbelongto
materialforceandtowhatexistsafterphysicalform.(LaterChuHsiadoptedthislineofthoughtandsaid,"Mindistheintelligenceofmaterialforceandfeelingisthe
changeofmaterialforce."13)Asactivitycouldnotbeattributedtoprinciple(ornature),itmustbeattributedtomaterialforce,thatis,mindandfeeling.Thus,nature,
too,becomesmerelybeingandinactive.
BecauseoftheonesidednessinhisunderstandingoftherealityofTaoandnature,Ch'engI'sphilosophyshowsadeparturefromthemainstreamofConfucianism.
However,Ch'engIhimselfwasnotconsciousofthischangeindirection.NorwerethedisciplesoftheCh'engbrothers.Theysimplyfollowedandtaughtthedoctrines
ofthetwoCh'engs,whicharebasicallyCh'engHao'sideas,anddidnotfollowCh'engI'snewdirection.HuHungofthefirstdecadesofSoutherSungcontinuedthe
teachingsofthethreeforerunnersofNorthernSung,openinguptheframeworkofconcretizationofnaturethroughthemind.14HuHung'smoralpracticeofupward
selfconsciousness15inunderstandingoftherealityofjen16isallthemoreobviouslyadirectheritagefromCh'engHao,showingnoinfluencefromCh'engI'snew
directionatall.Therefore,uptothetimeofHuHung,andpossiblyincludingChuHsi'steacher,LiT'ungaa(10931163),too,thedepartureofCh'engIfromthe
mainstreamwasbutanundercurrentwhichhadnotattractedtheattentionofscholars.
Ch'engI'sapproachwasmadeexplicitonlyafterChuHsihadconsolidatedtheresultofhisreflectionsandinvestigationonequilibriumandharmony(chunghoab)in
hisfortiethyear.ThiswasalreadymorethansixtyyearsafterCh'engI'sdeath.AlthoughChu'smindsetseemstohavebeenalmostthesameasCh'engI's,he
followedCh'engI'sdirectiononlyafteranumberofreflectionsanddigressions.IfwetakethecompletedphilosophicalsystemofChuHsiasthestandard,thenhis
thoughtsbeforefortywerebutrecordsofhiseffortatlearningandthinkingtheyhadno"realinsightintoreality."17Afterforty,ChuHsifollowedhisinclinationin
agreementwithCh'engI'smentalityandconsciouslycompletedthelatter'sdepartureinanaturalway,thusopeningupanewphilosophicalsystem.
TheRelationofChuHsitoNorthernSungConfucianists
Traditionally,NeoConfucianismhasbeendifferentiatedintothetwoschoolsofCh'engChuandLuWang.Thisdifferentiation,however,isnotonlyin

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capableofmakingclearthetruthofthesixhundredyearsofhistoryofthoughtsfromtheSungtotheMingdynasty,butisalsoincapableofrevealingcompletelythe
wholeofthephilosophiesofNeoConfucianism.Whatisgenerallycalled"Ch'engChu"refersonlytotheideasofCh'engIandChuHsi,overlookingthoseofCh'eng
Hao.Incontradictiontothefactsofthehistoryofthought,theideasofCh'engHaohavenosignificanceinthissocalledSchoolofCh'engChu.AccordingtoCh'eng
Hao'steaching,forexample,mind,nature,andHeaven(principle)areone,andwethereforenotonlycansaythat"natureisprinciple(hsingchiliac)"butalsothat
''mindisprinciple(hsinchiliad)."18ButwecannotsaysointhecasesofCh'engIandChuHsibecauseforthemthemindistheconcretemindthatbelongstothe
realmofmaterialforce.ItisthereforeerroneousinrespecttophilosophicalthoughttoplaceCh'engHaointhesamesystemwithCh'engIandChuHsi.TheHu
HsiangaeSchoolofHuHung,whichcarriedonthedevelopmentofthethreeforerunnersofNorthernSung,isinfacttheorthodoxdescendantofNorthernSung
Confucianism.Hu'sphilosophicalframeworkofconcretizationofnaturethroughthemindandconcretizationofnaturebydevelopingthemindtotheutmost19hasthe
essentialnecessityandimportance.Thoughthissystemdeclinedforfourorfivehundredyears,LiuTsungchouechoedthisideaofconcretization20andcompleted
anotherphilosophicalsystemjustbeforethedownfalloftheMingdynastytheendofthesixhundredyearsofdevelopmentoflearningfromtheSungtotheMing.
Cognizantoftheseproblems,ProfessorMouTsungsan,afinhisbookHsint'iyhsingt'iag(Substanceofmindandsubstanceofnature),hasdifferentiatedtheNeo
Confucianschoolsaccordingtotheirphilosophicalsystems.ThethreeforerunnersofNorthernSungdevelopednewphilosophicalideasbutdidnotdivideinto
differentschools.Afterthem,therehavebeentheSchoolofCh'engIandChuHsi,theSchoolofLuHsiangshanandWangYangming,andtheSchoolofHuHung
andLiuTsungchou.Thesecondandthirdcanultimatelybeunifiedintooneschool,thoughtheyneedtobeunderstoodindependently.Astohowthisunifiedschool
canrelatetoorarticulatewiththatofCh'engIandChuHsi,thatisanotherproblem.Herewecanonlyassertthatthethreeschoolswereallguidedbyamoral
consciousness,andwiththemainthemesofmindandnature,completedagrandsystemoflearningthatteachesmoralcultivationofsagelinesswithin.ProfessorMou's
divisionisnotbasedonasubjectiveviewpointbutreliesonobjectivefactsofphilosophicalsystems.Heachievedthisstepbystepthroughadetailedclarificationof
theirphilosophyateverylevel.Thecrucialpointofthisclarification,however,lieswiththeCh'engbrothersandChuHsi.
Ch'engHaowasagreatphilosopheramongNeoConfucianistsandenjoyedaveryprominentstatus.Butwecannotrecognizehistruefaceinthosechapters(13and
14)oftheSungYanhsehanah(AnthologyandcritiqueofSungandYanNeoConfucianists)concerninghimandmorethanhalfofthe"twomasters'
sayings"(chapters110)intheErhCh'engishuai(Survivingworksof

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thetwoCh'engs)doesnotidentifywhichwereCh'engHao'ssayingsandwhichwereCh'engI's.How,then,canweidentifywhichiswhich?Aftercareful
reconsideration,ProfessorMoudecidedtostartwiththedifferentmentalityoftheCh'engbrothers,totakeasstandardthefourchapters(1114)ofCh'engHao's
sayingsintheIshurecordedbyLiuHsan(LiuChihfuaj),andtoincludethesmallnumberofsayingsoftheCh'engbrothersinthefirsttenchaptersoftheIshuthat
hadbeenidentifiedasCh'engHao's.21Accordingtothesethreepoints,ProfessorMouestablishedcluestoidentifyingCh'engHao'sinsightthenbycopyingand
comparingseveraltimes,hefinallyeditedCh'engHao'ssayingsintoeightsectionstheTaoofHeaven,thePrincipleofHeaven,CriticismofBuddhism,theDoctrine
ofOneSource,WhatIsInbornIsNature,theUnderstandingofjen,CalmingHumanNature,theDispositionofSagesandWorthiesthusmakingclearthemajor
ideasandstructureofCh'engHao'sphilosophy.WithCh'engHao'sphilosophyclarified,Ch'engI'sphilosophyisalsoclarified.Hissayingshavealsobeeneditedinto
eightsectionsPrincipleandMaterialForceNatureandFeelingPhysicalNatureAbilityandNatureOnMind,Equilibrium,andHarmonyAbidinginSeriousness
andAccumulatingRighteousnessExaminationofThingsandInvestigationofthePrincipleofThingstotheUtmost.Ch'engI'sthoughtsandapproachhavethusbeen
madeclear.22
ChuHsiwrotealargeamountofphilosophicalliterature.However,hismostimportantformulationandthefocusofhishardworkishisreflectionandinvestigationon
theproblemofequilibriumandharmony.Thisisfollowedbyhisdiscussioninhis"Jenshuo"ak(Treatiseonjen).23Thesethoughtsemergeonlygraduallyintheprocess
ofhisownpainstakingreflectionsandthroughdiscussionswiththedisciplesofHuHung.Onlybyfollowingthisclueofdevelopmentcanweclarifyandascertainthe
frameworkandcentralideasofChuHsi'sphilosophy.
ChuHsiseldomdistinguishedthetwoCh'engs,treatingthemasoneperson.By"MasterCh'eng,"ChuHsiusuallyreferredtoCh'engI.Moreover,thoseideasofChu
Hsi'sthataremoredefiniteandwellestablishedhavemostlycomefromCh'engI.AstoCh'engHao'ssayings,heusuallyconsideredthemtobeindefinite,too
profound,ortoodifficultforstudents.Ineffect,hewasnottoosatisfiedwithCh'engHao.Ofcourse,ChuHsihonorsCh'engHao,buthispraiseshavenothingtodo
withCh'engHao'steaching.Therefore,Ch'engHaodoesnothaveanimportantpositioninhismind.Asamatteroffact,ChuHsitransmittedonlyCh'engI's
philosophybutnotCh'engHao's.AstoChouTuniandChangTsai,thoughChuHsihonoredthemverymuchanddrewfromtheirworks,hehadnoreal
understandingofthekeynotionsoftheirrealizationofTaoandnature.Hence,theassertionthatChuHsisynthesizedtheSchoolofPrincipleofNorthernSungintoa
grandsystemmustbereexamined.24Withrespecttoediting,writingofcommentaries,andwideandbroadacademicdiscussions,ChuHsishoweddefinitelythe
patternofagrandsynthesis.However,tosaythatChuHsiachieved

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agrandsynthesisoftheNorthernSungSchoolofPrincipleinvolvesproblemsofphilosophicalsystemsandapproachestomoralpractice,whichneedcareful
differentiation.Theseproblemsshouldnotbeskippedoverlightly,obscuringthetruehistoryofphilosophicalthought.
ChuHsiandtheConfucianistsofSouthernSung
TheRelationbetweenChuHsiandtheEarlyFukienSchool
ThetwoCh'engbrothershadtwobrightstudents,HsiehLiangtsoal(1050c.1120)andYangShiham(10531135).TheSchooloftheCh'engbrotherswas
transmittedbythemduringtheearlyperiodofSouthernSung.TheteachingofHsiehLiangtsodevelopedintotheHuHsiangSchoolthroughHuAnkuoan(1074
1138)andhissonHuHung,whiletheteachingofYangShihdevelopedintotheFukienSchoolbeforeChuHsi.
YangShihpassedontheteachingstoLoTs'ungyenao(10721135)andthentoLiT'ung.AllwerenativesoftheNanchienapCountyofFukien,hencetheFukien
School.YangShihtalkedofjenintermsofcommiserationandoftherealityofjenintermsof"themyriadthingsandIareone."Theseareobviouslyideasfrom
Ch'engHao.Evenintalkingabouttheextensionofknowledge,examinationofthings,andinvestigationofprincipletotheutmost,hedidnotfollowCh'engI's
approachofasubjectobjectopposition,andneverhadthemeaningofrecognitionintermsofknowingandknown.YangShihproposedtoobserveequilibrium
beforefeelingsarearoused.25Thisis"returningtotranquillitytorevealreality."26Itistheapproachofrealizingrealitythroughthemoralpracticeofupwardself
consciousness,andisquitedifferentfromthewayCh'engItalkedaboutequilibriumandharmony.HuAnkuoonceremarkedthatYangShih'sinsightlayinDoctrine
oftheMean,and"thiscomesdirectlyfromMasteraqMingtao[Ch'engHao].''27WhenYangShih,anativeoftheSouth,leftforhomeandsaidgoodbyetohim,
Ch'engHaosawhimoffandsaid,"MyteachinggoesSouthfromnowon."28FromthelineofdevelopmentofYangShih'sphilosophy,weknowthatCh'engHao
knewhisstudentwell.
LoTs'ungyenwasamanofearnestdevotionwhopracticedwhathetaught.HestudiedunderYangShihformorethantwentyyears,workinghardtoachievethe
finalgoalofsagehoodthroughstudyandpractice.Themostessentialmoralpracticehetaughtistoobserveintranquillitywhatthedispositionislikebeforethefeelings
arearoused.Thispracticeofrealizingrealitythroughreturningtotranquillitytorevealrealityisthecornerstoneofhisphilosophy.29
LiT'ungstudiedunderLoTs'ungyenattheageoftwentyfourhethenledasimpleandpovertystrickenvillagelifeformorethanfortyyearsbutfeltnoqualmsabout
itatall.Histeachingalsotakesthe"observationoftheoriginalstatebeforethefeelingsarearoused"ashisapproachtoTao.30Huang

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ar

as

31

Tsunghsi (16101695)remarkedthatthisis"astraightapproachfromMingtaodowntoYenp'ing [LiT'ung]." ChuHsialsosaidthat"thisistheformulaof

moralpracticeofthefollowersofKueishanat[YangShih]."32ChuHsifirstwenttoseeLiT'ungattheageoftwentyfour,andagainattwentynine.Itwasnottillhe
wasthirtyone,however,thatChuHsiformallybecameapupilofLiT'ung.ThreeyearslaterLiT'ungpassedaway.Heneverlecturednorwroteanybooks.Itwas
throughChuHsi'squestioningandrecordingofhissayingsintheYenp'ingtawenau(RepliesofLiT'ung)33thathisphilosophyhasbecomeknowntotheworld.Chu
HsireceivedfromLiT'ungthethemeofobservingtheequilibriumbeforefeelingsarearousedandworkedveryhardontheproblemofequilibriumandharmonybut
couldnotunderstandandpenetrateLiT'ung'stranscendentalapproachofrealizationthroughupwardselfconsciousness.Fromtheageoffortyon,ChuHsiturned
awayfromLiT'ung'steachingandfollowedinsteadCh'engI'sapproach.
ChuHsiatonepointremarked,"IamafraidthatMasterLo'steaching,inthefinalanalysis,hasadefect."34HeregardedLiT'ung'steachingasleaningtoomuch
towardtranquillityandfeltunsatisfied.AstoYangShih'sphilosophy,ChuHsialsocriticizeditattimes.IbelievethatYangShihandhisfollowershavetheirown
importancewithoutChuHsi,andChuHsineednotbeattachedtothelineofdevelopmentofYangShih,LoTs'ungyen,andLiT'ungtobegreat.ChuHsi'sown
philosophyisprofound,substantial,broad,andgreat,andcouldsimplybecalled"ChuHsi'sSchool"itneednotbereferredtoas''theSchoolofFukien."Ch'engI
andChuHsiformaseparateschoolwhileYangShih'sSchoolisbutabranchofCh'engHao's.Therefore,theFukienSchoolofSouthernSungismoreproperly
regardedasbelongingtoYangShih,LoTs'ungyen,andLiT'ung.35
ItistruethatChuHsiwasastudentofLiT'ung,butwithrespecttophilosophicaldevelopment,ChuHsididnottransmittheteachingsofYangShihandLiT'ung.The
remarksofHuangTsunghsithat"Kueishan'sphilosophywasinheritedbyChuTzuinthethirdgenerationandthusbecameevermoreflourishing"36isbutavague
statementpurelyfromtheapparentlineofsuccession.WhatChuHsimadeprominentwasCh'engI'steachingandnotYangShih's.Infact,thelatter'slineof
transmissionendedwithLiT'ung.
ChuHsiandtheHuHsiangSchoolandTheirApproachestoMoralPractice
AfterthedeathoftheCh'engbrothers,theirteachingspreadtotheSouth.ItsplitintotwoandcenteredrespectivelyinLiT'ungandHuHung.Bothofthemwere
simple,pure,profound,andincisivepersons.TheywerecapableofabsorbingandmaintainingtheteachingsofNorthernSungand,becauseoftheirconcentrationon
andcloseattentiontotheessentialproblems,bothestablisheddefiniteapproachestowardmoralpractice.37LiT'unginsistedontranquilmeditationtoobservethe
originaldispositionbeforethefeelingsarearoused.Thisistranscendentalrealizationofrealitythroughupwardselfcon

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sciousnessdevelopedfromtherealizationofequilibriumandharmonytothehighestdegreediscussedintheDoctrineoftheMean.Thisapproachisnecessarily
impliedbytheideaofreturningtotranquillitytorevealrealityandalsobythemoralpracticeofbeingwatchfulwhenalone.HuHungtaughtimmediaterealizationof
consciencewhereveritshowsitselfandpositivelyaffirmingittobethereality.Thisisimmanentrealizationofrealitythroughupwardselfconsciousness.Itwas
developedfromMencius'ideaofcollectingone'slostmindandCh'engHao'sunderstandingoftherealityofjen.
Intranscendentalrealizationofrealitythroughupwardselfconsciousness,onehastobedetachedtemporarilyfromactuallife.Thisdetachmentiswhatismeantby
beingtranscendental.Whatisimmanentistohavenodetachmentfromactuallifebuttorealizerealityrighthere.However,tranquilmeditationindetachmentforthe
realizationoftherealityofequilibrium(theoriginalrealityofthePrincipleofHeaven)isbutonestep.Weneedtogofurtherwemustcontinuallypurifyandcultivate
ourmindssothattherealityofthePrincipleofHeavencanbeactualizedinourlives.Itcanthenbeconcretelymanifestedinmoralactionsandcreatemoralvalues.Li
T'ungknewthiswell,andafterpointingouttherealizationoftherealityofthePrincipleofHeaventhroughsittinginsilenceandpurifyingthemind,hewentontopoint
outthatweneed"defrostingandwarmingup"38toallowprincipletobeinharmonywithactualaffairsandarriveattheuniversaloperationofthePrincipleofHeaven.
Thesetwostepsarethephilosophicalproceduresimpliedbytheapproachoftranscendentalrealizaitonofreality:Thus,thosewhoaredetachedmustnevertheless
returntoactualliving.HuHung,however,taughtimmediaterealizationofconsciencewhereveritshowsitselfinourdailylifeandpositivelyaffirmingittobethereality.
Hethusneedsnotranquilmeditationordetachment.Thisiswhatisreferredtoas"Taoisrighthereandnow."Therefore,thoughmoralpracticethroughupwardself
consciousnesspossessestwoaspects,namely,thetranscendentalandtheimmanent,theimmanentapproachisespeciallyessentialinthemoralpracticeofrecovering
one'soriginalmindandisalsotheessentialpointofmoralpracticewithrespecttosagelinesswithin.ThoughHuHung'sphilosophydeclinedafteronlyonegeneration,
thephilosophicalframeworkandapproachtomoralpracticethatheopenedupareofdistinctivemerit.
HuHungoncesaid,"KingHsanavofCh'iawsawthecowandcouldnotbeartokillit.Thisisthebuddingofconscience,revealedinthemidstofthepursuingofprofit
anddesires.Oncerevealed,ifonepracticesandpreservesit,preservesandcultivatesit,cultivatesandextendsitsoitbecomesgreat,thenitwillbeidenticalwith
Heaven.Thismindlieswithineveryman.Itsbeginningofrevelationvaries.Theessentialpointistorecognizeitandthatisall."39HeisfollowingMenciusinpointingout
thatmoralpracticestartswiththerevelationofconscience.Healsosaid,"Ifonewantstopracticejen,hemustfirstofallunderstandtherealityofjen."40Thiscomes
directlyfromCh'engHao'steachingthat"thestudentmustfirstofallunderstandthereal

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41

ax

ityofjen,...Understandthisprincipleandpreserveitwithsincerityandseriousness." ChuHsididnotunderstandthemeaningofHuHung'sChihyen (Knowing

words)andraisedeightpointsinquestioningit.42ManyofthefollowersoftheHuHsiangSchoolrespondedsharply.Amongthem,ChangShihay(11331180)
acceptedmostofChuHsi'sarguments,butheneverabandonedtheapproachof"recognizingfirstandthencultivating."(ThisistheonlyargumentoftheHuHsiang
SchoolthatChangNanhsanaz[ChangShih]didnotabandonhadheabandonedthis,hecouldnolongerbeconsideredadiscipleofHuHung.)Thefollowing
explanationshowshowChuHsiandtheHuHsiangSchooldifferintheirapproachestomoralpractice.
WhatChangNanhsanreferredtoas"recognizingfirst"isrecognizingthebeginningoftherevelationofconscience,thatis,beginningtounderstandtherealityofjen.
Thisisnothingotherthantheapproachofimmanentrealizationofrealitythroughupwardselfconsciousness.Andwhathereferredtoas"andthencultivating"is
cultivatingjenafteritsrecognition,whichisthesameasCh'engHao'steachingof"preserveitwithsincerityandseriousness.''Tocultivateheremeanstocultivatethe
originalmind(conscience,themindofjen).Thismoralpracticeistoproceedfromtheapriorirealityoftheminditisautonomousmorality.
ChuHsi,however,aftertheageofforty,followedCh'engI'steachingof"selfcultivationrequiresseriousnessthepursuitoflearningdependsontheextensionof
knowledge."43Ch'engIkepthiseyesontheaposterioriphysicalmind,teachingthatoneshouldcultivatethemindofseriousnesswhichmanifestsitselfbyarousingthe
physicalmindintoactionwithsolemnityandconsolidationsothatitcanapproachtherealityofthePrincipleofHeaveninthesenseof"NatureisPrinciple,"andfinally
turningthisphysicalmindintothemindofTao(themindthatconformstoTao.)ChuHsifollowedCh'engI'slineanddevelopedthepatternofmoralpracticeinterms
of"preservingitintranquillityandobservingitinactionsothatseriousnesspervadesbothactionandtranquillity."44Healsorecognizedthatwehavefirstgraduallyto
cultivateandbecomeclearatthetimeoftranquillity(thatis,whennothingishappening),thuseliminatingallselfishdesiresandimpureideaswithasolemnandserious
mind,inordertoarriveatthestateof"beingasclearasamirrorandasstillaswater"45and"themindbecomingtranquilandprinciplecompletelyunderstood."46And
then,whenactiontakesplace(whenwerespondtothings),wecanemploytheenlightenmentofourknowingmind,whichisamanifestationofthecultivatedand
preservedseriousmind,torecognizethechangeofarousedfeelingsandmaketheirmanifestationsconformtoprinciple,thusachievingtheharmonyinwhichallfeelings
attainduemeasureanddegree.Consequently,hecouldnotagreewithChangNanhsan'sproposalof"recognizingfirstandthencultivating,"butinsistedon
"cultivatingfirstandthenrecognizing."47
Infact,bothpartiesunderstoodtheterms"tocultivate"and"torecognize"quitedifferently.Eachofthemjustifiedwhatheheldonthebasisofhisown

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theoryandapproachandwasquiteignorantoftheoriginoftheideasoftheotherparty.Theirargumentoverwhichshouldcomefirstandwhichlaterleads,ofcourse,
nowhere.
TheContentionbetweenChuHsiandLuHsiangshan
BoththeFukienSchoolandtheHuHsiangSchooloftheearlySouthernSungdevelopedthephilosophiesofNorthernSung.Alittlelater,LuHsiangshanofKiangsi
startedtheSchoolofMindbaseddirectlyonMencius'teaching.ThroughouthislifehewasChuHsi'sstaunchestopponent.
StartingfromthemeetingattheGooseLakeTemplein1175,whatisusuallyreferredtoas"differencesandsimilaritiesofChuLu"48hasbeenaconstant,hotly
debatedtopic.ThoughitisgenerallyknownthatthecentralpointofdisputebetweenChuandLucentersontheproblemof"natureisprinciple"and"mindis
principle,"whatthesetwosentencesreallymeanisnotclearlyunderstood.InadoptingMencius'teachingthatoriginalmindisnature,LuHsiangshan's"mindis
principle"implies''natureisprinciple"intheworksofWangYangmingthesentence"natureisprinciple"appearsmorethanonce.49Therefore,itisobviousthatLu
andWangasserted,asChuHsidid,that"natureisprinciple."ButCh'engChu(meaningCh'engIandChuHsi,withoutincludingCh'engHao)couldnotassertthat
"mindisprinciple,"becausewhatChuHsiunderstoodby"mind,""nature,"and"principle"differednotonlyfromLuHsiangshanbutalsofromthemainstreamofthe
Confuciantradition.
ToChuHsi,themindistheconcretemindofmaterialforcebutnottheoriginalmoralmindoftranscendentalreality.Natureiswhatisopposedtominditisnotthe
originalmindorthatwhichisidenticalwiththemind.Principleismerelyprinciplethathasonlybeingbutisinactiveitnolongerpossessesthemeaningofmind,of
spirit,orofthatwhichissilentandinactivebutwhichwhenacteduponimmediatelypenetratesallthings.Itisnolongertheprinciplethatisatoncebeingandactivity.
Inaword,ChuHsididnotunderstandthemeaningoftheoriginalmindofMenciusandassignedthemindtotherealmofmaterialforce.Consequently,hedecided
thatmindisnotprincipleandthatonlynatureisprinciple(andamereprinciple).50
LuHsiangshanfollowedMencius'teachingthattheoriginalmindisnatureandhencearguedagainstChuHsi.Hemaintainednotonlythatnatureisprinciple,butthat
mind,theoriginalmoralmind,whichpossessesitsownapriorilawfulness,isprinciplealso.Hethereforeassertedwithnohesitationthat"mindisprinciple."From
these,itisobviousthatthedifferencebetweenChuandLucentersontheproblemwhetherthemindandnatureareone.Iftheoriginalmindisnatureandifmindand
natureareone,thenthephilosophiesofChuandLucanbeunified.IftherecanbenochangeintheexpressionsofChuHsi'sphilosophythat"mindandnatureare
two"andthat"mindandprinciplearetwo,"thentheirdifferencesinphilosophyareneces

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sarilyanddefinitelybeyondreconciliation.Therestoftheirdisputesareunimportantandcanberesolvedandtheirentanglementsremoved.Thefollowingparagraphs
summarizetheirdisputes.51
ExtensiveLearningandConcentratedMoralCultivation
ChuHsiinsistedongeneralsurveyandbroadlearningfirst,followedbyconcentratedmoralcultivation.LuHsiangshan,ontheotherhand,insistedondiscoveringand
manifestingtheoriginalmindfirstandthenturningtoextensivelearning.Thusinteachinghowtolearn,thetwothinkersdifferedintheirapproachesandmethodology.
Butifweconsiderthematteronthebasisofinstructionsformoralcultivationaimingatsagelinesswithin,thisdisputeshouldnotberegardedasmerelyaquestionof
methodology.Itshouldbeaquestionofwhatisessentialandwhatisnonessential.Whatcomesfirstorlatershouldbedeterminedbyitsbeingessentialornot.Seenin
thislight,thedisputecanreadilyberesolved.
OverSimplicityVersusIsolatedDetails
ChuHsibelievedthatthewayLuHsiangshantaughtpeoplewastoosimple,whileLuHsiangshanbelievedthatthewayChuHsitaughtpeoplewasoneofisolated
details.Tobefair,whatLuHsiangshantaughtisnottoosimple.Itssimplicityandeaseisnothingotherthantheteachingof"simplicityandeasinesswhichleadtothe
universalprincipleofallthings"intheBookofChanges.52Tobesimpleandeasyistoestablishfirstofallwhatisimportantandtodiscoverandmanifesttheoriginal
mind.Itisnottoteachpeoplenottoread.InaccusingChuHsiofteachingisolateddetails,LuHsiangshanispointingoutthatChuHsi'steachingofextensivelearning
isinfactirrelevanttothemoralcultivationforsagelinesswithinandhasnothingtodowithmoralpractice.Heisnotassertingthatextensivelearningandbookreading
areisolateddetailsthemselves.Ifthisdistinctionismade,awaycanbefoundtoresolvetheirdifferences.
HonoringMoralNatureandFollowingthePathofInquiryandStudy
ChuHsithoughtthatLuHsiangshanemphasized"honoringthemoralnature"whilehehimselfwasmoreinclinedto"followingthepathofinquiryandstudy."Sohe
wantedto"doawaywiththeweaknessofbothandcombinewhatisgoodinboth.''ButLuHsiangshanasked,"Ifwedonotknowhowtohonorthemoralnature,
howcanwefollowthepathofinquiryandstudy?"53Infact,thereisafirstleveloffollowingthepathofinquiryandstudy,whichisrelevanttothehonoringofthemoral
nature,andalsoasecondleveloffollowingthepathofinquiryandstudy,whichiscompletelyirrelevantoroflittlerelevancetohonoringthemoralnature.However,
sinceLuHsiangshanreferredparticularlytotheformer,andChuHsimadenodifferentiationbetweenthetwolevels,adeadlockensued.Today,weseethatthe
secondleveloffollowingthepathofinquiryandstudynotonlydoesnoharmtomoralpractice,itcanalsohelpandenlargeourmoralpractice.Theproblemisjust
thatChuHsicouldnotacceptthemoralcreativityoftheoriginalmindandLuHsiangshancouldnotallowtheindependentsignificanceofthesecond

Page472

leveloffollowingthepathofinquiryandstudy.Hadtheycalmlytriedtounderstandeachother'sapproachtophilosophy,theymighthaveunderstoodeachotherand
foundawayofresolution.
Inadditiontothesedisagreementsthereisthedisputeontheessay"T'aichit'ushuo"ba(ExplanationoftheDiagramoftheGreatUltimate).Inregardtotheproblem
itself,ChuHsiwasmorerefinedthanLuHsiangshan,whowasmerelygivingventtohispentupfeelingsonsomeextraneouspretext.AndChuHsi'sargumentis
basicallycorrectexceptinhisunderstandingthattheGreatUltimateismerelyprinciple,whichisnottheoriginalmeaninginthecontextofChouTuni'sthought.54
ReappraisaloftheSchoolofChuHsi
SuccessesandLimitations
Intheabove,wehaveundertakenasimpleandcleardiscussionofthebackgroundofChuHsi'sSchoolandhisdifferencesandsimilaritieswiththeSouthernSung
Confucianists.WehavefoundthatChuHsihadnorealandappropriateunderstandingoftherealityofTaoandnatureastheywereunderstoodbythethree
forerunnersofNorthernSung.ChuHsitotallydisagreedwithandcouldnotunderstandCh'engHao'steachingandhisdiscussionsonjenandthemind.Hewasalso
opposedtoHsiehLiangtso'sexplanationofjenintermsofconsciousnessandtoYangShih'steachingoftherealityofjenintermsoftheunityofmyriadthingsand
theself.Furthermore,hecouldnotrealizeorgraspLiT'ung'sapproachoftranscendentalrealizationinmoralpracticeorHuHung'sdoctrineofimmanentrealization.
AstoLuHsiangshan'steachingthatthemindisprinciple,whichoriginatedfromMencius,ChuHsilikewisecouldnotunderstandand,whatismore,debatedthe
propositionvigorously.Lateron,theSchoolofWangYangmingadoptedLuHsiangshan'sphilosophyandopposedChuHsistrongly.Whydidthesedifferences
arise?WemayproposeananswertothequestionbyconsideringthesuccessandlimitationsofChuHsiintheSchoolofNatureandPrincipleinrelationtothefulland
limitedmeaningsoftheterms"nature"and"principle."
Thefullmeaningofthetermscanbeexpressedbystatingthatnatureisprinciplethatis,mind,spirit,thatwhichissilentandinactivebutwhichwhenactedupon
immediatelypenetratesallthingsandunifiesallthings.Principleistheprincipleofcreativitythatcanpromotethecontinualproductionofthematerialforceitis
thereforebothbeingandactivity.
Thelimitedmeaningofthetermscanbeexpressedbystatingthatnatureismereprinciplethatis,mind,spirit,thatwhichissilentandactivebutwhichwhenacted
uponimmediatelypenetratesallthingsthesethings,however,arealldetachedfromtherealityofnatureandbelongtotherealmofmaterialforce.Incosmology,
principleandmaterialforceareinoppositiontoeach

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othersoareprincipleandspirit.Inmoralpractice,mindandnatureareinoppositiontoeachothersoaremindandprinciple.Principlebecomesanontologicalstatic
beingitcannothaveacreativefunctiontopromotecontinualproductionandisconsequentlymerebeingwithnoactivity.
Studyingthesedistinctions,wecanseethattherealityofTaoandnatureasunderstoodandrealizedbytheSungandMingConfucianistsdoesinfactdifferinbothfull
andlimitedmeanings.ThedifferentiationofphilosophicalsystemsinNeoConfucianismliespreciselyhere.ChuHsi,followingCh'engI'sthoughtsandapproach,
understoodtherealityofTaoandnatureasmerebeingwithoutactivity.Therefore,themeaningofnatureandprinciplethathemaintainedisthelimitedone.55
Objectivelyspeaking,thesystemthatChuHsicompleted56isasystemofontologicalbeing.Fromtheviewofontocosmology,theGreatUltimateorprincipleisan
ontologicalbeing,whilethemyriadaspectsofmaterialforceresultfromcosmologicalcreationandevolution.Subjectivelyspeaking,thesystemthatChuHsi
completedisasystemofstaticcultivationandstaticapprehension.Bystaticcultivationismeantthecultivationofthephysicalmindinastaticstatebystatic
apprehensionismeantthecognitiveapprehensionofthecognitivemind.ChuHsi'ssystem,then,isasystemofhorizontalapprehension.Itsapproachtomoralpractice
istheapproachofoutwardapprehension.
Becauseofthelimitedmeaningofmind,nature,andprincipleinChuHsi'ssystem,itnaturallydiffersfromtheverticalsystem(withitsapproachtomoralpractice
throughupwardselfconsciousness)espousedbysuchphilosophersasLuHsiangshan,WangYangming,andCh'engHao.Chucouldnotunderstandthose
teachingswhichconceivedtherealityofTao,nature,jen,andmindasbothbeingandactiveitwasthismisunderstandingthatledtothedispute.Inotherwords,Chu
Hsicouldnotunderstandproperly,couldnotappreciate,andevendislikedasaconsequenceofmisunderstanding,alltermsthatbelongedtoontocosmological
verticalpenetration(verticalsystem).Andheclaimedthateverythinghewasunsatisfiedwithallbelongedtotheverticalsystem.Theonlypersonhepraisedwithno
qualmsatallwasCh'engI.57
ThethoughtsofChuHsihimselfareverypreciseandconsistent.Ashewasalsoearnest,sincere,anddiligent,hecouldnotmakemanymistakes.Hisbiasordefect
liesmainlyinhisfollowingCh'engI'sdirectionandunderstandingtherealityofTaoandnatureasmerebeingwithoutactivity.Andbecauseofthisunderstanding,Chu's
approachtotheproblemofmoralpracticealsodepartedfromtheapproachofrealizationthroughupwardselfconsciousnessoftheorthodoxmainstreamof
Confucianism.58FollowingCh'engI'ssayingthat"selfcultivationrequiresseriousnessthepursuitoflearningdependsontheextensionofknowledge,"59heopenedup
theframeworkofmoralpracticebyespousingcultivationintranquillityandobservinginaction,seriousnesspenetratingbothactionandtranquillity,andinvestigating
Principletotheutmostinthingsathand.

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ThatChuHsicouldcarrytotheutmostthethoughtsandapproachofCh'engIandindependentlycompleteasystemisindeedagreatachievementthroughthis
synthesishemadeasignificantcontributiontothehistoryofcultureandthought.However,becausehissystemisnotinlinewiththeoriginalarchetypeoftheteaching
ofmoralcultivationforsagelinesswhichhadbeendevelopedinpreCh'inConfucianism,hissystemisnotidenticalwiththetraditionoftheAnalect,theBookof
Mencius,theDoctrineoftheMean,andtheBookofChanges.WithrespecttoSungConfucianists,ChuHsicouldnotbesaidtobereallythegreatsynthesizerof
theSchoolofPrincipleofNorthernSung.Hehasbeenthecentralfigureofdisputes,andheiscertainlythecenterorfocusofphilosophicalNeoConfucianism.To
takehimasthecenterofdiscussionsofNeoConfucianismisacceptable,buttotakehimasthestandardisnot.ThehigheststandardisConfucius,andCh'engHao
canrepresentthemodelofNeoConfucianism.WiththemainstreamofConfucianismasthestandard,thesystemthatChuHsiopenedupbyfollowingCh'engIcan
notbeconsideredalineardescendant.IfitissaidthatChuHsi'sisalsoakindoforthodoxy,hisstatusisduetohisbeingthelateraloffspringthatbecomesorthodox
(chipiehweitsungbb).60ThisdistinctionhasbeenmadebyProfessorMou,andIbelievethatitisappropriateandincontrovertible.Itshouldbeunderstoodthatto
saysoisnottodowngradeChuHsibutrathertorevealhistruecolor.ItistoshowtherealsignificanceofChuHsi'sphilosophybygettingridoflayersofobscurity
andobstructions,thusrecoveringthehiddenvirtuesandprofoundinsightsofChuHsi.Astohisgreatcontributionandinfluenceinculture,philosophy,andthought,
theyaresowellknownthatweneednotemphasizethemhere.
TheModernSignificanceofChuHsi'sPhilosophy
AlthoughChuHsi'ssystemdepartedfromtheConfucianteachingofmoralcultivationforsagelinesswithin,histheoryontheinvestigationoftheprincipleofthingscan
achievenewmeaningandshowitssignificanceformoderntimes.
Accordingtothemaxim"theintelligenceofthehumanmindhascognitivepower,andeverythinghasitsprinciple,"ChuHsiputeverythinginto"beingso"and"whyso."
"Beingso''referstoconcretethings,thingsastheyexist,and"whyso"totheuniversalprinciplethatisineverything.Whathereferredtoas"takingthingsathandand
investigatingtheprincipletotheutmost"61meansemployingtheunderstandingofthecognitivemindtoinvestigatetotheutmosttheprincipleofexternalthings.This
apprehensionoftherelationbetweentheunderstandingofthecognitivemindandtheprincipleinthingsformshisultracognitivistictheoryofinvestigationofthings.
InChuHsi'ssystem,"takingthingsathandandinvestigatingtheprincipletotheutmost"isderivedfromtheobservationsmadeafterthefeelingsarearoused,butit
goesastepfurther.Itstillbelongstotheproblemoftheapproachtomoralpractice.Here,theuniversalprincipleistheprinciplethat

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includestherealityofjen,nature,Tao,andtheGreatUltimate,andhence,inthispatternof"takingthingsathandandinvestigatingtheprincipletotheutmost,"this
principleispostedastheobjectoftheunderstandingofthecognitivemind.Therefore,therealityofTao,nature,andjenastheprinciplebecomesforevertheobject,
theknown,andcannotbethesubject,theknowingitself.AccordingtoChuHsi,theresponsive,conscious,cognitivemindistheonlysubject,theknowing.Thisbeing
thecase,itisnolongerpossibletoascribetothesubstantialrealityofmindwhathasbeenascribedtoiteversinceMencius:theverticalandmorallycreativefunction.
Asaresult,mindandprinciplebecomeforevertwoandnotone.Eventheunityachievedthroughmoralpracticeistwoinoneandnotoriginallyortrulyone.The
moralityofthiskindofintellectualizedmoralmetaphysics62isnecessarilyheteronomous.OnlyintheprincipleorTaothatthemind,nature,andprincipleareone,which
isthesourceofmoralcreativity,andinmoralactionsthatspringfromdeepandendlessselfconsciousnessandspontaneity,withselfmasteringandautonomy,with
selfdeterminationandselfdirection,withautonomouscommand,andwithabsolutepurity,isthereautonomousmorality.Sincethemainstreamoftraditional
Confucianismliesinsuchautonomousmorality,asystemofheteronomousmoralitysuchasChuHsi'sobviouslycannotbeacceptedastheorthodox.
Furthermore,thoughthepatternofinvestigationiscognitive,ChuHsi'steachingof"takingthingsathandandinvestigatingtheprincipletotheutmost"hasnopositive
significanceintheacquisitionofknowledge,forthepracticeofinvestigationoftheprincipleofexistencetotheutmostiswhollyphilosophicalthatis,moralwhileto
bescientific,investigationmustprobethedefinitedetails(ofquality,quantity,relation)ofthingsthatexist.ChuHsi'sdifferentiationofprincipleandmaterialforcedoes,
however,containthegroundthatcanleadtoscientificknowledge:Basedonprinciple,onecanestablishphilosophyandmoraltheory.Basedonmaterialforce,one
canhavepositiveknowledge.63
TheformeristhemainlineofChuHsi'sphilosophy,andthelatterisbroughtforthintheprocessofhis"followingthepathofstudyandinquiry."Furthermore,ChuHsi
showedmuchinterestinknowledge.Forinstance,thediscussionsonheavenandearthandonspiritualbeingsinthesecondandthirdchaptersoftheChuTzuyleibc
(ClassifiedconversationsofMasterChu)areallconversationsconcerningthingsthatexist.ThoughChu'sexplanationoftheformationofnaturethroughtheproduction
andactivityofmaterialforceisnotuptothescientificlevel,hisviewthattheproductionandactivityofmaterialforceisphysicalisbasicallyscientific,anditcansurely
leadtothedevelopmentofscience.ChuHsi'steachingof"followingthepathofstudyandinquiry"and"examinationofthingsandinvestigationofthePrincipletothe
utmost''possessesimplicitlythetruespiritofcognitiveunderstandingitisnotsimplyakindofemptylearning.OneofChuTzu'soutstandingdisciples,Ts'aiYan
tingbd(11351198),hadespeciallydeepinterestinthiskind

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ofpureknowledgeandshowedgreattalentinthisrespect.Thoughthisisakindofoldfashioned,prescientificspirit,itisakintothatofthescientist.

64

Thusweseehowfollowingthestepsof"takingthingsathandandinvestigatingtheprincipletotheutmost"andgoingastepfurtherfrominvestigatingtheprincipleof
existencetotheutmosttoinvestigatingdefinitedetailsofthingsthemselvescanopenupthestudyofscientificknowledge.Inanyevent,themindthatChuHsitalks
aboutisthecognitivemindonthelevelofunderstanding.Today,ifChinesecultureneedsmoresubstantialandricherdevelopmentandneedstogiveventtothe
cognitivesubjectinordertoestablishscientificknowledge,thenChuHsi's(andalsoHsnTzu's,be[313238B.C.?])theoryonthemindandhisintellectualtendency
providesagoodandreadyframework.ThisisalsothehiddenvirtueandprofoundinsightofChuHsi'sphilosophythatneedtobedeveloped.
TranslatedbyLeeShuichuenbf
Notes
1.ThisistheconclusionproposedbyProfessorMouTsungsanasaresultofhiseightyearsofarduousresearchinthephilosophiesoftheSungMingperiod.Cf.his
Hsint'iyhsingt'i[Therealityofmindandtherealityofnature],Bks.IIII(Taipei:ChengchungbgBookCo.,19681969)hisTs'ungLuHsiangshantaoLiu
Chishanbh[FromLuChiuyantoLiuTsungchou],(Taipei:StudentBookCo.,1979)andmySungMinglihseh:PeiSungp'ienbi[Theschoolofprincipleof
theSungandMingdynasties,vol.1:NorthernSung],(Taipei:StudentBookCo.,1977)SungMinglihsh:NanSungp'ienbj[TheschoolofprincipleoftheSung
andMingdynasties,vol.2:SouthernSung],(Taipei:StudentBookCo.,1980)andWangYangmingchehsehbk[ThephilosophyofWangYangming],(Taipei:
SanminblBookCo.,1974).
2.TheAnalects,theBookofMencius,theDoctrineoftheMean,theBookofChanges,andtheGreatLearningmayberegardedasthefivenewClassicsof
SungMingNeoConfucianism.Cf.Hsint'iyhsingt'i,Bk.I,pp.1920.
3.ThisisYanNeoConfucianistWuCh'engsbm(12491333)phraseinhispraiseofChouTuni.SeetheSungYanhsehan(Shanghai:WorldBookCo.,1936),
ch.12,onLienhsibn(ChouTuni),p.306.
4.Hsint'iyhsingt'i,Bk.II,pp.18,103.
5.Ibid.,Bk.I,p.44.
6."Ontocosmological"isatermcoinedbyProfessorMouinhisHsint'iyhsingt'i.AccordingtothemetaphysicsofConfucianism,theprinciplesofontologyand
cosmologycouldbeconnectedandunitedintoawhole.WhattheConfucianiststalkofastherealityofTao(themetaphysicalreality)isnotmerelyanontological
conceptofabstractthinking,buttheactiverealitywhichcouldallbyitselfmanifestthefunctionofpromotingtheproductiveandreproductivechangesinthematerial
realm.ThisrealityofTaoisanontologicalreality,andisalsoacosmologicalprincipleofcreationandchanges(principleofcreativity).Hence,ProfessorMoucoined
theterm"ontocosmologicalreality"todescribeit.ThistermindicatesappropriatelythecharacteristicsoftheConfucianmoralmetaphysics.

Page477

7.Hsint'iyhsingt'i,Bk.II,p.56.
8.Ibid.,p.19.
9.BookofChanges,"AppendedRemarks,"pt.1,ch10.
10.BookofOdes,odeno.267,"TheMandateofHeaven."
11.Hsint'iyhsingt'i,Bk.I,p.58.
12.Ibid.,pp.58,59.
13.FollowingCh'engI,ChuHsicompletedtheframeworkofthetripartitionofmind,nature,andfeeling.HisdiscussioncanbefoundmainlyinChuTzuylei,ch.5,
undersuchheadingsasNatureandPrincipleandNature,Feeling,Mind,andWill.
14.Hsint'iyhsingt'i,Bk.II,pp.280,281.
15."Upwardselfconsciousness"(nihchiaobo)isatermcoinedbyProfessorMouTsungsaninhisHsint'iyhsingt'i.Theword"nih"isderivedfromtheword
"fan''bp(returnto)asitisusedinMencius'sayings"YaoShunhsingchih,T'angWufanchih"bq(withYaoandShun,theirnatureshowsitselfdirectlywhileKing
T'angandKingWureturnedtotheirnature)and"fanshenerhch'eng"br(returntooneselfandbeingsincere)."Nihchiao"isputintooppositionwith"shunch'u"bs
(outwardapprehension)toshowthedifferenceintheapproachesofmoralpracticebetweentheverticalandthehorizontalsystemsofapprehension.
16.SungYanhehan,ch.42,onWufengbt(HuHung),p.781.
17.ChuWenkungwenchibu[CollectionofliteraryworksofMasterChu],(Taipei:CommericalPress,1980),ch.40,p.601,secondletterinreplytoHoShu
ching.bv
18."Hsingchili"isasentenceintheErhCh'engchibw[CollectedworksofthetwoCh'engs],(Taipei:LijenbxBookCo.,1982),ErhCh'engishu,ch.22,p.293.
"Hsinchili"(Mindisprinciple)isasentenceintheLuHsiangshanch'anchiby[CompleteworksofLuChiuyan],(Taipei:WorldBookCo.,1973)ch.11,p.95,
lettertoPrefectLi.bz
19.SeeHsint'iyhsingt'i,Bk.II,pp.446454,511513.
20.SeeProfessorMouTsungsan'sTs'ungLuHsiangshantaoLiuCh'ishan,pp.453459.
21.Hsint'iyhsingt'i,Bk.II,p.4.
22.Ibid.,Bk.II,pp.21249,pp.251410.
23.ChuWenkungwenchi,ch.67,pp.11781179.
24.Cf.myHsinJuchiatichingshenfanghsiangca[ThespiritualdirectionofNeoConfucianism],(Taipei:StudentBookCo.,1982),pp.183185.
25.SungYanhsehan,ch.25onKueishan(YangShih),p.552.
26.Hsint'iyhsingt'i,Bk.II,p.477.
27.SungYanhsehan,ch.25,p.554.
28.ErhCh'engchi,externalworks,ch.12,p.428.
29.Ibid.,ch.39onYchangcb(LoTsungyen),pp.723728.
30.Ibid.,onYenp'ing(LiT'ung),p.728.
31.Ibid.,onYchang,p.727.
32.Ibid.,p.735.
33.Yenp'ingtawenwaseditedbyChuHsiandincludedinLiYenp'ingchicc[CollectedworksofLiT'ung]asch.2.
34.ChuTzuylei(Taipei:HanchingcdCultureCo.,1980),ch.102,p.1032.
35.Cf.mySungMinglihseh:PeiSungp'ien,ch.18,pp.462464.
36.SungYanhsehan,ch.25onKueishan,p.549.
37.Cf.Hsint'iyhsingt'i,Bk.III,p.9.

Page478
ce

38.ChuWenkungwenchi,ch.97,p.1672,"Yenp'inghsingchuang" [BiographicalaccountofLiT'ung].
39.SungYanhsehan,ch.42onWufeng,p.781.ThereferencetoKingHsanistotheBookofMencius,1A:7.
40.ChuWenkungwenchi,ch.73,p.1296,"HuTzuChihyenii"cf[DoubtsonHuHung'sKnowingWords].
41.ErhCh'engchi,ErhCh'engishu,ch.2,p.16.
42.Cf.ChuHsi's"HuTzuChihyenii"inChuWenkungwenchi,ch.73,pp.12931297.
43.ErhCh'engchi,ErhCh'engishu,ch.18,p.188.
44.ThisisProfessorMouTsungsan'ssummaryofChuHsi'sframeworkofmoralpracticeitisbasedonChuHsi's"ifaweifashuo"cg[Onthestatesofarousedand
prearousedfeelings]intheChuWenkungwenchi,ch.67,p.1173,andisalsobasedonChuHsi'sreflectionsontheproblemofequilibriumandharmony.Cf.
Hsint'iyhsingt'i,Bk.III,p.134,andmyHsinJuchiatichingshenfanghsiang,p.189,whereaconciseaccountofChuHsi'sframeworkofmoralpracticeis
presented.
45.ChuWenkungwenchi,ch.64,p.1126,firstlettertothescholarsofHunanonequilibriumandharmony.
46.Ibid.,ch.56,p.945,letterinreplytoCh'enShihtei.ch
47.SeemySungMinglihseh:NanSungp'ien,pp.97101.
48.ChuandLumetattheGooseLakeTemplein1175.Fromthenontheirdifferencesandsimilaritieshavebeendiscussed.Cf.ibid.,pp.238268.
49.WangYangmingch'anshuci[CompleteworksofWangShoujen],(Taipei:ChengchungBookCo.1953),ch.1,Ch'uanhsilucj[Instructionsforpractical
living],pp.12,28,35.
50.Cf.SungMinglihseh:NanSungp'ien,pp.187201.
51.ThediscussionofthefollowingthreetopicsisbasedonLuHsiangshanch'anchi,(Taipei:WorldBookCo.,1959),ch.36,thebiographicalmaterialofhis
thirtyseventhyearin"Hsiangshannienp'u"ck[ChronologicalbiographyofLuChiuyan],pp.322323.
52.BookofChanges,"AppendedRemarks,"pt.1,ch.1.
53.LuHsiangshanch'anchi,ch.36,p.325.ChuHsi'swordsquotedbyLuarefoundintheChuWenkungch'anchi,ch.54,p.897.
54.Cf.Hsint'iyhsingt'i,Bk.I,pp.404413.Thedisputesonthe"T'aichit'ushuo"arefoundintheChuWenkungch'anchi,ch.2,pp.1421.
55.Cf.mySungMinglihseh:PeiSungp'ien,ch.7,appendix,pp.206213.
56.Cf.Hsint'iyhsingt'i,Bk.I,p.59Bk.III,p.68.
57.BothCh'engIandChuHsibelongtothesystemofhorizontalapprehension.Theirpracticeofinvestigationofthingsandinvestigatingtheprincipletotheutmostis
toknow(apprehend)theprincipleofthingswiththecognitivefunctionofthemind.Suchknowingresultsintheoppositionofsubjectandobject,andplacessubject
andobjectonthesameplane(horizontally).Consequently,theirsystemiscalled"horizontalapprehension."Becausethecognitivemindtakesthisapproachtoknow
ortoapprehendprinciple,thiswayofmoralpracticeiscalledthe"outwardapprehension"approach.Intheverticalsystem,whatis,intheobjectivewayofspeaking,
thecosmologicalproductionandchangeis,inthesubjectivewayofspeaking,themoralcreativity,thatis,theverticalpenetrationofthemetaphysicalrealitywhichis
bothbeingandactive.ThismetaphysicalrealityistherealityofthePrincipleofHeaven,inwhichthe

Page479

realityofTao,ofnature,andofmindareone.Inotherwords,theyareallmotivated,created,andsubstantiatedbytherealityofthePrincipleofHeaven,whichis
theoriginofcreativity.Here,thereisnohorizontaloppositionbetweensubjectandobject,butverticalpenetrativecreativity,andhenceitiscalledthe"vertical
system."Ineveryverticalsystem,theapproachofmoralpracticeisrealizationthroughupwardselfconsciousness.
58.Cf.Hsint'iyhsingt'i,Bk.II,pp.476,477.
59.ErhCh'engchi,ErhCh'engishu,ch.18,p.188.
60.Cf.myHsinJuchiatichingshenfanghsiang,p.176.
61.ChuHsi'scommentaryonch.5oftheGreatLearning.
62.SeeHsint'iyhsingt'i,Bk.I,p.97.
63.Ibid.,Bk.III,pp.364367.
64.BothChuHsiandTs'aiYantingemphasizednotonlymorality,butalsocognitiveunderstanding.Theiremphasisonthelatterisofspecialsignificancetomodern
Chinesecultureinitsdevelopmentofscientificknowledge.
Glossary

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26
ChuHsiandHuHung
ConradSchirokauer
AninvestigationintotherelationshipbetweenChuHsiandthe"HunanSchool"ofwhichHuHunga(11061161)wastheleadingmastercanhelpplaceChuHsi's
thoughtinhistoricalperspectiveandalsocastsomelightonhisintellectualpositionbyconsideringideasherejectedaswellasthosehemadehisown,fortheHunan
thinkersconstitutedamajortraditionofNeoConfucianismduringChuHsi'syouthintheearlyyearsoftheSouthernSung(11271279).1YetafterHuHung'sdeathin
1161andafterachangeofmindofthepartofHung'schiefdiscipleandChuHsi'sfriendChangShihb(11331180),theHunanSchoolceasedtofunctionasa
separatetradition.OnlyinrecentdecadeshasHuHungbeenexaminedbyChineseandJapanesescholars.2Itisthepurposeofthisessaytoconsidersomeofhis
salientideasastheyaffectedChuHsiandelicitedresponsesfromhim.ButfirstanoverviewofthebroaderHunanSchoolisinorder.
TheHunanSchool
TheoriginoftheHunanSchoolisusuallytracedtoHuAnkuoc(10741138)whowasfromFukienbutretiredtoHunan.3AlthoughAnkuowasnotadirectdisciple
ofCh'engHaod(10321085)orCh'engIe(10331107),hewaslinkedtothemthroughteachersandfriendsandwasregardedbyhimselfandothersasbelongingto
theCh'engtradition.4ByallaccountshewasastaunchConfucian,andinalettertohissonsquotedbyChuHsiinhisHsiaohsehf(Elementarylearning)Ankuotold
hissonstoaspiretobelikeCh'engHaoandFanChungyeng(9891052).5Politically,too,hedefendedtheNorthernSung(9601126)masters,assertingthatthey
providedthedoorthatgaveaccesstothethoughtofConfucius(551479B.C.)andMencius(372289B.C.?).6
HuAnkuo,however,isbestknownforrescuingtheCh'unch'iuh(SpringandAutumnAnnals)fromtheopprobriumcastonitbyWangAnshihi(12011286)and
hisfollowerswhobannedtheworkfromtheexaminationhalls,theschools,andtheimperialseminar("classicmat,"chingyenj).When

Page481
k

theEmperoraskedAnkuotoedittheTsochuan (Tsocommentary),hedecidedinsteadtowritehisowncommentaryontheClassic,whichhebelievedConfucius
hadfashionedinto"anessentialtextforthetransmissionofthemind"(ch'uanhsinyaotienl).7AccordingtoAnkuo,thepositionoftheAnnalsamongtheFive
Classics8waslikethatofjudgmentsinalegaltradition.Theprinciplesinvolvedremainaccessible,forwhatmen'smindshaveincommonremainsthesamethrough
time.Althoughworldsapart,laterscholarscanstillhaveintimatecontactwiththesages:"thestandardsoftheAnnalsareinus."Theseweretheorthodoxstandards
suchasreverencefortherulerfatherbutAnkuo'sstressonthedifferencebetweenChineseandbarbarians,hisviewthatasonisdutyboundtoavengeawronged
father,andhissuspicionofallianceswithbarbariansspoketothetimesandhelptoaccountforthepopularityofhiswork.9Ankuowasalsotheauthorofa
supplement,unfortunatelynolongerextant,toSsumaKuang'sm(10191086)Tzuchiht'ungchienn(Comprehensivemirrorforaidingovernment).
HuAnkuowashelpedinhisworkontheAnnalsbyhissonHuNing,o10whoalsowroteontheAnnalsbutdidnotattaintheprominenceofhisyoungerbrother,Hu
Hung,orofHuYinp(10951156),anephewwhomAnkuoadoptedashisoldestson.HuYinsharedAnkuo'sinterestinhistory,ascanbeseeninhismost
influentialwork,Tushihkuanchienq(Observationsonreadinghistory),whichhadforitspurposetheapplicationtohistoryoftheprinciplesfoundintheClassics.It
isthussimilarinintenttoChuHsi'sT'ungchienkangmur(OutlineanddigestoftheComprehensiveMirror),whichwasheavilyinfluencedbyHuYin'sbook.Both
HuYinandChuHsidepartfromSsumaKuangininsistingthathistorybeviewedasmorality.WhenthestudyofChuHsiasahistorianisundertakenindepth,an
assessmentofHuYin'sinfluencewillsurelyoccupyaprominentplace.11
HuHungalsocontributedtohisfamily'straditionofhistoriography.Hislongest,butnotmosthighlyregarded,workistheHuangwangtachis(Greatrecordsof
emperorsandkings),ahistoryfromthebeginningoftheworldtotheendoftheChou(1111249B.C.)thatemploysShaoYung'st(10111077)systemofdatingand
incorporates,amongothertexts,Ankuo'scommentaryontheAnnals.Inhispreface,HungtakesuptheissueoftherelationshipbetweentheClassicsandhistory,
comparingtheformertolimbsandtrunk,thelattertoarteriesandveins.InacommentfurtheronintheworkhestatesthatthemeaningstransmittedintheClassicsand
thefactscontainedinthehistoriesshouldbeusedtocorrecteachotherandgoesontosaythatfactswithoutmeaningaretotallyunacceptable.Hedoesnot,however,
considertheoppositeextreme,presumablybecauseforhimtheClassicscouldhardlycontainmeaningsdivorcedfromfacts.12HuHung'smoralmeanings,not
surprisingly,resemblethoseofhisfatherandbrother.Comparingfatherandson,ChuHsiremarkedthatAnkuowascorrectinhisdiscussionsofthegeneraloutline
andthatwhileHungwasmoresubtleinfinepointsofdetail,hisgeneraloutlinehaddeficiencies.InanothershortcommentChuHsisaidthat

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althoughAnkuo'sdiscussionsaresomewhatcareless,theyaregood,whereasHungissubtlebutmakesmistakes.

13

TheHus'interestinhistoricalstudiesseemstohavebeenanewdevelopmentintheCh'engbrothers'traditionoflearning,andHuHungmaybeconsideredthefirst
Sungphilosopher(dependingonhowthattermisdefined)tooccupyhimselfwithahistoricalproject.Perhapsthisconcernforhistorywaspartoftheirresponsetothe
turbulentandtraumatichistoryoftheirownera.AnotherelementofthisresponsewasaninsistenceontheneedforreconquestoftheheartlandofChinesecivilization,
theCentralPlain,occupiedbytheChin(11151234).ThesecondgenerationofHusallrefusedtoserveinthegovernmentduringtheascendancyofCh'inKueiu
(10901155,ascendant11381155).Asiswellknown,ChuHsisharednotonlytheHus'interestinhistorybutalsotheirlongingforreconquestofthenorthandtheir
contemptforCh'inKuei.However,hedidnotbyanymeansagreewithalltheirpoliticaloreconomicviews.Foronething,ChuHsiwasmuchmoreevenhandedin
hisassessmentofWangAnshih.Foranother,hewascriticalofHuHung'sdrasticrestorationismadvocacyofareturntotheinstitutionsofantiquity,includingthe
wellfieldsystem.14
AnotherattitudesharedbytheHusandadoptedbyChuHsiwastheirhostilitytowardBuddhism.AtatimewhenBuddhiststhemselvesshowedsensitivityto
ConfucianconcernsandwhenprominentBuddhistsdemonstratedtheirpatriotism,manyscholarsseemtohavebeenquitereceptivetoBuddhistteachings.15The
hostilityoftheHusthusseemstohavebeensomethingofananomaly.HuHungaswellasHuYinchallengedBuddhistviews,butitwasHuYinwhodidsomost
energetically.HewrotehisCh'ungchengpienv(Indefenseofreveringcorrectness)withtheexpresspurposeof"exposingthedepravedheterodoxy"(hsiehshuow)
oftheBuddhistsandrejectedanypossibilityofaccommodationwiththealienfaith.BoththeBuddhaandConfuciuscouldnotberight.Theyaremutuallyexclusive.
Bothcannotstand.16ChuHsi,whoapprovedofthisbook,17cametosharethishostilitytowardBuddhismalthoughitdoesnotappearthatthetwelfthcenturyadded
anythingtothearsenalofargumentslongemployedagainstBuddhistsbytheirenemies.18
EarlyContactsbetweenChuHsiandHunanScholars
ChuHsi'sconnectionwithHunanscholarsbeganveryearly,primarilythroughhisrelationshipwithHuAnkuo'snephewHuHsienx(10821162)afriendofChu
Hsi'sfather,ChuSungy(10971143)andoneofthethreementowhomChuSungentrustedthecareofhissonjustpriortohisdeathin1143.ChuHsiwasthirteen
atthetime.HuHsienwasafollowerofAnkuo'steachingsandduringhisuniversityyearssecretlyreadthewritingsoftheCh'engbrothers,whichwerethen
proscribed.HsientoorefusedtoserveingovernmentduringCh'inKuei'stime.Insteadhereturnedhomeandsupportedhimselffromthelandandbysellingmedicine.
AnexemplaryConfucian,hewasfinallyprevailedupontoacceptapositioninthelocalschool.

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ChuHsirecordsthatwhenHsienfirstadmonishedhiscareermindedstudentsbycitingtheAnalects,"theancientsstudiedtoimprovethemselves,"hewasgreeted
withlaughter.However,whentheysawthathisownselfcultivationandconductwasconsistentwithhiswords,theycametorespectandbelieveinhim.19
AfterCh'inKuei'sdeathHuHsiendidacceptofficeandin1159becameaCorrectingEditoroftheImperialLibrary(Pishushengchengtzuz).InresponseChuHsi
composedtwopoemsgenerallyunderstoodascriticalofhisteacher'sassumingofficeathisadvancedageandaftersomanyyearsinprivatelife.ChuHsiandHu
Hungnevermet,andtheonlyoccasiontheolderscholarcommentedontheyoungerwaswhenhesawapoemChuHsiwroteinresponsetoacallbyfriendstoserve
ingovernment.ThemenmentionedinthefirsttwolinesareHuHsienandLiuKungaa(11221178),whohadbecomeacensor.Aroughandtentativetranslationmight
runasfollows:
MasterHuascendstheFragrantHall
CouncilorLiuputsonacensor'scap.
Detainingtherecluseinthedesertedvalley
Astream'swindandmoonwantmetolook.
Infrontofthejarwindowagreenscreen
EveningsthescreenandIfaceoneanotherinquietdecorum.
Afloatingcloudleisurelyfurlsandunfurls.
Theeverlastinggreenmountainsjustgreenlikethis.20

HuHungcommentedthatChuHsishowedpromiseandthathiswordshadsubstancebutlackedfunction.ToadmonishChuHsi,HuHungtooturnedtopoetry:
Thereclusesolelylovesthemountains'goodness
Becausegreenmountainsremaingreenanddonotage.
Cloudsissuefromthemountainandrainontheworld.
Oncethedusthasbeenwashedoffthemountainsarebetterstill.21

AsProfessorTomoedaabhaspointedout,ChuHsi'sgreenmountainsremaininmotionlesstranquillitywhereasHuHung'sencompassmovementaswellastranquillity
ascloudsrisetobringrain.InhiscollophontoHuHung'spoemChuHsiexpresseshisregretatneverhavingmetHuHung.Bythetimeheheardthepoemfrom
ChangShih,HuHungwasdead.
TheMethodologyofSelfCultivation
HuHung'scriticismcameatatimewhenChuHsi,stillunderthepredominantinfluenceofLiT'ungac(10931163),followedatheoryofselfcultivationthat
emphasizedquietsittingfocusedonnourishingthe"centrality"(chung,ad

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equilibrium)beforethefeelingsarearousedratherthanconcentratingonscrutinyafterthefeelingsarearoused,adistinctionbasedonthefamouspassageinthefirst
chapteroftheChungyungae(DoctrineoftheMean):"Beforethefeelingsofpleasure,anger,sorrow,andjoyarearouseditiscalledcentrality.Whenthesefeelings
arearousedandeachandallattainduemeasureanddegree,itiscalledharmony."22AtissuewasthedefinitionofproperConfucianpractice,amatterofvitalconcern.
ChuHsiquotesHuAnkuoassaying,"Ifyoujustapplyyourselftothealreadyarousedcondition,therewillbenowasteofmentalenergy."23Thepositionthatself
cultivationshouldbeginintheactivephasewasgenerallymaintainedbyHunanthinkers.Theprocessbeginswhenweperceivethebeginningsoftheoriginallygood
mind/heart(lianghsinaf)inthecourseoftheactivitiesofeverydaylife.InHuHungthiswasperhapsmostclearlyandforcefullyexpressedinadialoguewithadisciple.
Someoneasked:Thereasonwhyapersonisnothumaneisthathehaslosthisoriginallygoodmind.Canthelostmindbeusedtoseekforthe(true)mind?
Answer:WhentheKingofCh'iagsawtheoxandcouldnotbearitsbeingslaughtered,thatwasthesproutoftheoriginallygoodmindseeninthemidstofdesireforprofit.Once
youseeit,holdfastandpreserveit,preserveitandnourishit,nourishandfulfillitsothatitbecomesenlarged.Whenitisgreatandcannotbestopped,itwillbeidenticalto
Heaven.Thismindisin(all)people,butthebeginningsofitsexpressiondiffer.Whatmattersistoperceiveit,that'sall.24

WhenKingHsanahofCh'icouldnotbeartoseethesufferingoftheoxbeingledofftosacrifice,Menciustoldhim,"Thismind/heartissufficienttoenableyouto
becomeatrueking."25ThisepisodeisalsocitedbyChangShihinhisT'anchouch'unghsiuYehlushuyanchiai(RecordoftherepairoftheYehluAcademy
inT'anchou)composedin1166whereChangexplicitlyusesittoprovideauthorityfortheargumentthatitisindailylifethatweshouldlookforthebeginningsofthe
virtueofhumaneness(jenaj),theexpressionoftheoriginalmind."Ifweexaminehowduringthedayweserveourparents,obeyourelderbrothers,respondtothings
anddealwithaffairs,thebeginningmayappear."AlittleearlierinthesamepieceChangstressedthattheWaycannotbedivorcedfromdailylife.Hethenwentonto
outlineasequenceofselfcultivation:"Ifwearetrulyabletocomprehenditinsilenceandpreserveit,extend,develop,andperfectitandthewonderoflife'sperpetual
renewalflourishestherein,thenhowcanwepossiblyfailtoapprehendthesubstanceofhumanness?"26AlthoughtheinfluenceofBuddhismonChangShihisnottobe
discounted,27thispositionisentirelyconsistentwiththatofHuHung.
Beforeconsideringthetheoryofmindandhumannatureonwhichthisconceptofselfcultivationisbased,itiswelltonotethatitbeginswithcognition.HuHungis
quiteinsistentonthis."StudyingtheWayislikestudyingarchery.Beforeyougraspbowandarrowyoumustfirstknowthetarget.Only

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thencanyouseektohitthetargetbyaccumulatedpractice."Laterinthesamediscussionhesays,"Ifknowledgeisnotextendedfirst,youwillnotknowwheretoend.
Itislikegoingsomewhere,buttheroadhasmanyforks.Ifyoudonotknowwheretogo,seriousnesscannotbeenactedandtherewillbenorulerwithin."28In
discussingtheperennialquestionoftherelationshipbetweenknowledgeandaction,ChangShih,too,whilestronglyinsistingthattheyareinseparable,nevertheless
placesknowingfirst:"Knowledgealwayscomesfirst,andpracticeneverfailstofollow."29
TheconvictionthatknowledgehadprioritymayalsohavehelpedtoreconcileanardentpatriotsuchasHuHungtoalifeofpoliticalinactivityduringtheCh'inKuei
years,foritassignedaloftyroletothescholarinreturningthedynastytotheTrueWaywithoutwhichtheNorthernPlainwouldremainlosttoChinaforever.Thevital
roleofthosewhoknowissuggestedbyHuHunginthisobservation:"Onlyafterthosewhowieldtheaxeslistentothosewhohandlethemarkinglinecanamansion
becompleted.Onlywhenthosewhohandleweaponslistentothosewhoilluminatemoralprinciplescangreatundertakingsbesettled."30AnotherpassageinChih
yenak(Understandingwords)concerningknowledgemeritsquotationinfull.
Peopleallsaythatmenarebornwithknowledge.However,theyarebornignorant.Knowledgecomesaftertheyhavebeenclosetoteachersandmadefriends.Thusitisafterone
knowsaboutdangersthatonecanplanforpeace.Itisafteroneknowsdestructionthatonecanplanforpreservation.Itisafteroneknowsdisorderthatonecanplanfororder.
WithreferencetotheloyaltyofTzuwenaloftheStateofCh'uamConfuciussaid,"Hecannotbesaidtoknow,howcanhebeconsideredhumane?"Howgreatisknowledge!Ofthe
tenthousandthingsintheworldnonehaspriorityoverknowledge.Therefore,thesuperiormanmustfirstextendhisknowledge.31

ElsewhereHustatesthatalthoughpeopleareprovidedwiththeTao,antheyneedstudytocomprehendit,32buthedoesnotspecifythecontentofthatstudy.Asmay
beexpectedofascholarwholaboredlongandhardonhislargehistoricalopus,HuHungwasnotonetorejectbooklearningorrelegatetheClassicstoasecondary
role,tantamounttorejectingthesages.33
ItisnotclearhowmuchemphasisHuHungwouldgivetointrospectiondirectedtowardperceivingthebeginningsoftheoriginalgoodmindandhowmuchemphasis
hewouldplaceonknowledgegainedfromteachersandbooks.SincethepassagescollectedinUnderstandingWordsarenotdated,wecannotdelineatethe
developmentofhisthought.Theremayhavebeenachangeofemphasisduringhislife,butthisisamatterforspeculation.Whatseemsmostworthnoting,however,is
thatalongwiththeprioritygiventocognition,hiswritingsadvocatebothintrospectionandexternalinvestigationeventhoughhispositionontheformercommanded
moreattentionthanhisquiteunexceptionalviewsonthelatter.

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Oncetheprocessofselfcultivationhasbegun,HuHungemphasizestheneedforsustainedeffortandcontinuingpracticeanddiscussestheneedforreducingthe
desiresmuchashadhispredecessors.Similarlyheemphasizestheextensionofknowledge.Thereislittleherethatseemsneworexceptional.Similarly,othersbefore
him,notablytheCh'engbrothers,expoundedontheroleofseriousness(ching,aoreverence)avitalqualityforHuHungaswell."Firmlyguardingourmindiscalled
seriousness.Byseriousnesswenourishourhumaneness."34Elsewhere,heindicatesthatthepreservationofheavenlyprincipledependsonseriousness.35Andhe
remarksthat
theWayofHeavenismostsincereandthereforeneverceases.ThewayofmanistoholdseriousnessasfundamentalinordertoseektoaccordwithHeaven.Confucius
progressedfrom"settinghismindonlearning"to"followinghisheart'sdesiresandnottransgressingwhatisright."ThatistheperfectionoftheWayofseriousness.
Seriousnessisthatwherebythesuperiormancompleteshislife.36

Finally,inhisrecordofastudynamed"Fu"ap(returning)afterthetwentyfourthhexagramoftheBookofChanges,HuHungincorporatedadescriptionoftheprocess
ofselfcultivationincludingastatementonseriousnessadmiredbyChuHsiandlaterscholars.
Menarenotborntoknowledgebutdependoneventsandthingsforknowledge.Dependingoneventsandthingsforknowledge,theyaredeludedbyeventsandthings,losethe
meanandhavenoplacetostop.Fromyouthtooldagetheyareatalosslikeatravelerunabletoreturnhomeandsettledown.Nowalthoughwewanttodispelexternaldelusions
andretainthepureheartofaninfantsoastoreturntothemysterythatgaveusbirth,lifecannotbefreeofeventsandthingsandwecannotdoawaywiththemandcausethem
nottobe.ThewayofConfuciusistofollowhumannature,guardthedecree,andsharetheeffortofheaven.Therefore,inhandlingeventsandselectingthingswedonothateand
rejectbutwemustpersonallyinvestigatetheminordertoextendourknowledge.Noweventsundergoallkindsofchangesandthestimuliofthingsareinexhaustible.Thewayto
investigatethemmustbetomakeupthemindtoaffirmthefoundationandabideinseriousnessinordertoholdontothewill.Whenthemindissetontheexteriorofeventsand
things,andseriousnessisenactedintheirinterior,theunderstandingcanberefined.37

ItisapparentthatforHuHungasforotherNeoConfuciansthemind/heartisatthecenterofselfcultivation.Itisnotonlytheinstrumentemployedinself
improvementbutiswhatmakesselfcultivationpossibleinthefirstplace.Itcanbestbeconsideredinconjunctionwiththenature(hsingaq).
TheNatureandtheMind/Heart
HuHunghadastrongsenseoftheunityofmanandtheuniverse,aperceptionthatcolorsmuchofhisphilosophy.Forhimmanistheessenceofheaven

Page487
ar 38

andearth(t'ientichihching ). Justasheavenandeartharerootedinharmony,assun,moon,andstarsarerootedinheaven,asmountains,rivers,andplantsare
rootedinearth,somanisrootedbetweenheavenandearth.39AndhelivesintheWayjustasfishliveinwaterandplantsonland.Removinganyofthemfromtheir
naturalhabitatleadstodisaster.40Conversely,theidealmanisperfectlytunedtotheuniverse,fortherhythmofthesage'slifecorrespondstothewaxingandwaningof
sunandmoonandthefluctuationsofyinas(passivecosmicforce)andyangat(activecosmicforce).ThuswhenConfuciusattainedperfectionattheageofseventy,he
becameheaven.41
Thebasisforthisidentityisprovidedbyhumannature,formanpartakesofthenaturewhichisallencompassing.''Howgreatthenature!Thetenthousandprinciples
arecompleteinit.Heavenandearthareestablishedfromit.Whenordinaryscholarsspeakofthenature,theyallalikediscussitwithreferencetoasingleprinciple.
Noneofthemhaveseenthetotalsubstanceofwhatheavenimparts."42Perhapsweshouldnotbesurprisedatthefailureofordinaryscholars,forthesubstanceofthe
natureissogreatandallinclusivethatevenasagecannotnameit.Itpermeateseverything,andalthough"thingshaveasetnature,thenaturedoesnothaveaset
substance."Initscreativityitcannotbechecked.43Itcontainseverything,andeverythingiscontainedinit."Thereisnothingoutsidethenatureandnonatureoutside
things."44
Althoughbothliau(principle)andch'iav(vitalforce,materialforce)figureinhiswritingsandsayings,HuHunghasnotleftadiscussionofhowtheyaretoberelatedto
eachother.Butheseesbothasgroundedinthenature.Asjustindicated,allprinciplesarecompleteinit.Inaddition,asthesourceofcreativityitisalsothe"rootof
thevitalforce":"Ifitwerenotforthenature,therewouldbenothings.Ifitwerenotforthevitalforce,therewouldbenoforms.Asforthenature,itistherootofthe
vitalforce."45Itisthesource:"Waterhasaspring,andthereforeitsflowisinexhaustible.Treeshaveroots,andthereforetheirlivesarelimitless.Thevitalforcehasthe
nature,andthereforeitscirculationisunending."46
Withasubstancesovastthatevenasagecannotnameit,indeed,withoutasetsubstanceatall,thenaturetranscendsalldistinctionsusuallymadeinordinarylanguage.
Thisincludesthedistinctionbetweengoodandevil."Thenatureistheinnermostmysteryofheavenandearthandthespiritualforcesgoodisinadequateto
characterizeit,letaloneevil."47Thispositionseemstoimplynotonlyarejectionofnumerousearliertheoriesofhumannaturebutalsoadeparturefromtheteachings
ofMenciuswhomHuHung,likeotherNeoConfucians,reveredandwhomhedefendedagainstthecritiqueofSsumaKuang.48HuHungexplainedtheapparent
discrepancybetweenhisviewandthatofMenciusbyquotinghisownfatherassayingthatMencius'assertionwasanexclamationofadmirationforthenatureandthat
hewasnotascribingtoitagoodnessthatcanbecontrastedwithevil.49ChuHsitracedthisthesisthroughHuAnkuobacktotheCh'anawmonkCh'angtsungax

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(10251091),butHuHungwould,ofcourse,havebeendeeplydismayedbythesuggestionthathisteachingsweretingedbytheBuddhismhesoheartilyopposed.
LikeotherConfucians,HuHunginsistentlycriticizedBuddhistsfortheirwithdrawalfromactivelifeandtheirrejectionoftheordinaryworld.ForHuHung,"alltheten
thousandthingsbelongtothenature.Thesagescompletelyrealizedtheirnature(chinhsing,aydevelopedtheirnaturefully).Therefore,theydidnotrejectthings."50
TheWayitselfcannotexistofitselfapartfromthingsanymorethanthingscanexistofthemselveswithouttheWay."TheWayhasthingslikethewindhasmotionor
waterhasacurrent.Whocanseparatethem?Therefore,toseekfortheWayapartfromthingsissimplyabsurd."51ThedifferencebetweenthingsandtheWayisthat
thingshaveformandnumber.''Whatisshapedbyshapeiscalledthings.WhatisnotshapedbyshapeiscalledtheWay.Thingsarerestrictedbynumberandhavean
end.TheWaypenetratesthetransformationsandisinfinite."52
Asiswellknown,theword"wu,"azhererendered"things,"designateslivingcreaturesaswellasinanimateobjects,andthereisnoreasontosupposethatthiswasnot
HuHung'sintentinthepassagesjustquoted.Itisintrinsictohisconceptofthesagethathedoesnotreject"things"ineithersense.Itisthefunctionofthesageinthe
worldtoseetoitthateachandeveryplantandanimalgetsitsdueaccordingtothedifferentprinciplesinherentinitsindividualnature.HuHung'sconceptofthings
sharingacommonnatureyeteachhavingitsownindividualnatureis,ofcourse,reminiscentofCh'engI'sfamousthesisthatprincipleisonebutitsmanifestationsare
many(liifenshuba).Inanycase,nocreatureistobeneglectedeachistoberankedandvaluedappropriately.Man,as"theessenceofheavenandearth"andthe
finestch'i,ranksfirst."Things"existforhisuse,nottheotherwayaround.53
Thesagedoesnotreject"things,"nordoesherejectfeelingsanddesires.Theytoostemfromthenature.InHuHung'sversionofthewateranalogy,"Comparehuman
naturetowater:Themindislikewaterrunningdownwards,thefeelingslikethewater'sbillows,thedesireslikethewaves."54Thesagehasordinaryhumanemotions,
buthisoperatedifferentlyfromthoseofthecommonperson."Loveandhatearehumannature.Thepettymanlovesandhatesintermsofhimself.Thesuperiorman
lovesandhatesintermsoftheWay.LookintothisandyouwillbeabletounderstandthePrincipleofHeavenandhumandesires."55Thedistinctionbetweenthe
PrincipleofHeaven(t'ienlibb)and(selfish)humandesires(jenybc)isasbasictoHuHung'smoralteachingsasitistootherNeoConfucians,but,consistentwithhis
theoryofthenature,heseesthesetwooppositesassharingacommonbasis."ThePrincipleofHeavenandhumandesiresarethesameinsubstancebutdifferin
function.Theyarethesameinoperationbutdifferinfeeling(ch'ing,bdsituation).Thesuperiormanwhogoesforthtocultivateshoulddeeplydistinguishthem."56The
emphasishereisontheneednottoconfoundthem.

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Neitherfeelingsnordesiresaretrustworthy,norcanwerelyonoursensations."Itisthelotofthemultitudetoberestrictedbywhattheireyesseeandtheirears
hear."57Ourfeelingsmaybedownrightmisleading.Thefurcoatthatfeelslightinwinterseemsunbearablyheavywhensummercomesaround,eventhoughitsactual
weighthasremainedunchanged.Thusthefeelingscandistortourjudgmentsconcerningweight.Thesameholdsforpeoplewhorelyontheirfeelingsinmakingmoral
judgmentsandmistakenlythinkthattheyareactingvirtuously.58Desires,aswellasfeelingsandemotions,leadpeopleastray.Theydestroypeople'ssenseofreality
andareresponsiblefortheinterruptioninthetransmissionofthetrueteachings.
Basicallylifeisnottobeloved,butpeopleloveitbecauseoftheirdesires.Basicallydeathisnottobehated,but,again,peoplehateitbecauseoftheirdesires.Withrespectto
life,theyseektosatisfythesedesires,andwithrespecttodeath,theyfearlosingthem.Restlessonthisearth,everyoneisoccupiedwithhisdesires,andthelearningofthe
mind/heart(hsinhsehbe)isnotpassedon.59

However,"loveandhatearehumannature,"andthesagehasfeelingsanddesiresthesameaseveryoneelse.Hedoesnotdenythese,includingthedesiresforfood
andsex."Peopledespisethewayofhusbandandwifebecausetheyconsideritamatteroflasciviousdesire,butthesagesareateasewithitbecausethepreservation
ofharmonyisitsmeaning."60Sagesandordinarypeopleareendowedwiththesamehumannature,andtheydonotdifferintheiressentialemotionalorpsychological
constitution.Theyhavethesamefeelings,desires,andabilities.Eventhoughordinarypeopletakeadimviewoftheseinbornimpulsesandpropensities,thesage
rejectsnoneofthem.Sages,likecommonpeople,havetheiranxietiesandresentments.Butincontrasttoordinarypeople,theyacceptthese,too.Thedifference
betweenthesageandthecommonmanisthatwhenthesage'sfeelingsandpropensitiesarearoused,theyattain,inthewordsoftheDoctrineoftheMean,"due
measureanddegree.''61
InalettertoTsengChibf(10841168),probablyseenbyChuHsi,HuHungelaboratesonthiscontrastintermsofthefamouspassagefromthefirstchapterofthe
DoctrineoftheMean.AccordingtoHuHung,"thestatebeforethefeelingsarearousedisempty,tranquil,andwithoutanysign,andallsharethegreatbasis(ta
penbg)sothatevenanordinarypersonisnodifferentfromasage."62Thisisbecausethisstagereferstothenature.Thestageafterthefeelingsarearousedthenrefers
tothemind/heart.Onlysages,havingfullyrealizedthenature,canremaintranquilwhenactedonbythings.
Thisdoesnotmeanthatthemindappearsonlyafteritisactedonfromwithout.Fromthepointofviewoftheoutsideobserver,ourhumanenesscanbeseenonlyafter
somethingoccursandknowledgearises,but"intermsofourselves,themind'flows'(liubh)inunisonwithheavenandearth.Howcantherebeaninterruption?"63
FurtherlightisshedonHuHung'sconceptof

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themindanditsrelationshiptothenatureinapassageinUnderstandingWordsinwhichheemploysthedistinctionbetweensubstanceandfunction.Afterdiscussing
thesages'namingoftheWay,hestates,"Designatingitssubstancethesagecallsit'thenature.'Designatingitsfunctionhecallsit'mind.'Thenaturecannotbutbe
active.Activeitismind.Thesagetransmittedthemindandtaughttheworldbyhumaness."64Similarly,inanotherpassage,hecharacterizescentrality(beforethe
feelingsarearoused)asthesubstanceoftheWayandharmony(afterthefeelingsarearoused)astheWay'sfunction.65Thesedescriptionsoftherelationshipbetween
thenatureandthemindintermsofthetwostagesoftheDoctrineoftheMeanandthesubstance/functiondichotomyalsofitinwithHuHung'scomparisonofthe
naturetowater.
InanotherpassageHuHungdrawsananalogybetweenthemind(ratherthanthenature)andwaterandsaysthatthemindreflectsallthingsaswaterreflectsall
images.66Oneoftheprimaryfunctionsofthemindisthuscognition."Thereisthismindandthenwehaveknowledgewithoutthismind,thereisnoknowledge."67Or
again,inoneoftheterseandsuggestivesayingsincludedinUnderstandingWords,HuHungcomparesman'sfunctioningintheworldwiththatofthemindinthe
body:"Mannecessarilyrespondstotheworld'sstimulijustasthemindnecessarilyknowswhenthebodyissickwithpain."68
Themindnotonlyknowsitalsorules."Thevitalforce(ch'i)isruledbythenaturethenatureisruledbythemind.Whenthemindispure,thenatureissettled,andthe
vitalforceiscorrect."69Thispointisreiteratedinanotherpassageandextendedto"things"(wu):"Whenthenatureissettled,themindrulesandthingsfollow."70
Again,inapassagecriticizedbyChuHsi,"Themindiswhatunderstandsheavenandearthandrulesthetenthousandthingsinordertocomplete(ch'engbi)the
nature.''71Sinceitisdifficulttoconceiveofafunction(mind)rulingoverasubstance(thenature),thesuggestionhasbeenmadethatdifferentmetaphysicalplanesor
dimensionsareinvolved,forexample,thatobjectivelythenatureissubstance,themindfunction,butthatsubjectivelythemindrules.72Thisisnottodenytheexistence
ofatranscendentmindasrevealedinthefollowingdialogue.
Adiscipleasked:Isthemindsubjecttolifeanddeath?
MasterHu:No,itisnot.
Disciple:Inthatcase,whensomeonedieswhereisthemind?
MasterHu:Youalreadyknowofitsdeathandyetyouaskwhereitis?
Disciple:Whatdoyoumean?
MasterHu:Itisonlybecauseitisnotdeadthatyouknowit.Whatistheproblem?
Disciple:Idon'tunderstand.
MasterHu(laughing):Yourobtusenessisreallytoomuch!Ifyouwouldconsiderthemindnotintermsofshapebutconsiderthemindintermsofmind,youwouldunderstand
it.73

Page491

Thepointapparentlyisthatmindassuchdoesnotdie.
Themindisaspermanentandextensiveasthenatureatthesametimethatitisimmanentineveryoneandmakessagehoodpossible."Themindiseverywhere.Based
onthetransformationoftheWayofHeaven,itdealswithsocialinteractions,assistsheavenandearth,andprovidesthetenthousandthings."Thetroubleisthatpeople
losethismindbecauseitisobscuredbyselfishdesires.Therefore,wemust,asMenciustaught,"seekafterthelostmind."74Thiseveryonepossesses.Todenyitfor
thesakeofpersonalgainistosinktothelevelofanimals.75Conversely,ifweperceiveitasdidtheKingofCh'iwhenhecouldnotbearthesufferingoftheox,itcan
becultivatedandenlargeduntilitbecomesasgreatasheaven.
Humaneness(jen)istheparamountqualityofthemind.Innatureitisthemindofheavenandearthwhichinexhaustiblycreates,andinmanitiswhatenableshimto
participateintheoperationsoftheuniverse.Sinceeveryonehasamind,itisaccessibletoall."Therearepeoplewholackhumaneness,butthereisnomindthatis
withouthumaneness."76Aswehaveseen,"Thereasonwhyapersonisnothumaneisthathehaslosthisoriginallygoodmind."Whenadiscipleaskedaboutpracticing
humaneness,HuHunganswered,"Ifyouwanttopracticehumaneness,youmustunderstandthesubstanceofhumaneness.''Whenfurtherqueriedaboutitssubstance,
hewentontosay,
Thewayofhumanenessisvastyetintimate.Thosewhounderstanditcanunderstanditallinonewordthosewhodonotunderstanditwillnotunderstanditevenafter
countlesswords.Thosewhoarecapablecandemonstrateitwithasingleundertakingthosewhoareincapablecannotdosoeventhoughtheypointtocountlessmatters.77

ThisdialoguegoesonwithHuHungdenyingthatthesubstanceofhumanenessliesinbeingonewithallthingsandendswiththediscipleleavinginterror.However,in
UnderstandingWordsitispresentedasasingleitemwiththediscourseconcerningtheKingofCh'iwhichimmediatelyfollowsit.Understandingthesubstanceof
humanenessmaythusbedescribedasanintuitiveexperienceofselfidentificationwiththemoralandcreativeforceoftheuniverseandassuchnotattainableby
intellectualanalysisalone.
ChuHsi
Foratime,asaresultofconversationsandcorrespondencewithChangShih,ChuHsiwasattractedtotheHunantheoryofselfcultivationandinfluencedbyitto
departfromtheteachingsofLiT'ung.However,asiswellknown,hewentontoformulatehisowntheory,developingasynthesisthatprovidesforboth
preserving/nourishingbeforethefeelingsarearousedandforexamina

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tionaftertheyhavebeenactivated,inthatorderofprioritybutwithseriousness(ching)thepredominantqualityinboththetranquilandactivephases.Inthecourseof
workinghiswaythroughtothisposition,ChuHsibecamequitecriticalofHuHungandpersuadedChangShihaswellasLTsuch'ienbj(11341181)tojoinhimina
critiqueofsomeselectedpassageswhich,underthetitleHutzuChihyeniibk(MisgivingsconcerningMasterHu'sUnderstandingWords)hasbeenpreservedin
ChuHsi'scollectedworksaswellasintheSungYanhsehanbl78(AnthologyandcriticalaccountsofSungandYanNeoConfucianists)andtheYehyat'angbm
(EleganceofKuangtung)editionoftheChihyen.
OneofthepassagesfromUnderstandingWordssingledoutbyChuHsiandbearingdirectlyontheissueofselfcultivationistheonejustcitedinwhichHuHung
statesthatonemustbeginby"understandingthesubstanceofhumaneness."ChuHsipointsoutthatwhenaskedabouthumanenessConfuciushimselftalkedtohis
disciplesaboutmethodstoseekforitanddidnotbeginbygettingthemtounderstanditssubstance.ChuHsifurtherexpressedhisconcernthattohaveselfcultivation
dependonfirstobtainingknowledgecouldleadtoneglectofeverydaynourishing.Inhisview,thetwoprocessesshouldproceedstepbystepintandem,althoughit
shouldbenotedthatHuHung,too,insistsonboth,evenifinoppositesequence.
ChuHsi'sviewswereelaboratedinlettersinwhichheclarifieshisrejectionofHuHung'sdoctrines.79Withoutthemoraleffortofpreservingandnourishing,themind
willbecomeincreasinglyconfused,andifweusethisconfusedmindtoexaminethemind,theconfusionwillmerelybeaggravated.ChuHsi,unwillingtowaitforthe
attainmentofintuitiveunderstanding,puthisfulltrustinthemindwhichispronetoerrorandconfusion.Afoundationmustbeestablishedbeforemeaningfulintellectual
activitycantakeplace.AshewrotetoLinYungchung,bnthereasonwhyTahsehbo(Greatlearning,Advancedlearning)beginswiththeinvestigationofthings(ko
wubp)isthattheancientscompletedtheirnourishingduringtheirelementarylearning(hsiaohseh).However,"Peopletodaydonotbeginwiththismoraleffort,but
seeingthattheTahsehgivesprioritytotheinvestigationofthings,theyseekitonlybyintellectualunderstandinganddonotexertthemselvestoholdfastand
preserve(ts'aotsunbq).Eveniftheysurmiseitcompletely,theylacksolidterrainonwhichtheycanrely."80
ChuHsialsowantsscholarstogothroughthewholesequencedefinedintheGreatLearningtoextendknowledge,makethethoughtssincere,andrectifythe
mindfearingthatnottodosomaymisleadoneintoheterodoxy.HeiseversensitivetothepossibilityofslippingintoBuddhismandonoccasionsuggestsminor
changesinphraeseologytoavoidthis.81Furthermore,heismuchconcernedtostrikeabalance.Thus,whilenourishinghaspriorityandcontinuesthroughoutthe
processofselfcultivation,ChuHsidescribesthatprocessasinvolvingparallelprogressionsofknowledgefromshallowtodeep,

Page493

andactionfrompettytogreat.OneofhismajorobjectionstotheHunantheorywasthatitlackedbalance.AshetoldChangShih,"Nowifyouinsistthatitistobe
soughtinaction,thisisbecauseyouintendtoavoidaonesidedrelianceontranquillity,butyoufailtorealizethat,onthecontrary,youarerelyingonesidedlyon
action."82InthiscontexthewarnsagainstfallingintotheerrorsofCh'an.
ThedifferencesbetweenChuHsi'sandHuHung'smethodologiesofselfcultivationareintimatelyrelatedtoprofounddifferencesintheirphilosophiesofmindand
humannature.ForChuHsithesearenottwoaspectsofthesamerealityastheyareforHuHung.ThushecriticizesHuHungforidentifyingthemindwiththestate
afterthefeelingshavebeenarousedincontrasttothenatureasthestatebeforethefeelingsareactivated.AccordingtoChuHsithiswasanearlyviewofCh'engI
whichhelaterabandoned.83ForChuHsithemindispresentinbothstates,andbotharefoundintheordinaryworldofexperience.Inthetranquilstatewhenthe
feelingsarenotyetaroused,mindandconsciousnessarepresent.84Itisthiswhichmakesthisstateaproperandnecessaryobjectofselfcultivation.Anditisitselfa
stateofthemind,notofthenature.
Furthermore,forChuHsimindandnaturedonotstandinasimpleonetoonerelationshipwitheachother,forheseesthehumanpsycheintripartiteterms.Itisthe
feelingswhicharethefunctionsofthenaturethereforewhenthenatureisactive,Hutothecontrary,itisfeelings,notmind.85ChuHsifollowsChangTsaibr(1020
1077)inteachingthattheminddirectsandunites(t'ungbs)thenatureandthefeelings.Therefore,heobjectstoHuHung'sstatementthatthemind"completes"the
natureandwouldchangehisstatementto"directsthenatureandfeelings."86
ChuHsialsoobjectstotheconversationquotedearlierinwhichastartleddiscipleistoldthattheminddoesnotliveordie.HefearsthatHuHungcomesclosetothe
Buddhisttheoryofreincarnationhere,althoughitshouldbenotedthatHuhimselfsubscribedtotheNeoConfucianviewofendlesscreationandrejectedtheBuddhist
concept.ChuHsimakesadistinctionbetweenthemindwhich"inHeavenandEarthpenetratespastandpresentanddoesnotundergoformationordestruction"and
that"withinhumanswhereitbeginsandendsdependingofphysicalformandvitalforce."87ThisisadistinctionalsofoundinHuHung,88butChuHsigoesontosay
thatifweunderstandthat"principleisonebutitsmanifestationsaremany"thenthereisnoneedtostartlestudentswiththetheorythattheminddoesnotdie.ForChu
Hsi,asforHuHung,mindhasatranscendentaldimensionsinceitharborsthePrincipleofHeaven,butinHu'slesscomplicatedtheory,minditselfistranscendent.
ChuHsinotonlyrejectsHuHung'sviewsonmindanditsrelationshiptothenaturebutpaysspecialattentiontothetheorythatthenatureisbeyondthedistinction
betweengoodandevil,apositionapparentlycontinuedasa

Page494
bt

Hufamilytradition,foritwasdefendednotonlybyHuAnkuoandHuHungbutalsoHuHung'sson,Tashih, aswellasHuHung'sbrother,HuYin.Asalready
noted,ChuHsitracedthisthesisbacktotheCh'anmonkCh'angtsungbutaccordingtoChuHsi,Ch'angtsunghimselfhadbeenverycarefultoremainwithinthe
Menciantraditionandhadonlymaintainedthat"thegoodnessoftheoriginalnaturedoesnotstandincontrasttoevil"89or,inanotherversion,"[thenature's]perfect
excellencedoesnotstandincontrastwithevil."90ButHuAnkuoandhissonsandgrandsonswentmuchfurtherandendedindenyingthegoodnessofthenature,
muchtoChuHsi'sdistress.
InalettertoHuYin'sson,HuTayan,buChuHsiacknowledgedthatHuHunginUnderstandingWordsdidnotindicatethatthenaturewasnotgoodandindeed
intendedtoexaltthenature.However,accordingtoChuHsi,HuHunghadinsteaddemeanedit,placingitinaremote,arbitrary,confused,andimpureposition.As
depictedbyHuHung,thenaturelacksconcreteprinciplesandisturnedinto"anemptyobject"(k'unghstiwubv)or,ashesayselsewhere,madeintosomething
faceless.91ThusHuHungfellintothemistakemadebyKaoTzubw(c.420350B.C.)andlongsincerefutedbyMencius,92amistakenpositionmorerecentlytakenup
bytheSubxfamily.93
ChuHsiconcededthatthegoodnessoftheoriginalnaturewhichmanreceivedfromHeavenisofaperfectionwhichdoesnotstandincontrasttoevil,andheagrees
thatthedichotomyofgoodandevilappearsonlyafterthereisactivity.Buthearguesthatthegoodnessmanifestedinactivityasaresultofman'sfollowinghisnature
(andthuscontrastingwiththeevilwhichoccurswhenhefailstodoso)isthesameastheoriginalgoodnessofthenature.Otherwise,therewouldbetwogoodnesses,
anoriginalabsolutegoodnessandarelativegoodness.Thisinturnwouldentailtwonatures.94Sincethisisanuntenableposition,heconcludesthattherecanbeonly
onegoodnessandthatitisthereforeproperandnecessarytodesignatethenatureasgood.
ForChuHsithenatureasthesourceofgoodnessmustitselfbegood.AshewrotetoHuHung'scousinHuShihby(11361173):
WecansaythattheMandateofHeaven(T'ienming,bzwhatheavenimparts)isnotconfinedtothings,butifweconsideritasnotconfinedtogoodness,wewillnotunderstand
whatmakesheavenheaven.Wecansaythatwecannotspeakofthenatureasevil,butifweconsidergoodnessasinadequatetocharacterizethenature,wewillnotunderstand
wheregoodnesscomesfrom.95

HegoesontocomplainthattherearemanysuchdiscussionsinUnderstandingWordsthatcontradictthegoodpassagesandcomeclosetoKaoTzu,YangHsiungca
(53B.C.A.D.18),theBuddhists,andtheSufamily.EarlierinthesameletterChuHsisaid,"AtfirstthereisgoodnessandthereisnoevilthereistheMandateof
Heavenandtherearenohumandesires."96InasubsequentlettertoHuShihhevoicesthesameconcern:"ThenatureiscalledgoodinordertodistinguishthePrinciple
ofHeavenfromhumandesires."97

Page495

ThefearthatthedistinctionbetweenthePrincipleofHeavenandhumandesireswouldbeobscuredalsopromptedChuHsitotakeexceptiontoHuHung'sstatement
"thePrincipleofHeavenandhumandesiresarethesameinsubstancebutdifferinfunction."98HisbasicobjectionhereisthatHu'sformulatendstocombinethetwo
oppositesintoasingleentity.HedoessaythattheideaofpickingouthumandesireswithinheavenlyprinciplesandofseeingthePrincipleofHeavenwithinhuman
desiresisveryacute,butheconcludesthatthisshouldberejectedsincetheoriginalsubstanceisthePrincipleofHeavenwithoutthepresenceofhumandesires,which
appearlater.Also,thesagesdidnotteachthiskindofeffort.99Inaletter,hefurtherelaboratedonhiscritiqueofHu's"samesubstance,differentfunctions"thesis
comparinghumangrowthtothatofatree.Whatgrowsstraightoutfromtherootstothetrunk,thebranches,andleavesandthusconformstothenatureiscontrasted
toparasiticgrowths(suchasfungi)whichgrowoutsideways.TheformerarethePrincipleofHeavenandgoodthelatter,humandesiresandevil.Theformeris
properandhasasource,isobedientandcorrectthereforeitshouldbefostered.Thelatterisamisbirthlackingasource,isdisobedientandincorrectthereforeit
needstobecutoff.Hegoesontosaythatgenerallygoodandevilarespokenofinsequencewithgoodplacedfirst.Otherwise,"ifweplacegoodandevileastand
west,facingeachotherwithneitheryieldingtotheother,theheavenlyprinciplesandhumandesireswillissuefromasinglesourceandinthestatebeforethefeelings
arearousedtherewillalreadybethesetwobeginnings."100
HuHung'sformulation,however,hadconsiderableappeal.LTsuch'ienforonedidnotshareChuHsi'smisgivings.101YetChuHsiremainedpersistentinhiscritique.
Forhimabasicdistinctionwasatstake.AccordingtotheHus,"humanenessandnonhumaneness,righteousnessandunrighteousness,proprietyandimpropriety,
wisdomandnonwisdomwouldallbecomethenature"102and,stillworse,sowouldthedesires.103Substanceandfunctioncannotbedifferentiated.Hu'sproposition
wouldleadtotheconclusionthatthenatureisbothgoodandevil.AccordingtoChuHsi,theHuswereintentonexposingheterodoxybutwereunabletoavoid
placingafootintoitthemselves.104
AccordingtoChuHsi,HuHung'smistakeconcerningthemoralstatusofhumannaturealsoledhimtosay,"Loveandhatearehumannature.Thepettymanlovesand
hatesintermsofhimself.ThesuperiormanlovesandhatesintermsoftheWay."105Inhiscritiqueofthispassage106ChuHsichargedHuwithtreatingthenaturein
termsofloveandhateratherthangoodandevil.Furthermore,tocharacterizethesuperiormanas"lovingandhatingintermsoftheWay"istoplacetheWayoutside
ofthenature.107AnotherproblemisthataccordingtoHu'sstatementloveandhateappearsimultaneouslywithoutorderofprecedenceorpriority.YangShihwas
correctwhenhesaid,"TheMandateofHeaveniswhatismeantbythenature.Thedesiresarenotthenature."ChuHsiwentontosay,

Page496
cb

Loveandhateareinherentinthenaturebutcannotdirectlybecalledthenature.Nowloveandhatearesomething.Tolovegoodnessandhateevilistherule(tse, specific
principles)ofthings."Whenthereissomething,thereisarule"108iswhatMenciusmeantby"formandbodyarethenatureendowedbyheaven."109Ifwenowwanttotalkabout
thenatureandbringupthingsbutneglecttherules,harmwillbeunavoidable.110

ConsistentwithhisstressonthePrincipleofHeavenandhisconcernthatthegoodnessofthenaturenotbecompromised,ChuHsifurthersaidthatthesuperiorman
followshisnaturewhereasthepettymanviolateshisnature.HewentontochargethatHu'spropositionwouldleadto"lovingwhatmenhateandhatingwhatmenlove
alsobeingthenature."111ChuHsifearedthatperverseloveandhatewouldbeindistinguishablefromprincipledloveandhate.
ItisunfortunatethatChuHsiandHuHungnevermetandthatthedebatebetweenthemnecessarilyremainedonesidedsinceChangShihevidentlydidnotputupa
veryspiriteddefenseofhisteacher'sviews.Itisnotthepurposeofthispapertoattempttoremedythissituation,112butwemaynotethatHuHungsurelywouldhave
objectedtoChuHsi'sinterpretationofagoodnumberofhisstatementsandvigorouslyrejectedthenotionthatheapproximatedtheBuddhismhewholeheartedly
opposedorthatbyelevatingthenaturebeyondgoodandevilhehadprovidedequalstatusforhumandesiresandthePrincipleofHeaven.Hemostcertainlysaw
himselfasafaithfulfollowerofMencius.
HuHunghadaproclivityforshortandhighlysuggestivestatementsthatinvitereflectionbutareopentomisinterpretation.Adebatemighthaveforcedhimtogreater
precision.Thattherewasnosuchdebatewasinpartduetothetimes,foritwouldseemthatHuHunglivedatatimewhenChineseintellectualswerefullyoccupied
regainingtheirbearingsfollowingtheturbulentyearsthatbroughtontheshockinglossofNorthChinato"barbarians."CertainlyConfuciandiscoursewasfarmore
variedandlivelyduringthesecondhalfofthetwelfthcentury,whenChuHsiwasactive.
Ontheotherhand,itmayalsobethecasethatHuHungasathinkerwhoemphasizedtheunityoftheworldhadacastofmindwhichnaturallysoughttoavoidmaking
toomanydistinctionshecertainlywouldhavebeendismayedbyChuHsi'scriticismthathisviewsimpliedsuchthingsastwonaturesoraWayoutsidethenature.
Also,asaphilosopherwhogavesuchemphasistoandplacedsomuchfaithinthemind,hemaywellhavebeencontenttoleaveittofuturemindstointuittheinner
meaningofhiswords."Understandingwords"is,afterall,amentalprocess.Hadhesodesired,HuHungcertainlycouldhavespelledouthisideasinsomegenerally
acceptedformat,forinstanceacommentaryontheBookofMencius.Asitwas,hedidnotleaveacompletedwork.
IncontrasttoHuHung,ChuHsi'sthoughtonthenatureofmanemployedsuchconceptsasthephysicalnature(ch'ichihchihhsingcc)andliandch'ias

Page497
cd

wellasadoptingChangTsai'stripartiteschemeofthenature,feelings,andmind.Similarly,inChuHsi'smetaphysicstheSupremeUltimate(t'aichi )figuresmuch
moreimportantlythanitdoesinHuHungandfulfillstheroleoflinkingthetranscendentandexperiential,aroleperformedbythenatureinHuHung.ChuHsi'ssystem
ismorecomplexthanthatofHuHungandhisargumentsweremorepersuasivetohisowncontemporariesaswellastomostlaterNeoConfucians.Hisphilosophy
wasbetterworkedoutand,assuggestedbyhisresolutionoftheselfcultivationissue,attainedacertainmiddleground.YetHuHungleftopencertainpossibilitiesin
NeoConfucianismandtothedegreethathissayingshavestimulatedpresentdayphilosophers,hehashelpedtofuelNeoConfuciandiscourseinthetwentiethcentury
ashedidinthetwelfth.
Notes
1.YangShihce(10531135)andLoTs'ungyencf(10721135)bothdiedin1135whenChuHsiwasfiveyearsold.
2.HuHungisdiscussedbyMouTsungsancginhisinfluentialHsint'iyhsingt'ich[Mindandhumannature],(Taipei:ChengchungciBookCo.19681969).Cf.the
reviewarticlebyWeimingTu,cjTheJournalofAsianStudies30(May1971),pp.642647.MouTsungsan'sinfluenceisapparentintheusefulbookbyWang
K'aifu,ckHuWufengdehsinhsehcl[HuHung'slearningofthemind/heart],(Taipei:StudentBookCo.,1978).ChuHsi'scritiqueofHuHungisdiscussedby
Ch'ienMucmintheChuTzuhsinhsehancn[AnewstudyofChuHsi],(Taipei:SanmincoBookCo.,1980),Bk.III,pp.198228.Amostvaluablesutdyin
JapaneseisOkadaTakahiko,cp"KoGoho*"cq(HuWufeng),Toyobunkacr[Easternculture]10(1965),pp.233311,pp.3047.AlsoseeTakahata
Tsunenobu,cs"KoGohonoshiso"ct[ThethoughtofHuWufe],ChukyoDaigakubungakukiyocu[LiterarybulletinofChukyoUniversity]36(1974),pp.2333
and3047.
3.ForHuAnkuo'sbiographyseeHuYin,Feijanchicv[CollectedwritingsofHuYin],(CompleteFourLibrariesCollectioned.),ch.25.HuHungcomposeda
recordofapavilionhisfatherbuiltinHunanseeWufengchicw[CollectedwritingsofHuHung],(CompleteFourLibrariesCollectioned.),3:6a8a.
4.ChuHsidevotedch.13ofhisIloyanyanlucx[RecordsoftheoriginsoftheSchoolofthetwoCh'engs]toHuAnkuo.
5.ChuHsi,Hsiaohseh,externalcompilation,ch.1,Shogaku*cy[Elementaryeducation],ed.,annot.,andtrans.UnoSeiichicz(Tokyo:Meijishoin,da1965),p.226.
6.HuYin,Feijanchi,25:64ab.Cf.ConradSchirokauer,"NeoConfuciansUnderAttack:TheCondemnationofWeihseh,"dbinJohnW.Haeger,ed.,Crisis
andProsperityinSungChina(Tucson:UniversityofArizonaPress,1975),p.165.
7.HuAnkuo,Ch'unch'iuchuandc[CommentaryontheSpringandAutumnAnnals],preface.
8.TheBookofOdes,BookofHistory,BookofChanges,BookofRites,andSpringandAutumnAnnals.
9.Cf.theentryforCh'unch'iuchuaninEtienneBalazsandYvesHervouet,ASungBibliography(HongKong:ChineseUniversityPress,1978),p.40andMou
Jun

Page498
dd

de

df

sun, "LiangSungCh'unch'iuhsehchihchuliu" [ThemainstreamofNorthernandSouthernSungCh'unch'iustudies],Talutsachih [Thecontinent

magazine]5(1952),no.4,pp.14no.5,pp.1820.
10.SeeSungYanhsehan[AnthologyandcriticalaccountsofSungandYanNeoConfucianists],(Shanghai:CommercialPress,1936),Bk.I,ch.34,pp.677.
11.AneditionoftheTushihkuanchienprintedin1514hasmarginalannotationsindicatingwhatwasincorporatedintoChuHsi'sT'ungchienkangmu.Afull
studyofChuHsiasahistorianshouldalsotakeintoaccounthisotherhistoricalwritingsaswellashisinformalremarks.
12.Huangwangtachi(CompleteFourLibrariesCollectioned.),7:14aorWufengchi,4:25a.
13.ChuTzuylei,dg[ClassifiedconversationsofMasterChu],ch.101(Taipei:ChengchungBookCo.,1970),p.4100.
14.Ibid.,ch.108,pp.42624263.AlsoseeHsiaoKungch'an,dhChungkuochengchihssuhsiangshihdi[AhistoryofChinesepoliticalthought],(Taipei:
Chunghuawenhuach'upenshihyehweiyanhui,dj1954),vol.4,p.504.
15.Cf.MiriamLevering,"NeoConfucianismandBuddhismintheSungasMovementswithinaSingleshihtafudkCulture.BuddhistinterpretationsofConfucian
Discourse,"paperpresentedtotheUniversitySeminaronNeoConfucianism,ColumbiaUniversity,March2,1979.
16.HuYin,Ch'ungchengpien(Kyoto:Chubun*dlPublishingCo.),1:12a.
17.ChuTzuylei,ch.101,p.4067.
18.Cf.GalenEugeneSargent,"TchouHidmContreLeBouddhisme,"MelangesPubliesparl'InstitutedesHautestudesChinoises,1(1957),pp.1157.
19.ChuHsi,Huianh'sienshengChuWenkungwenchidn[CollectedwritingsofChuHsi],hereaftercitedasWenchi(Kyoto:ChubunPublishingCo.,1977),
97:17a,p.1727.ThequotationisfromAnalects,14:25.
20.Wenchi,2,9a,p.80.ThesetranslationsincorporateseveralvaluablesuggestionsmadebyProfessorMaoHuaixin.do
21.Wufengchi,1:24ab.Cf.TomoedaRyutaro*,dpShushinoshisokeiseidq[TheformationofChuHsi'sthought],(Tokyo:Shunju*sha,dr1969),pp.6364.
22.DoctrineoftheMean,ch.1,trans.WingtsitChan,dsASourceBookinChinesePhilosophy(Princeton,N.J.:PrincetonUniversityPress,1963),p.98.
23.Wenchi,70:20a,p.1285.AlsoseeOkada,"KoGoho*,"p.41,wherehetracestheideaofHsiehLiangtsodt(1050c.1120).
24.HuHung,Chihyen(CompleteFourLibrariesCollectioned.),4:7b.ForadiscussionoftextsandeditionsseeTakahataTsunenobu,"KoshiShigenShigengigi
noseiritsujijo"du[ThecircumstancesofthecompositionofHuTzuChihyenandHuTzuChihyenii],Tetsugakudv24,pp.101111.Manybutnotallofthe
translationsfromHuHunghavebenefitedfromthecommentsandcorrectionsofProfessorWingtsitChan,andIwanttoacknowledgemyspecialdebttohim.
25.BookMencius,1A:7.
26.ChangShih,Nanhsienchidw[CollectedwritingsofChangShih],(Taipei:KuanghsehdxPress,1975),10:2b.
27.Cf.Tomoeda,Shushi,pp.129130.TheinfluenceofHuHungonChangShihisalsodiscussedbyFukudaShigeru,dy"Cho*Nankenshonennoshiso"dz[The
earlythoughtofChangNanhsien],Chugokutestugakuranshuea[StudiesinChinesephilosophy],2(1976),pp.2441andinTakahataTsunenobu,ChoNanken*
shujinmei

Page499
eb

ec

sakuin [IndextonamesinChangNanhsien'sCollectedWorks],(Nagoya:SaikaShorin, 1976).

28.Chihyen,4:12b13b.
29.ChangShih,"PrefacetoDiscourseontheAnalects,"Nanhsienchi,14:4b.
30.Chihyen,3:2b.ForthepresenceoftheWaydeterminingwhetherChineseorbarbarianscontroltheNorthernPlain,seetheYehyat'angeditionofChihyen,
6:1a.
31.Chihyen,5:14ab.ThequotationfromConfuciusisfromtheAnalects,5:18.
32.Chihyen,2:1b.
33.See,forexample,ibid.,3:12b.
34.Ibid.,3:6b.
35.Ibid.,5:8ab.
36.Ibid.,4:4b5a.ReferenceistotheAnalects,2:4.
37.Wufengchi,3:5ab.
38.Chihyen,3:13a.
39.Ibid.,6:7a.
40.Ibid.,2:12b13a.
41.Ibid.,1:1b2:6b7aand2:1a.ReferenceistotheAnalects,2:4.
42.Ibid.,4:3b.
43.Wufengchi,5:53a.
44.Chihyen,1:4b.
45.Ibid.,3:6b.
46.Ibid.,2:2a.
47.Ibid.,4:2b3a.
48.SeeConradSchirokauer,"HuHung'sRebuttalofSsumaKuang'sCritiqueofMencius,"ProceedingsoftheInternationalConferenceonSinology,Thought
andPhilosophySection(Taipei:AcademiaSinica,1981),vol.1,pp.437458.
49.Chihyen,4:2b3a.Cf.A.C.Graham,TwoChinesePhilosophers:Ch'engMingtaoedandCh'engYich'uanee(London:LundHumphries,1958),p.45.
50.Ibid.,4:4a.
51.Ibid.,1:8b.
52.Ibid.,3:13b.Cf.Graham,TwoChinesePhilosophers,p.34.
53.Ibid.,5:11aand3:6ab.
54.Ibid.,2:5a.
55.Ibid.,2:1a.
56.Ibid.,1:5b.
57.Ibid.,1:2b.
58.Ibid.,1:2b3a.
59.Ibid.,3:1b.
60.Ibid.,1:6b.
61.Ibid.,4:3b4a.ReferenceistotheDoctrineoftheMean,ch.1.
62.Wufengchi,2:46b.
63.Chihyen,2:4a.
64.Ibid.,6:1ab.
65.Ibid.,2:6b7a.
66.Ibid.,4:13b.
67.Ibid.,2:2a.
68.Ibid.,3:10b.
69.Ibid.,2:9ab.

Page500

70.Ibid.,4:6b.
71.Ibid.,1:1a.
72.Cf.WangK'aifu,HuWufeng,pp.8788,citingMouTsungsan.
73.Chihyen,4:3a.Seealso3b.
74.Cf.ibid.,2:11b.ReferenceistotheBookofMencius,6A:11.
75.Ibid.,2:10ab.
76.Wufengchi,5:43b.
77.Chihyen,ch.4,7a.
78.Wenchi,ch.73SungYanhsehan,ch.42.
79.AnalyzedandsummarizedbyOkada,"KoGoho*,"pp.4446.
80.Wenchi,43:30b,p.733,eighteenthlettertoLin.
81.Ibid.,73:47a,p.1357.
82.Ibid.,30:20a,p.473.
83.Ibid.,64:31b,p.1187.Cf."FirstLettertotheGentlemenofHunanonEquilibriumandHarmony,"Chan,SourceBook,pp.600602.
84.Ylei,96:8b9b,pp.39223924,trans.WingtsitChan,ReflectionsonThingsatHand:TheNeoConfucianAnthology(NewYork:ColumbiaUniversity
Press,1967),p.148.
85.ForHuHung'sverydifferentviews,cf.nn.6365.
86.Wenchi,73:44a,p.1335.
87.Ibid.,73:48a,p.1357.
88."Themindsuffersahundredillsandonedeath,"Chihyen,4:7b.
89.Ylei,101:25band27a,pp.41104113.
90.Ibid.,101:28a,p.4115.
91.Wenchi,46:20bYlei,101:29b,p.4118.
92.BookofMencius,6A:16.
93.ReferenceistothethreefamousSus:SuHsnef(10091066)andhissonsSuShiheg(10361101)andSuCh'eeh(10391112).ForSuShih'sviewsseeSushih
Ichuanei[Mr.Su'sCommentaryontheBookofChanges],(Ts'ungshuchich'engej[Collectionofseries]ed.),vol.2,pp.159160whichisquotedinGraham,Two
ChinesePhilosophers,pp.46and135.
94.Ylei,101:25ab,pp.41094110,trans.Chan,SourceBook,p.617.
95.Wenchi,42:5a,p.702,thirdlettertoHuShih.
96.Ibid.,42:4b,p.701.
97.Ibid.,42:8a,p.703,fifthlettertoHuShih.
98.ChuHsidoesnotobjecttothesecondpartofthestatement.
99.Ibid.,73:45b,p.1356.
100.Ibid.,59:46ab,secondlettertoChaoShihhsia.ek
101.Ibid.,73:45b,p.1356.
102.Ylei,101:30a,p.4119.
103.Ibid.,101:30b,p.4120.
104.Ibid.
105.Seen.49.
106.Wenchi,73:46ab,p.1356.
107.ElsewhereChuHsimakesthesamepointbutchargesthatitplacesprinciple(ratherthantheWay)outsideofthenature.Cf.Wenchi,32:6b,p.522,fourth
replytoChangShih.
108.BookofOdes,odeno.260,quotedintheBookofMencius,6A:6.

Page501

109.BookofMencius,7A:39.
110.Wenchi,73:46ab,p.1356.
111.Ylei,101:30a,p.4119.
112.ForadefenseofHuHungagainstChuHsi'scritiquecf.MouTsungsanandWangK'aifu,citedinn.2.
Glossary

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Page503

27
TheEstablishmentoftheSchoolofChuHsiandItsPropagationinFukien
MaoHuaixin
TheFoundingoftheSchoolofChuHsi
TheSchoolofChuHsiwasgenerallyknownastheFukienSchool,anditspropagationandinfluenceinFukienaffordedanembryonicformofitsrolealloverthe
countryinthelatergenerations.Thetermchitach'enga(puttingtogetherallNeoConfucianideas)wasfirstappliedtoChuHsibyhisdisciplesLiFangtzub(1214
cs)andCh'enCh'unc(11591223).Thispaperaimsatinspectingthevalidityoftheterm.1
ThemaincurrentofthisschoolinheritedtheideasoftheCh'engbrothers(Ch'engHao,d10321085andCh'engI,e10331107),whichwereregardedasthemost
orthodoxandpurebytheNeoConfucianists.Itdidnotrejectthehsiangshuflearning(thestudyofemblemsandnumbers)ofShaoYungg(10111177)althoughit
wasconsiderablymarkedbytheinfluencesofbothTaoistandBuddhistideas.Itdefined,thoughnotinawrittenform,thebasicclassicaltextsforNeoConfucianism:
amongthepreCh'in(221206B.C.)literaturestherewere,inadditiontotheFourBooks,2the''AppendedRemarks"oftheBookofChanges,the"RecordofMusic"
intheBookofRites,the"Hungfan"h(theGrandNorm)andthe"sixteenwordsfromhearttoheart"inthe"CounseloftheGreatY"ichapteroftheBookofHistory.
Inshort,theFukienSchool,whichbroughtNeoConfucianismtoitsculmination,heldanallembracingattitudetowardallbranchesoftheNeoConfucianideas.In
principleitregardedbothBuddhismandTaoismasheterodoxy,whereasinpracticeitabsorbedmuchfromBuddhistwaysofthinkingaswellasfromtheTaoistview
ofnature.WithregardtothelatteritisunfortunatethatthoughTaoism,endowedasitwaswiththegermofnaturalsciences,shouldhaveexerciseditspositiveeffects
inbringingNeoConfucianismclosertoscience,thehistoricalfactwitnesseditotherwise.TaoismonlymystifiedandvulgarizedNeoConfucianism.
Accordingtorelevantrecords,whenYangShihj(10531135)anativeofNanchienkinFukien,lefthisteacherstheCh'engbrotherstoreturnhomein

Page504

thesouth,Ch'engHaosaid,"Henceforthmydoctrineisgoingtothesouth"asayingthatbecamewellknowninthehistoryofNeoConfucianism.ChenTehsiul
(11781235),anativeofP'uch'engminFukien,anadmirerofChuHsiandanintimatefriendofChuHsi'sdiscipleTs'aiCh'enn(11671230),remarkedinhis
ReadingJournal,
ThelearningofthetwoCh'engswasinheritedbyYangShih,whotransmittedittoLoTs'ungyeno(10721135),andLointurntransmittedittoLiT'ungp(10931163),whofinally
transmittedittoChuHsi.Thuswasthelegacyofoneschool.
HsiehLiangtsoq(1050c.1120)transmittedittoHuAnkuor(10741138),whotransmittedittohisownsonHuHungs(11061161),whointurntransmittedittoChangShiht
(11331180).Thiswasthelegacyofanotherschool....ThelearningofChuHsiandChangShihwascharacterizedbywhatwasthemostessentialinit[thelearningoftheCh'eng
brothers].3

Thisscholasticsuccessionmaybeillustratedasfollows:

Althoughthisrelationshipofsuccessionmaybetakenasonlyroughlycorrect,NeoConfucianistsoflatergenerations,includingthecompileroftheWritingsofSung
[9601279]andYan[12771368]Philosophersallsharedthisview.4
ThebranchofChangShihwascalledtheHuHsianguSchool.ChangShih,sonofthefamouscommanderinchiefChangChn,vwasChuHsi'sfriendinlearning,or,
inthewordsoftheWritingsofSungandYanPhilosophers,was"inthesametune"5withChuHsi.Becausehisinfluencewasnotverygreat,weshallleavehim
aside.AsforthesuccessionfromYangShihtoChuHsi,IamoftheopinionthatChuHsihimselfwouldnotacknowledgeitatanyrate,hedidnotpayattentiontoit.
IntheClassifiedConversationsofMasterChutherearevariouspassagesinwhichChuHsiexpressedhisviewthatthefollowersoftheCh'engbrothersfailedto
succeedtheirmasters.Thegeneralconclusionhereachedwasthat"thedisciplesoftheCh'engbrotherswerefarlessinscholarshipaswellasininsightwhen
comparedwithShaoYungandChangTsaiw[10201077]."6Moreover,ChuHsiasserted,"Evenattheirowntimes,gentlemenlikeYuTsox(10531123),Yang
Shih,andHsiehLiangtsodidnotlookliketheirmastersbutratherlikeanotherschoolinthemaking."7
BytheendoftheNorthernSungdynasty(9601126),manyoftheprominentpupilsoftheCh'engbrotherssuchasHsiehLiangtso,LTaliny(10461092),Chang
I(b.1071),zandYuTsohadalreadydied.OnlyYinCh'unaa

Page505

(10711142)andYangShihsurviveddowntotheearlyyearsoftheSouthernSungdynasty(11271279).Becauseoftheirexperienceandprestige,theywere
chosenbytheroyalcourtaslecturersofClassicstotheemperor.AlthoughYinCh'unwasloyaltohismasterhewasoneofonlyfourpeoplewhodaredattendthe
funeralofCh'engI,whodiedinmelancholyandoblivionduringthepoliticalpersecutionof1107hewasnomorethanapedantheinsistedrigidlyonthelineofhis
master'sdoctrine,butheachievednothingelse.ChuHsicriticizedhim,saying,"WhilelecturingontheClassicstotheemperor,therewaslittleinhimthatwas
enlighteningorencouraging.WhenhewassummonedtothecourtintheearlyyearsofthereignofShaohsingabperiod[11311162],allthecourtplacedtheirhopesin
him,lookingonhimasasemigod,butwhathereallyachievedwasverylittle."8
YangShihseemedmoreenergetic,butChuHsirepeatedlysaidofhimthathederivedhislearningfromtheBuddhistmeditation(Ch'anac)sect.OnceChuHsisaid,
"YuTso,YangShih,andHsiehLiangtsoallbeganbylearningfromCh'anandthatpracticeremainedwiththemlongafterwards."9Healsosaid,"YangShihwas
promotingtheBuddhisttendency."10WhenYangShihwasintroducedbyPremierTs'aiChingad(10471126)toserveinthegovernmentduringthereignofHsan
hoae(11191125),heexpoundedtotheemperoronlyonsuchtopicsastherectificationofthemindandthesincerityofthewillandotherimpracticaladvice.Hence
ChuHsicriticizedhim:"Intimesofemergency,thepeopleexpectedmuchofhimbuthebehavedincompetentlylikethat.Thisisthereasonwhysomepeopleridiculed
theConfuciansasuseless."11Elsewhereheremarked,"Atacriticaltimelikethat,ifYangShihwereableenoughtoturnthewholesituationinstantly,itwouldnotbein
vainforhimtotakepartinthegovernment.Butwhathedidwasnomorethantomuddlealongwithothers."12DuringtheSouthernSungdynastywhentheregimein
thesouthbegansettlingdown,bothYangShihandYinCh'unenjoyedconsiderableauthority,butastheonlyprominentpupilsoftheCh'engbrothersthenstill
surviving,theyfailedtobringaboutanythingofsignificanceeitherinpoliticsorinlearning.IntheeyesofChuHsi,bothwereundeservedscholars.
Alsoundeservingofbelief,perhaps,wasthefamoussaying,"Henceforthmydoctrineisgoingtothesouth."ItfirstappearedintheKueishanyluaf(Recorded
sayingsofYangShih),whichwaswrittenbyhispupils.Thatisonereasonwhyitsauthenticityisopentodoubt.Inaddition,HuAnkuo's"Kueishanchihming"ag
(EpitaphofYangShih),13inscribedinYangShih'stombin3,000words,didnotmentionsuchanexpression.AsChuHsisaid,"Manyofthehistoricalrecordsarenot
reliable"14and"manyofthehistoricalrecordsareincredible."15ThesecommentsseemalsoapplicabletosomemessagesinthehistoryofNeoConfucianism.
AboutLiT'ung,ChuHsi'sownteacher,aswellasaboutLoTs'ungyen,Li'smaster,passagessomewhatcriticalintonemaybefoundintheClassified
ConversationsofMasterChu.Forinstance,aboutLoTs'ungyen,ChuHsi

Page506
16

said,"LoTs'ungyen'sexpositionoftheSpringandAutumnAnnalswasinferiortoHuAnkuo's,becausethelatterwasmuchmoretalented," and"MasterLo's
doctrine[ofsittinginquiescence]wasafterallnotsohealthy....thisisadoctrinethatleadstosomedeviation."17AboutLiT'ung,ChuHsisaid,"Liwasnotgoodat
discriminating[between]goodandevil."18"[He]didnotgivereverenceaclearexplanation.Thereforepeoplewastedmuchtimetryingtograspthemeaningofit."19
AboutLi'sideaofsittinginquiescence,ChuHsisaid,''Ifitisonlythus,thenitlooksjustlikeBuddhistmeditationandcalmness."20Thusitseemsthattherelationof
ChuHsitohisearlymasterLiT'ungwassomewhatakintothatoftheCh'engbrotherstoChouTuniah(10171073).Althoughhewasnotwithoutrespect,henever
tookhismasterasamodel.HenceitmaybeseenthatbothHuangPaichia'sai(fl.1695)assertionthat"thedoctrineofYangShihwashandeddowntoChuHsiina
courseofsuccessionthroughthreegenerations"21andCh'anTsuwang'saj(17051755)assertionthat"thedoctrineofYangShihwashandeddowntoChuHsiina
courseoffourgenerations"22weredealingonlywithsuperficiality.HadChuHsihimselfreadtheaboveaccountsoftransmission,hewouldnothaveagreedandwould
haveadvancedmanyargumentsagainstsuchalineoftransmission.Asamatteroffact,heclaimedhimselfadirectsuccessoroftheCh'engbrothers.
Asiswellknown,theNeoConfucianismoftheCh'engbrotherstookthewayoftheMeanfromtheDoctrineoftheMeanandtheThreePrinciplesandtheEight
Items23fromtheGreatLearningasitstheoreticalfoundation.Theirmethodwasthecultivationoftheselfandtheregulationofthefamily,andtheiraimwastogovern
thestateandtopacifytheworld.SuchacommonplacedoctrinewasregardedbysomeoneintheNorthernSungdynastyasaproofofjument'anpoak(superficiality
oftheConfucianSchool).24ItevencompelledtheCh'engbrothersthemselvestodrawfromBuddhistideas,ascanbeseenbysuchslogansas"Theprincipleisone
butitsmanifestationsaremany"and"Essenceandfunctionsarederivedfromthesameorigin."
BothChouTuni's"DiagramoftheGreatUltimate"andShaoYung's"DiagramofWhatAntedatesHeaven"wereborrowedfromTaoistideas.Indeed,theTaoists
carriedwiththemthegerminationofscienceandworkedouttheirstudyofemblemsandnumbersbymakingcomparisonwiththeBookofChangesandits
commentaries.TheoriginofthestudyofemblemsandnumbersmaybetracedbacktothestudyoftheBookofChangesandtheTaoisttheoryofalchemyintheHan
dynasty(206B.C.A.D.220).Inevitablythereweremysteriousandunscientificelementsinit,butChouandShaolaboreddiligentlyinabsorbingtheintellectual
innovationsoftheirpredecessorsforthesakeofformulatingacosmologytotheextentthescientificthoughtatthattimepermitted.Besidesthesocialphenomena,their
systemtriedalsotoembracethenaturalphenomenaintheirchangesanddevelopments.Fromthepointofviewofculturaldevelopment,thereisnothingreproachable
intheirefforts.

Page507

AlthoughtheCh'engbrothersnevermentionedtheGreatUltimateordiscussedthetheoryofnumberseventhoughtheylivedtogetherwithShaoYungforaboutthirty
years,thisdidnotmeanthatthestudyofemblemsandnumbersdidnotexistbythen.Thefactthatthisstudyhadhadalongandwidespreadtraditionmayfairlybe
shownbytheemergenceofthedoctrineofChuChenal(10721178),anativeofShaowuaminFukienandtheauthoroftheHanshangIchuanan(Commentaries
compiledbesidetheHanRiverontheBookofChanges),whowasgenerallyacknowledgedasthepastmasterinthestudyofemblemsandnumbersbetweenthe
NorthernandSouthernSungdynasties.ThedoctrinesofShaoYungcontinuedtoprevailintheSouthernSungdynasty.ThiscanbeseeninthecaseofLinKuang
ch'aoao(11141178),anativeofP'ut'ienapinFukienwhomCh'anTsuwangdescribedas"havingpropagatedthelearningontheCh'engbrothersintothe
southeast."LinonceputthequestiontoChangShih:"WhydidCh'engIneverspeakofemblemsandnumberswhicharefoundintheBookofChanges?"25and
ChangShihcouldnotexplainthispoint.
WhilesynthesizingvariousdoctrinesofNeoConfucianismsuchasthatoftheCh'engbrothers,ChouTuni,ShaoYung,andChangTsai,ChuHsiwasatthesame
timealsoinagreementwithLuHsiangshan(LuChiuyan,aq11391193)oftheSchoolofMindsofarastheybothheldthefundamentalprinciplesoffeudalism.As
HuangTsunghsisaid,"BothofthemnourishedtheThreeBonds(sankangar)andFiveConstantVirtues(wuch'angas),26bothofthemupheldtheConfucianethical
code,andbothofthemhonoredConfuciusandMencius."27
ChuannotatedmostoftheConfucianClassics,includingtheFourBooks.Inaddition,some100chaptersinhisownChuTzuwenchiat(Collectionofliteraryworks
ofMasterChu)and140chaptersinhisClassifiedConversationsexertedgreatinfluenceuponlatergenerationsandspreadhisdoctrineafartoJapan,Korea,and
Vietnam.OneofthesuccessorsoftheFukienSchool,HsiungHoau(12471312),anativeofChienyangavinFukien,had,ontheoccasionofthefoundingofthe
T'ungwenawAcademy,writtenapoemtotheeffectthatsomedaytheworksoftheirschoolwouldbebroughttoKoreaandJapan,andalltheworldwouldcomefor
theirinstruction.28ThispoemwitnessedtheculturalintercoursebetweentheFukienSchoolandKoreaandJapanduringtheendoftheSungdynastryandthe
beginningoftheYandynasty.
ChuHsiwasborninFukienandthroughouthiswholelifehewascloselyrelatedtoFukien.Histeachersinhisearlyyears,namely,HuHsienax(10821162,the
nephewofHuAnkuo),LiuTzuhuiay(11011147),LiuMienchihaz(10911149),andLiT'ung,wereallFukienese.InhismiddleageChuHsihadbeenappointed
theprefectofChangchoubainFukienforayear.WhenhewaspersecutedinhislateryearsheretiredtoprivatelifeinChienyangofFukienuntilhisdeath.
AmongthepupilsofChuHsithereweresevenwhohavebeengiveninde

Page508
bb

bc

bd

pendentchaptersintheWritingsofSungandYanPhilosophers:Ts'aiYanting (11351198),HuangKan (11521221),FuKuang (fl.1194),Ch'enChihbe

(fl.1230),TuYbf(1208cs),Ts'aiCh'en,andCh'enCh'un.FourofthesewereFukienese.Inthoselateryears,whenhelivedinChienyang,ChuHsibuiltthe
Ts'angchoubgAcademyandcalledhimself"thesickmanofTs'angchou."Chapter69oftheWritingsofSungandYanPhilosophers,devotedtoChuHsi'spupils,
showsthatmostofthemstudiedattheTs'angchouAcademy.Ofthe156pupilslisted,81(51percent)wereFukienese.InthebeginningoftheClassified
ConversationsofMasterChu,the97personswhorecordedtheconversationsarelisted.Ofthese,31wereFukienese,namely,aboutonethirdofthetotal.For
goodreasonwastheSchoolofChuHsigenerallyknownastheFukienSchool.
SuccessorsofChuHsiandthePropagationoftheFukienSchool
Ts'aiYantingandTs'aiCh'en
Ts'aiYantingwasoneofChuHsi'smostintimatepupils.HesufferedtheCh'ingyanbh(11951200)persecutiontogetherwithChuHsiunderthepremiershipof
HanT'ochoubi(11521207)anddiedinexileinTaochoubjofHunan.Onhearingofhisdeath,ChuHsilamentedandsaid,"Alas,isitforyoutohavesuchanend?I
shallfindnomoresuchsophisticatedinsight,suchexcellenttalent,suchindomitablewill,andsuchindisputablediscourseasyours."29
Ts'aiYantingcontributedverymuchtotheformationofthedoctrineofChuHsi.HegavemuchadviceconcerningthecompilationofChuHsi'sSsushuchichubk
(CollectedcommentariesontheFourBooks).ChuHsi'sIhsehch'imengbl(PrimerontheBookofChanges)wasfirstwrittenbyhim.AsChuHsihimself
observed,"Chit'ungbm[Ts'aiYanting'scourtesyname]wassomodestthatheonlyputhisideasintomywork."30TwofamousworksofhisaretheHuangchi
chingshihchihyaobn(AguidetotheSupremeUltimategoverningtheworld)andLlhsinshubo(Anewbookontheoriesofmusic),bothofwhichbelongtothe
studyofemblemsandnumbers.
ThemainworksofTs'aiCh'enaretheShuchichuanbp(CollectedcommentariesontheBookofHistory)andtheHungfanhuangchibq(GrandNormandthe
SupremeUltimate).TheformeramplifiestheideasofhismasterChuHsiandthelatterthatofhisfatherTs'aiYanting.Theformerwaswritteninlinewithorthodox
NeoConfucianism.Intheyear1313duringtheYandynasty,itwasdecreedthatinthecivilserviceexaminationsallinterpretationsontheBookofHistoryshould
followTs'aiCh'en'sannotationsThustheintellectualinfluenceoftheFukienSchoolwasgreatlystrengthenedbytheofficialstatusofthebook,whichrankedtogether
withChuHsi'sCollected

Page509

CommentariesontheFourBooksandothersastheofficialassignmentsforscholarlyreading.
HuangKanandCh'enCh'un
HuangKan,anativeofMinhsienbrinFukien,wasChuHsi'ssoninlaw.Ch'enCh'unwasayoungpupilofChuHsi'swhenthelatterwastheprefectatChangchou
andagainatChienyanglater.Bothofthemkeptstrictlytotheteachingsoftheirmasterandupheldthemearnestly.
Inthefieldofcompilingtheclassicaldocuments,HuangKancontinuedChuHsi'sworkwithhisownIlichingchuant'ungchiehgbs(Ageneralexplanationofthe
BookofEtiquetteanditscommentaries).InthemaintenanceoftheConfucianorthodoxy,hewrotesomearticlesofsignificance.LikeotherdisciplesofChuHsi,
HuangKanhimselfmadefewinnovationsandamplifications.
WithregardtoCh'enCh'un,Ch'anTsuwangsaidofhim,"Sometimeshewenttoofartowardsopinionsdifferentfromtheirs."31Inthisrespect,Ch'enCh'unwas
imbuedwithmoresectarianismthanHuangKan.OneofthegreatcontributionsCh'enCh'unmadewasthathekeptstrictlytotheteachingsoftheCh'engsandChu
HsiinworkingouthisfamousHsinglitzuibt(Meaningsoftermsonnatureandprinciple),whichendeavorstoexplaintheconceptsofNeoConfucianism.
Ch'enP'ubuandHsiungHo
Ch'enP'u,anativeofNingtebvinFukien,andHsiungHo,anativeofChienanbwinFukien,werebothdisciplesofChuHsiofthesecondgenerationandmaybe
regardedasthejuniorforcesoftheFukienSchoolintheSouthernSungdynasty.Ch'enP'umadeaveryclearexplanationonChouTuni'sdoctrineoftheGreat
UltimatewhilekeepingperfectlyinlinewithChuHsi'sinterpretation.32ThereforeitmaywellbeseenthatthefollowersofChuHsiinFukiendidthoroughlyunderstand
himandpropoundedhisideas.
HsiungHowasthedeanoftheAufengbxAcademyinChienyang.InhisworkshecitednumerousancientstoriesinordertoamplifytheargumentsoftheNeo
Confucianists.InhisessayShangyusanjenliangishihshuoby(OnthethreevirtuousmenandtworighteousonesoftheShangdynasty,17511112B.C.),33he
arguedthatthefactthatmostoftheShangpeoplewouldnotletthemselvesbesubjecttotheregimeoftheWesternChoudynasty(1111770B.C.)underthereignof
KingWubz(r.11211116B.C.)wasaresultofthelongtimeindoctrinationoftheShangregime.Hethereforeconcludedthatitwasofparamountimportanceto
cultivatethemindsandcustomsofsociety.Thepropositionthatagoodpoliticalandsocialorderwasdependentongoodsocialcustomconstitutedoneofthemost
importantargumentsoftheFukienSchool.AnditalsoaffordedHsiungHoareasonfornotservingtheYangovernment.

Page510

PrinciplesofNeoConfucianism
Traditionally,theSchoolofChuHsirepresentedtheNeoConfucianorthodoxy.Thatthisorthodoxyeventuallybecamefirmlyestablishedanddevelopedwastoa
considerabledegreerelatedtoChuHsi'ssynthesisofthedoctrinesofhispredecessorsintoanallembracingsystem.ThetwoschoolsofNeoConfucianisminthe
NorthernSungdynasty,thatis,theSchoolofMoralPrinciplesoftheCh'engbrothersandtheSchoolofEmblemsandNumbersofShaoYung,wereharmoniously
synthesizedbyChuHsi.ThusthecampofNeoConfucianismwasenlargedandstrengthened.AstoBuddhistandTaoistideas,thoughChuHsilookeduponthemas
destructivetomoralityandbothemptyandinactive,hestilladoptedanattitudeofacquiescencetowardthem,especiallytowardTaoism.HehadannotatedChouTun
i's"ExplanationoftheDiagramoftheGreatUltimate"whichwasconsideredtohavederivedfromTaoism,anditwasjustinthisGreatUltimatethatthebasicideaof
hisphilosophylay.AnditwasfromtheHuayenchingca(Scriptureofflowerysplendor)ofBuddhismthatheborrowedtheproposition"Everywherethemooncanbe
seenwhenitshinesonalltherivers"34toillustratetheCh'engChuproposition"essenceisonebutitsmanifestationsaremany."OnhisdeathbedChuHsitoldhis
pupils,"Theprincipleisnomorethanthis.Whatawaitsyouisonlytopracticeithard."35NodiscipleofChu'seversurpassedhim.Whatthedisciplesdidwasonlyto
observewhatChuHsihadtaught.DowntotheYanandMing(13681644)dynasties,nofollowerofhisoversteppedthescopelaiddownbyhim.
DuringtheMingdynasty,oneorthodoxthinkeroftheChuHsiSchool,HsehHsancb(13891464)saidoftheCollectedCommentariesontheFourBooks,"It
summarizedthesayingsofallthesages....Itissobroadandsubstantialandyetsopenetratingandsosophisticatedthatnotabitoftheideasoftheancientsagesis
leftundeveloped.Scholarsaresuretogainagreatdealfromhimprovidedtheyrealizeandpracticesinglemindedlyhismethodtoachieveprogressbythinkingand
reading."36ThisquotationimpliesthatthecomprehensivenessofChuHsi'ssystemaccountedforitswidepropagationandthathisdisciplesandfollowersinlater
generationsfailedtosurpasshim.Thereasonforthesecondpointmayperhapsbeattributedtothefactthatwithinacertainperiodofhistorytheslumberingmedieval
societydemandednothingmoreinideologyfromthescholarsofthattime.
Initscontents,theFukienSchoolcomprisedallthecharacteristicfeaturesofNeoConfucianism,suchastheregulationofsocialstratainhumanrelationships,the
rejectionofutilitarianisminpolitics,thepriorityofmoralityovertechniqueinlearning,andthesharpdemarcationbetweentheChineseandtheforeignerininternational
relations.ThesehadformedthefundamentalprinciplesoftheConfucianistseversincethetimeofConfucius(551479

Page511

)andMencius(372289B.C.?),andthroughthetheoreticalconfirmationbytheCh'engsandChuHsi,theyassumedtheauthorityoftheNeoConfucianprogram
underthelabelofaphilosophicalconceptthePrincipleofHeaven.Abouteachoftheseitemsweshallsayafewwords.
B.C.

SocialStratainHumanRelationship
Theranksandtitlesofthefeudalnobilities,theregulationsofdistinctionsbasedonbloodlineage,thedifferenceinstatusbetweenoffspringofthewifeandoffspringof
concubines,funeralceremoniesanddressesallthese,thoughverytrivialandformalized,constitutedthefundamentallawsonwhichthepatriarchalclansystem
rested.ChuHsihimselfhadwrittenTheGeneralExplanationontheBookofEtiquetteandItsCommentariesandlefthisunfinishedworksthe"Chili"cc
(Sacrificialrites)andthe"Sangli"cd(Funeralrites)tohisdiscipleandsoninlawHuangKantocarryon.Thedogmasexpoundedintheseworkshavebeenfarfrom
beingineffectiveinlatergenerations.
InthebeginningoftheMingdynasty,PrinceYen,ceanoffspringoftheemperor'sconcubine,usurpedthethroneofhisnephewEmperorChienwen,cfthelegitimate
heirapparenttothethrone.ThisactionwasinahighdegreecontrarytoConfucianandNeoConfuciandogmasabouttherelationshipofmonarchandsubjects.Fang
Hsiaojucg(13571402),afamousscholar,opposedPrinceYenanddiedasamartyrratherthansupporttheusurper.Hisstandindefianceoftheusurpationhada
profoundinfluenceasamoralexampleofNeoConfucianisminlatergenerations.
InthemiddleoftheMingdynastyEmperorChiachingchintendedtohonorhisdeadfather,whowasonlyaprinceintitle,asanemperor.SuchNeoConfucian
officialsasYangT'inghoci(14591529)andhissonYangShencjobjectedbecausesuchbehaviordoesnotconformtothemannersprescribedintheConfucian
ClassictheBookofRites.
InthelawsoftheMingandCh'ing(16441912)dynasties,therewereregulationsontheprivilegesofthevenerable,thesenior,andthenoblewhichembodiedthe
NeoConfucianprinciplesof"prioritytotheprior"and"honortothehonorable."EvensuchaneminentscholarasKuYenwuck(16131682)possessedtheprivilege
ofdrowninghisservant,nottomentionnumerousothercasesofhowthelowersocialstratasufferedundersuchaninstitution.
Itwaswithaviewtomaintainingthesocialorderoftheprivilegedthatdifferentsocialstatuseswereregulated.Feudalismhadcarriedwithitinnumerablesuppressions
andpersecutionsonthepeopleofthelowersocialstrata.Inthesubsequentdevelopmentofthepatriarchalsystem,NeoConfucianismlentastronghandinsupporting
andevenpromotingthesamekindsofregulations,consciouslyaswellasunconsciously.
RejectionofUtilitarianisminPolitics
ThiswasalsoalongtraditionoftheConfucianSchool.Confuciusoncesaid,"Agentlemanunderstandsrighteouswhilealittlemindedmanunderstandsutility(licl)."37
MenciusspoketoKingHuiofLiang,cm"Whymustyoutalkofutility?"38IntheHandynastyTung

Page512
cn

39

Chungshu (176104B.C.)preached,"Soactastofollowtherighteousanddisregarditsutility." ChuHsiandChangShihwereongoodtermsbecauseChangShih

emphasizedthedistinctionbetweenrighteousnessandutility
Thedistinctionbetweentherighteousandtheutilitariandidnotmeanthecessationofallsocialactivities.ChuHsihimselfhadengagedinsuchactivitiesasirrigationand
storingupgrainsforrelief.ThelearningofHuangKanhasbeenconsidereda"learningthatdealswithessenceaswellasfunction"becauseHuangengagedinthecause
ofdefendingthecityagainsttheinvasionoftheChincotribes.
RejectionofutilitarianismseemstomeanthatoneshouldadheretoConfucianprinciplesratherthantryingtoattainone'sobjectiveregardlessofthemeans.Toachieve
hisgoalsShangYangcp(d.338B.C.),aLegalistandprimeministerofDukeHsiaocqofCh'in,wouldonlydulymeteoutrewardsandpunishments.Hevowedand
offeredanordertowinthepeople'sconfidencethatanyonewhowouldremoveastakefromtheeastgatetothewestwouldberewardedfiftygoldencoins.The
NeoConfucianistHsiungHocriticizedthisas"atrickonthepartofalittlemindedman."40WangAnshihcr(10211086)wasanotedreformerintheeleventhcentury
whocarriedouthispolicyofhsinfacs(newlaw)fortheimprovementofpublicfinancethiswaslookeduponbyNeoConfucianistsasanexploitationbythe
government.Ch'engHaospokeofhimas"squeezingbyforce."41
ThemethodadoptedbytheNeoConfucianistswastoconvincethepeoplebyproclaimingsomeemptysloganssuchas"urgingthepeopletotilltheland"andthelike
andbyinstructingtheintellectualstoobserveConfuciandoctrinesandtostudythelearningoftherectificationofthemindandthesincerityofthewill.Afterobtaining
highpositionsthroughtheirsuccessesincivilserviceexaminations,mostNeoConfucianistsappearedtobepedanticandimpracticalandachievednothingusefulin
theirsocialactivities.Herelaytheirweakpoints,whichwereseverelycriticizedbytheircontemporaryopponentsCh'enLiangct(11431194)andYehShihcu(115
1223)andrebukedinlatergenerationsbyKuYenwuandYenYancv(16351704).
TheinfluencethattheNeoConfuciandogmaexerteduponlaterperiodsshouldnotbeunderestimated.ItisnoteworthythatinhistombinscriptionforWeiHseh
liencw(16081644),sonofanuprightofficerWeiTachungcx(15751625),HuangTsunghsicy(16101695)said,"Whatheemphasizedwasthegoverningofthe
nationwhichamountstonomorethanthelearningofutility"and"Itisthelearningofutilitythatmisledhim."42HenceitisapparentthatHuangTsunghsifollowedthe
Confuciantraditionanddespisedutility.Asweknow,thefamouspamphletMingitaifanglucz(Waitingfordawn:Aplanfortheprince)usuallyattributedtohim,
wasfullofpassagesonthetopicsofutility.HerewefindalittlecontradictioninHuangTsunghsi'sexpression.
PriorityofMoralityoverTechniqueinLearning
IntheviewofNeoConfucianists,moralitymeantthewayofConfuciusandMencius.Itiswhatthey

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calledthePrincipleorWayofHeaven.Techniqueheremeanttheproductiveartsorcrafts.Theviewthattheformershouldtakeprecedenceoverthelatterformeda
longtraditionintheintellectualhistoryofChina.IntheBookofRitesitiswritten:"Theaccomplishmentofvirtuebelongstothenoblesandthatoftechniquetothe
commonpeople,"43uponwhichK'ungYingtada(574648),thefamousT'angdynasty(618907)specialistonancientClassics,commented:"Bythenobleswas
meantthekings,princes,andmasters.Theyaccomplishedtheirtasksbyvirtueandhencerankedhigh.Bythecommonpeoplewasmeantthemusiciansandsorcerers.
Theyachievedtheirtasksbytheirtechniqueandhencerankedlow."44
WhenNeoConfucianismwasprevailingintheNorthernSungdynasty,theemphasisonthepriorityofmoralityovertechniquewasverymuchinvogue.Thefactthat
theCh'engbrothersneverspokeofnumbersisareflectionoftheprejudiceofthenobilitythatthestudyofemblemsandnumbersbelongedtotheleveloftechnique.
Ch'aoYehchihdb(10591129),anadmirerofChangTsai,onceremarked,"Asforthestudyoftermsandnumbers,agentlemanlearnsitbutdoesnottakeitas
essential."45
ChuHsi,whosescopeofstudyextendedratherbroadly,didnotobjecttothelearningoftheemblemsandnumbers.Hepointedoutthat"thestudyofcalendar,
jurisprudence,astronomy,geography,andsoonallshouldbepaiddueattention,"46andheknewagreatdealaboutnaturalscienceshimself.Nevertheless,whathe
emphasizedwas"thewaytheGreatLearningtaughtpeopleinancienttimes,""theClassicsofthesagesandtheircommentariesbyancientscholars,"and"thewayof
scrutinizingtheprinciple,rectifyingtheheart,cultivatingtheself,andgoverningthenation."47
ThroughtheChuHsiSchool,suchanintellectualtraditioncontinuedtoflourishforcenturies.ThescienceandtechnologyintroducedfromEuropeintoChinabythe
endoftheMingdynasty,eventhoughfarbehindtheadvancedlevelintheWestatthattime,wasrejectedbytheNeoConfucianliteratiassuperfluousartifice,while
thoseintellectualsinfavorofit,suchasHsKuangch'idc(15621633)andLiChihts'aodd(15651630),didnotbelongtothemainstreamoftheliterati.Aslateas
theendoftheCh'ingdynastyChangChihtungde(18371909)whenobligedtofoundtheHanyangdfarsenalaftertheEuropeanpatternstillpropounded,"LetChinese
learningbetheessenceandWesternlearningbethefunction."48Further,therequirementofthecivilserviceexaminationshadalwaysbeenconfinedwithinthescopeof
theFourBooksandtheFiveClassics49withverylittlecarefortheknowledgeofnaturalsciences.ThisrequirementshowedthattheConfuciantraditionofpriorityof
moralityovertechniquewasgreatenoughtodeterminetheculturalpolicyofthegovernment.
Withsuchaculturalandacademicbackground,itwasindeedverydifficultfortheChinesetoprovideasoundbasisforthedevelopmentofnaturalsciences.Itispartly
becauseofthisfactthatscienceinmodernChinaandtherebythecountry'snationalstrengthhavedeclined.

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SharpDemarcationbetweentheChineseandtheForeigner
ThiskindofdiscernmentconstitutedanintegralpartoftheConfucian"significanceintheSpringandAutumnAnnals."ItwasrecordedintheKungyangdg
Commentarythat"theSpringandAutumnAnnalsendearsitsowncountrybutnotitsneighboringnations,andendearsitsownneighboringnationsbutnotthe
barbariannations."50Thusasharpdemarcationwassetbetweennationsinaccordancewiththeirdistancefromone'sowncountryaprinciplewhichwascalled
"discernmentofChinaandtheforeign"justasthatheldamongrelatives,whichwascalled"thegradationofintimacy."
Thisdiscernmentinvolvedalsothelovefornationalindependence.InhisappealtoEmperorHsiaotsungdh(r.11631189),ChuHsirepeatedlydeclaredthat"the
presentpolicyshouldbenootherthanthestrengtheningofnationalpowerindefenseagainsttheforeigner."51ThisproposalaimedattheresistancebytheSung
dynastyagainsttheChintribes,buttheoriginofsuchanideologymaybetracedtotheConfuciandiscernmentoftheChineseagainsttheforeigner.
BythefalloftheSungdynastythereappearedsuchnationalheroesasWenT'ienhsiangdi(12361282),HsiehPingtedj(12261289),LuHsiufudk(12381279),
andLinChinghsidl(fl.1271),whosestoriesbecamewellknowntolatergenerations.52AnotherantiMongolhero,ChangShihchiehdm(d.1279),camefromthe
rankoflowofficersandwasrecordedinhistoryassaying,"ThoughIknowI'dbeawealthydignitaryifIshouldsurrendertotheenemy,Iwouldstillbewillingtodie
formysovereign."53HeretheConfucianobligationofavassaltohislordfounditstypicalexpression.
BythefalloftheMingdynastyShihK'ofadn(16011645),whodefendedYangchoudointhenorthsideoftheYangtzeRiverinKiangsuYenYingyandp(1607
1645),whodiedtodefendChiangyindqinthesouthoftheYangtzeCh'enTzulungdr(16081647)andHsiaWanch'unds(16311647),whodiedafterbeing
capturedbyManchutroopsLiuTsungchoudt(15781645),whodiedofahungerstrike54andotherinnumerableexamplesofloyaltyandpatriotism,whether
recordedornot,canbeattributedtotheNeoConfucianteachingsondemarcationbetweentheChineseandtheforeigner.
ThepropagationandinfluenceoftheChuHsiSchoolwasatthesametimethepropagationandinfluenceofNeoConfucianismintheSouthernSungdynasty.Inthe
earlyyearsoftheYandynasty,withitsintroductiontothenorthbyChaoFudu(fl.1235),LiuYindv(12491293),andothers,itgraduallygainednationwide
influence.Asthemostsystematicandmostprofoundorthodoxideology,itplayedasweepingroleformorethansevencenturiesdowntothebeginningofthepresent
century.Anditsmeritsaswellasitsdemeritsshouldbegivenathoroughhistoricalanalysisandshouldbeneitherentirelyrefutednorblindlyaccepted.Historical
phenomenaaredoomedtopassaway.Itisforustodrawinstructionstherefrom.
Throughoutthelastsevencenturiesthepoliticalandculturalhistoryof

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dw

ChinahasbeencloselyconnectedwiththedevelopmentofNeoConfucianism.YenFu (18531921),thefamousrepresentativeoftheenlightenmentofthelast
yearsoftheCh'ingdynasty,cameintocontactwithWesternlearningwhenhewasstudyinginLondonduringhislateryearsheintroducedsuchscholarsasHuxley,
Spencer,andAdamSmithintoChina.ItwasYenFuwhoremarked,"Today[thenineteenthcentury]ourideas,manners,andpoliticsmayfindtheircausesandresults
inthehistoryofSung,YanandMing,eitherdirectlyorindirectly."Thisassertionisgenerallyvalid.TheideologyofSung,Yan,andMingwaschieflytheNeo
ConfucianismofChuHsi,whichoriginatedinFukien.WiththesewordsYenFupointedoutthesignificanceofthestudyofNeoConfucianismandparticularlyofChu
Hsi.
ButtheschoolofChuHsiwasonlyoneformofNeoConfucianism.TheNeoConfucianistscanbedividedintothreecategories.Thefirstcategorycomprisesthose
whokeptstrictlytotheteachingsoftheCh'engsandChuHsi.TheycommentedontheClassicsandpreachedtheorthodoxdoctrinetotheirpupils.Itistruethatsome
ofthemdidmaintaintheirprincipleswithoutregardtotheirownbenefits.Buttheywerepedanticintheiractionsandincapableofsolvingimpendingsocialproblems,
thusimpressingotherswiththeirincompetence.TothiscategorybelongedaratherlargenumberoftheNeoConfucianistssuchastheCh'engs'discipleYinCh'unand
ChuHsi'sdiscipleCh'enCh'un.ThesecondcategoryincludesthosewhosoughtpersonalbenefitsunderthepretextofpreachingNeoConfucianism,especiallyafter
thetimewhentheFourBooksandtheFiveClassicswererequiredforofficialdom.Theytalkedabouthighsoundingmoralities,butinrealitytheydideverythingthey
couldfortheirowninterests,nomatterhowignobletheirbehaviormightbe.Theyweregenerallycalledchiataohsehdx(pseudoConfucianists).Thosewhopaid
attentiontosocialproblemsandendeavoredtomakethenationwellgovernedbythetheoriesofancientsagescomprisethethirdcategory.Theywereconcernedwith
thepracticalissuesofsocietyandthepeopleandregardedthemselvesasgenuineConfucianistsbothinessenceandinfunction.ThistendencybeganwithHuAnkuo
inHunanandLTsuch'iendy(11371181)inChekiang,bothofwhomlaidemphasisontheTsochuandz(Tso'sCommentaryoftheSpringandAutumnAnnals),a
classicalworkexpoundingmoreaboutcurrentpoliticsandlessabouttheories.AndthelaterstreamfromCh'enLiangandYehShihdowntoYenYanwhowereall
verycriticalofNeoConfucianismmayalsobeclassifiedinthiscategory.
KuYenwuonceobserved."[TheNeoConfucianists]talkedabouttheirsubtledoctrinesalldaylongwhilediscardingthepovertyandmiseryofthepeoplewithout
anyconcern."55WhathecriticizedhereistheweakpointoftheNeoConfucianistsofthefirstcategory.AndthosewhomLiChihea(15271602)blamedandChi
Yneb(17241805)andYanMeiec(17161797)satirizedintheirworks56belongedtothesecondcategory,thepseudoConfucianists.Asforthoseofthethird
category,theyhadcastofftheconfinesofnonutility.Theyrealizedthatthediscernmentoftherighteousfromutility

Page516

andactingtofollowtherighteouswhiledisregardingitsutilityweremerepompouswords.Eventuallytheyweredriventotheconclusionthat''virtuedwellsonlywhere
onesucceedsinsuccess"(Ch'enLiang).57Later,inthelastyearsoftheMingdynasty,Ch'enCh'ehed(16041677)andWangFuchihee(16191692)further
developedthisideaintoamoredefinitepropositionthat"thePrincipleofHeavenconsistsinhumandesires"58andthusopenedthewayforfurtherdevelopmentofthe
advancedideologyoftheage.
WhatofChuHsi?Wheredoeshefitinthisscheme?ChuHsimayberegardedasbelongingtoboththefirstandthethirdcategories.IntheearlyCh'ingdynastyFang
Paoef(16681749)inhistombinscriptionforLiKungeg(16591733)praisedChuthus:"NeitherthefamesofChao[ChaoKuanghaneh]andChang[ChangT'angei]of
theWesternHandynasty[206B.C.A.D.8]northecelebritiesofYang[YangLienej]andTso[TsoKuangtouek]oflateMingcansurpass[him]."59Thisis,ofcourse,an
exaggerationbyanorthodoxNeoConfucianist,forafterall,ChuHsiwasatheoristratherthanapractitioner.AmorejudiciousevaluationwasmadebyCh'enK'ueiel
(11391194),acontemporaryofChuHsi,whooncesaid,"LTsuch'ienreadagreatmanybooksbuttonoavail,andChuHsipreparedprescriptionsbutproduced
noeffect."60ChuHsi,onhearingofthiscriticism,thoughtCh'enK'ueiverycandidinexpressionandsenthisdisciplestolearnfromCh'en.ThefamousscholarWen
T'ingshihem(18561904),speakingofChuHsi'sClassifiedConversations,remarkedinhisdiary,"ChuHsi'sinstructionstohisdisciplesweresopenetratingthatit
seemedasthoughonecouldlookintohisheartevenaftersomanygenerations....Buthisremarksconcerningthemilitaryandlawwereinadequatetogratifythe
readers."61TheseremarksseemstocomenearerthantheliteraryexaggerationsofFangPaotothetruthaboutChuHsi.
TranslatedbyHeChaowuen
Notes
1.Thetermchitach'engcomesfromtheBookofMencius,5B:1.LiFangtzu(LiKuochaieo)usedtheterminhisChuTzunienp'uep[Chronologicalbiographyof
MasterChu]andCh'enCh'uninhis"YenlingeqLectures"inthePeihsitach'anchier[CompleteworksofCh'enCh'un],ch.15.AlthoughLiFangtzu'sworkhas
longbeenlost,severalparagraphsofitwerequotedbyWangMaohunges(16681741)inhisChuTzunienp'u.Cf.Wang'sChuTzunienp'u(Shanghai:World
BookCo.1941),4B:240,andCh'enCh'un's"YenlingLectures,"particularlythe"Shihyuyanyan"et[Relationswithteachersandfellowstudents],inthePeihsi
tach'anchi,ch.15.
2.TheFourBooksaretheGreatLearning,theDoctrineoftheMean,theAnalects,andtheBookofMencius.AllthesefourNeoConfucianClassicswere
annotatedbyChuHsi.
3.ChenWenchungkungtushuchieu[ChenTehsiu'sreadingjournal],(1739ed.),31:35a36b.
4.SungYanhsehanev[WritingsofSungandYanphilosophers],(Shanghai:WorldBookCo.,1936)ch.48,p.846.

Page517

5.Ibid.,pp.845846.
6.ChuTzuyleiew[ClassifiedconversationsofMasterChu],(1876ed.),101:1a.
7.Ibid.,101:2b.
8.Ibid.,101:20b21a.
9.Ibid.,101:2a.
10.Ibid.,101:19a.
11.Ibid.,101:14b.
12.Ibid.,101:17a.
13.ILoyanyanluex[OriginanddevelopmentoftheCh'engSchool],(1886ed.),10:1a6a.
14.ChuTzuylei,137:11a.15.Ibid.,93:2b.
16.Ibid.,102:1a.
17.Ibid.,102:1b.
18.Ibid.,103:3b.
19.Ibid.,103:4b.
20.Ibid.,103:4b.
21.SungYanhsehan,ch.25,p.549.
22.Ibid.,ch.48,p.847.
23.TheThreePrinciplesare:toillustrateillustriousvirtue,torenovatethepeople,andtorestinthehighestexcellence.TheEightItemsare:investigatingthings,
extendingknowledge,beingsincereinthoughts,rectifyingoftheheart,cultivatingtheperson,regulatingthefamily,governingthestate,andpacifyingtheworld.
24.Ch'enShaney(fl.11741187),Menshihhsinhuaez[Newtalksinaproudmanner],(Shanghai:CommercialPress,1910),10:3a.Thissayingwasalsoinsertedin
TingCh'uanching,faSungjenishihhuipienfb[CollectedanecdotesofeminentpeopleintheSungdynasty],(Shanghai:CommercialPress,1935),p.388.
25.ChuTzuylei,103:8b.
26.TheThreeBondsare:"theofficershouldbesubordinatedtotheemperor,""thewifeshouldobeyherhusband,"and''thesonshouldsubmittohisfather."Those
stipulationswereproposedbytheHanConfucianistsandrecordedinthePaihut'ungfc[WhiteTigerHalldiscussions].TheFiveConstantVirtuesarejen
(benevolence),i(justice),li(propriety),chih(wisdom),andhsinfd(trustworthiness).SuchkindofcomposingofvirtueswasproposedbyTungChungshuinhis
memorialtotheHanEmperorWu.fe
27.SungYanhsehan,ch.58,p.1068.
28.HsiungWuhsanchif [CollectedworksofHsiungHo],(Chengit'angfg1709ed.),5:3b.
29.ChuTzuwenchi[SPPYed.],ch.87,p.1519.
30.WengIfh(fl.1247,adiscipleofTs'aiYanting),Ts'aishihchiujuhsingshihfi[LivesofthenineTs'aischolars],intheheadchapteroftheTs'aishihchiuju
shufj[WorksofthenineTs'aischolars],(1868ed.),p.2a,"GeneralNarratives."
31.SungYanhsehan,ch.68,p.1257.
32.Cf.SungYanhsehan,ch.64,pp.11641165,aletterbyCh'enPucommentingontheUltimateofNonbeingandtheGreatUltimate.
33.Hsiungwuhsanchi,4:5a.
34.Huayenching,ch.23,sec.24ChuTzuylei,94:41a.
35.Ts'aishihchiujushu,6:59b,Ts'aiCh'en,ChuWenKungmengtienchifk[MemoryofMasterChu'sdeath].

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fl

36.HsehHsan,Tushulu [Readingjournal],(Chengit'angabridgeded.,1866),2:1b.
37.Analects,4:16.
38.BookofMencius,1A:1.
39.Hanshufm[HistoryoftheformerHandynasty],(Beijing:ChunghuafnBookCo.,1962),p.2524.
40.Hsiungwuhsanchi,4:9a.
41.Mingtaowenchifo[CollectionofliteraryworksofCh'engHao],(SPPYed.),2:4a,"MemorialProtestingtheNewLaws."
42.HuangLichouwenchifp[CollectionofliteraryworksofHuangTsunghsi],(Beijing:ChunghuaBookCo.,1959),pp.196198.
43.BookofRites,ch.38,"RecordofMusic,"sec.19.
44.Lichichengifq[CorrectmeaningsoftheBookofRites],commentontheabove.
45.SungYanhsehan,ch.23,p.492.
46.ChuTzuylei,117:26a.
47.PrefacetotheCommentaryontheGreatLearning.
48.Ch'anhsehp'ienfr[Treatisetopromotelearning],outerchapters,3:10a,"EstablishingSchool."
49.TheFiveClassicsaretheBookofOdes,theBookofHistory,theBookofRites,theBookofChanges,andtheSpringandAutumnAnnals.AlltheseClassics
wereinthepastconsideredcompiledbyConfucius.
50.KungyangCommentary,DukeCh'eng,fsfifteenthyear.
51.ChuTzuwenchi,ch.11,p.162,"AppealtoEmperorHsiaotsungin1162."
52.WenTienhsiang,afamouswriterandpatriot,wasconsideredbyCh'anTsuwangastheyoungergenerationofoneofChuHsi'sdisciples,OuyangCh'ien
chih.ftSeetheSungYanhsehan,ch.69,pp.13011302ch.88,p.1664.HsiehPingtediedofahungerstrikeandwaswellknownbyhisliteraryname,Hsieh
Tiehshan.fuLuHsiufu,chiefministerinthelastdaysoftheSungdynasty,drownedhimselfwithEmperorPingfvintheSouthSeaafterlosinghopeofresistingthe
MongolinvasionLinChinghsi(LinChishanfw),anativeofWenchoufxinChekiang,wasnotedforhissafeguardingandburyingthebonesofSungemperorsand
empressesinthemausoleumsatShaohsinginChekiang,whichwereevacuatedanddestroyedbyMongolsoldiers.AllthesepatriotsexceptLinwererecordedinthe
Sungshihfy[HistoryoftheSungdynasty],ch.418(WenT'ienhsiang),ch.425(HsiehPingte),andch.451(LuHsiufu)andtheLinChishanchifz[Collected
worksofLingChinghsi],intheYungchiashihjentz'ut'angts'ungk'oga[AseriesofpublicationsintheMemorialHalltothePoetsofWenchow],comp.Mao
Kuangshenggb(18731959).
53.Sungshih(Beijing:ChunghuaBookCo.,1962),ch.451,p.13,274.
54.Ch'enTzulung,anintimatefriendofFangIchihgc(16111671),wascapturedbyCh'ingmilitaryin1647anddrownedhimself.HsiaWanch'un,thesonofHsia
Ynigd(15961645)whodrownedhimselfinloyaltytotheMing,wasarrestedandkilledbytheManchusafterhisfather'sdeath.LiuTsungchou,teacherofHuang
Tsunghsi,hadrefusedtotakefoodanddiedafterthefallofNankingandChekiang.
55.T'inglinwenchige[CollectionofliteraryworksofKuYenwu],(SPTKed.),3:1a.
56.ChiYn,scholarandeditorinchief,oftheSsuk'uch'anshugf[Completelibraryinthefourbranchesofliterature],composedaseriesoffablesandanecdotes
inhisYehweits'aot'angpichigg[Sketchesinthethatchedcottagepenetratingintothe

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gh

essenceofthings]tosatirizepseudoConfucianists.YanMei,significantpoetandauthorofSuiyanshihhua [SuiGarden'scritiqueonpoetry],hadacreative
spiritandstressedtheimportanceoffreeexpressionofnaturalemotions.
57.SeetheSungYanhsehan,ch.56,p.1042.
58.Cf.WangFuchih,Chouiwaichuangi[OutercommentariesontheBookofChanges],ch.1,thetungjhexagramandHouWailu'sgkIntroductiontotheCh'en
Ch'ehchehsehhsanchigl[SelectionofCh'enCheh'sphilosophicalworks],(Beijing:ScientificPublishingHouse,1959),p.4.
59.Wangch'iwenchigm[CollectionofliteraryworksofFangPao],(SPTKed.),10:2a.
60.SungYanhsehan,ch.61,p.1112.
61.WenT'ingshih'sLchiangjihchign[DiaryoftravelontheNorthernPearlRiver]wasprintedintheCh'inghogo[Greencranejournal]vol.2,no.21(1934),in
Shanghai.
Glossary

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28
ChuHsi'sInfluenceinYanTimes
LiuTs'unyan
ChuHsidiedinthethirdmonthinthesixthyearofCh'ingyana(1200)atK'aot'ing,bChienyang,cFukien.Thiswasalmostninetyyearsbeforethecomplete
annihilationoftheresistanceoftheSungforcesbytheinvadingMongols,whoseempireinChina,theYandynasty(12791368),wasfoundedin1277.TheMongols
ruledChinaforapproximatelyahundredyears.DuringthisfairlylongperiodChuHsi'sinfluencewasfeltnotonlyamongtheNeoConfucianistintellectuals,butalso
amongthepopulaceattheeverydaylevel,forwhomitbecameasortofguidingforce,bothforspiritualandmoralenlightenmentandforsocialcommunicationand
humanrelations.WithoutthetremendouseffortsmadebytheYanConfucianscholarswho,byandlarge,followedChuHsi'sschoolofteaching,theacademiclineage
ofSung(9601279)NeoConfucianismwouldhavebeenseriouslydisruptedunderaforeignpowerwhoseearlynomadrulerswouldhaveperceivedlittledifference
betweentheteachingofConfucius(551179B.C.)andthatofsomeTibetanlamaorindigenousTaoistpatriarch.Hadthathappened,thechaptersonSungMing
(13681644)NeoConfucianisminanyworkofhistoryofChinesephilosophywouldreadverydifferentlyfromwhattheynowdo.
DespitethefactthatthecontributionsoftheYanNeoConfucianiststowardsthecauseofthepreservationofChinesecultureweresogreat,notmanyanalytical
studiesaboutthemandtheircontributiontothedevelopmentofChinesephilosophyhavebeenpublished.Thelackofbasicmaterialforstudymayhavebeenafactor
contributingtothisneglect.ItisonlyinrecentyearsthatscholarshavebenefitedfromthepublicationofalargenumberofYanworksproducedphotolithographically
fromtheSsuk'uch'anshud(AgreatcollectionofclassicalworksintheImperialLibraryaccordingtofourbibliographicaldivisions)1andotherrareeditions,andso
findthemselvesinabetterpositionthanCh'anTsuwange(17051755),thecocompileroftheSungYanhsehanf(AcompendiousstudyofSungYan
philosophersandtheirworks)who,notbeingagreatbibliophilelikeHuangTsunghsig(16101695),2theearliercompiler,hadtoresorttohandcopyingaworkof
WuCh'engh(12491333)fromaprivatelibrarynamedYntsaiLouiin17233and

Page522
i

totakeanoccasionalriskbyborrowingafewvolumesoftheYunglo EncyclopediafromtheImperialLibrarywhileservingasanacademicianforlessthantwo
years(17361737)inPeking.4
Generallyspeaking,forthestudyoftheinfluenceofChuHsiinYantimestheexistingeditionoftheSungYanhsehan,initiatedandfirstdraftedbyHuangTsung
hsibutrevisedandcompletedbyCh'anTsuwang,maystillberegardedasthemostvaluableworkofitskind.ItisknownthatCh'anbegantoworkonHuang's
manuscriptin17461747andhadmoreorlesscompletedtheSungsectionby1747,forinthatyearheplannedtosendthatpartoftheworktoSoochowfor
engraving.5AdraftoftheYansectionseemstohavebeenvirtuallyfinishedin1754,oneyearbeforeCh'an'sdeath.However,ithasbeenlearnedthataslateas
1776,twentyyearsafterCh'an'sdeath,thedraftmanuscripthadnotyetbeenmadeintoacleancopy,6andthefirstprintededitionoftheSungYanhsehandid
notcomeoutuntil1838.7Althoughthisacademicworkhassuchalonghistoryofcompilation,itsveracityhasgenerallynotbeenquestioned,foratleasttworeasons.
First,bothHuangandCh'anweregreathistorians,andHuangwasalsoagreatNeoConfucianisthimself,adiscipleofLiuTsungchouk(15781645).Boththis
workandHuang'sMingjuhsehanl(AcompendiousstudyofMingphilosophersandtheirworks)werepioneeringcontributionsintheirownrightwithoutthem,a
modernhistorianofChinesephilosophyoftheseperiodswouldnothaveknownwheretostart.Second,asalreadymentioned,Huangwasabibliophilewhocould
consulthisprivatelibraryofmorethan30,000volumesofprintedworks,inwhichwerepreservedmanyoftherareworksoriginallyintheholdingsoftheTansheng
T'angmoftheCh'infamilyandtheCh'uanshihLouooftheHsfamily,pbothearliercollections.8AstoCh'anTsuwang,althoughhewasnotabibliophilehewas
neverthelessatrainedresearcher,andineachoftheitemsheinsertedorrevisedintheworkheincludedsourcematerial,muchofwhichcanbecorroboratedby
articlesfoundinhisowncollectedworks,Chiehch'it'ingchiq(CollectedworksfromthePavilionofClamgathering).9Still,fortheconvenienceofmyreadersas
wellasforthesakeofanindependentscholarship,wheneverIcitetheSungYanhsehaninthepresentarticle,Itriedtocorroborateitwithsuchavailablesources
asIhavealsoreadandsometimesquoteseparately.Withoneortwoexceptions,itwasonlyinthoseplaceswheretheoriginaltextsarenolongerextantthatIhave
citedthehsehanitselfasthesource.
ThePromulgationofChuHsi'sTeaching
TheteachingofChuHsiwassaidtobeunknownatthebeginningsofYanpoweruntilthearrivalofChaoFur(c.1206c.1299),aConfucianscholarwhowastaken
captiveinTean,sHupeh,in1235butwasbroughtbacktotheNorthbyYaoShut(12021279)andYangWeichungu(12051259),twoprominentYanofficials.
UponYao'spersuasion,Chaobecamethefirst

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v

preacheroftheCh'engChu teachingsinNorthChina.ScholarssuchasHsHeng (12091281),HoChing (12231275)andLiuYin (12491293)wereamong

hisdisciples.10Averydetailedaccountofthis,the"HsChianghanhsienshengshihshih"z(AboutChaoFu,theMasterofChianghan),writtenbyYaoSuiaa(1239
1314),YaoShu'snephewandastudentofHsHeng,isincludedinSui'sMuanchiab(Collectedworksfromthehutofashepherd)andservedasablueprintof
ChaoFu'sbiographyintheYanshih,acch.189.11AccordingtoOuyangHsanad(12831357),whenHsHengwaslearningthoseinterpretationsfromChao,
Chaohadtowritethemdownforhimfrommemory,forintheNorththeCh'engChuannotationstotheClassicswerestillnotavailable.12YaoShu,YangWeichung,
andafewothersweretheearliestofficialswhostartedtoprintandpromulgatetheworksofChuHsiandotherNeoConfuciamstsinPeking.IntheMuanchiwe
have:
[YaoShu]himselfsponsoredtheprintingof[ChuHsi's]Hsiaohseh,ae(AprimerofClassics),Lunyhuowenaf(QuestionsandanswersonConfucianAnalects),Mengtzuhuo
wenag(QuestionsandanswersontheBookofMencius),andChialiah(Familyrituals)andinvitedCouncillorYangWeichungtopublishtheFourBooks,13T'ienHoch'ingaito
publishtheShangshushengshihchechungaj(AnattemptattheproperinterpretationsoftheBookofHistoryandtheBookofOdes,)14theCommentaryontheBookof
ChangesbyCh'eng[Ch'engI,ak10331107],theCommentaryontheBookofHistorybyTs'ai[Ts'aiCh'en,al11671230],andtheCommentaryontheSpringandAutumnAnnals
byHu[HuAnkuo,am10741138].TheywereallengravedinPeking.HestillthoughtthatthecirculationoftheHsiaohsehwasnotwideenough.ThereforeheorderedYangKu,an
oneofhisdisciples,tousethemovabletypeprintinginventedbyShenKuaao[10291093].topublishit,togetherwiththeChinssuluap(Reflectionsonthingsathand)andthe
essaysonClassicsandhistorywrittenbyTunglai[LTsuch'ien,aq11371181]whichwerewidelyspreadthroughthecountry.15

Abouttheteachingsbeing"widelyspread"theMuanchilaterremarks,"TodayeventeachersatvillageschoolsforchildrenalloverChinarealizetheimportanceof
theHsiaohsehandtheFourBooks,whichtheyuseforelementarycoursesandeventhoseinfarawaylandswithtattooedskin,andthosewhoserveasclerksand
retainers,evenhawkersandpeopleofnonChineseoriginoftencarrythemintheirhandsandlearntorecitethewords."16ThisisechoedinthewritingofYChiar
(12721348),whodescribesthelifeofHsiungPenglaias(12461323),aSungscholarwholivedintomiddleYan,leadingasimplelifeasaschoolteacherinthe
villages."Veryoftenhegatheredaroundhimmorethanahundredpupils.HesummarizedthegistfromChuHsi'sHsiaohsehforhislecturenotes,whichwerelater
printedandbecameahouseholdreaderthroughoutthecountry."17
Evenatanearlystageofhiscareer,beforemountingthethrone,KhubilaiKhanhadinstructedChaoPiattostudyMongolandhadtranslatedChenTehsiu'sau(1178
1235)Tahsehyeniav(ExpositionoftheGreatLearning)for

Page524
18

aw

him. ChenTehsiuwasastudentofChanT'ijen (11431206),adirectdiscipleofChuHsi.YChi,inanarticleon"PosthumousTitles"tellsusthatChaotellsus

thatChaoPiactuallytaughthisMongolianstudentstheFourBookspresumablyincludingChuHsi'scommentaries.19
ThethreeearlyYanConfucianscholarsHsHeng,WuCh'eng,andLiuYinhavebeenstudiedfairlythoroughlyinrecentyearsbycontemporaryscholarsinthe
West.20HsHengwasknownasastaunchsupporterofChuHsi.LiuYinshowedsomeappreciationofShaoYung'sax(10111077)metaphysicalspeculationsinhis
studyoftheBookofChanges,buteveninthosewritingshesometimes"wonder[ed]whatcouldhavebeeninChuHsi'smindhere."21AnHsiay(12691311)wasa
followerofLiuYinbecauseofhisdeepadmirationforLiu'swork,thoughhedidnothavethechancetoknowthemasterpersonally.Inhisownwritingsherevealed
hisgreatesteemforChuHsi22whichtallieswiththeviewevidentinanumberofLiu'sownwritings23andthoseofSuT'ienchehaz(12941352),24astudentofAn
Hsi,andHuangChinba(12771357).ThelattermaintainedthatLiuYin'sstudyoftheHsiaohsehgraspedthe"impliedmeaningbeyondthewrittenwordsofChu
Hsi."25
Ofthethree,WuCh'eng'spositionseemstodifferslightlyfromthoseoftheothertwobecauseofhisvariedacademicbackground.HisnativeplaceLinch'uan,bb
Kiangsi,wasacitywhereHuangKanbc(11521221),adiscipleandsoninlawofChuHsi,wasmagistratearound1210.ApparentlytheteachingofChuHsihad
beenseededthere,althoughtheinfluenceofLuChiuyan's(LuHsiangshan,bd11391193)Schoolwasstilldeeplyrootedintheprovince.OneofWuCh'eng's
teacherswasCh'engJoyungbe(fl.1260),adiscipleofJaoLubf(fl.1256),whohadbeentaughtalternatelybyHuangKan,LiFanbg(fl.1198),andCh'aiChung
hsingbh(1190cs)(LiwasChuHsi'sstudent,Ch'aihisfollower).ManyofJaoLu'sdirectdiscipleswereactiveinlateSouthernSung(11271279)around12281259.
OnlyasmallportionofJao'swritingsarestillpreserved,partlyinCh'engTuanli'sbi(12711345)Ch'engshihchiashutushufennienjihch'engbj(A
chronologicallyarrangedsyllabusforclassicalstudiesusedintheCh'engs'familyschool)26andpartlyinWuCh'eng'swritings.27WuinheritedfromJaosomeofhis
skepticalattitudetowardsChuHsiWualsocameundertheinfluenceofCh'engShaok'aibk(fl.1314),anotherofhisteachersandthefounderoftheTaoibi
Academy,inHsinchou,bmKiangsi,whobelievedthatthedifferentviewsofConfucianteachingheldbyChuHsiandLuHsiangshanwerereconcilable.28
Ch'engJoyungwasthechancelloroftheLinjubnAcademyinFuchou,boKiangsi(foundedin1248),29whereWuCh'eng,Ch'engWenhai(Ch'engChufu,bp1249
1318),andWuCh'entzubp(12671339)allstudiedunderhim.30Ch'engJoyungproducedaworkHsinglitzuhsnbr(Expositiononwordsconcerningnatureand
principle),comprisingsixdivisionsand183items,whichwascompiledonthemodelofasimilarbutshorterworkbyCh'engTuanmengbs(11431191),apupilof
ChuHsi,whichhadonly30

Page525
31

bt

items. InCh'engJoyung'sHufengshuyanchiangi (NotesforlecturesdeliveredattheHufengAcademy)hesays,

ChuHsiwasamasterwhocamelastbutbenefitedfromthelaborsofhispredecessors,fromKueishan[YangShih,bu10531135],Ychang[LoTs'ungyen,bv10721135]toYen
p'ing[LiT'ung,bw10931163].Histeachingissoclearandcompleteandissuitableforextensionforeducationintheworldandforlatergenerations.Ihavestudiedthelatterpart
ofthecollectionofhisLiteraryWorks,andderivedsomediagramsofthefourlevelsfrommyunderstandingofhis"LettersinReplytoLiuChichang."bx32.Thehighestlevelof
studyistoaimtobecomeasageorworthy.Thesecondlevelisforanunderstandingofhumanityandrighteousnessandfortheencouragementofmoralintegrityandhonor.The
thirdlevelisforthestudyofliteraryworksandthelastisforcandidatureatthecivilexaminations."33

Hebelievedthat"scholarsofthesecondlevelhave[normally]higherintelligence,arecautiousanddutiful,anxioustolearnhumanityandperformrighteousdeeds,but,
unfortunately,theyknowverylittleabouttheteachingsofthesagesandtheirfollowerswhichinfactshouldbetherootoftheircareerandthecoreoftheirheart.
Therefore,itshouldbeourtasktorescuethem[lesttheysinktoalowerlevel]andtoextendtothemtheknowledgeandthebloodlineofthesages."34
Probablyencouragedbythiskindofpreaching,WuCh'enginhisTaot'ungby(BodyofthetransmittedConfucianteachings),citingthewordsinterpretingthefirst
hexagram(ch'ienbz'Heaven,male')intheBookofChanges,comparedChouTunica(10171073)totheprimogenitor(yancb)ChangTsaicc(10201077),Ch'eng
Haocd(10321085),andChe'ngItothedevelopers(hengce)andChuHsitothebenefactor(licf)hereservedthepositionofprolonger(chencg'chastity')for
himself.35ThereisnoneedformetomentionthatHsHeng,whoseteachingenjoyedmoregovernmentsponsorship,actuallysangasongcomposedbyChuHsiathis
deathbed.36
Inanarticlewrittenin1341,YChigaveanaccountoftheflourishingofChuHsi'steachingsincetheearlydaysofthedynasty.
TheexpositionoftheClassicsandtheFourBookshasacquiredasettledoutlooksinceChuHsi'sconciliatoryinterpretationshavebeenreveredandpublicizedbyscholars.They
enjoyaveryhighesteeminthedynasty.Hisworkshavebeensingledoutasthestandardforlearningandnowallpublicationsarebooksofhisschool....Intheprefecturesand
districtseducationofficershavebeenappointedforsupervisionofteaching.ThesystemoftheFourLeadingAcademies37setupintheformerdynastieshasbeencarriedon
throughtheprovisionofacademiesforscholarsindifferentpartsofthecountry.ManyofthemwereestablishedbecauseofChuHsi.IntheprefectureofChienyangthereare
seven,eitherfoundedataplacewhereChuHsioncestayedorestablishedtocommemoratethememoryofChu'steachers,friends,orevenhisfollowers.TheK'ao

Page526
ch38

t'ingAcademyissituatedfiveli
funding.39

ci

westofChienyang.AttheacademythereisatabletwithanarticlewrittenbyHsiungHo [12471312]givingadetailedaccountofits

TheRestorationoftheCivilExaminations
Ministersandscholarsinthereignsofgdai(T'aitsung,cir.12291241)andKhubilai(Shihtsu,ckr.12601294)hadoftensuggestedrestorationofthecivil
examinations,notonlybecausetheChineseConfucianscholarsbelievedthatthroughsuchaparticipationinthegovernmentitmightbepossibleforthemtowrest
somepowerfrom,oratleasttoshareitwith,theMongolrulingelite,butalsobecausethesystemembodiedalongstandingtraditionthathadbeenfollowedeven
undertheearlierforeignrule,sporadicallyinLiao(9471125)butregularlyandsystematicallyinChin(11151234).However,thelimitedexaminationsforcivil
servantsheldin1237inShansiandprobablyalsoinShantung,thoughwithsomesuccess,hadnotbeencontinuedandintheearlydaysoftheChihyancl(1260
1294)reign,althoughShihT'ientse,cmapremier,hadsuggesteditsrestorationtoKhubilaiinhismemorial,hissuggestionwasneveradoptedandcarriedout.40In1267
WangOcn(11901273),aHanlincoSecretarywhohadalsobeenaChuangyancp41intheChinperiod,expressedconcernaboutthesituationinhismemorialtothe
court:"Becausethesystemofcivilexaminationshasbeenabolished,scholarshavelosthopeofservingthestate.Toekeoutaliving,somehaveturnedtothestudyof
lawandarticles,tobecomegovernmentclerks.Othershavetakenupavarietyofoccupations,suchaspersonalservantstoofficials,smallpedlars,craftmen,traders,
andmerchants."42
Aftermanylongdrawndebatesanddelays,thecivilexaminationsincludingtheexaminationsforthechinshihcqdegreewerefinallyreintroducedin13141315,about
twentyyearsafterthedeathofKhubilai.AttheseexaminationstheHanChinesecandidates,northernersandsouthernersaswell,wereseparatedfromthose
candidateswhowereMongolsorscholarsofCentralAsianethnicorigin,who,althoughtheyalsostudiedtheChineseClassics,weretobeexaminedataslightlylower
level.SyllabusesforbothlevelsincludedtheFourBooksfollowingChuHsi'scommentaries,whileinthesyllabussolelyforHanChinesecandidatesitwasstipulated
thatforthepaperontheBookofOdesChuHsi'scommentarywastobeusedasprincipaltextbook,forthepaperontheBookofHistory,thecommentaryofTs'ai
Ch'en,andforthepaperontheBookofChanges,thecommentariesofCh'engIandChuHsiotherearliercommentarieswerestillpermittedforreferencepurposes.
ForthepaperonSpringandAutumnAnnalsthethreetraditionalcommentariesandthecommentaryofHuAnkuowereused.OnlyforthepaperontheBookof
Ritesweretheancientcommentariesalonetobeconsulted.43
InappearancetheYanConfucianscholarshadscoredagreatvictoryinsucceedinginintroducingsomanyNeoConfucianworksontheClassicsinto

Page527

theofficialsyllabuses,foreveninSungtime(about1196)ChuHsihimselfandhisteachinghadbeenoncevilifiedasahypocritewithboguslearningandtheNeo
Confucianisttextshadneverhadsuchanimportantplaceintheexaminationrequirements.However,asearlyasthelatterhalfofthetwelfthcenturytheSung
examinationsasameansofselectingtalentedmentoservethegovernmenthaddegeneratedtosuchanextentthatcorruptionandnepotismhadbecomecommon
pratice,andthematerialsetforscholarlyinquirywasreallysuperficialandimpractical.InChuHsi'sChuWenkungwenchicr(CollectionofliteraryworksofMaster
Chu),chapter69,thereisalongarticletitled''Hsehhsiaokungchssui"cs(Aprivateobservationonthesystemofeducationandcivilexaminations),written
probablyin1180whenhewasineastChekiang,whichisalsotobefoundinfullinCh'engTuanli'sCh'engshihchiashutushufennienjihch'eng,chapter3.In
thisarticleChuHsiseverelycriticizestheexaminationsystemofhistimefor"inequityinquotasforrecommendinglicentiates(chjenct)fromthedistricts,andthe
systemofadmissiontothenationaluniversity(t'aihseh)whichisanothermonetaryallurement."Hepointsoutthat"thedifferenttypesofspecialexaminationssuchas
the'universityexams,'the'examsofferedatthebureauinchargeoftributegrain,'andthe'attachedexams'inpracticearebutshortcutstoemolumentandanopen
courseforonetoassumefalseidentityandrushabout[seeking]opportunities.Sincethesubstanceofvirtuousdeedsisnotvaluedanymoreinteaching,thecandidates
areaccustomedtomerelywriterubbishwithbombasticwords."Astotheillsofthissystem,hebelievedthat"nothingismoredestructivethantheproductionofsuch
nonsensicalandabsolutepreposterousbabblings."44Asaremedialmeasurehesuggestedaplanwhichmaybesummarizedintermsofsixpoints:(1)"Equalizethe
quotasforrecommendedlicentiatesamongtheprefecturestoboostscholars'morale."(2)"Introduceanewcategoryofcandidatureforadmissiontotheuniversity
accordingto'virtuousconduct'sothatthemoralfoundationofthescholarsmaybestrengthened."(3)"Abolishthepapersonlyricalpoemsandliterature,andset
insteadpapersonClassics,preCh'in(221206B.C.)philosophicaltexts,history,andcurrentaffairs,varyingindetailindifferentyears."(4)"Forclassicalstudythe
candidatemustfollowtheteachingofacertainschool,andthesettingofquestionsmustobservetheproperpunctuationofthetext.Inofferinganswersthecandidate
musthaveathoroughgraspofthemeaningofthetexts,listingsystematicallythedifferentcommentariesandforminghisownviewpoint."(5)"Appointmenofintegrity
tofillpostsattheschoolssoastoattractsolidandhonestscholarstoteach."(6)"Reducethequotasaswellasthenumberofsuccessfulcandidatesrecommendedas
aresultofinternalexaminationsattheuniversitysothatexceptionalfavorwillnotbeabused,andthecourseofmonetaryallurementwillbeblockedoff."Itmaybeof
interesttoknowthatforclassicalstudiesChuHsihererecommended,asrequiredtextbooks,thecommentarieswrittenbyHuYancu(9931059),ShihChiehcv
(10051045),OuyangHsiucw(10071072),WangAnshihcx(10211086),ShaoYung,

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cy

cz

Ch'engI,ChangTsai,LTalin (9931059),andYangShihontheBookofChanges,andtheChichieh (Collectedexplanations)ontheFourBooks,with

supplementaryremarksbySuShihda(10361101),WangP'angdb(10441076),WuYdc(d.1154),HuYindd(10981156),andsoon.Hesuggestedalsothata
candidateshouldconsultatleasttworelatedworksinanyoneparticularClassic.45NotallofthemwerenecessarilytheproductsofNeoConfucianscholars.
AlthoughChuHsi's"PrivateObservation"wassharpenoughtocutintothecruxoftheproblem,andthechangesheputforwardwereworkableandsound,theywere
neverimplemented.46Wheninthewinterof1314thereintroductionofcivilexaminationswasproclaimedandthenewsyllabusespublicized,Confucianscholars
everywherewerepleased,believingthattheMongolianrulerAyurbarwada(Jentsung,der.13121320)hadatlastacceptedthesubstanceofChuHsi'swordsand
thatthecourseofclassicalstudies(mingchingdf)wouldfollowonlytheteachingofChuHsi.Suchaprogramwouldidentifypreparationforthecivilexaminationswith
thepromotionofthecauseofNeoConfucianism,whichwouldindeedbeagreatconception,surpassingtheachievementsoftheearlierdynastiesfromHan(206B.C.
A.D.220)throughT'ang(618907)toSung.47
AsthecivilexaminationshadlapsedforsomanyyearsinallpartsofChina,evenofficialsintheprovinceswerenottoofamiliarwiththearrangementsnecessarytobe
madefortheirreimplementation"andwereratherafraidofbeingunfitforthejob."48HsiungP'englai,theclassicalscholarfromKiangsimentionedearlier,atthepoint
wascontactedbytheprovincialauthorities.ForeachquestiontheyaskedHsiungwasabletoanswerwithanappropriatesuggestionafterbeingitemizedandwritten
down,thesewereapprovedbythecentralgovernmentasasetofuniversalworkingrules.49TengWenyandg(12581328),anotherConfucianscholarofthetime,
wasappointedchiefexaminerfortheprovincialexaminationheldinKiangsuChekiangin1314.Ashebelievedthatthespiritoftheexaminationsandthelegislature
reestablishingthementailedtheadoptionoftheideasfoundinthe"PrivateObservation"ofChuHsi,heorderedthatacopyofChu'sarticlebeinscribedandpostedon
noticeboardssothatcandidateswhocametositfortheexaminationwouldunderstandtheintentionsoftheemperorandwouldnotdaretofollowthecorrupt
practicesofformertimes.50
Infact,the"corruptpractices"werenotsoeasytogetridof,eveninrelationtothepeculiarwayofsettingaquestionandwritingananswerprevalentatthetime.In
ordertorackthebrainsofthecandidates,sinceSouthernSungtrickyquestionslikepuzzlesbearingnoconsequencetorealscholarshiphadoftenbeenset.Examples
ofthesewerecitedinChuHsi's"PrivateObservation."ChuHsisaid,
[Theexaminers]aimedathavingsomenoveltysothatthecandidatesweregivenveryunexpectedthingsandwerestunnedwhenconfrontedwiththem.Twosep

Page529
aratesentencesfromatextwereunexpectedlyjoinedtogether,andanotheronewascutintotwobyarbitrarypunctuatingofthetext.Thetestwastofindouthowcleverthe
candidatewouldbewhenexposedtosuchasituationwherelogicalreasoningwasimpossibleandhurriedextemporizationwasneededtocopewiththedifficulties.51

AnexamplecitedbyChuHsiservesasagoodillustrationofthispoint.IntheBookofOdesaretheselines
ThedoingsofHighHeaven,
Haveneithersoundnorsmell.
TakeyourpatternfromKingWen,dh
Andthemyriadregionswillreposeconfidenceinyou.52

AtrickyquestionsplicedthesecondlineWushengwuhsiudiontothefirsttwocharactersihsingdj'takeyourpatternfrom'ofthethirdline.
NotonlydidquestionssuchasthistypeofmeritlesshotchpotchcontinuetobesetinYantimes,butmanywoollyessayscontinuedtobecomposedaccordingtoa
stereotypedpatterndescribedbyCh'engTuanliinfivewordsinhisCh'engshihchiashutushufennienjihch'eng:maodk(tosetforthanargumentatthe
beginningofthecomposition),yandl(tofollowupandamplify),chiangdm(tocarryoutaproperdiscourse),chengdn(tociteevidence),andchiehdo(toconclude).53
Ch'eng,whoatfirsthadsohighlypraisedthereinstatementoftheexaminations,identifyingitwithpromotingthecauseofNeoConfucianism,laterbecame
disillusionedanddeclinedthehonorofservingasexaminer.54TaiPiaoyandp(12441310)inhis"PrefacetoYChinglung'sCommentaryonChuHsi'sHsiao
hseh"dqwrittenin1295,lamentedthatalthoughthecivilexaminationshelpedtopopularizetheworksofChuHsi,notmanyofthemwereseriouslystudied.Hesays,
InmychildhoodthetextofHsiaohsehwastaughtonlybyafewagedscholarsinthevillagesandnotmorethanfourorfiveschools....AtthattimeChuHsi'sworkswerenot
yetsowellknownpeopleinChekiangsometimesmadecopiesofthetextsfromothersandinthismannertheywerecirculatedformutualenlightenment.Thedelightinobtaininga
copyofthemcouldbelikenedtotheexperienceofYangHsiungdr[53B.C.A.D.18]whencollectingvocabularyforhislexiconFangyends(Dialectsrecordedfromvariousstatesin
formerHan[206B.C.A.D.8]),orthegreatenjoymentofTs'aiYungdt[133192]whenhereadforthefirsttimeWangCh'ung'sdu[2791]Lunhengdv(Discourseweighedinthe
balance).However,in12441245[duringthereignofEmperorLitsung,dwr.12251264,inSouthernSung]someoneusedtheideasofChuHsiinwritinghisexaminationessays
andwashighlyplacedonthescrollofsuccess.ThenpeoplefromeverywhereviedwithoneanotherinsellingChuHsi'sbooksandeveninremoteplacelikeours[Fenghua,dx
Chekiang]manyofhisworksbecameavailable.ThosewereadwhichhadcompletetextswerehisChouipeni dy(OriginalmeaningoftheBookofChanges),theCollected
CommentariesontheFourBooks,and

Page530
theHsiaohseh.Otherworksseemedtobestillindraftform,orhadbeenmanipulatedbyothers,andwerenotinperfectcondition.OfthosethreeworksnowonlyhisCollected
CommentariesontheFourBooksisahouseholdcollection,theOriginalMeaningoftheBookofChangesisstudiedbyonlyahandfulofscholars,whiletheHsiaohseh,a
mostusefulworkforthepopulace,goespracticallyunread.Isn'tthislamentable?55

YChirecordedmorethanonceinhiswritingsadialoguesaidtohavetakenplacebetweenEmperorJentsung,theMongolianrulerwhodecidedtoreintroducethe
civilexaminationsatthechinshihdegreelevel,andsomeofhisintimatecourtiers.Aministercommentsthat"thetroubleaboutexaminationsisthateachtimethereare
toomanysuccessfulcandidates,and,beingachinshihdegreeholder,itisagaintooeasyforonetobegivenapost.Besides,theseareinexperiencedpeopleandI
doubtverymuchthepracticalvalueofsuchasystem."Tothistheemperorreplies,"[Iknow.But]Iwouldbesatisfiedifamonghundredsorathousandcandidates
thereemergesonegoodadministratorlikeFanChungyendz[9891052]oftheNorthernSung[9601126]."56Itwascustomarythatchinshihexaminationsbeheld
everythreeyearsbetween1315whentheyresumedand1336whentheyweretemporarilysuspended,thereweresevensessions.Thesystemwasagainresumedin
1343,admittingthosewhohadalreadypassedtheprovincialexaminationsin1336tothefinalcontestheldinPeking.57
Ch'anTsuwangseemstohaveafairlybalancedviewoftheparticularesteeminwhichChuHsiwasheldinYantimes.Hesays,"TheteachingofChuHsiwas
particularlyreveredattheuniversityinYantimesforthesystematizationofacademicpursuitslesttheylapseintoajumbledandinchoate,boundlessmass.However,
whentheGreatCompendiumoftheFourBooksandsimilarworkswereeditedforexaminationsintheMingdynastyandinwhichChuHsiwasagainhonored,they
hadlittletodowithacademics.Itshowsonlythenarrowmindednessanduncultivatedtasteoftherulers."58YetHuangTsunghsibelievedthat"thepeopleofYan
timesknewaboutChuHsionlybecausehisteachingwaspromulgatedintheNorthbyChaoFuandHsHeng.TheydidnotreallyunderstandChuHsi.However,as
ChuHsiwasatthecoreoftheexaminationssyllabuses,theycouldnotbutfollowhim."59
HsiaohsehandtheFourBooks
Iftheordinary,pettyminded,pedanticscholarsoftheYanfailedtoappreciatethetruevalueofChuHsi,certainlythiswasnotsointhecaseofotherdistinguished
scholars,whethertheyservedthecourtormerelyledthelifeofacommoner,taughtintheruralregions,orheadedaprivateorlocallysponsoredacademywhichwas
acenterforNeoConfucianscholarship.NationalisticfeelingshadbeenverystrongamongtheearlyscholarswhohadbeenSung

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60

subjects,someevenkillingthemselvestoshowunyieldingloyaltytothevanquishedimperialhousehold. However,theprocessofsinicizationwassorapidandso
penetratingduringtheninedecadesofalienrulethattherewerenotonlyquiteafewNeoConfucianscholarssuchasTaiLiangea(13171383),adiscipleofLiu
Kuaneb(12701342),andChengYec(12981358)whodiedfortheYancause,61butalsononChinesesubjectssuchasTingHoniened(13351424),ascholar
andliterarymanofMuslimorigin,whosharedthesamecommitmentandconfinedhimselfonasmallislandoffTinghai,eeChekiangafterthefallofYan,refusingto
acknowledgeMingsovereignty.62WhenCh'anTsuwangcommentedonthisheemphasizedthemoralpointbysayingthat"thedutiesbetweensovereignandhis
subjectaredutiesfromwhichthereisnoescapebetweenheavenandearth."63ProbablywecouldappreciatethissentimentmoreeasilyinaNeoConfuciancontext.
AsaresultofthedevelopmentofNeoConfucianismafterSungtimes,thepublicationsofChuHsiwerehighlyhonoredbytheNeoConfucianistsinYan.I
mentionedalreadythespreadoverthecountryofthetextbookHsiaohseh,whichwasunknownintheNorthbeforesomeenthusiasticpublicityonitsbehalfbythe
ministerYaoShu.YChi,inacomposition"sendingoff"hisfriendLiK'uo,efwrote,
ThefoundingofthedynastybeganwithMasterHsWenchengeg[HsHeng].Hewasaverysincerescholar.HeobtainedseveralworksofChuHsiatthetimewhen
communicationbetweenSouthandNorthwasstillsubjecttoblockade.Whenhehadstudiedthemhebecameevenmoreinspiredbythefeelingofreverenceandalertnesswhich
helearnedtobehavetowardspeopleandthings.WhenhewasknowntoEmperorShihtsu[Khubilai],hisattitudetotherulerwaspurelyaccordingtothecourseofa
Confucianist,andnoneoftheotherswashisequalinthisrespect....Atthattimesocialcustomsweresimpleandhonest,andmenoftalentssincereandplain,sothatMaster
HstookthetextsoftheHsiaohsehashisteachingmaterial.Theteachingofsprinklingwaterandsweepingtheflooraswellasrespondingtovisitorsinconversationwasto
trainpupilstoyieldtotheexternalcircumstancesthestrictordersgoverningleavingandreturninghomeandconcerningworkandrecreationweretonourishtheirmindsthe
adoptionoftheprinciplesofloyaltyandfilialpietyfordiscoursewastoprovidethemwithamoralbaseandthemoresubtlediscussionofimprovisationinritesandetiquette
wereforthemtohaveathoroughunderstandinginpracticalaffairs.Withinafewdecadesnearlyalltherefinedministersandofficialscamefromhisgates.Itwasallduetohis
efforts,Ithink,thatpeopleinthecountryendeavoredtolearntheteachingsofsagesandworthies,andtheworksofChuHsiwerethustransmittedandperpetuated.64

CompositionofcommentariesontheFourBookswhichbindtogetherthetwochapters(theGreatLearningandtheDoctrineoftheMean)singledoutfromthe
BookofRiteswithConfucianAnalectsandtheBookofMenciuscommencedwithChuHsi,butitwasnotuntil13141315,whenthefirstYanexamination
syllabuseswereproclaimed,thatthispracticebegantoenjoyan

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evenmoreprominentposition.ChenTehsiu,thelateSouthernSungNeoConfucianist,"oftenadvisedhisfriendstoponderanddigestthecontentsoftheFour
Books,beforetheycometostudytheGreatUltimate,the'ExplanationontheWesternInscription'andReflectionsonThingsatHand."65Thistraditionwasfollowed
verysolemnlybyotherssuchasHoChieh(11881268)andWangPoei(11971274),scholarsofChinhuaejSchoolwhowerethetransmittersoftheteachingof
HuangKan.66HsCh'ienek(12701337),67astudentofChinLhsiangel(12321303)whowasastudentofbothHoChiandWangPo,publishedabooktitledTu
ssushuts'ungshuoem(AjotterpreparedwhilereadingtheFourBooks)intwentychaptersanincompleteeditionoffourchaptersisincludedintheSsuk'uch'an
shu,withyetanothereditionofeightchaptersprintedinseveralotherseries(ts'ungshuen).68ItisprobablyinthelosttextofthisworkthatHsCh'ienpraisedChu
Hsi'sCollectedCommentariesontheFourBooksmosthighly,saying,"AscholarshouldaimattheunderstandingoftheSage'smind.Withoutunderstandingfirst
theSage'smind,itwillnotbepossibleforonetoperformtheSage'sdeeds.ThemindoftheSageiscontainedintheFourBooks,andtheexplanationsofthecontents
oftheFourBooksarecompleteintheworksofChuHsi."69
WuCh'engwasaneruditeNeoConfucianscholarwho,inhismanyyearsofteachingandacademicstudy,commentedonnearlyeverymatterraisedbyChuHsi.
Manyofhiscarefullyconsideredopinionsarefoundinhis"Ssuchinghslueo(Prolegomenatofourclassicalworks),"Sanlihsluep(Prolegomenatothethreeworks
onli),andsoon.70HealsowroteseparatestudiesontheBookofChanges,theBookofHistory,theSpringandAutumnAnnals,theBookofRites,theIlieq
(Bookofetiquetteandceremonial),andtheClassicofFilialPiety.Inanarticleentitled"TsenghsehluCh'enHuajuihs"er(FarewelltoMr.Ch'enHuajui)
includedinhisCollectionofLiteraryWorksWuCh'engsays,
MasterChuHsihadsaidthatthereweretwo"passes"(kuanes)intheGreatLearning.Theinvestigationofthings(k owuet)isthepassfrombeingasleeptobeingawake,and
sincerityofthewill(ch'engi eu)isthepassfrombeingabeasttobeingahumanbeing.Tomymind,toinvestigateistohaveaproperunderstanding,andtobesincereistoput
thingsintopractice.Whenthingsareinvestigated,oneisawakenedfromadreamotherwiseoneisstilldreamingeventhoughonemaybedescribedasbeingawake.Whenthe
willismadesincere,abeastlymindmaybeturnedtoahumanmindotherwiseevenonewhomaybedescribedasamemberofhumansocietyisstillabeast.Therearesomany
peoplewhohavereadtheFourBooksandstillroamindreamlandandthebeast'slair.Shouldonenotbeapprehensiveofthis?71

ThewordsofChuHsicitedbyWuCh'engareincludedintheChuTzuyleiev(ClassifiedconversationsofMasterChu),thoughintheoriginalyluewChusaysthat
"thesincerityofthewillisthepassfromevil"togoodnessand"frombeingaghosttobeinghuman."72However,Chu'swordsarecorrectly

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73

citedinChenTehsiu'sCollectionofLiteraryWorkswhenheisaskedbyadiscipletoelaborateChuHsi'sviewsonthispoint. AsweknowChenTehsiu's
teacherwasChanT'ijen,animmediatestudentofChuHsi.Fromwritingssimilartothatquotedabove,wecanseethatthegeneralattitudeofWuCh'engtowards
ChuHsiwasquiterespectful.ThoughsometimeshewouldreversehisecstasiesofdelightoverLuHsiangshan'steachingof"honoringthevirtuousnature,"74nowhere
inhiswritingsdidWudenytheenormouscontributionofChuHsiinrelationtotheFourBooksasawhole,thoughhewouldraiseargumentsagainstChuonsome
individualtexts.
HuPingwen(HuYnfeng,ex12501333)wasaround13141320thechancelloroftheTaoiAcademy,originallyfoundedbyCh'engShaok'aitopromotethe
synthesisofthethoughtsofChuandLu.HewasalsoafriendofWuCh'eng.Pingwen,however,wasastaunchsupporteroftheteachingofChuHsi.Commentingon
Pingwen'sSsushut'ungey(AthoroughstudyoftheFourBooks),HuangPochia,ezasonofHuangTsunghsi,said,"Ynfeng[HuPingwen]madeapentrating
studyofChuHsi'sCollectedCommentariesontheFourBooks.JaoShuangfengfa[JaoLu]wasascholarofChu'sSchool,yethisviewsoftencontradictedthose
oftheMaster.Ynfengwantedtocorrecthiserrors,henceinthisworkheexpungedallthepassagesfromtheTsuanshufbandtheChich'engfcwhichwerefoundto
contradictChuHsi,andaddedhisownviewstotherelevanttext."75Huang'scommenthere,Iamafraid,ispartlymisleading:theTsuanshuortheSsushutsuan
shufd(ExpositionandcollectednotesontheFourBookscompiledbyChaoShunsunfe[12151276]andtheChich'engorSsushuchich'engf (Collected
commentariesontheFourBookscompiledbyWuChentzufg)arenotcompilationssolelybyJaoLu,althoughJao'scommentsarequotedtherein.Asamatteroffact,
becauseHuPingwenwasnottoopleasedwiththesetwoworks,heselectedonlyfourteenearlierworksfromthemtobeincorporatedintohisownandaddedforty
fiveothersbyauthorswho"strictlyfollowedthesayingsofK'aot'ing[ChuHsi]."76
"PuttingThingsintoPractice"and"ManyManifestationsofPrinciple"
ChuHsi'stheoryoftheinvestigationofthingsasmeansofattainingtrueknowledgehadledtheSouthernSungscholarstoattachveryhighregardtothepractical
consequenceofthingsandtoapplyingoneselfinaction.WeiLiaowengfh(11781237),ahighofficialandafriendofFuKuangfi(fl.1208)andLiFan,bothdisciples
ofChuHsi,oncewrotetoanofficialofthewinemonopolywhohadadvisedhimtostudyChuHsiand"handdownhisdoctrinesasifhewashisancestor"(tsushufj),
saying,
IbelievethatthestudyofthevariousexplanationsofearlierConfucianscholarsoftheClassicsisperhapsnotasgoodasreadingtheworksoftheSagehimself.

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Forwithoutpersonalinvestigationonthespotonecannotsaythatone'sunderstandingofathingistrue.InyourletteryouadvisemetohanddownthedoctrinesofMasterChu
asifhewasmyancestor.ItistruethatIhavereadMasterChu'sworksoverquitealongperiodoftime.However,inordertoseekoutthevigorousspiritofhisteachingIwould
ratherfindthetwigsandtherootsofatreethanappreciatetheblossomsofpeachandplumcarriedintheloadsofthepeddlers.77

InthesamespiritWeideclaimedbitterlyinhisChuWenkungwushuwentahsfk(PrefacetoquestionsandanswersonthefiveworksofMasterChu),"Somany
bookshavebeenprinted,andsomanytheorieshavebeenadvanced.Thecleveronesofourtimeneedonlytoplagiarizesomeshallowviewsandsellthemtothe
world,withoutputtinganyintopracticethroughpersonalexperience."78
WangPowasknownforhisacuteskepticismintextualstudyofclassicalworkshealsoheldapragmaticviewinanalyzingChuHsiwhichwas,infact,ChuHsi'sown
attitudetowardshumanaffairsandthings.OnoneoccasionhisfriendWuT'aich'ingfl(fl.1260)plannedtousethewords"seekingpleasure"(hsnlefm)tonamehis
studyorstudio,andWangwasconsultedaboutitsappropriateness.ThistermhadaveryclearNeoConfucianbackground,foritwasthegreatmasterChouTuni
whohadoftentaughtCh'engHao"toseekthesubstanceinwhichConfuciusandYenHuifn"79hadfoundpleasure."80Althoughtheconcepthadsuchadeeplyseated
traditionandhadbeencherishedforgenerations,WangPoneverthelessviewedthematternegativelyandadvisedWutodroptheidea.
Tousethewordhsnleforasignboardtobehunginyourstudyis,Iamafraid,contrarytotheteachingofplainnessandpracticality.Itseemsmoretoimplyanaspirationfor
"penetrationrisinghigh"(shangtafo),andlessconcernforthe"studieslyinglow"(hsiahsehfp).81Tomymindiftherehasnotbeenanyeffortinstudieslyinglow,therecannot
beanypenetrationrisinghigh.ElaboratingthisparticularcaseMasterChuHsisaidveryfirmlycitingthewordsofYenHuihimself,thatwescholarsshouldsetasourgoal
"enlargingourmindswithlearning,butrestrainingthemwithpropriety,"fromwhencewemayarriveatastateofbeing"unabletogiveoverthestudyofthedoctrinesoftheSage
evenshouldwewishtodoso,"andafterwehave''exertedallourabilities"wemaycometoapositionfromwhereitispossibleforustoreachouraim.82Oh!Thisteachingisa
perennialoneanditmaybetransmittedfarandwidewithoutanyilleffect.83

HavinginheritedthisspiritofChuHsithroughtheexpositionsofthedoctrinesbytheirpredecessors,theYanNeoConfucianistsseemtohavebeenmostconcerned
withtheideathatlearningmustbepracticalandsincere.AsmentionedalreadyHsHengwaspraisedveryhighlybyYChiforhissincerityandhisteachingof
"havingathoroughunderstandinginpracticalaffairs,"thoughelsewhereYcitedLiuYin'scriticismthatHs"cheatedthe

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fq

84

fr

worldwithLaotzu's trickstosavehisownskin." Ch'engTuanli,intheGeneralOutlines(kangling )illustratingthecontentsofhisCh'engshihchiashutushu

fennienjihch'eng,citedthesewordsofChuHsiashiskeynote:"MylecturesandseminarsaredifferentfromthecompositionsforcivilexaminationbecauseIwant
scholarstoapplythemselvesinaction."85Althoughhisworkwasmainlyforpreparingcandidatestositforexaminations,andforthatpurposeithadbeenproclaimed
bythenationaluniversityasaguidebookforsystematiclearningofClassics,Ch'engdidincludeextensivequotationsfromquiteafewearlierNeoConfucianscholars
includingJaoLuandCh'eng'sownmaster,ShihMengch'ingfs(12471306),whowasathirdgenerationfollowerofChuHsi.IntheCh'engshihchiashutushu
fennienjihch'engCh'engalsocitedthepreviouslymentionedquotationsfromYenHuiandcommented,"Tostudythetextswellandtothinkverydeeplyisthe
requirementfor'enlargingone'smindforlearning.'Toexamineoneselfthoroughlyisforthesakeofthe'restraintsofpropriety.'"86Headmittedalsothatforthe
compilationofthisworkhehadtosomeextentreliedontheChuTzutushufaft(MethodsofstudyintroducedbyMasterChu)compiledbyFuKuang.LuLung
ch'ifu(16301692),anearlyCh'ing(16441912)NeoConfucianist,inhiscolophontoalatereditionofCh'eng'sbook,says,''Themethodsforstudyasfoundinthis
workarenotCh'eng'sown.TheyaremethodslaiddownbyChuHsi."87
ChengY,alateYanscholarwhowasdescribedbyCh'anTsuwangas"succeedingWuCh'engintheattempttoreconcilethedifferencesofChuandLu,"was
moreproChuthanwasWuCh'eng.HedidnotactuallyservetheYancourt,butwhenthecityofHuichoufv.88felltotheMingforcesin1357,89hehangedhimself
whileundercustodytoavoidthehumiliationofhavingtoservetwolords.In"ALettertoWangChench'ing"fwhewrote,
WhenitcametoMasterChu[Hsi]ofHsinan,fx90hetookupthetaskofanalyzingalltheworksofsagesandworthies,comparedthemandsingledouttheirdifferences,andfound
thebestpossiblesolutionsforeachofthem.Noneofthewordshesaidwerenotacceptable,andhewastheonewhowasabletomarshalallthefindingsintheClassicssothat
hisunderstandingofthemwouldequalthatofthesagesConfuciusandMenciusthemselves.ItwashewhomadeourWayasbrightastheblueskyandthelightofdaywhich
shinesonthemyriadobjectsandrevealstheiridentities.Histeachingmaybecomparedtothehighwaysandthemainthoroughfaresthatleadoffineverydirection,ortoa
metropoliswheretherearenumerousshopswithtensofthousandsofdoorsandgatesopenandhundredsofcarriagesalwaysjammingtheroads,andnoneofthecommodities
soughtbytherichmerchantswhocometotheplacearelacking.Surelyhediscoveredthesecretsofheavenandearth,andexpoundedmostthoroughlytheabstrusetheoriesof
thesagesandworthies.However,subsequenttothisadvancementofthesages'teachings,therearenowimmatureyouthswhobabbleabout"honesty"and"considerationfor
others,"andalsoilliteratesandhalfbakedscholarswhodiscuss"Nature"and"theWayofHeaven."Theteachings

Page536
ofthesageshavenowbecomethelearningofhearsayandtransmissionofmeremouthings.Theancientscholarsdealtwithfactsandrealexperiences.Themoretheyknew
personallythedeepertheirunderstandingoftheissue.Contemporaryscholarsapplytheirmindstowhathappensathousandliaway,buttheirpersonsneverleavetheirhomes.
Therefore,althoughthesepeopleseemtobefarsighted,theymerelytalkemptywords.HowcouldwesaythatthisisthatmostexquisitedoctrinewithwhichChuHsieducatedthe
world?WhoknowsthedepthofoffenceagainsttheSchooloftheSageortheremorsetheirguiltyconscienceshouldmakethemfeeltowardsMasterChu!91

WangHousunfy(13001376),acontemporaryofChengYandgrandsonofthegreateruditescholarWangYinglinfz(12231296),castigatedintermssimilarto
thoseofChengYtheweaknessesofthescholarsofhistime.
OurcontemporaryscholarshavestudiedonlyverysuperficiallytheworksofChuHsi,yettheyclaimtohaveobtainedthetruetransmissionfromMasterChuandlookdownupon
theelderscholarswholivedintheCh'ientagaandCh'unhsigbperiods[11651189]andmockthem.TheseelderswereactuallycontemporariesofMasterChu.Nowadayspeople
donotreadaswidelyastheydid,butarefondofusingjargonaboutnatureandprinciple(hsingligc)tocoveruptheirignoranceandshallowness.Iamafraidthatthiswillleadto
beinggiventoexaggerationandfantasticbelief.92

Asanaturalcorollaryofthepracticeofinvestigationofthings,thetheoryof"principleisonebutitsmanifestationsaremany"anotherimportantaspectofChuHsi's
doctrineswasfirmlygraspedbytheYanNeoConfucianscholars.ThismaybeillustratedagainbytheteachingofHsCh'ien,theauthoroftheTussushuts'ung
shuo.Asweknow,HswasadiscipleofChinLhsiang.TheepitaphforHswrittenbyHuangChinsays,
[Hs]wastaughtbyMasterChin[ChinLhsiang]whosaid,"ThestudyofourConfucianismliesintheunderstandingoftheonenessofprincipleaswellasitsmanifold
manifestations.Itiseasytounderstandtheprincipleisone,butitismoredifficulttocomprehendthemyriadmanifestationsinwhichitisrevealed."HenceMasterHsbeganto
learntodifferentiatethemyriadmanifestations,andtracetheirorigintotheoneprinciple.93

InthePoynchigd(CollectedworksofHsPoyn)HsCh'ienwrotethefollowinginapersonallettertoWuShihtao(WuChengch'uan,ge12831344)toadvise
himonthispointandtoquellhisdoubts.
WhenWenkung[ChuHsi]firstbecameastudentatthegatesofYenp'ing[LiT'ung],hewasstillfondoftalkinginagrandiloquentandgeneralmanner.Hepreferredtoreferto
thecommonfactorsinthings,anddislikeddelvingintotheirindividualdifferences.Yenp'ingdisapprovedofthisandsaid,"ThedoctrineofusConfucianistsisdifferentfrom
thoseoftheheterodoxteachingsinthatwe

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understandthatalthoughprincipleisone,itsmanifestationsaremany.Itiseasytounderstandthattheprincipleisone,butitismoredifficulttocomprehendthemany
manifestationsinwhichitisrevealed."MasterChuwasmovedbythesewords.Thereafterheworkedatcarefulobservationandprofoundunderstandingofthetruthasmaybe
seeninhiswritings.InyourletteryouquotedthewordsofMasterCh'engI:'Learntobereverentforthenourishmentofone'sconduct,andtoextendtheknowledgeforthe
advancementofone'sscholarship.'94TheseareofcoursetheguidelinesforscholarsseekingtheTao.gfHowever,extensionofknowledgemeansoneshouldseekitspractical
applicationsothatonewillbeabletogainthefullmeasureofknowledge.Itisnotintendedthatthewords'extensionofknowledge'shouldmerelybeheldasamotto.Itdoesnot
saythatbecauseonehasunderstoodthatprincipleisone,thereisnoneedforonetofurtherstudyitsmanymanifestations.TheworksofChuHsiamounttoseveralhundred
thousandwords.Thebigaswellasthesmall[issues],thefineaswellasthelargescale,therootandthebranches,thosewhicharehiddenandthosewhicharerevealed,areallto
befoundtherein.Evenifonestudiedthemsentencebysentenceandwordbyworduntilexhausted,onewouldstillbeafraidofnotattainingacompletegraspofhisteaching.
Howmuchmoresoifonemerelygotholdofsomeofitsoutlinesandforsookitsmyriaddetaileditems.Itwouldbetooeasytofallintothehabitoftalkingemptinesstheway
Buddhistsdo.Therehavebeenmanycontemporaryscholarswhohavenotbeenfreeofthesefaults.Wouldyousaythatweshouldfollowthem?95

ManymodernscholarshavenotedthattheCh'engChutheoryof"principleisonebutitsmanifestationsaremany"showssomeBuddhistinfluence.96However,
accordingtotheYenp'ingtawengg(RepliestoqueriesbyLiT'ung)recordedbyChuHsi,itwasLiT'ung'sbeliefthat"thecrucialpointhereliesinwhetherone
emphasizesthewordchihgh(knowledge)."97ElaboratingonthisChuHsisaid,"Becauseoneunderstandsthatprincipleisone,one'sfeelingofkindnessarises.Because
oneunderstandsitsmanifestationsaremany,one'sdifferentiationofrighteousnessoccurs."98TheSungYanscholars'interpretationofthissayingismoreaccordingto
itspracticalsidethanitsmetaphysicalspeculation.ThiswascertainlytheviewofHsCh'ienandChinLhsiang.ItwasalsothatwhichledHuangTsunghsi,inhis
SungYanhsehan,tocomment:
AtthetimeofJenshangi[ChinLhsiang]and[Hs]Poyn,mostofthescholarsinChekiangwereoftheSchoolofTz'uhu[YangChien,gj11411226,adiscipleofLuHsiang
shan].Theysoughtforunderstandingoftheoriginalsubstance(pent'igk).Theybelievedthistobetheendofinquiry,andgavenoconsiderationtopracticalmattersandthings.
Theydidnotunderstandthatsubstancecannotbeseparatedfromtheobjectsthemselves.Jenshanreiteratedthesewordstoremedytheillnessofthetime.Thiswastheblood
whichpulsedthroughthevesselsandveinsofthebodyforfivegenerations.99

IntheotherfieldsofstudyinwhichChuHsimadegreatcontributionssuchastheBookofChanges,theBookofHistory,andtheT'ungchienkang

Page538
gl

gm

gn

mu (ShorterchronologicalhistoryofChinabaseduponSsumaKuang's [10191086]Tzuchiht'ungchien 'Generalmirrorfortheaidofgovernment'),which

waspublishedunderChuHsi'snamealthoughmostofitmayhavebeenpennedbyateamofworkersledbyoneofhisdisciples,ChaoShihyango(cs1172)100
therearealsoanumberofbookswrittenbyYanNeoConfucianscholarseitherwiththeaimofsupplementingChuHsi,correctingsomeofhiserrors,orsimply
showingofftheireruditionandliterarybrilliance.AmongthosewhoworkedonChuHsi'sinterpretationsontheBookofChanges(theChouipeniandtheIhseh
ch'imenggp'IntroductiontotheChangesforbeginners')wasHuYikueigq(fl.1264),asonofHuFangp'ing.grBothfatherandsonlaboredonthisClassicof
divinationfordecades.101Anotherscholar,HuPingwen,theauthoroftheSsushut'ung,alsopublishedhisChouipenit'ungshihgs(Athoroughstudyofthe
OriginalMeaningoftheChanges),probablyin1316.102HsiungLiangfu,gtwhowasmadelicentiatein1317,publishedhisChouipenichich'enggu(Acollected
commentaryontheOriginalMeaningoftheChanges),inwhichhegatheredtogethermanyexplanationsconcerningtheBookofChangesbybothCh'engIand
ChuHsi,includingsomeoftheearlierannotations.Hiscompilationwasmainlyforthepreparationforexaminations,forwhichparticularpurposetheancient
commentariesontheBookofChangeshadnotbeenproscribed.103NearlyalloftheseworksareincludedintheSsuk'uch'anshuaswellastheT'ungchiht'ang
chingchiehgv(CollectedcommentariesonConfucianClassicspublishedbytheHallofEverreachingSpirit)collectedandprintedbyHsCh'ienhsehgw(1631
1694)andNaraSingdegx(16551685).
InhistoricalresearchWangT'ienygydevotedfifteenyearstothecompilationofhisShangshutsuanchuangz(CollectedcommentariesandnotesontheBookof
History),aworkoffortysixchapters,topromulgatetheteachingofChuHsiinrelationtothisancienttext.Hebasedhisstudyontheearliercommentaryonthework
byTs'aiCh'en,whohadreceivedpersonalinstructionfromChuHsiandwhosecommentarywasonthelistofprescribedbooksforexaminationsduringtheYan
period.WangalsoincorporatedintohiscombinedcommentarysomeofthenoteswrittenbyChenTehsiu,forhebelievedthat"thecontroversiesoverthetextofthe
BookofHistoryweresettledbyChuHsi,andChuHsi'sconciliatoryremarksonthesecontroversiesweremadeevenclearerbyChenHsishanha[ChenTehsiu]."
Hisworkwaspublishedbetween1308and1311.104
Ashasbeenpointedout,ChuHsi'sT'ungchienkangmuwasprobablytheworkofadiscipleordisciples.InYantimestherewereseveralscholarsworkingvery
conscientiouslytosupplementit,followingsomewrittennotesonitscompilationhandeddownfromChuHsi.AsearlyasthefirstyearsofthereignofKhubilai,Liu
Teyanhb(fl.12601263)hadcompiledaworkinseveralhundreditemsanalyzingSsumaKuang'schronologicalannals,anditwasfoundthathisrearrangementof
theeventswasveryclosetoChuHsi'soriginalplanfortheKangmu.Forthisachievementhewasmuchadmiredby

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105

hc

hd

HsHeng. LiuYuyi (12481332)compiledtheT'ungchienkangmushufa (OntheprinciplesofmoraljudgementinChuHsi'sT'ungchienkangmu)

whichwasfavoredwithapreface(1329)byChiehHsissuhe(12741344)aswellasacolophonbyOuyangHsan.106WangK'ok'uanhf(13041372),alicentiate
of1326whohadanumberofpublicationsonclassicalstudies,compiledaT'ungchienkangmufanlik'aoihg(Astudyonthedifferencesfoundintheintroductory
remarksinChuHsi'sT'ungchienkangmu)withtheintentionofrevisingsomediscrepanciesbetweenChuHsi'soriginaloutlinesfortheworkandthepublishedtexts
preparedbyhisdisciplessupposedlyinaccordancewithhisplan.107Therewereotherworksofasimilarnature,butthecompilationsofLiuYuiandWangK'ok'uan
weresaidtohavebeenconsultedmostfrequentlybytheManchuemperorAisinGioroHsanyenhh(EmperorK'anghsi,hir.16621722)inhisImperialCritical
VersionofChuHsi'sT'ungchienkangmu.108
RevisionandReconciliation
AlthoughtheorthodoxschoolofChuHsihadaverystrongholdinSungYantimes,itwasnotcompletelyimmunefromscholarlycriticismfromtimetotime,and
someofthatcriticismfromwithintheschoolledtorevision.HuangChenhj(12131280),alateSouthernSungConfucianscholarwhoreadmostwidelythroughthe
classicalworksinordertopromulgatetheteachingsofthesages,criticizedChuHsionanumberofissues,thoughhewasstillgenerallyrecognizedasafaithful
supporterofChu.HisfamousworkwashisreadingnotesknownastheHuangshihjihch'aohk(DaytodayjottingscompiledbyMr.Huang).Praisingtheobjective,
unbiasedattitudeofthiswork,HuangPochiasays,"TheJihch'aooftentookintoaccountthegoodpointsaswellasthelimitationsofmanyConfucianscholarsand
issuedamediatingjudgment.EvenK'aot'ing[ChuHsi]wouldnotgoalongwithitifitwasagainstprinciple,forhehadprofoundconfidenceinselfdeliberation."109
Inhisnotes"ReadingtheBookofChanges"HuangChendisagreesverystronglywithShaoYung'stheoryofhsient'ienhl(beforeheavenandearthorprimordiality).
Healsosays,
TherearetwomajorschoolsofthoughtinthestudyoftheChanges.ThosewhocherishedtheNeoConfucianideasofprinciplefollowedtheexplanationsofferedbyIch'uanhm
[Ch'engI].Thosewhobelievedintheideaofthenumericaluniverse(shuhseh)acceptedtheinterpretationofferedbyK'angchiehhn[ShaoYung].Thesetwotheorieswere
opposites.ItwasnotuntiltheappearanceoftheOriginalMeaningoftheChangesandIntroductiontotheChangesforBeginners(Chouich'imeng)ofMasterHuianho[Chu
Hsi]thattheexplorationwascarriedtoancientdepthsandthesetwodifferenttheoriesmadeone.ChusaidthattheoriginoftheChangeswasfordivinationpurposes,andthat
theprimordialdiagramintroducedbyShaohadhituponthisorigin,whiletheexplanationsofferedbyCh'eng,thoughcompleteintheirunderstandingofprinciple,gave

Page540
veryfewdemonstrationsfromamathematicalpointofview.Sincethen,scholarswhoknowverylittleabouttheworkhavefollowedChuwholeheartedly.Theykeeponworkingon
thediagram,thinkingveryhighlyoftheprimordialandrelegatingpostprimordial(hout'ienhp)phenomenatoasecondaryposition.Infact,theyhavecreatedanantecedentforthe
BookofChangesitself.110

HoChi,thegreatmasteroftheChinhuaSchool,alsowrotealettertoafriendCh'enCh'engchai(Ch'enChenhq)discussingthediagram.Hesaid,"Althoughthereis
theprimordialdiagramwhichmaybetakenasamodelforreconstruction,IholdthatwhiletheFormerSageandtheLatterSage111musteachhavehadaplanofno
smallmagnitude,theywouldnotresorttomakingdrawingsofthem."112AnothercriticalcommentappearsinafootnotetooneofthetwentypoemsofChuHsientitled
"RecollectionsWhileLivinginQuietude,"whichHoannotated.ConcerningtheT'ungchienkangmuofChuHsihenotes,"Thereareplaceswherewordswritten
downareperfunctory,notbeingtheresultofbetterthought,sinceMasterChuhadtofollowtheoriginalwritingsofWenkunghr[SsumaKuang]."113
WangPowasingeneraladevotedfollowerofChuHsi.However,whenHuangPochiawassummarizingWang'scontributionstotheadvancementofNeo
Confucianism,hesaid,
Luchaihs[WangPo]wasascholarknowntobeaverystrongadmirerofTzuyanght[ChuHsi].WhenitcametotheGreatLearning,heneverthelessbelievedthatthecommentary
on"investigationofthings"hadnotbeenlost114andthattherewasnoneedtosupplementit.115Healsothoughtthatsinceinthe"TreatiseonBibliography"intheHanshuhu
(HistoryoftheHandynasty)theOntheDoctrineoftheMeanisrecordedintwosections,itwasnecessarytoestablishasaseparatepiecethelatterpartoftheworkcommencing
withthesentence"Whenwehaveintelligenceresultingfromsincerity."116Astothe"InterpretationtotheDiagramoftheGreatUltimate,"117hemaintainedthatthesentence"wu
chi''hv(UltimateofNonbeing)...referredtothediagram,andwouldnotbelievethattheUltimateofNonbeingwasformless,andthet'aichihw(GreatUltimate)wasthe
embodimentofprinciple.118HealsorevisedsomeofthesayingsconcerningtheBookofOdesandtheBookofHistory.119

HuangPochiaalsosaidthatChinLhsiang,afollowerofbothHoChiandWangPo,andteacherofHsCh'ien,"inhisstudyoftheAnalectsandtheBookof
Mencius,hadoftensomeoriginalviewswhichhadnotbeendiscoveredbyChuHsi.SometimeshisviewscontradictChu's.Hedidnotcontradictthegreatmasterso
astogainfame.ItwasmerelybecausehehadthesameenthusiasmasMasterChuforclarificationoftheTao."120
Intheatmospheredescribedabove,eveninearlyYantheidealoffreshanddynamicthoughtdidnotcompletelydieout.EvenWuCh'eng,whenservingasthe
DirectorofStudiesattheNationalUniversityinPeking,instructedthestudentsintheextremeimportanceof"honoringvirtuous

Page541
121

nature" which,hesaid,"shouldberegardedasthebasisofone'slearning,"forwithoutit"themaintenanceofconstantinquiryandstudywouldlapseintopettifogging
annotationsandlinguistictrifles."122ThushistippingofthescaleswasevidentlynotonehundredpercentinfavorofChuHsi.
CommentingontheChungyungchangchhx(ApunctuatedtextoftheDoctrineoftheMean)andtheChungyunghuowenhy(Questionsandanswersonthe
DoctrineoftheMean),bothbyChuHsi,WuCh'engsays,
Hischoiceofwordsisextremelyfineandtheexplanationsverydetailed.However,beingtoowellchosen,ithasbecomedelicatebeingoverdetailed,ithasbecomeverbose.Ifits
originalwasnaturalandeffortless,itisnoweffeteandfragile.Ifitsoriginalwasclearandluminous,itisnowconfusedwithverbiage....InmyearlydayswhenIstudiedthe
DoctrineoftheMeanIhaddifferentviewsfromthoseofChuHsi.LaterIfoundthatminewereverysimilartotheopinionsofJaoPoy hz[JaoLu].IregrettedverymuchthatIwas
bornsolatethatIwasunabletobeenlightenedbyhiminperson.123

AnotherexampleofWuCh'eng'scriticismofChuHsimaybeseeninhisHsiaochinghsluia(ProlegomenatotheClassicofFilialPiety).WuCh'engsays,
MasterChusaidthatonlythefirstsixorsevenchaptersofthetextaretheprimarytexttherestarebutcommentarieswrittenbytheConfucianscholarswholivedinthestatesof
Ch'iibandLu,icusingtheTsochuanid(Tso'scommentary)andotherworksastheirsources,andtheorderofthetexthadbeendisruptedaswell.Myobservationisthatofthe
wordsoftheformersageshandeddownthroughgenerations,onlythetextsoftheGreatLearning,theAnalects,theDoctrineoftheMean,andtheBookofMenciusare
unadulteratedtheremainder,whichappearinhistoricalandotherrecords,areadmixturesandcannotbetakenascompletelyreliable.TheClassicofFilialPietyisoneofthem.124

ThetextofthisClassicexistsinthe"oldscript"and"newscript"versions.The"oldscript"surfacedinSui(581618)times,butWuCh'engdoubtedthatitwasthetext
believedinHantimestohavebeendiscoveredinthewallsofConfucius'formerresidence.Hencehesaid,"MasterChufollowedthe'oldscript'incompilinghis
CorrigendaforthisClassicandthisissomethingIcannotunderstand.ForifweagreewiththecommentaryofHsingPingie[9321010],itiscertainthatthe'old
script'isaforgery.BesidesMasterChuhimselfpointedoutsuspiciouspassagesinthe'newscript.'125
DespitethepreponderanceofproChuscholarsthroughouttheninetyoddyearsofYantherewerestillsomeNeoConfucianscholarswhofollowedverycloselythe
teachingofLuHsiangshan.Theyarerepresented,intheSungYanhsehan,byCh'enYan(Ch'enChingming,if12561330)andChaoHsieh(ChaoPaofeng,ig
fl.1348).126HuCh'angju(HuShiht'ang,ih12401314)wasoriginallyafollowerofChu'steachingbutbecamean

Page542

admirerofLu,whileinthecaseofChengYitwastheotherwayround,thoughhestilladvocatedthat"weshouldnotsayanythingdeprecatoryagainstHsiang
shan."127WuCh'eng,asoneoftheleadingConfucianistsinearlyYanandthemostprolificscholaramongthem,hadalwaysmaintainedaconciliatorytonein
ideologicalconflicts.TheoppositioncampwithinthefoldofNeoConfucianism,nomatterhowweakitseemedtobe,wasonlytemporarilysilenced.Aswascleverly
pointedoutbyCh'anTsuwanginanoteofHsiehShihlin(HsiehChishih,ii16841756)discussingthenatureoftheoldversionoftheGreatLearning,
TheteachingofChuHsiwasgreatlypublicizedduringthereignofEmperorLitsung,ledbyChenHsishan[Ch'enTehsiu]andWeiHuafuij[WeiLiaoweng].AtthistimeChina
wasstillununified,andtheNeoConfucianstudieswereknownintheCentralPlainonlybecauseoftheirintroductionbyChaoChianghanik[ChaoFu].Thismaybelikenedtothe
springingforthofbudsjustbygettingridoftheirouterscales.AfterChenandWei,thereweretheFourMastersofChinhuaintheSouthwhomadetheteachingflourish,andthe
NorththerewasHsChungp'ingil[HsHeng].WhenthecountrywasunifiedbytheYan,Chungp'ingwasmadethechancellorattheNationalUniversityandthecourseof
learningalsobecameunified.ScholarssuchasTs'aoluim[WuCh'eng]whoheldaconciliatoryattitudetowardsLuHsiangshanwereunabletopopularizetheirviewsorgainany
influence.128

Buttheemberswerestillthere.Theywouldberekindledwhentherightwindblew,thoughthatwasnottobeundertheruleoftheMongols.
Notes
1.Forinstance,WuWenchengchiin[CollectedworksofWuCh'eng]intheSsuk'uch'anshuchenpenio[RarebookspublishedfromtheImperialSsuk'u
Library],(hereafterSKCP),2ndseriesShihshanchiip[CollectedworksofChenY]inSKCP,4thseries,etc.
2.Ch'anTsuwang,"Erhlaokots'angshuchi"iq[AnoteontheholdingsintheErhlaoPavilionLibrary],Chiehch'it'ingchi(Kuohsehchipents'ungshuir
[CollectionofbasicworksforChineseclassicalstudies],ed.),externalcollectionBk.VIII,16:884.
3.Ibid.,"Nienp'u"is[Chronologicalbiography],1:2.
4.Ibid.,1:56.
5.Ibid.,1:10.
6.SeeanoteattachedtotheTableofContentsintheexternalcollection,vol.6,p.55also"T'itz'u"[Complimentaryremarks],Bk.VI,p.648.
7.AprefacewrittenbyHoLinghanitincludedintheSungyanhsehan(hereafterSYHA)(Kuohsehchipents'ungshued.),originalpreface,pp.13.
8.Seeabove,n.2.
9.Forinstance,readthe"FengtaLinch'uanhsienshenghssanT'anghseht'ungyanliuchatzu"iu(AlettertoMasterLinch'uan,[LiFu,16731750],discus

Page543

singtheacademicbackgroundsofthethreeT'angsinSouthernSung)inChiehch'it'ingchi,Bk.IV,34:430431,etc.
10.Yanshih(IwenivPressreprintoftheCh'ingPalaceed.),Bk.IV,189:2b,p.2070.
11.Muanchi(SPTKed.),4:1a2b.
12.OuyangHsan,"ChaoChungchienkungtz'ut'angchi"iw[AnoteaboutthetemplededicatedtothememoryofMasterChaoChungchien],inKueichaichiix
[CollectedworksfromtheStudioofaPieceofCeremonialJadestone],(SPTKed.),5:31.
13.TheGreatLearning,theAnalects,theBookofMencius,andtheDoctrineoftheMean.
14.Theidentityofthisworkisnotyetascertained.IntheHistoryofSung,ch.202,"TreatiseonBibliography,"pt.1,thereisaworkentitledShihchechungiy[An
eclecticstudyoftheBookofOdes]compiledbyLiuYizcf.ChuItsunja(16291709),Chingik'aojb[AbibliographicalstudyontheConfucianClassics],(SPPY
ed.),Bk.III,202:10a,p.2406.
15."Chungshutsoch'engYaoWenhsienkungshentaopei"jc[MemorialinscriptionforatabletlaidinthespiritualpathleadingtothetombofLordYaoWen
hsien],Moanchi,15:4b.
16.Ibid.,15:16b17a.
17."HsiungYk'omuchihming"jd[EpitaphtoHsiungYk'o],Taoyanhsehkuluje[ArecordofclassicalpursuitintheGardenoftheWay],(SPTKed.),
18:170.
18.Yanshih,Bk.V,159:13ab,p.1792.ThisispresumablynotthesameChaoPifoundinChiangLiangfu,jfLitaijenwunienlipeichuantsungpiaojg[A
combinedchartfordates,nativeplaces,andbiographiesofhistoricalfigures],(HongKong,ChunghuajhBookCo.,1961),p.388,whosedatesare12971353.
19.Taoyanhsehkulu,12:125.
20.See,forexample,thepaperscontributedtotheSymposiumonYanThought(Seattle,1978)byWingtsitChan,jiDavidGedalecia,andTuWeimingjjonWu
Ch'eng,LiuYin,andHsHenginHoklamChanjkandWm.TheodoredeBary,eds.,YanThought(NewYork:ColumbiaUniversityPress,1982).
21."Tushihchi"jl[Ondivinationusingmilfoilstalksfromacasket],Chinghsiuhsienshengwenchijm[CollectionofliteraryworksofMasterLiuChinghsiu],
(SPTKed.),18:5a.
22."Chaichtuiwen"jn[Repliestoquerieswhilestayingathome],Moanchijo[Collectedworksfromasilenthut],(SKCPed.),3rdseries,3:1a5b"YWuShu
peishu"jp[SecondlettertoWuShupei],ibid.,3:10b12b.
23.See,forexample,"PaChuWenkung'chiehjan''chihfang'erht'iehchenchihou"jq[Acolophontothetwopiecesofwritingsbeginningwiththecharacters
'chiehjan'and'chihfang'inscribedbyMasterChuWenkung],Chinghsiuhsienshengwenchi,22:5b.
24."AnChingchungwenchihs"jr[AprefacetothecollectionofliteraryworksofAnChingchung],Taoyanhsehkulu,6:72,quotingSu.
25."PaChinghsiuhsienshengimo"js[AcolophontothesurvivinginscriptionsofMasterLiuChinghsiu],ChinhuaHuanghsienshengwenchijt[Collectionof
literaryworksofMasterHuangofChinhua],(SPTKed.),21:210.
26.Ts'ungshuchich'engju(Collectionofseriesed.),3:119ff.
27.JaoLuisalsoquotedinsomepassagesinHsCh'ien,Tussushuts'ungshuo(SPTKed.),2ndseries.

Page544

28.SeeSYHA,Bk.XXI,ch.84,p.120.
29.Ibid.,ch.83,p.92.
30."KuMeiyinhsienshengWuchnmuming"jv[EpitaphtothelateMr.WuMeiyin],Taoyanhsehkulu,18:173.
31.SYHA,Bk.XXI,ch.83,p.96.
32.ChuWenkungwenchi(SPTKed.),53:941946.
33.SYHA,Bk.XXI,ch.83,pp.9495.
34.Ibid.,p.95.
35.Recordedinhis"Hsingchuang"jw(Draftbiography),Taoyanhsehkulu,44:386387seealsoWuWenchengchi(SKCPed.),2ndseries,appendix,32b.
36.Luchaiishujx[RemnantworksofLuchai],(SKCPed.),4thseries,13:3940.
37.TheSungyangjyandSuiyangjzacademiesinHonan,theYehlukaAcademyinHunan,andtheWhiteDeerGrottoAcademyinKiangsiweretheFourLeading
AcademiesinSungtimes.TheSuiyangAcademyisalsoknownasYingt'ien.kbSometimesaShihkukcAcademyiscountedasoneofthefouracademiesreplacing
theSungyang.ShihkuwassituatedinHengchou,kdalsoinHunan.
38.Aliisonethirdofamile.
39."K'aot'ingshuyanch'ungchienWenkungtz'ut'angchi"ke[AtthecompletionoftherebuildingofamemorialtemplededicatedtoChuWenkungattheK'ao
t'ingAcademy],Taoyanhsehkulu,36:318.
40.Yanshih,Bk.II,81:3a,p.975.
41.Thefirstamongthetopthreecompetitors,thehighestdegreeconferredinthestateexaminationsheldinthenationalcapital.
42.Ibid.
43.Ibid.,Bk.II,81:4b5a,pp.975976.
44.Ch'engshihchiashutushufennienjihch'eng,(CollectionofSeriesed.),3:110cf.ChuWenkungwenchi,69:12731277.
45.Ibid.,3:110111.
46.Sungshih,Bk.III,156:10a11a,pp.17631764.
47.Ch'engshihchiashutushufennienjihch'eng,author'spreface,p.1.
48."HsiungYk'omuchihming,"Taoyanhsehkulu,18:171.
49.Ibid.
50."WensuTengkungshentaopeiming"kf[MemorialinscriptionforatabletlaidinthespiritualpathleadingtothetombofLordTengWensu],ChinhuaHuang
hsienshengwenchi,26:268.
51.Ch'engshihchiashutushufennienjihch'eng,3:115.
52.BookofOdes,odeno.235Legge,TheChineseClassics,vol.6,p.431.
53.Ibid.,2:2021.Inrecentpublications,incidentally,IfindJohnMinford'stranslationofthefamousCh'ingnovelTheStoryoftheStone,vol.IV(Penguin,1982),
ch.82,mayhelptooffermyreaderssomeinsightintothepedanticnatureofsuchcompositions.
54.IntheepitaphtoCh'eng,ChinhuaHuanghsienshengwenchi,33:343.
55.YenyanTaihsienshengwenchikg[CollectionofliteraryworksofMr.TaiofYenyan],(SPTKed.),7:4b5a.
56."YangHsienk'oshihhs"kh[AprefacetopoemswrittenbyYangHsienk'o],Taoyanhsehkulu,33:290"SungChuTechiahs"ki[FarewelltoChuTe
chia],ibid.,34:295.
57."SungWuShangchihhskj[FarewelltoWuShangchih],ibid.,34:297.

Page545
kk

58."YHsiehShihlinyshihlunkupenTahseht'iehtzu" [AnotewrittentoHsiehShihlin,acensor,onthe"OldVersionoftheGreatLearning"],Chieh
ch'it'ingchi,externalcollection,Bk.XII,41:1270.
59.SYHA,Bk.XXIII,ch.93,p.62.
60."TachushengwenSsufut'angchit'ieh"kl[Areplytostudents'queryonthecollectionofrubbingsandinscriptionspreservedintheHallofRestoration],Chieh
ch'it'ingchi,ch.13,externalcollection,47:13891390.
61.SYHA,Bk.XXIII,ch.94,pp.9497alsop.88.
62."Haich'aochi"km[Sayingsrecordedfromahideoutonthesea],Chiehch'it'ingchi,externalcollection,Bk.VIII,18:909.
63.Ibid.
64."SungLiK'uohs"kn[FarewelltoLiK'uo],Taoyanhsehkulu,5:65.
65."WenT'aichichungyungchihi"ko[OnthemeaningoftheGreatUltimateandtheDoctrineoftheMean],HsishanChenWenchungkungwenchikp
[CollectionofliteraryworksofLordChenWenchungofHsishan],(SPTKed.),31:494.
66.SYHA,Bk.XXI,ch.82,pp.1213.
67.ThedatesforHsCh'iengivenbyChiangLiangfuareincorrect.HetookthethirdyearofChihyanfor1266.
68.IntheChinhuats'ungshukq[Chinhuaseries],(SPTKed.),2ndseries,etc.
69.SYHA,Bk.XXI,ch.82,p.39.
70.InWuWenchengchi,ch.1.
71."TsenghsehluCh'enHuajuihs,"WuWenchengchi,25:17a.
72.Photolithographiccopy(Taipei,1962)ofthe1473ed.,15:538.
73.HsishanChenWenchungkungwenchi,30:469.
74.ThisisasplitofasentencetakenfromtheDoctrineoftheMean,ch.27.Thetextintranslationreads:"Thesuperiormanhonorshisvirtuousnatureandmaintains
constantinquiryandstudy."SeeLegge,TheChineseClassics,vol.1,p.422.
75.SYHA,Bk.XXII,ch.89,p.120.
76.Ssuk'uch'anshutsungmukr[BibliographicalnotesontheSsuk'uch'anshu],(Taipei:YiwenPress,reprint,1964),Bk.II,36:4a5a,pp.740741.
77."TaChouChienchiu"ks[AreplytoMr.Chou,thewinetaxsuperintendent],Ch'ungchiaoHoshanhsienshengtach'anwenchikt[Twicecollatededitionof
TheCompleteLiteraryWorksofMasterHoshan],(SPTKed.),36:310.
78.Ibid.,55:470.
79.YenHui,aliasYenYan,kuwasperhapsthebrightestdiscipleConfuciuseverhad.Heunfortunatelydiedanearlydeath.
80.SYHA,Bk.V,ch.13,p.23.
81.Analects,14:37,trans.inLegge,TheChineseClassics,vol.1,pp.288289cf.14:24,p.285.
82.ForthesayingsofYenYan(YenHui)inadmirationoftheMaster,seetheAnalects,9:10,trans.inLegge,TheChineseClassics,p.220.
83."FuWuT'aich'ingshu"kv[AreplytoWuT'aich'ing],Luchaichikw[CollectedwritingsfromtheStudioofUncouthness],(Chinhuats'ungshued.),7:16b
17a.
84."AnChingchungMoanchihs"kx[AprefacetotheCollectedWorksfromASilentHutbyAnChingchung],Taoyanhsehkulu,6:72.
85.Ch'engshihchiashutushufennienjihch'eng,p.12.
86."Chich'ingluChiangtungshuyanchiangi"ky[NotesforlecturesdeliveredattheChiangtungAcademy,Chich'ingDistrict],ibid.,3:122.

Page546

87.Writtenin1689ibid.,colophon,p.3.
88.HuichoucomprisedsixdistrictsinpresentdayAnhui.
89.Seeabove,n.61.
90.FormernameofHuichou,ChuHsi'sancestralhome.HisfathermovedtoFukienProvince,whereChuHsiwasborn.
91."YWangChench'ing"kz[ToWangChench'ing],Shihshaniwenla[RemnantwritingsofChengShihshan],(SKCPed.),4thseries,3:6a7a.
92.SYHA,Bk.XXII,ch.85,p.14.
93."PoynHshsienshengmuchihming"lb[EpitaphtoMasterHsPoyn],ChinhuaHuanghsienshengwenchi,32:328.
94.Ishulc[Survivingworks],18:5b,intheErhCh'engch'anshuld[CompleteworksofthetwoCh'engs],(SPPYed.).
95."TaWuChengch'uanshu"le[AreplytoWuchengch'uan],Poynchi(Collectionofseriesed.),2:2829.
96.SeeFungYulan,lfAHistoryofChinesePhilosophy,trans.DerkBodde(Princeton,N.J.:PrincetonUniversityPress,1953),vol.2,p.541cf.p.353.Read
alsoFanShouk'ang,lgChuTzuchich'ichehsehlh[ChuHsiandhisphilosophy],(Taipei:K'aimingliBookCo.,1964),pp.4548.
97.Yenp'ingtawen(ChuTzuishulj[SurvivingworksofMasterChu]ed.),24a.
98.ChuHsiwasquotingfromYangShih,YangKueishanHsienshengchilk[CollectedworksofYangShih],(1717ed.),20:2a,firstreplytoHuK'anghou.ll
99.Ibid.,Bk.XXI,ch.82,p.41.
100."ShuChuTzukangmuhou"lm[AcolophontoChuHsi'sT'ungchienkangmu],Chiehch'it'ingchi,externalcollection,Bk.XI,34:1140.SeealsoSsuk'u
ch'anshutsungmu,Bk.III,88:23b24b,p.1773.
101.ForHuFangp'ingandhisChouich'imengt'ungshihln[GeneralexplanationoftheIntroductiontotheChangesforBeginners],seeSsuk'uch'anshu
tsungmu,Bk.I,3:49a51a,pp.105106.ForHuYikueiandhisIpenifulutsuanshulo[NotesandcommentariesappendedtotheOriginalMeaningofthe
Changes],seeibid.,Bk.I,4:2ab,p.110forhisIhsehch'imengichuanlp[SubsidiarycommentariestotheIntroductiontotheChangesforBeginners],see
ibid.,Bk.I,4:2b3a,pp.110111.
102.Ibid.,Bk.I,4:12b14a,pp.115116.
103.Ibid.,Bk.I,4:14a15a,pp.116117.
104.SYHA,Bk.XX,ch.81,p.135.
105.SYHA,Bk.XXII,ch.90,p.135,quotingtheChifut'ungchihlq[Gazetteerofthecapitalanditssurroundingareas].
106."T'ungchienkangmushufahs,"lrChiehWenankungch'anchils[CompleteworksofMasterChiehWenan],(SPTKed.),8:73"LulingLiushihT'ung
chienkangmushufahouhs" lt[AcolophontoOnthePrinciplesofMoralJudgmentinChuHsi'sT'ungchienkanmuwrittenbyMr.LiuofLuling],Kuei
chaichi,7:46.
107.SYHA,Bk.XXI,ch.83,pp.98,107108.
108.Ssuk'uch'anshutsungmu,Bk.III,88:23b24b,p.773.
109.SYHA,Bk.XXII,ch.86,pp.2930.
110.Huangshihjihch'ao(SKCPed.),2ndseries,6:1b2a.
111.TheFormerSagehereindicatesthelegendarySagemanFuhsiluandtheLaterSage,KingWen.ForthePrimordialDiagram(orDiagramofWhatAntedates
Heaven)andotherdiagramsseeFungYulan,op.cit.,vol.II,pp.459464.
112."YCh'engchaiCh'enkunglunhsient'ienhout'ient'u"lv[Ontheprimor

Page547
lw

dialandthepostprimordialdiagramstoMr.Ch'enCh'engchai],HoPeishanichi [SurvivingworksofHoPeishan],(Chints'ungshued.),1:7a.
113.Ibid.,3:4b.
114.InChuHsi'sCommentaryontheGreatLearninghebelievesthatthefifthchapteroftheearliercommentaryexplainingthemeaningofinvestigatingthingswas
lostandventuredtosupplyit,takingtheviewsofCh'engI.SeeLegge,TheChineseClassics,I,pp.365366.
115."Tahsehyenkolun"lx[OnthehistoryoftheGreatLearning],Luchaichi,2:2a4b.
116."KuChungyungpa"ly[AcolophontotheoldversionoftheDoctrineoftheMean],ibid.,5:16b17b"Chungyunglun"lz[OntheDoctrineoftheMean],
pt.1,ibid.,2:8b10b.
117.TheDiagramoftheGreatUltimatewasprobablyaTaoistcreation,buthadbeenusedbytheNeoConfucianistsinSungtimes.SeeWm.TheodoredeBary,
WingtsitChan,andBurtonWatson,SourcesofChineseTradition(NewYork:ColumbiaUniversityPress,1964),vol.II,pp.457459.
118."T'ungChaoHsingchu"ma[AlettertoChaoHsingchu],ibid.,7:19a"HuiChaoHsingchushu"mb[AreplytoChaoHsingchu],ibid.,7:21ab.
119.SYHA,Bk.XXI,ch.82,p.18.
120.Ibid.,Bk.XXI,ch.82,p.22.
121.DoctrineoftheMean,ch.27.
122.His"hsingchuang"inTaoyanhsehkulu,44:386387WuWenchengchi,appendix,26b.For"honoringvirtuousnature,"etc.,seetheDoctrineofthe
Mean,ch.27.
123."Chungyungchienmingchuanhs"mc[AbriefaccountonthecommentariestotheDoctrineoftheMean],WuWenchengchi,20:5ab.
124.Ibid.,1:19b.
125.Ibid.,1:20b.
126.Seethe"ChingmingPaofenghsehan"md[ChapteronCh'enYanandChaoHsieh]inSYHA,Bk.XXIII,ch.93,pp.6163.
127."YWangChench'ing,"Shihshaniwen,3:7b8a.
128."YHsiehShihlinyshihlunkupenTahseht'iehtzu,"Chiehch'it'ingchi,externalcollection,Bk.XII,41:1269.
Glossary

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29
SomeThoughtsonMingQingNeoConfucianism
LiZehou
I
SomescholarshavecomparedZhuXiwithThomasAquinas,Spinoza,AlfredNorthWhitehead,andHegel.InmyopiniontheNeoConfucianismoftheSong(960
1279)andMing(13681644)dynasties,withZhuXiasitsmostoutstandingexponent,issubstantiallyclosertoKant,foritsbasiccharacteristicistoraiseethicsto
thestatusofontologysoastoreestablishaphilosophywithmanasthesubject.Itsmainepistemologicalideassuchas''extensionofknowledgebytheinvestigationof
things"(gewuzhizhia)aswellascosmologicalconceptssuchastheUltimateofNonbeing(wujib),theSupremeUltimate(taijic),principle(lid),andbreath(qie'ether'
or'materialforce')actuallyallservetoestablishthisethicalsubjectivityandraiseittoatransmoralontologicalpositionwhereit"participateswithHeavenandEarth."
"Buddhismlooksuponlifeasillusoryandavoidandthereforeignoresthebodytobenefitothers.Taoismtakesone'sselfastruerealityandthereforeconsumeselixirs
tonourishlife."1BuddhismandTaoismgenerallyevolvedtheirtheoreticalsystemandstructurebyconcentratingtheirstudyonthelifeanddeath,mindandbodyofthe
individual.Inpropagatingtheirdoctrinesandtryingtoshowthattheworldisavoidandeverythingisillusory,Buddhistsdealwithcosmology,worldoutlook,and
epistemology,andthishasgivenrisetowelldefined,completespeculativephilosophies.ThecomparativelysimplerTaoismisconcernedwiththemakingof
immortalitypills,longevity,andmeditationbutthereforealsohastodealwithcosmologicaltheory.ThesetwofeaturesofBuddhismandTaoismindividual
improvementandthesearchforcosmologyandepistemologywerepreciselythebasicmaterialthatZhuXiusedtoconstructhisownmoralphilosophy.
Itiswellknownthatthe"ExplanationoftheDiagramoftheSupremeUltimate"(Taijitushuof)byZhouDunyig(10171073),thefirstgreatNeoConfucianofthe
Songdynasty,retainedaTaoistcosmologicalmodel,butwhatisimportanthereisthatZhouDunyiconcludedfromthiscosmologythat"thesageregulatesthisbythe
Mean,correctness,humaneness,andrighteousness

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2

andregardstranquillityasmostimportantthusheestablishestheultimatestandardforman." InhisElucidationoftheBookofChanges(Tongshu ),hestressed

sincerity(chengi),makingthisConfuciancategoryhiscentralconcept.ThisshowsthathebegantointegratetheConfucianrequirementsforpracticalethicswiththe
Taoistcosmologicaldiagraminanattempttobuildabridgethefirstofitskindbetweencosmologyandethics(humanrules).Hestartedtofollowthissequence:
ontology(naturalnoumenon) cosmology(thediagramoftheworld) epistemology ethics ontology.
ButitwasZhangZaij(10201077)wholaidthefoundationofNeoConfucianism.Inhisessaythe"WesternInscription"(Ximingk)4andinhisotherworks,he
formulatedanumberofbasicNeoConfucianpropositionsandprinciples.ZhangZai'sCorrectingYouthfulIgnorance(Zhengmengl),5compiledbyhisdisciples,is
extraordinarilyclearasanexampleofNeoConfucianism'ssystematicstructureproceedingfromcosmologytoethics.
ZhuXiconsciouslyassimilatedtheessenceofthephilosophiesofZhouandZhangtoestablishhissystem.HeaswellasZhouDunyi,ZhangZai,andtheCheng
brothers(ChengHao,m10321085,andChengYi,n10331107)alllovedtodiscusstheBookofChangesbecausethisbookisfullofthepreQin(221206B.C.)
rationalspiritshowninsuchphrasesas"Heaven'sgreatestvalueiscalledlife"6and"renewinglifemeanschange"7andservedasaweaponforthephilosophical
criticismofBuddhistandTaoisttheorieswhichmaintainedthatexistencewasillusory,deniedtheperceptionoftherealchangingworld,andsoughtafternothingnessor
longevityastheunchangingnoumenon.Asitwasnecessarytoaffirmtheworldlyfeudalorderinpracticallife,itwasimperativetoaffirmtherealworlditselfandtogo
ontodiscussandaffirmthesubstantialityofthisworldandtherationalityandnecessityofitsexistence.IncontrasttoBuddhistphilosophers,ZhuXinevernegatedbut
regularlyaffirmedman'sperceptualexistenceandtheexistenceandvalueofhisperceptualenvironmentandobjects(thatis,therealworld).ZhuXi'santhologyof
NorthernSung(9601126)NeoConfucians,theJinsiluo(Reflectionsonthingsathand),8andhisZhujiyuleip(ClassifiedconversationsofMasterZhu)bothhave
devotedtheirfirstchaptertocosmologyintheformofli,qi,theUltimateofNonbeing,andtheSupremeUltimatehowever,thesewerejustpreludestothemain
theme,whichwasthereestablishmentofConfucianism,withthefeudalsocialsystemastheontologicalaxis.ZhuXiarmedhimselfwithcosmologicaltheoryto
establishatheoryofhumannaturethatconformedtothesocialorderinthelaterstageoffeudalsociety.Andsoheproceededfrom''Heaven"(cosmos)to
"man"(ethics)andintegrated"Heaven"with"man."However,theDoctrineoftheMeanandtheGreatLearningweremorebasictoZhuXithantheBookof
Changes,andthediscussionsofhumannaturerevivedandwereasheatedasinthepreQuinperiod,whichshowsthathumannatureplayedapivotalrolein
connecting"Heaven"and"man"andisthekeytothetransitionfromcosmologytoethics.Itisnotcosmologyandepistemologybutthetheoryofhumannaturethat
constitutes

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q

thenucleusofZhuXi'ssystem.So,whilediscussing"therelationshipbetweenHeavenandman"(tianrenzhiji ),ZhuXiwasneverthelessdifferentfromDong
Zhongshur(176104B.C.)."Heavenandmancombiningintoone"(tianrenheyis)asexpoundedbyZhuXiis"thestudyofthenatureofthemind,"whileDong
Zhongshu's''interactionofHeavenandman"(tianrenganyingt)isanorganicsystemtheorywithafeedbackfunction.9Thelatteristruecosmologywhiletheformeris
not.Inthelatter,ethicsissubordinatetocosmology,whereasintheformer,cosmologyissubordinatetoethics.
FollowingtheChengbrothers,ZhuXicriticizedtheBuddhistsforseekingemptinessbutstillnotpartingwiththeirbodiesoffleshandbloodandforholdingthat
everythingisillusorybutstillwearingclothesandeatingfoodtopreservethematerialexistenceofthesensualworldofthemselves(body,life)andtheirenvironment
(naturalandhuman).ZhuXilinkedthiskindofsecularcommonsensicalcriticismwithcosmologyitwasraisedabovemerecommonsensetothelevelofageneral
knowledgeofthe"relationshipbetweenHeavenandman."Thatistosay,sincemanhastoeatandwearclothesand"liveunderthisheavenandsteponthisearth,"
onemusttheoreticallyrecognizeandaffirm"Heaven"and"man"asbeingsubstantialandrationalintheirsensual,materialexistence.Itisalsonecessarytorecognize
andaffirmthatthisexistenceisconstantlygoingthroughmovement,change,birth,anddeath(cosmology).Atthesametime,ineating,wearingclothes,andsoon,man
hasacertainpurposeinmindandconformstocertainrulesandordersso,theoretically,hehastotrytoseek,probe,andprovetheseuniversallyvalidrules,orders,
andpurposes(epistemology).Thatistosay,withinthelimited,perceptual,andreal(andevenworldly,commonsensical)innatelawsofhumanrelationships,onemust
seekanddemonstratetheabsolute,rational,andnoumenalthattranscendsthelimited,perceptual,andphenomenal.ForintheeyesofZhuXi,itispreciselythese
rules,orders,andpurposesthatarethenoumenathatdominateandcontrolthenaturalandhumansensualrealworld.Thelaws,orders,andpurposesarethus
graduallyabstractedfromthematerialworldandregardedasthethingthatdominates,controls,andrulesthelatter.Suchspeculativeprocessesarenotrareinthe
historyofeitherChineseorWesternphilosophythedistinguishingfeatureofZhuXi'sphilosophyisthatthecentralaxisofhistheoryisatheoryofhumannature.Thus
hebroughtthisquestionintoboldreliefthatis,heconsciouslymadethefixedorders,rules,andlawsofaspecificsociety(thelaterstageoffeudalism)intothe
supremelawgoverningthecosmos.
WhencomparedwithKant'sempiricalperceptualmatterbeingdominatedbyaprioricategories,thisformalstructureappearssimilar,buttheinternalsubstanceis
quitedifferent.TheNeoConfuciansregardedthedominationoftheempirical"humandesires"and"humeralnature"bytheapriori"PrincipleofHeaven"and"universal
nature"asthecompletionofethicalbehavior.Kant'sisanextrovertedepistemology,demandingthesupplyofasmuchperceptualexperienceaspossibletoform
universallyvalidscientificknowedge

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NeoConfucianismisanintrovertedethics,demandingtheeliminationofasmuchsensualdesireaspossibletocarryout"universallyvalid"ethicalbehavior.Kant'sa
prioricategories(forexample,causality)comefromcontemporarymathematicsandnaturalsciences(Newtonianphysics)theNeoConfucianapriorinorms(for
example,principle,theWay)arederivedfromthecontemporarysocialorder(feudallegality).Kant,bysharplydividingepistemologyfromethicsandrequiringtheir
mutualnoninterference,preservedeachone'sownindependentvaluetheNeoConfucians,bymixingthetwotogether,consequentlygotthemtootangledupto
unravel,andinfactinZhuXi'stheoryofepistemologycompletelyyieldedtoethics.
II
ItmightbesaidthatZhangZaiwasnotentirelyawareofwhathewasdoingwithhisphilosophicaltheoryasheproceededfromcosmologytoethics.ZhuXi,onthe
otherhand,wasveryconsciousofhisgoalwhenhelikewisestartedoutfromcosmologytoestablishaphilosophicalsystemwithethicsatthecenter.IfZhangZai
movedfromtheexternaltotheinternal,withZhuXiitwastheopposite.ItappearsthatZhuXiemphasized"principle"(SupremeUltimate),whichexistsinallthings
andisrealizedintheself,andthatheexpoundedinvariousaspectsandeverdeepeninglayersanumberofcentralphilosophicalcategorieswhichfocusontheliqi
question(suchassuperiorandinteriorforms,theWayandinstruments,movementandtranquillity,UltimateofNonbeingandtheSupremeUltimate).Andbecausehis
studiescovereverything,greatorsmall,andhislogicisrigorous,hehasbeencomparedtoHegelbysomescholars.However,Ithinkthatweshouldnotallow
ourselvestobeconfusedbytheoutwardappearanceofasystemsocomplicatedandelaborate.InsteadIwouldliketograspthefundamentalpointofZhuXi'sgreat
system,whichcanbeexpressedinaconceptualformulasuchasthis:"ought"(humanbehaviorandrelationships)="necessity"(cosmiclaw).
ZhuXi'sallembracingworldof"principle"isdividedtofitthisformula:thelaws,rules,andorderthatallthingsmust("necessity")andpeopleshould("ought")honor,
follow,andobeyarethe''PrincipleofHeaven."Thoughitexiststogetherwitheverything,"principle"issomethingthatlogicallyprecedes,surmounts,andtranscends
thephenomenalworldandconstitutesthenoumenalexistenceofallthings."Afterall,beforeheavenandearthcameintobeing,therewasfirstthisprinciple."10"Inthe
cosmosthereisonlyoneprinciple.Whenheavenhasit,itisheaven.Whenearthhasit,itisearth.Amongallthethingsbornbetweenheavenandearth,eachonealso
hasit,anditisitsnature.ItsextensioniscalledtheThreeBonds11anditsconcentrationtheFiveConstantVirtues.12Andsothisprincipleprevailsthereisnowhereit
isnot."13This"principle"("necessity")thattranscendsanddominatesheaven,earth,man,things,andeventsisan"ought"inhumanbehaviorand

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relationshipsthetwoareequalandcanbeinterchanged."ThePrincipleofHeavenprevailseverywhere:summerisgoneandwintercomes,riversflowingand
mountainsstatic,lovebetweenfatherandsonandrighteousnessbetweensovereignandministers,thisisallprinciple."14"Everythinghasanultimate,theultimate
extremeoftheWay'sprinciple.JiangYuanjinaskedifthehumanenessofthesovereignandtheseriousnessoftheministerwereallultimates.TheTeachersaid,these
aretheultimatesofindividualeventsandthings.TheprincipleofheavenandearthandallthingsistheSupremeUltimate.Originally,theSupremeUltimatelackedthis
nameitwasonlythemanifestationofvirtue."15Thus,itcanbeseenthatthiscosmicnoumenal"principle/SupremeUltimate"issocialandethical:''Itwasonlythe
manifestationofvirtue."Itisa"categoricalimperative"whichmustbefollowed,obeyed,andimplementedbytheindividual.
Themandateisjustlikeacommandandnatureisprinciple.Heavenusesyinyangu[passiveandactivecosmicforces]andtheFiveElements16tocreateallthingswhileqi
producesforms,andprincipleislikewiseendowedinthem,justlikeanorderoracommand.Asaresult,whenpeopleandthingsareborn,eachreceivesitsownendowedprinciple
toserveastheFiveConstantVirtuesthisiscallednature.17
Whenmanandthingsareborn,theyallsharetheprincipleofHeavenandEarthastheirnatureandtheqiofHeavenandEarthastheirshapes.Theydifferonlyinthatman,
receivingwithintherightnessofformandqi,isendowedwiththebasistomakeperfecthisnature.18

TheMandateofHeaven(principle)isnature.ThisiswhatZhangZaimeantby"universalnature."Itisanapriori,necessarydemandandnormfortheindividual.For
man'sdifferencefromthingsliesinhishavingtherightnessofformandbreathtorealizethisrighteousandprinciplednaturetomakeperfecthisnature.Cosmology
turnsouttobeatheoryofhumannaturetheworldofprincipleturnsouttobenatureandmandate.Thisistosay,humanrelationships,morality,andnormsof
behaviorarederivedfromthecategoricalimperative,fromthePrincipleofHeaven,andtheyhavenothingtodowithutility,happiness,andsensuousjoys.Whena
manseesachildfallingintoawell,itisnotformaterialgainormeritthathegoestosaveititissimplysomethinghemust("oughtto")doitisanaprioriand
categoricalimperative,transcendingperceptionandexperience,whichmancannotresist.Itiswhencontrastedwithandopposedtothehappiness,joy,andbenefits
experiencedbyanindividualthatthestrengthofthecategoricalimperativeandthenobilityofthemoralityinhumanrelationsbecameapparent,showingclearlythatthis
isindeedanextremelypowerful,rationalnoumenontranscendingallthephenomenaofexperience.Asamatteroffact,thisistheproblemonwhichZhuXiandthe
wholeofNeoConfucianismhaveconcentrated.NeoConfuciansemphasizedthedifferencebetweenrighteousnessandprofitandfulfillmentofthePrincipleofHeaven
andeliminationofhumandesires,and

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19

theystressedthat"starvingtodeathisasmallmatterbutlossofchastityisofmajorimportance." EvenHuangZongxi (16101695)andWangFuzhi (16191692),

thoseprogressivethinkersoftheseventeenthcentury,wereagainst"sittinginatubfilledwiththestickylacquerofprofitanddesire"20andheldthat"thedistinction
betweensuperiorandinferiormenandthedifferencebetweenmenandanimalsarebutthedifferencebetweenrighteousnessandprofit,"21whichshowsthecontinuity
ofthefundamentalspiritofZhuXi'sphilosophy.Thelatterdistinctionswerethemostprominentexpositionsoftheideathathumanrelationshipsandrationality
(''righteousness"="man")haveasourceandessencedifferentfromsensuousdesires("profit"="animal").
ZhuXi'sstatementthat"principleisoneanditsmanifestationsaremany"isessentiallyaimedatshowingthattheaforementionedmoralbehaviorpossessesa
universalitysimilartolawandatprovingthatmoralbehavior,connectedwithhumanexperiencesofspecific,real,materialcontent,stillpossessesanaturewitha
simultaneousapriorirationalityandisthereforeuniversallyapplicableandeffective.Thatistosay,thiskindofapplicabilityandeffectivenessisnotbasedonand
confirmedbyexperienceandfact,butarisesfromthesameapriorirationality(thePrincipleofHeaven):"Allthingshavethisprincipleandthisprinciplecomesfrom
onesource.Butsincethepositionstheyoccupyarenotthesame,theapplicationoftheprincipleisnotone.Thus,whenappliedtothesovereign,itishumaneness
whentotheminister,itisseriousnesswhentotheson,itisfilialpietywhentothefather,itisaffection.Allthingshavethisprinciplebuttheydifferinitsusethusonly
oneprincipleprevails."22"Principleisoneanditsmanifestationsaremany"as"themoonisreflectedinmyriadstreams,"thatis,asthemooninHeaven,whileonlyone,
stillisscatteredaboutthemyriadstreamsandthusadaptingtoexternalscanbeseen.HereandelsewhereZhuXiwasnottalkingsomuchaboutthecommonfeatures
ofthecosmosandnaturebutratherdemonstratingthatmoralityhadthecharacterofuniversallawandraisingthistothelevelofontology.
ZhuXistressedtherealizationofthisuniversallaw(principle)inpracticalactionandnotinspeculation.Thisrealizationhadtobehighlyconscious,thatis,possessself
consciousness.Inacertainsensehewasseekingethicalautonomyandopposingheteronomy.Theselfrealizationofprincipleisnotanexternaldivineorderevenless
doesitexistforexternalmaterialbenefitorhappiness.ZhuXiwantedknowledgetoprecedeactionandopposedblindnessandspontaneityinmoralconduct.This
wassobecausehewantedtoestablishthiskindofautonomyandattainselfconsciousness:"Whenrighteousnessandprinciplearenotunderstood,howcantheybe
practiced?Whenreasonismadeclear,thenoneisbynecessityfilialinservingone'sparents,submissiveinservingone'selderbrotherandfaithfulinservingone's
friends."23Thenecessityhereisthecategoricalimperative(thePrincipleofHeaven)thatmustbefollowedatanycost,andthephrase"whenthereasonis

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madeclear"referstotheselfconsciousness.Investigationofthings,extensionofknowledge,andfulfillingprincipleareconceptsofanepistemologycreatedtoachieve
thisconsciousness."Investigationofthingsistograspthoroughlytheprincipleofeverythingextensionofknowledgemeansthatthereisnothingmyminddoesnot
know.Investigationofthingsaimsatthespecificandminute,fragmentarywayoflearningextensionofknowledgeaimsatthegeneralandcomprehensive."24Thisis
similartoChengYi'sviewthatthereasonfor"investigatingonethingtodayandanothertomorrow"wastoaccumulateknowledgetoreachthepointwhere"oneday
suddenlythewholethingisseeninaclearlight''25thisunderstandingoftheethicalnoumenonanditsimplementationinone'sownbehaviorisselfenlightenmentand
sincerity.Alsobecauseofthestressonautonomy,theNeoConfucianspaidgreatattentiontoselfdisciplineevenwhenalone(shengdux)andwhethereachidea
conformedwiththenatureofHeaven,refusingtobeinfluencedorcontrolledbytheexternalenvironment,interests,ordesires.
OnlyafterhavingaccomplishedtheaforementionedcanoneestablishanethicalsubjectivitysharingvirtuewithHeavenandEarth.Thissubjectivityinfacttranscends
actualmoralrequirementsandattainstheheightofanexistentialnoumenon.ThusZhuXi'sphilosophyisakindofethicallysubjectiveontology.Thisontologydemands
thatonebegreatamongtheordinary,arriveatthehighestvirtueandpracticethedoctrineoftheMean,anddisplaytheuniversalnecessityandnobilityofthemoral
codeindailylife.
Ethicalnoumenon,nonutilitarianmoralimperative,universallaws,andautonomyofthewillinacertainsenseZhuXi'sphilosophyisindeedsimilartoKant's.
Thereis,however,afundamentaldifference.Apartfromthedifferenceinthetemporalandclassbackground(thefeudalclassintraditionalChinaversusthe
bourgeoisieonthethresholdofmodernEurope)thisresultsinadifferenceinthetheoreticalessence(forexample,ZhuXilacksKant'sexplicitstipulationsabout
"freedom"and"manisthepurpose").Kantmadeanabsoluteseparationbetweenreasonandknowledge,noumenonandphenomenonpracticalreasonwassolelya
"categoricalimperative"and"duty,"whichhadnothingtodowithanyfeelingsandconceptionsofthephenomenalworld,orwithcausality,time,andspace.Thisrather
thoroughlyguaranteesitsnoumenalstatustranscendingexperience.Chinesepracticalreasonneverseparatesnoumenonandphenomenonandseeksnoumenonfrom
phenomenon.Evenwiththemundaneandtransmundane,whatitstressesis"Heavenandmancombineasone."Kant's"categoricalimperative"isapureformofthea
prioriwhichisinexplicableandoriginless(otherwiseitwoulddegenerateintothephenomenalrealmofcausality),whileZhuXi's"principle"iscloselyrelatedtoman's
perceptualexistenceandpsychologicalfeelings.Itwasnotlimitedtopureform,buthadabasisinsocialpsychology.AsinheritorsofthetraditionofConfucius(551
479B.C.)andMencius(372289B.C.?),theNeoConfuciansclearlyconstructedtheideaofdutyandcategoricalimperative

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fromacertainsortofhumanenesswhichpossessedacontentofsocialsentiment.WhileKantdidnotdepartfromthetraditionalWesternideaoforiginalsinand
lookeduponhumannatureasevil,ZhuXifollowedConfuciusandMenciusinstressingthathumannatureisgoodandimplementingbasicprinciplesthatmerged
psychologywithethics.TheMandateofHeavenandhumannature,themoralcodeandhumanrelationships,whichhadoriginallybeenmadesogreatandlofty,came
ultimatelydowntoapsychologicalandemotionalfoundationfullofsensualityandfleshandblood.Thisperceptioncausedtheirwholecosmologyandworldview,
devisedtoconfirmtheethicalnoumenon,alsotocarryahumanized,vitalizedovertone.Thegreataffirmationofhumanenessandcompassionateheartandthatofthe
growthanddevelopmentofthenaturalrealmofperceptionsareanalogicallylinked.InZhuXiandNeoConfucianism,therefore,thenaturalworldofperceptionand
thenoumenalrealmofrationalethicsnotonlyarenotseparatedbuthaveactuallycompletelymergedwitheachother.Heavenandman,then,havetwoaspects:
rationalandemotional.ThisperceptionledtotwopopularstoriesintheNeoConfuciantradition:XieLiangzuoy(1050c.1120),oneoftheleadingstudentsofthe
Chengbrothers,usedpeachkernel(taorenz)andapricotkernel(xingrenaa)toexplainhumaneness(renab),reasoningthatthefruitpitsignifieslifeandgrowth.26Zhou
DunyiinlikefashionnevercutthegrassinfrontofhiswindowinordertoseeHeaven'swill.27"Allthingsareincontentmentwhenseeninserenity/Sharingwithman
theirwonderfulmoodthroughthefourseasons"28and"CasuallyIcametorecognizethefeaturesoftheeastbreeze/Whenallhuesandcolorsmadeupthespring"29are
wellknownlinesfromChengHao'sandZhuXi'spoetry,seekingtofeelandrevealhumanmoralobligationsin,andcomparethemto,lifeandvitalityinnature.Thisis
oneofthecharacteristicsoftheNeoConfuciansandthatiswhytheyvaluedtheBookofChangesandtheDoctrineoftheMeansohighly.Theyliketotalkabout
thehappinessofConfuciusandYanHui,acwhichtheyregardedaslife'shighestrealm,andwhichactuallyreferstotheundaunted,brimmingvitality,belongingtothe
spiritualrealmofteleology,whichisethicalandyettransethical,quasiaestheticandyetsuperaesthetic.Kant'steleologycanbeexpressedinthephrase''natureis
bornofman"andisinacertainsenseobjectiveteleology,withthesubjectivepurposivenessbeingjusttherealmofaesthetics.However,theNeoConfuciansused
subjectiveteleologythat"Heavenandmancombineasoneandallthingshavethesamesubstance"toindicatethetransethicalandsuperaestheticontologicalrealm
whichmancanattainandwhichisseenasman'shighestexistence.Thisnoumenalrealmisindeedsimilarandclosetotheaestheticstateofmindandnonutilitarian
pleasureswheretheobjectiveandthesubjectivearebothforgotten.
Nevertheless,itispreciselyinthisrespectthatthereisatremendouscontradictioninZhuXi'ssystem.Asthenoumenalandphenomenalrealmsarenotdistinguished
andseparatedfromeachother,thenoumenalrealmcanbepervadedbyfeelings(asthehappinessofConfuciusandYanHui)andexperi

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encesthusperceptionitselfachievesasignificantstatus.Andrecognitionandaffirmationoftheperceptualexistenceofmanandtheworldinevitablyleadsto
recognitionofman'ssensualdesiresandneeds.Since"Heaven'sgreatestvirtueislife,"demandsandpurposesinaccordancewiththegrowthanddevelopmentof
sensualnature,whichincludeli,thenaturallawsofsensualdesiresarenotevilbutgood.Sinceprinciplehastobemanifestedinqi,itisveryhardtodistinguish
betweenthePrincipleofHeavenandhumandesires.Thus,ZhuXifrequentlysaid,"ThedistancebetweenthePrincipleofHeavenandhumandesiresisbuta
hairbreadth."30"Whenoneishungryonedesirestoeatwhenoneisthirstyonedesirestodrink.Howcouldtherebenosuchdesires?"31''Thoughtheyarehuman
desires,thereisalsothePrincipleofHeaveninthem."32Thissufficestoshowthattherationalnoumenon(thePrincipleofHeaven)andtheperceptualphenomenon
(humandesires)shouldnotbeopposedtoeachother.However,thesocialdemandsofthefeudalrulingclassmadeZhuXitaketherulingorderandbehavioral
codesthelawsofthefeudalsystemofatransient,specificperiodastheuniversallynecessary,omnipresent"PrincipleofHeaven"and"MandateofNature"to
repressandsmotherman'ssensual,naturalpassions.Asceticism,feudalism,andhierarchywereregardedasthecosmic"PrincipleofHeaven"andthehuman
"MandateofNature.""WhatisthePrincipleofHeaven?Arenothumaneness,righteousness,propriety,wisdom,andsinceritytheprincipleofHeaven?Arenot
relationsbetweensovereignandminister,fatherandson,olderandyoungerbrothers,husbandandwife,andfriendsthePrincipleofHeaven?"33Thus,ontheone
hand,intheoryZhuXiaffirmstheexistenceanddevelopmentofsensualnatureanddoesnotrequireaseparationofthenoumenalandphenomenalworldontheother
hand,hedemandstheconfinement,repression,andevendenialoftheneedsofman'ssensualnatureandwantsacleardemarcationbetweentheethicalnoumenonand
thephenomenalworld.ThismajorcontradictionlaylikeatimebombinthecoreofNeoConfucianism.
Thetheoryofmind,firstadvancedbyZhangZaiandthendevelopedbyZhuXi,dividesmind(xinad)intonature(xingae)andfeelings(qingaf).NatureisthePrincipleof
Heavenandcomesfromthenoumenalworlditiscalled"unaroused"(weifaag)andalsothe"mindoftheWay"(Daoxinah).Itscontentishumaneness,righteousness,
propriety,wisdom,sincerity,andotherfeudalethicsgoverninghumanrelationships.Itispurereason.Ontheotherside,thehumanmind(renxinai),orfeelings,which
belongstothearousedphenomenalworldcontainssuchideas,emotions,andpsychologicalattitudesascompassion,goodandevil,modesty,rightandwrong.Ithas
perceptualcomponents,orelementsrelatedtoperceptions.ThedistinctionbetweennatureandfeelingactuallycorrespondstothatbetweenHeavenmandatednature
andhumoralnature.Justaslicannotdepartfromqi,themindoftheWaycannotdepartfromthehumanmindbutrathercontrolsit.Thehypothesisofadualisticmind
madethecontradictionmentionedaboveallthemoresharp.
Inhisearlyperiod,ZhuXidefinednatureasunaroused.Mindandnature

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inthisviewwerestillsomewhatseparatenature,notbeingabletopenetratethemind,becameexternaldemandsandcommands.ZhuXilatercametothinkthatmind
shouldincludetheunarousedandarousedorboththemindoftheWayandthehumanmind,sothattheyconstitutebothnoumenonandfunction,applytotheapparent
andhidden,andencompassmovementandtranquillitythusnatureasthePrincipleofHeaveniscarriedrightintothemindinseparablefromafleshandbloodbody.
Thusalthoughthemindcanbedividedintotwo(themindoftheWayandthehumanmind),fromanotherpointofviewthetwoarecombinedintoone.Inshort,the
rationalandtheperceptual,socialandnatural,noumenonandphenomenon,areallconcentratedinthesamemind.
Natureistheprincipleofthemind,feelingsarethemovementsofthemindthemindisthemasterofnatureandfeelings.34Themindislikewater,natureislikethetranquillityof
water,feelingsaretheflowofnatureanddesiresarethewavesofwater.35Themandateislikeimperialordinancesandcommands,natureislikefunctioningbodies,feelingsare
likemeasures,themindistheman.36
Themind,whenconsciousofprinciple,isthemindoftheWaywhenconsciousofdesires,itisthehumanmind....Thehumanmindemanatesfromshapeandvitalpowerand
themindoftheWayoriginatesinnatureandmandate....Inthehumanmind,oneshouldalsorecognizethemindoftheWay.37

ZhuXi'sviewwasthatthemindofmanandthemindoftheWayareoriginallyonemindbutwithdivisionbetweenthePrincipleofHeavenandhumandesires.
RecognizingonlythemindoftheWaywillleadtoaBuddhistdoctine.Thehumanmindexistssolongasbodiesoffleshandbloodexist.Thehumanmindcontainsboth
goodandevil,butthemindoftheWayisallgood,andthereforeonemustfollowthemindoftheWayexistinginthehumanmind.Ifthedesiresforeating,drinking,
andloveareright,thehumanmindbecomesthemindoftheWay.Thelattercontrolstheformer,settingrightthedesiresforeating,drinking,andlove.Obviously,the
mindoftheWay(Nature,unaroused,ispurelythePrincipleofHeaven)existstocontrolorrulethehumanmind(Feelings,aroused,canleadtohumandesires),but
themindoftheWayandthehumanmindmustalsobeonlyonemindandtheformermustnotdepartfromthelatter.
Ontheonehand,itisextremelydangeroustohavethehumanmindcloselyconnectedwiththeneedsofthenaturalworldofperceptionsandthematerialexistenceof
thehumanbody,because,ifnotproperlyhandled,itwillturnintoexcessivepersonalinterestsanddesiresandgiverisetoanoutpouringofhumandesiresthisisevil.
Ontheotherhand,themindoftheWayhastodependonthehumanmindconnectedtomaterialexistenceotherwiseitcannotexistandfulfillitsfunction.Withoutthis
materialsubstancethemindoftheWay,nature,andmandatefallintothevoid."NatureisonlyprinciplewithouttheqiofHeavenandsubstanceofEarth,thisprinciple
hasnoplacetoreside."38NegatingthisqiofHeavenandsubstanceofearth,thehumanmind

Page561

and"shapeandqi"wouldbethesamethingastheBuddhistdenialofthematerialworldandsensualnature.Achievingastablebalancebetweenthesetwoaspects,
thatis,theMean,becameamatterofparticularconcerntoZhuXi.Itisindeedveryhardtocallfortheunityandmergingofprincipleanddesire,natureandfeeling,
themindoftheWayandthehumanmind,therulesforhumanrelationsandnaturalness,sincetheycomefromtwoentirelydifferentandevenantagonisticworlds(the
worldsofnoumenonandphenomenon,reasonandperception).ThebasicNeoConfuciancategoryofhumaneness,forexample,isregardedasnature,principle,and
themindoftheWayandatthesametimeashavingtheperceptualelementsorcontentofspontaneousgrowthanddevelopment.SoarecategorieslikeHeavenand
mind:theyarerationalbutalsoperceptual,supernaturalbutalsonatural,aprioributalsoempirical,andtheyencompassmoralitybutalsothecosmicorder.This
contradictionhasthepotentialofexplodingallofNeoConfucianism.ButcoveredupbyZhuXi'sgrandcosmologicalepistemologicalsystem,itisnotvery
conspicuous.ThetheoryofminddidnotyetoccupyadominantpositioninZhuXi'ssystemandsothecontradictionissubmergedinthediscussionsonthe
investigationofthings,extensionofknowledge,UltimateofNonbeings,SupremeUltimate,andsoon.ButoncemindbecamenoumenoninthenewstageofMing
NeoConfucianism(theSchoolofMind),mindbecameamorecentraltopicinthesystemandthiscontradictioninevitablyemergedanddeveloped,finallycausingthe
theoreticaldisintegrationofNeoConfucianisminmodernChina.
III
Inthe1950sIwroteanarticleonRangYouwei'saj(18581927)philosophy,inwhichImaintainedthat"inWangYangming'sak(14721529)philosophy,mindis
dividedintothemindoftheWay(thePrincipleofHeaven)andthehumanmind(humandesires).39ThemindoftheWayopposesthehumanmindandyethastorely
onthehumanmindforitsexistence.Hereinliestheinevitablecontradictionthatisbreakinguptheentiresystem.ForthemindoftheWaymustpassthroughthehuman
mind'sperception,feeling,will,andconsciousnessforitsbasicconcepts,andtheinnateknowledgeofthegoodconformstospontaneity.Thus,thiskindof
consciousnessassumesthepsychologicalnatureofthehumanbodyandisnolongerpurelyaprincipleoflogic.Thisnecessarilyleadstothematerialismexpressedin
thesayings'thePrincipleofHeavenisinhumandesires'and'Liisinqi.'"40
ThisrupturewasfirstmanifestedintheemphasisontheinseparabilityofthemindoftheWayandthehumanmind,whichoftencametobeconfusedandgradually
identifiedwitheachother.AlthoughWangYangmingbyabstractionelevatedthemindoftheWaytoanaprioriheighttranscendingphysicalmatter,itwasstillnot
principlebutrelatedtobodyandmatter.Inthiswaytherationalandtheperceptualfrequentlybecameonethingorso

Page562

closeastobeindivisible.Advancingonestepfurther,thesematerialthingsgraduallyturnintothebasisfornatureandprinciple.Thelogicalprinciplewhichoriginally
wasinadominatingandcommandingpositionactuallybecameanextensionandderivativeofmindandfeelings.Thusfromprincipleandnaturetomindwasreversed,
aswasfromnaturetofeelings.Ratherthanhumaneness(NatureandprincipleinZhuXi)determiningandgoverningthecompassionatemind(feelinginZhuXi),onthe
contrary,humanenessandfulfillingprinciplearederivedandexpandedfromthecompassionatemind.Sincethemindisprinciple,itcannotberemovedfromtheflesh
andbody,orbetteryethastodependonthebodytobeabletoexist.("Thereisnomindwithoutbodyandnobodywithoutmindwhenwerefertothefunctionof
fillingaspace,itisbodywhenwerefertotherulingfunction,itismind."41)ThemindoftheWayandthehumanmindcannotbeseparated,norcanmindandbody.
Thus,principleandthePrincipleofHeavenareincreasinglymixedupwithsensualfleshandbloodandmadeworldly.Thisisaninevitablemovementinthemodern
period.
InWangYangming'scelebratedremarks:"Havingneithergoodnorevilisthesubstanceofthemindhavingbothgoodandevilisthemovementofthewill
distinguishingbetweengoodandevilisinnateknowledgedoinggoodandeliminatingevilistheinvestigationofthings."42Eventhoughheplacedmindinasupernatural,
transmoralnoumenalrealm,itneverthelesshasamorepsychologicalnaturethanZhuXi'slogicalprinciple.Wang'sschoolfocusedallquestionsonthesubjective
body,thespiritmind,andwill,whichcannotbeseparatedfromthephysiologicalbody.Hisoriginalideawastoturnpsychologyintoethicsinordertoinstillthesocial
orderdirectlyintothemindsofthepeople.However,theresultwasquitetheopposite:hissocalledinnateknowledge,asgoodwillormoralknowledge,wasinstead
tingedwithsensualemotions.Hisdisciples,fromWangGenal(14981582)toWangJiam(14831540),eithermadeabsenceofidea(wunianan)theprincipalaimand
stressedthatthe"spontaneityoftheunrestrainedmind"iscapableofattaininginnateknowledgeormadejoy(leao)thebasisandstressedthat"joyistheoriginal
substanceofthemind":"thehumanmindisnaturallyjoyfulbutwerestrainitwithourowndesires...Joyistoenjoythisstudy,studyistostudythisjoy.''43They
therebydevelopedtheSchoolofMindfurtherinaperceptualdirection.Althoughtheirreferentsarenotatallsensualenjoymentperceptualpleasureornatural
desire,"spontaneityoftheunrestrainedmind"and"joy"stillmeanacertainspiritualsatisfactionandbelongtothemoralrealmtheyareinsomewaylinkedtothe
perceptualeitherdirectlyorindirectlyandbecomemoreandmoreseparatedfrompurelymoralcommands(PrincipleofHeaven).Hencetheresoonappeared
formulationssuchas"restrainingdesiresisnotanembodimentofhumaneness,"andWangYangming'sSchoolinclinedmoreandmoretodenythenecessityoftheuse
ofexternalstandardstoartificiallycontrolandrepressdesires,orinotherwordstodenythenecessityofusingabstract,apriorirationalconceptstocoercethemind.
Thedoctrinethatmindisprinciplebecamemoreandmoreperceptual

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nolongerregardingethicsaspsychology,itgraduallyshiftedtoacceptingpsychologyasethics.Andlogicalnormsincreasinglybecamepsychologicalneeds.The
principlein"mindisprinciple"wasincreasinglychangedfromexternalHeavenlyprinciple,norms,andordersintointernalnature,feelings,andevendesires.Thiscomes
closetothetheoryofnaturalistichumannatureofthemodernbourgeoisiehumannatureisman'snaturalpassions,needs,anddesires.Thistendencyispresentinthe
TaizhouapandtheJishanaqschools.AfterWangGenspokeof"love"andYanShannongarmaintainedthatto"justfollowourownnatureandallowforpure
spontaneity...canbesaidtobetheWay....Ifscholarsfirststudyreasonandnorms,itwillbeenoughtoblocktheWay,"44HeXinyinas(15171579)saidthat
"naturemeanstaste,sensuality,music,andcomfort.Thisisnature.''45LiuZongzhouat(15781645),wantingtokeepthesuperiorityanddominatingfunctionand
positionofthemindoftheWay,said,"ThemindoftheWayistheoriginalmindofthehumanmindthenatureofrighteousnessandprincipleistheoriginalnatureof
thehumoralnature."46Buthisstudent,ChenQueau(16041677)said,"OriginallythePrincipleofHeavenwasfoundlackinginthehumanminditisseenpreciselyin
humandesires.Whenhumandesiresareappropriate,thatisthePrincipleofHeaven."47"Withouthumandesires,onecannotspeakofanyPrincipleofHeaven."48
BeforethemLiZhiav(15271602)hadalreadyspokenbluntlyofselfishness(siaw)andprofit(liax)."Selfishnessisaman'smind.Manmusthaveselfishnessbeforethe
mindisseen.Withoutselfishnessthereisnomind....Ifwedonotseekprofit,itcannotberight....Ifwedonotcalculatemerit,whenwouldthewaybeclear?"49
ThisisalmosttotallycontrarytoZhuXi'steaching.Linotonlyapprovedofprofit,merit,selfishness,andself,butalsomaintainedthattheyarethebasisof
righteousness,theway,andthepublic(gongay).FromhereitwasonlyashortstepawaytoDaiZhenaz(17231777),whosaid,"Lovingwealthandwomenisdesire
sharingthedesiredwiththepeopleisprinciple.""Whattheancientsagesmeantbyhumaneness,righteousness,propriety,andwisdomisnottobesoughtbeyondthe
socalleddesiresandisnotseparatedfromourfleshandblood."50ItwasagainonlyonefurtherstepawaytheoreticallytoKangYouwei.Hedeclared,"Principleis
justtheprincipleofman."51"WearebornpossessingdesiresitisthenatureofHeaven!...Forourmouthswedesiretastyfoodandforourresidencewedesire
exquisitemansions."52ItisbynomeansaccidentalthatsuchpioneersasLiZhiandKangYouwei,whopreparedthegroundforthemoderntheoryofnaturalistic
humannature,openlyadmiredWangYangming'sthoughtorhaddirecttheoreticalconnectionswithhisSchool.
Theoreticallyspeaking,thisentirecourseofdevelopmentisratherastonishing:fromqitoli,fromlitomind,andfrommindtodesiresstartingfromstressingthe
distinctionbetweenthe"PrincipleofHeaven"and"humandesires"andbetween"righteousandprinciplednature"and"humoralnature,"andendingwith"principleisin
thedesire"and"desireisnature,"nottomentionthegreatvarietyofotherdetails.Beginningasintrovertedeth

Page564

icsbuiltonextrovertedcosmologyandfinallyrevertingtopsychophysiologycausedtheentireNeoConfuciansystemtocollapseanddisintegratetheoretically.Human
relationsandmoralobligationsbegantobebuiltonreallifeandaphysicalbasisoftheindividual'sperceiveddesires,happiness,andpleasures.Thefeudaltheoryof
thePrincipleofHeavenandhumannaturechangedintothebourgeoistheoryofnaturalistichumannature.
Thisplayoflogichaditsbasisinhistory.WhydidLuXiangshan'sba(11391193)SchooloftheMindsoonbecomedormantandnobodypaymuchattentiontoit
whileWangYangming,assoonasheraisedhisvoice,winsuchagreatfollowingandhavesuchgreatinfluencealloverChina?Whywerepeopleeverywhereso
fascinatedbyLiZhithoughhewasimprisonedandhisworkswereburned?Canwedenythatitisobviouslyrelatedtoallthetremendouschangesintheeconomy,
politics,culture,socialatmosphere,andstateofmindthatoccurredfromthemiddleoftheMingdynasty?
Apartfrommovingtowardsthemoderntheoryofnaturalistichumannature,anothercharacteristicoftheSchoolofWangYangmingisthegreatstressonthedynamic
roleofsubjectivepractice(moralbehavior)ortheunityofknowledgeandaction.Itreducesallmoralitytotheselfconsciousbehavioroftheindividual.Knowledge
mustbeactioninnateknowledgeinvariablyactsandselfconsciousactionisknowledge.Thatistosay,man'strueexistenceliesintheinnateknowledgeofbehavior
andactivityandonlyinthisbehaviorcanheachievenoumenalexistence.Man'sexistenceisconfirmedandexpandedinthemoralbehavioroftheselfconscious
extensionofinnateknowledge,justasHuangZongxisaid,"Themindhasnooriginalsubstancewhenperfecteffortsaremade,itbecomestheoriginalsubstance."53
Becauseoftheiroppositiontoknowledgesoughtpurelyobjectivelyordivorcedfromaction,manyofWang'sfollowersbecamemoreandmoreexplicitintheir
rejectionoftheZhuXiorthodoxyoflivingrespectfullyandpreservingtranquillity.Insteadtheyadoptedanattitudeofmoreactiveparticipationandinterventionindaily
life.VariedexpressionofthisattitudecanbefoundinWangGen'sadvocacyof"creatingdestiny"and"changingdestiny"andLiuZongzhou'sstresson"personalwill''
andtheideathatinthenoumenontherewas"thehighestgoodandnoevil."Alltheseweretogiveprominencetoethicalsubjectivity,whereintheindividual'sawareness
ofhistoricresponsibilityandmoralselfconsciousnessplayedamoresignificantroleandbecamethebasicspiritandprimarythemeoftheentiretheory.
ThesetwoaspectsofMingQing(16441912)philosophydrewthetheoryofprincipletowardsmind,demandingthatmindshouldtranscendtherealworldto
becomeindependentandfree,andformthenoumenonofthecosmos.Theformeraspectapproachesthemoderntheoryofnaturalistichumannatureasitdeniesthat
manhastwomindsandeliminatesthecriticaldistinctionbetweenrighteousandprinciplednatureandhumoralnature.Thelatteraspect,withitsemphasison
subjectivityandwillpower,exertedagreaterorsmallerdegreeofinfluenceonmanypeoplewithloftyideasinlatergenerationssuchasKangYouwei,TanSitongbb
(18661898),theyoungMao

Page565
bc

bd

Zedong, andGuoMoruo (18921978),whouseditasaspiritualweaponorsupportinthestruggleagainsttheoldsociety,system,andcustoms.Theoretically

speaking,theformeraspectseemsmoreimportantbutdidnotdevelopverymuch.ThetheoryofnaturalistichumannatureofChina'smodernbourgeoisie,exceptfor
itsexpressioninthenewliteratureaftertheMayFourthMovement(1919),didnotfullydevelop.Thus,thelatteraspect(seekingindividualmoralperfection,
temperingofthewillandthemartialspirit)becamethefactorwithpracticalinfluence.AveryinterestingphenomenonisthattheyoungMaoZedongontheeveofthe
MayFourthMovementcommentedonPaulsen'sASystemofEthicsandmadeclearhisintentiontocombinethesetwoaspectsbyaffirmingtheegotisticalbasisof
sensualdesirestoenlargeandtempertheindividual'ssubjectiveconsciousnessandtopromotemoralcultivationandvoluntaryautonomy,andbyusingthespirit
expressedin"Iamtheuniverse"and"Seizetheday!Seizethehour!"tomeetandparticipateissociety'sreallife.However,thisgraftingwasnotsustainedforlong.
Sensualpleasureandfreedomwerefarfrombeingfullyaffirmedanddevelopedtheoretically.Thesubjectiveethicalconsciousnessandthevoluntarydemandsinstead
achievedpracticalresultsandexcessiveemphasisinthelongyearsofhardrevolutionarylifeandmilitarystruggle.
IV
WhathasthephilosophyofZhuXileftusinChinaatpresent?Aquestionofthismagnitudegoesbeyondasingleessay.Onlyafewpreliminarypointscanbe
suggestedhere.
Firstofall,ofcourse,hisphilosophyseriouslypoisonedthemindsofthepeopleinitsseveralhundredsofyearsofdominance,leavinginitswakedisastersand
sorrow.InthewordsofDaiZhen:
Thehonoreduseprincipletoaccusethelowlytheelderlyuseprincipletoaccusetheyoungandthenobleuseprincipletoaccusethemean.Thoughtheyerrintheaction,they
aresaidtoberight.Whenthelowly,theyoung,andthemeanargue,thoughtheyareright,theyaresaidtoberebellious....Onceaccusedbytheirsuperiorswithprinciple,the
inferiorsbecomeincriminatedwithcountlesscrimes.Whenamanisexecutedbylawtherearestillpeoplewhopityhim,butifheiskilledbyprinciple,whopitieshim?54
Whatiscalledprincipleisthesameaswhatcruelofficialscalllaw.CruelofficialsusedlawtokillpeopleandthenthelaterConfuciansusedprincipletokillpeople.Moreandmore
theysetasidethelawandresortedtoprincipleandwhentheaccusedisdoomedtodie,thereisnoremedy.55

AndinthewordsofTanSitong:
Vulgarscholarsindulgedinquoting[ConfucianritualandNeoConfucianism]whichwerehonoredastheMandateofHeaventhatpeopledarednotchangeandwereheldinawe
asthestateconstitutionthatcouldnotbequestioned....

Page566
Superiorsusedthemtocontroltheirinferiorswhocouldnotbutrespectthem.AndsoforthepastseveralthousandyearsthetragicmisfortunesandcrueltiesoftheThreeBonds
andtheFiveRelationships56weregreatlyaggravated.57
Wherethecodeholdssway,notonlyarepeople'smouthsshutsothattheydarenotspeakfreely,buttheirmindsarefetteredsothattheydarenotbegintothink.58

DaiZhen'sandTanSitong'sangrydenunciationsshowclearlythehistoricaldamageZhuXi'sphilosophyhascausedtoChinesesocietyandtheChinesepeople.Since
theReformMovementof1898,peoplesuchasTanSitong,SongShube(18601910),ZouRongbf(18851905),ChenDuxiubg(18801942),WuYubh(1871
1949),LuXunbi(18811936),BaJinbj(1905),andCaoYubk(1910)werefulloffightingspiritandwonhistoricalfameandtheloveofthepeoplethroughtheir
politicalwritingsortheirfictionanddrama,forexample,LuXun'sAMadman'sDiary,BaJin'sFamily,andCaoYu'sThunderstorm.Wasthisnotsobecause
oppositiontoNeoConfucianism,especiailyZhuXi,wasthebasicthemeofallofthem?
EventodaythiscenturiesoldspecterstillhauntsthelandofChina,althoughusuallydisguised,evenunderthebannerofMarxism.Forexample,LinBiaobl(1905
1972)said,"Wemuststruggleagainsttheslightestthoughtofprivateinterest""letrevolutionburstforthfromthedepthsofthesoul."Itisthennotentirely
understandablethatwehaveadoptedanattitudeofrejectionofZhuXi'sphilosophysinceLiberation?Dowenoteventodaystillhavethehistoricaltaskofcontinuing
thecriticismandrejectionofNeoConfucianism?
HasZhuXi'sphilosophyleftmankindsomethingpositive?Especiallylookingtothefuture,whenitsparticularfeudalfunctionwillhavebeenthoroughlyeliminated,will
ithaveanyvalueleft?
Humanpsychologydiffersfromthatofanimalinsofarasmanhashumannature,whichisasocialized,psychologicalstructureandcapacity.Forinstance,sacrificeof
theindividualforthesakeofthepreservationofthecommunityisaformofsensualactivitycommontobothhumansandanimals.Forananimal,thisisinstinctbutfor
man,itisconscious,voluntarybehaviorandistheresultoftherationalconsciousnessusing,dominating,andcontrollingsensualactivity.Whatisexpressesisthehuman
will'sstructuralpower.Thisrationalwillasexpressedinsensualformispreciselytheessenceofmanandthedignityofhumannatureasrevealedinitsconfrontation
andevenconflictwiththesensuallyandphysiologicallynaturaldesiressurvival,joy,andhappiness.OnthisquestionZhuXiundoubtedlymadeamoreprofound
contributionthanthetheoryofnaturalistichumannature.
ZhuXiraisedmoralautonomy,thevoluntarystructure,thesenseofsocialresponsibilityandhumansuperioritytonaturetoahighnoumenalplane,givingan
unprecedenteddignityandgreatnesstoman'sethicalsubjectivity.PerhapsonlyKant'sethicscomparestoitinthehistoryofworldphilosophybutasmentioned
previously,Kant'smorallawpossessesamoreawesomeexternal

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orientationwhereasZhuXi'stheoryhaspreservedamorehumanfeeling.ToKant,thereisadivisionbetweenthenoumenalworldandthenaturalworld,whiletoZhu
Xi,feelingsandprincipleareinharmonyandthereisthe"unityofHeavenandman."IsZhuXi'sphilosophy,whichseeks"harmonyoffeelingsandprinciple"and"unity
ofHeavenandman''sotoestablishanoumenonofhumannaturedistinctfromthatoftheanimal,ofanysignificanceandvaluetotoday'sworldwheresomepeopleare
spirituallyempty,moralvaluesseembankrupt,andanimallikeindividualismrunsrampant?Itstheoreticalachievementsandworldsignificancearetopicsthatneed
furtherstudy.
TranslatedbyZhuZidabm
Notes
1.Daoanbn(312385),Guanghongmingjibo[TheEssaysSpreadingElucidatingtheDoctrineenlarged],(SPPYed.),8:8b.
2.IntheZhouziquanshubp[CompleteworksofMasterZhou],ch.1,trans.WingtsitChanbqas"AnExplanationoftheDiagramoftheGreatUltimate"inhisA
SourceBookinChinesePhilosophy(Princeton,N.J.:PrincetonUniversityPress,1963),pp.463464.
3.In40shortchapters.Trans.byWingtsitChanasPenetratingtheBookofChangesinSourceBook,pp.465480.
4.IntheZhangziquanshubr[CompleteworksofMasterZhang],ch.1.
5.Ibid.Fortranslationofselectedpassages,seeChan,SourceBook,pp.500517.
6.BookofChanges,"AppendedRemarks,"pt.2,ch.1.
7.Ibid.,pt.1,ch.5.
8.EnglishtranslationbyWingtsitChan,ReflectionsonThingsatHand(NewYork:ColumbiaUniversityPress,1967).
9.DongZhongshu,Chunqiufanlubs[LuxuriantgemsoftheSpringandAutumnAnnals],essayno.56.
10.ZhuXi,Zhuziyulei(1473Jiangxibted.),1:1a.
11.TheThreeBondsarethosebindingtherulerwiththeminister,thefatherwiththeson,andthehusbandwiththewife.
12.Humanity,righteousness,propriety,wisdom,andgoodfaithorrighteousnessonthepartofthefather,affectiononthepartofthemother,friendlinessonthepart
oftheelderbrother,respectonthepartoftheyoungerbrother,andfilialpietyonthepartoftheson.
13.ZhuXi,Zhuziwenjibu[CollectionofliteraryworksofMasterZhu],(SPPYed.entitledZhuzidaquanbv[CompletecollectionofMasterZhued.]),70:5a.
14.Zhuziyulei,40:8a.
15.Ibid.,90:9b.
16.Metal,Wood,Water,Fire,andEarth.
17.ZhuXi,Zhongyongzhangjubw[CommentaryontheDoctrineoftheMean],commentonch.1.
18.ZhuXi,Mengzijizhubx[CommentaryontheBookofMencius],commenton4B:19.

Page568
by

bz

19.ChengYi,Yishu [Survivingworks],22B:3a,intheErChengquanshu [CompleteworksofthetwoChengs],(SPPYed.).

20.HuangZongxi,Mingruxueanca[AnthologyandcriticalaccountsofNeoConfuciansoftheMingdynasty],(SPPYed.),32:1a.
21.WangFuzhi,DuTongjianluncb[OnreadingtheGeneralMirror],(SPPYed.),18:14a.
22.Zhuziyulei,18:8a.
23.Ibid.,9:4ab.
24.Ibid.,15:8a.
25.Yishu,18:5b.
26.Shangcaiyulucc[RecordedsayingsofXieLiangzuo],(Zhuziyishucd[SurvivingworksofMasterZhu]ed.),pt.1,2a.
27.ChengMingdao,Yishu,3:2a.
28.ChengHao,Mingdaowenjice[CollectionofliterarywritingsofChengHao]1:6b,intheErChengquanshu.
29.Zhuziwenji,20:10b.
30.Zhuziyulei,13:2b.
31.Ibid.,94:38b.
32.Ibid.,31:2a.
33.Zhuziwenji,59:23b.
34.Ibid.,5:6b.
35.Ibid.,5:10a.
36.Ibid.,5:1a.
37.Ibid.,62:8ab.
38.Ibid.,4:9b.
39.ZhangZaibroughtupthedistinctionbetweenthemindoftheWayandthehumanmindasthenecessarystartingpointofNeoConfucianism.Zhangstressedthe
transcendentcharacterofthemindoftheWay.InWangYangming,itisthefinalstateofNeoConfucianism,andheemphasizedthedependentcharacterofthemind
oftheWay.Ofcourse,strictlyspeakingthe"humanmind"isnotthesameas"humandesires."
40.KangYouweiTanSitongsixiangyangjiucf[StudiesofthethoughtsofKangYouweiandTanSitong],(Shanghai:RenmincgPress,1958),p.89.
41.WangYangming,Yangmingquanshuch[CompleteworksofWangYangming],(SPPYed.),3:1b.
42.Ibid.,3:21b.
43.Mingruxuean,32:11a.
44.Ibid.,32:1b.
45.HeXinyinjici[CollectedworksofHeXinyin],(Beijing:ZhonghuacjBookCo.,1960),p.40.
46.Mingruxuean,62:9b.
47.ChenQuejick[CollectedworksofChenQue],(Beijing:ZhonghuaBookCo.,1979),p.461.
48.Ibid.,p.468.
49.Cangshucl[Abooktobeconcealed],(Beijing:ZhonghuaBookCo.,1959),Bk.III,p.544.
50.Daishisanzhongcm[ThreeworksbyDaiZhen],(Beijing:Pushe,cn1924),Bk.II,p.12.

Page569
co

51.Kangzineiwaipian [InnerandoutertreatisesbybyMasterKang],StudiesintheHistoryofChinesePhilosophy(inChinese),no.1(1980),p.36.
52.Datongshucp[Bookofgreatunity],(Beijing:ZhonghuaBookCo.,1956),p.41.
53.Mingruxuean,originalpreface,1a.
54.Daishisanzhong,Bk.I,p.14.
55.DaiDongyuanjicq[CollectedworksofDaiZhen],(SPPYed.),9:7b.
56.Thosebetweenrulerandminister,fatherandson,olderandyoungerbrothers,husbandandwife,andfriends.
57.TanSitongquanjicr[CompleteworksofTanSitong],(Beijing:SanliancsBookCo.,1955),p.14.
58.Ibid.,p.65.
Glossary

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30
TheKoreanControversyoverChuHsi'sViewontheNatureofManandThings
YounSasoon
I
NeoConfucianismoftheSungperiod(9601279),whichhadbeensystematizedbyChuHsi,wasintroducedinKoreaatasubstantiallevelinthethirteenthcentury.
Foraboutahundredyearsthereafter,however,itdidnotflourishbecauseofthereligious,political,andsocialconditionsofthetimeespeciallythedominanceof
Buddhism,thestatereligionoftheKoryoperiod(9181392).ComprehensivestudiesofNeoConfucianismbeganandflourishedonlywiththeestablishmentinthe
fourteenthcenturyoftheYidynasty(13921910),whichadopteditastheofficialideology.Sincethen,boththetheoryandpracticeofNeoConfucianismhavebeen
vigorouslystudiedandinterpretedinvariouswaysinKorea.
TworemarkableoccasionsmarkthepeaksintheprocessofthetheoreticalelaborationofNeoConfucianismintheYidynasty.Oneofthemwasthedebateinthe
middleofthesixteenthcenturyabouttheinterpretation,onthebasisofthetheoryoflich'ia(principlematerialforce),oftheFourSevenThesis.Theotherwasthe
debateatthebeginningoftheeighteenthcenturyaboutwhetherornotthenatureofmanandthenatureofthingsarethesame.Thesetwodebateswerethemost
controversialissuesintheacademiccircleofNeoConfucianism,andtheyremainedsountiltheYidynastyendedin1910.Throughoutthewholescholarlyhistoryof
Korea,onecanhardlyfindanyothercaseinwhichsomanyscholarsdevotedthemselvestotheinterpretationofandthecontroversyoverasingleprecisesubject.The
intellectualfervorarousedbythesedebateseventuallyresultedintheformationoffourschoolsofKoreanNeoConfucianism:theToegye(Yongnamb)Schoolandthe
Yulgok(Kihoc)School,resultingfromtheformerdebate,andtheHoseodSchoolandtheRakhaeSchoolfromthelatter.Suchbeingthecase,itcansafelybesaidthat
astudyofthesetwodebateswouldilluminatesomeimportantcharacteristicsofKoreanNeoConfucianism.
Issuesraisedintheformerdebate,thatis,abouttheinterpretationofthe

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1

FourSevenThesis,arewidelyknownandhavebeenadequatelystudied. Itwouldnotbeeasytodealwithbothofthedebatesinasinglepaper.Soourconcernhere
willbelimitedtothelatter,thatis,thecontroversywhetherornotthenatureofmanandthenatureofthingsarethesame.Sincebothofthedebatesoriginatedfrom
ChuHsi,astudyofeitherofthemwillhelptoelucidatenotonlysometheoreticalfeaturesofKoreanNeoConfucianismbutalsosomefundamentalcharacteristicsof
ChuHsi'sthoughtasilluminatedbyKoreanNeoConfucianscholars.
II
Thecontroversythatcenteredonwhetherthenatureofmanandthenatureofthingsarethesameornotbegantodevelopamongthescholarsbelongingtotheschool
ofKwonSangha(h.Suahm,f16411721),whoupheldChuHsi'sthoughtbyaligninghimselfwiththefollowersofYiI(h.Yulgok,g15361584)andSongSiyeol
(h.Wooahm,h16071689).KwonSanghahadeightdistinguisheddiscipleswidelyknownasthe"EightScholarsofKangmun."iAmongthemHanWonjin(h.
Namdang,j16821751)andYiGan(h.Woeahm,k16771727)werethemostdistinguishedscholarswhotooktheleadinthecontroversy.
Thesetwoscholarstookupoppositepositionsinthecontroversy.WhileYiGanassertedthatthenatureofmanandthenatureofthingsarethesame,HanWonjin
heldthecontraryview.Theirferventcontroversy,whichcontinuedforyearsthroughcorrespondence,spreadeventuallyeventothepeoplearoundthemtheirmentor
(KwonSangha),friends,andrelatives.ThosewhoparticipatedinthecontroversyweredividedintotwogroupsthoseinsupportofYiGanincludedsuchscholarsas
YiJae(h.Doahm,l16801746),ParkPilju(h.Yeoho,m16801748),andEoYoobong(h.Kiwon,n16741744),whilethoseinsupportofHanWonjinincluded
suchscholarsasYunBonggu(h.Byonggye,o16811767),ChoiJinghu(h.Maebong,p?),andChaeJihong(h.Bongahm,q16831741).Perhapscoincidentally,
thegroupingsofscholarscoincidedwiththeirnativeplaces.OnthewholethosefromRakha(Seoularea)supportedYiGan,whilethosefromHoseo(Chungcheong
Province)alignedthemselveswithHanWonjin.Therefore,withitscharacterofprovincialism,thecontroversywhetherthenatureofmanandthenatureofthingsare
thesameornotisalsocalled"thedebatebetweenHoseoandRakha."Thiscontroversy,asmentionedalready,continuedforaboutonehundredyears.
Theissueofthiscontroversy,beforeitwasinauguratedindetailbyChuHsi,canbetracedbacktoMencius.Inviewofitshistoricalorigin,itisnotsurprisingthatthe
fullfledgedexaminationofthisissueinKoreawasprecededbystudiesofsuchscholarsasCheongShihan(h.Woodam,r16251707),ParkSaedang(h.Seogye,s
16291703),KimChanghyup(h.Nongahm,t16511709),andKwonSangyoo(h.Kugye,u16561724).However,

Page572

unlikeYiGan'sandHanWonjin's,theirstudiesbyandlargecanbesaidtobefragmentaryandincomplete.Onecanfindinthemneitherevidenceofthoroughinquiry
northetraceofarduousdebate.Theydid,however,contributetothepreparationofanintellectualatmosphereinwhichgenuinecontroversybetweenHanWonjin
andYiGanwasmadepossible.InthefollowingsectionsweshallexamineindetailHanWonjin'sandYiGan'sopinions,whichmaybesaidtoformthecentralideas
ofthiswellknowncontroversy.
III
YiGan,indealingwiththeproblemaboutthenatureofmanandthings,calledattentiontosomeofthetermsusedinNeoConfucianism.Hepointedoutthatpenjanv
(theoriginal)correspondstoiyanw(theoneorigin),andch'ichihx(physicalquality)toit'iy(differententities).2The"oneorigin"andthe"differententities"arethe
twoviewpointsfromwhichtheproblemaboutthenatureofmanandthingswasdiscussed.YiGansaid,
Intermsof"OneOrigin,"boththeMandateofHeaven(T'ienmingz)andtheFiveConstantVirtues[humanity,righteousness,propriety,wisdom,andtruthfulness]transcendform
andconcreteobjects(hsingch'iaa).Inthiscasethereisnodifferenceofpartial(p'ienab)andcomplete(ch'anac)endowmentbetweenmanandthings.Thissamenessiscalledpen
janchihhsingad(theoriginalnature).
Intermsof"differententities,"boththeMandateofHeavenandtheFiveConstantVirtuesareinfluencedbyphysicalnature.Therefore,inthiscase,therearemanydifferences
notonlybetweenmanandthingsbutalsobetweenworthiesandordinaryminds.Thus,wherepartialendowmentprevails,thephysicalformanddestiny(mingae)becomeoff
balance,andwherecompleteendowmentprevails,theirphysicalformanddestinybecomebalanced.Thisdifferenceiscalledthephysicalnature(ch'ichihchihhsingaf).3

AccordingtoYiGan,thenatureofmanandthenatureofthingswithrespectto"oneorigin"arethesameinthatbothofthemrefertotheoriginalnature.Ontheother
hand,inregardto"differententities"theyaredifferentinthatbothofthemrefertothephysicalnature.Inviewof"differententities,"therearemanydifferencesamong
menandamongthingsthemselvesaswellasbetweenmanandthings.4Inotherwords,inviewoforiginalnature,thatofmanandthatofthingsarethesameinviewof
physicalnature,notonlythenatureofmanandthenatureofthingsbutalsoallthenaturesofindividualentitiesaredifferentfromoneanother.5
Ofthetwoviewpoints,whichleadtothedifferentconclusions,YiGanheldtheformer,whichviews"theoriginal"asthe"oneorigin."Hedeclared,"Eventhoughnature
isdifferentiatedintotheoriginalandthephysical,whatshouldbegivenmoreemphasisistheoriginal."6Hemaintainedthatintermsoforiginalnature,thatofmanand
thatofthingsarethesame.
HanWonjinthoughtdifferently.Healsodistinguished"oneorigin"from

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"differententities"butintermsdifferentfromthoseofYiGan.Thatis,heheldthatthe"oneorigin"exists"beyondphysicalnature"or"transcendsphysicalformand
concreteobjects''andthat"differententities"stand"onthebasisofphysicalnature."7Therefore,accordingtohisopinion,thenatureofmanandthenatureofthingsare
thesameinthattheybothtranscendphysicalformandconcreteobjects,whiletheyaredifferentinthattheybothexistonthebasisofphysicalnature.Herewecansee
thatHanWonjin,likeYiGan,alsoapprovedthatdifferentconclusionscouldbedrawnaccordingtodifferentperspectives.However,HanWonjin'sapproachwas
differentfromYiGan'sinthatheputmoreemphasisonthedifferencebetweenthenatureofmanandthenatureofthings.Furthermore,onthepremiseofhistheoryof
"threelevelsofnature,"HanWonjinshowedthattherecouldbethreedifferentwaysoflookingatthedifferencebetweenthenatureofmanandthenatureofthings.8
Hesaid,
Intermsofprinciplebutnotmaterialforce,manandthingsareinthestateofnondifferentiation.Inthiscasewecannotdistinguishonefromtheotherbyacertainprincipleora
certainvirtue.Butallparticularprinciplesorparticularvirtues,thatis,theprinciplesofallcreaturesandthevirtuesofhumanity,righteousness,propriety,andwisdom,areall
includedinthesameuniversalprinciple.Thisprinciplereferstothenaturethatmanandthingshaveincommon.
Intermsoftheprincipleofphysicalnature,theprincipleofplantishumanity,thatofmetal,righteousness,andsoon.Whileman,endowedwithbalancedmaterialforce,has
balancednature,things,endowedwithunbalancedmaterialforce,haveunbalancednature.Thus,inthiscase,natureforallmenisthesame,butthenatureofmanandthenature
ofthingsaredifferent.
Intermsofprincipleandmaterialforcebeingmixedtogether,allcreaturesdifferfromoneanotherintheirqualitiessuchashardandsoft,goodandevil.Inthiscaseeverymanhas
adifferentnature.9

AccordingtoHanWonjin,bothmanandthings,inviewofprinciplewithoutinvolvingmaterialforce,transcendphysicalformandconcreteobjects.Hispositionof
viewingthingsonthebasisofphysicalnaturecanbeconsideredintworespects:onepossibilityis"toviewthehumanmindwithrespecttoitsprincipleofmaterial
force,"whiletheotheris"toviewprincipleandmaterialforcesasmixedtogether."Consequently,fromtheviewpointthatenclosesbothmanandthingswithrespectto
principle,thenatureofmanandthenatureofthingsarethesame.Fromanotherviewpoint,thatis,viewingthehumanmindinregardtoitsprincipleofmaterialforce,
whilethenatureofmanandthenatureofthingsaredifferent,humannatureisthesameineveryman.Accordingtostillanotherviewpoint,thatis,viewingprincipleand
materialforcemixedtogether,therearedifferencesinhumannaturesaswellasbetweenthenatureofmanandthenatureofthings.10Oftheabovethreeviewpoints
HanWonjinapprovedofthesecondandthethird,thatis,viewingthingsonthebasisofphysicalnature.Thus,itwouldbequitenatural

Page574

thathemaintainedthedifferencebetweenthenatureofmanandthenatureofthings.
IV
ItisclearthatthedifferencebetweenYiGan'sandHanWonjin'sopinionsresultedfromtheircontraryviewpoints.Ifbothofthemhadtakenthesameviewpoint,
whetherthatofoneoriginandtranscendingphysicalformandconcreteobjectorthatofdifferententitiesandviewingthingsonthebasisofphysicalnature,theywould
probablyhavehadthesameopinion.However,alittlemorethoroughexaminationwouldleadustoconfirmthatsuchdifferenceofviewpointsaloneisnotsufficientto
explainthedifferenceoftheiropinions.Italsoresultedfromtheirdifferentuseoftheterm,hsingag(nature).
HsingforYiGanmeanttheoriginalnatureandtheOneOrigin.InthiscaseprinciplereferstotheoriginoftheuniversesuchastheMandateofHeaven,destiny,orthe
GreatUltimate(T'aichiah).Infact,inthecourseofthecontroversyhesaidthattheOneOriginisthesameastheMandateofHeaven,destiny,theGreatUltimate,the
originalnature,andeventheFiveConstantVirtues.Accordingtohim,theseseeminglydifferentconceptsallrefertotheprinciple.11Hesaidthattherelationship
betweennatureastheFiveConstantVirtuesanddestinyasprinciplearetwodifferenttermsforthesamething.12Tomakehispointclearer,hesaid,"Regardless
whetheritiscalledtheoriginalnatureorthephysicalnature,itrefersonlytoprinciple...Ifnaturecannotbesubstitutedforprinciple,ontheonehand,andprinciple
cannotbeinterpretedasnature,itisbeyondmyconcern."13AtthispointitisobviousthatYiGanapprovedoftheideathatnatureisprincipleandthatprincipleisone
butitsmanifestationsaremanyaspropoundedbyCh'engIai(10331107)andChuHsi.Onthebasisofthesetwoideashemaintainedthatthenatureofmanandthe
natureofthingsarethesame.
Ontheotherhand,HanWonjin'suseofthetermhsing(nature)wasdifferentfromYiGan's.Ofcourseheseemstohaveusedtheterm"nature"inthesenseimplicit
intheideathatnatureisprinciple.Suchauseofthetermwasimpliedwhenhesaid,onthesubjectoftranscendingphysicalformandconcreteobjects,"Intermsof
principlewithoutinvolvingmaterialforce,thenatureofmanandthenatureofthingsarethesame."However,weshouldalsonoticethatonotheroccasionsheusedthe
termdifferently.Forinstance,hisemphasisonthedifferencebetweenthenatureofmanandthenatureofthingsisbasedonhisuseoftheterm"nature"as"the
principleofmaterialforceinthehumanmind."Therefore,eventhoughhereferredtonatureasprinciple,natureinthiscaseisdifferentfromYiGan'suseofprincipleas
anabstractuniversalconceptsuchasdestinyortheGreatUltimate.Rather,itreferstotheconcreteandindividualprincipleinherentinmaterialforce.
HanWonjin'suseoftheterm"nature"ismadeclearerinhisquotationofChuHsi'sandYiI'sexplanationsofnaturesuchas"natureisdiscussedon

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thebasisofphysicalnature"or"natureisthemixtureofprincipleandmaterialforce.Thusprinciplecanbecallednatureonlywhenithasenteredintomaterialforce.If
principleexistsindependentlyoutofmaterialforce,itshouldbecallednotnaturebutprinciple."14Healsoused"nature"inthiscontextwhenhestatedthattheFive
ConstantVirtuesasnaturearedifferentfromtheMandateofHeavenortheGreatUltimate.Accordingtohim,theMandateofHeavenandtheGreatUltimatereferto
thingsintheircompletenessandcanbeappliedtoeverythingregardlessofphysicalformorthestatusofaconcreteobject,whiletheFiveConstantVirtuesrefertothe
partialitythatcanbeexpressedonlyonthebasisoftheirbeingphysicalnature.15TheFiveConstantVirtuesforHanWonjinarenootherthan"theoriginalnature
explainableonlyintermsofmaterialforce."16Therefore,theFiveConstantVirtues,accordingtohim,areallthemoredifferentfromtheoriginalnature,whichcanbe
appliedtothingsintheirpartialityaswellasintheircompleteness.17Thus,HanWonjinsaid,"Itistruethatwecansubstitutenatureforprinciple,andinterpret
principleasnature.However,ifnatureiscomparedwithprinciple,theyarethesameasprinciple,butdifferentasnature.''18
Aswehavediscussed,YiGanputmoreemphasisonprinciple,HanWonjinonmaterialforce.Withsuchdifferenceofattitudesorviewpoints,theyevendifferedin
theiruseofthetermhsing.Theiroppositeattitudesmayalsobeseenintheirmutualcriticismduringthecontroversy:whereasHanWonjincriticizedYiGan's
interpretationofnaturetobe"vain,"19YiGanfoundfaultwithHanWonjin'sideaofnature,saying,"Hemisunderstoodphysicalnatureasnature."20
However,inspiteoftheirdifferentinterpretationsofnature,eachoftheiropinionsmayhavearationalvaliditytotheextentthattheirinitialpremisesandattitudesare
grantedasacceptable.Inotherwords,ifweacceptthateverythingincludingmanoriginatesfromthebasicprinciplesuchastheMandateofHeavenortheGreat
Ultimate,wecansaythatYiGan'sopinionhasakindofrationalvalidityforhemaintained,onthebasisof"natureisprinciple,"thatthenatureofmanandthenature
ofthingsarethesame.Ontheotherhand,ifweacceptthatnaturemakesmanandthingswhattheyare,orthatitisakindofessencethatenablesonetodistinguish
speciesfromgenus,wecanalsosaythatHanWonjin'sopinionhasarationalvalidityforheinsisted,onthebasisof"principlewithinmaterialforce,"thatthenature
ofmanandthenatureofthingsaredifferent.Astheybelievedintheirownrationalvalidity,eachonewasconvincedofthecorrectnessofhisownopinionwhile
criticizingandopposingtheother.
V
Asisoftenthecasewithenthusiasticandseriousdebatesingeneral,thisdebatealsoextendedtoissuesofawidescopeandcametodealnotonlywiththecentral
subjectbutalsowithperipheralproblems.Theirdebateconcern

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aj

ingnature,especially,extendedtoconsiderationoffeelingsbeforetheyarearoused(weifa ),forHanWonjinviewednatureasprinciplewithinthehumanmindor
materialforce.Intheirdifferentinterpretationsonthissubject,YiGan,withtheemphasisonprincipleandonthenatureofthemind,interpretedthestateoffeelings
beforetheyarearousedasgoodnessinherentinpureprinciple,whileHanWonjin,withtheemphasisonmaterialforceandonthefunctionofthemind,regardedthe
stateastheprincipleofmaterialforcewhichmanifestsitselfeitherasgoodorevil.21Ofcourse,theirinterestwascenteredontheproblemaboutthenatureofmanand
things,notontheserelatedproblems.Thus,theyfocusedtheirdiscussionsonthenatureofmanandthings,especiallyquotingfromtheClassicsorfromthetheoriesof
previousscholars.ThetheorytheyquotedincommontosupporttheiropinionwasChuHsi's.Thisfactdeservesourspecialconsideration.
YiGan,whomaintainedthatthenatureofmanandthenatureofthingsarethesame,oncestated,"Sinceancienttimes,principleofOneOriginhasbeensaidtomean
theoriginalnature."Hetookasexamples"thenaturemandatedbyHeaven"statedinthebeginningoftheDoctrineoftheMeanandChuHsi'scommentaryonit,
namely,"ThenaturemandatedbyHeavenisnootherthanhumanity,righteousness,propriety,andwisdom."22ChuHsi'scommentarymaybeconsideredinrelationto
thefollowingremarkofhis:
Mandateisequaltoacommand,andnatureisprinciple.Heavencreatesmyriadthingsthroughyinyangak[passiveandactivecosmicforces]andtheFiveAgents[Metal,Wood,
Water,Fire,andEarth].Whenmaterialforceassumesphysicalforms,principleisprovidedforeachofthem.ThustheprocedureofHeaven'screationislikethatofgivinga
command.Asthevirtuesofstrength(natureofHeaven)andobedience(natureofEarth)andtheFiveConstantVirtuesresultfromprinciple,whichisgiventoeveryphysicalform
duringtheprocessofcreation,theprincipleisequaltonature.23

ThiscommentaryistenableonthepremisethatbothmanandthingsretaintheprincipleoftheMandateofHeavensuchastheGreatUltimate,andthatprincipleis
nature.Itthereforesupportstheopinionthatthenatureofmanandthenatureofthingsarethesame.Naturally,thisquotationisquiteagreeabletoYiGan,butnotso
toHanWonjin
InthisregardHanWonjinsaidthatinhistheoryofthenatureofmanandthingstheMandateofHeavenandtheFiveConstantVirtueswerementionedmerelyona
generalbasis,notonthebasisoftheideainferrableinthefirstchapteroftheDoctrineoftheMeanorinChuHsi'scommentaryonit.Andheavoidedfurther
commentonChuHsi'scommentary.24However,feelingthatsuchanavoidancealoneisinsufficienttojustifyhisposition,hecontinued,"[AuthoroftheDoctrineofthe
Mean]Tzussu's al[492431B.C.?]intentionwasdifferentfromthem.TherearetwokindsofMandatesofHeaven:thatofcompletenessandthatofpartiality.The
formerisappliedtoman,andthelat

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25

tertothings." Withsuchaninterpretation,hetriedtotranscendtheconfinementofChuHsi'scommentary.
Withasimilarintention,hefurtherquotedChuHsi,thatis,ChuHsi'sMengTzuchichuam(CollectedcommentaryontheBookofMencius)andreferredtohisidea
statedintheTahsehhuowenan(QuestionsandanswersontheGreatLearning).Hesaid,"IntheMengTzuchichuChuHsisaid,'Manandthingsdifferinthe
genuinenessofhumanity,righteousness,propriety,andwisdom.'ThisstatementreferstotheFiveConstantVirtuesofdifferententities."26Healsosaid,"IntheTa
hsehhuowenChuHsisaid,'Onlymaniscreatedwithfairandtransparentmaterialforce.Thusman'shsingisthenoblest.'Mandiffersfromanimalsinthis
respect."27
TohaveamorethoroughknowledgeofChuHsi'sideasquotedabove,weneedtoexaminethemindetail.IntheMengTzuchichu,ChuHsisaid,
Manandthingscannotcomeintoexistencewithoutnature(principle)andmaterialforce.Fromthepointofviewofmaterialforce,manandthingsdonotseemtodifferintheir
sensoryfunction.However,fromthepointofviewofprinciple,whocansaythatthingsarealsoendowedwithgenuinehumanity,righteousness,propriety,andwisdon?Thisis
thereasonwhyman'snatureisgoodandmanisthelordofallcreation.KaoTzuaodidnotunderstandthatnatureisprinciple,andheconfusedmaterialforceandprinciple.28

AndintheTahsehhuowenChuHsisaid,
Manandthingsarecreatedinthefollowingorder:Theyareendowedwithprinciplebeforetheycompletethenatureofstrength,obedience,humanity,righteousness,propriety,
andwisdom.Aftertheyareendowedwithmaterialforce,theycompletethebodyofspirit,viscera,andskeleton...Fromthepointofviewofprinciple,astheoriginofeverything
isone,therecannotbeanydifferenceastonobilityandmeannessbetweenmanandthings.However,fromthepointofviewofmaterialforce,fairandtransparentmaterialforce
constitutesman,whileunfairandopaquemakesthings.Thustherecanbedifferenceastonobilityandmeannessbetweenmanandthings.29

JudgedbytheabovequotationsfromtheMengTzuchichuandtheTahsehhuowen,ChuHsiseemstohaveacknowledgedsomehowthedifferencebetweenthe
natureofmanandthenatureofthings.ChuHsi'sideas,therefore,mightprovetobefavorabletoHanWonjin.However,weshouldnoticethatChuHsi'sideaswere
notonlyaboutthedifferencebutalsothesimilaritybetweenthenatureofmanandthenatureofthings.Therefore,YiGancouldalsoquoteChuHsi'sideasinhis
support,andheinfactdid.30Thus,thecontroversybetweenYiGanandHanWonjinonthenatureofmanandthingsproceededalongendlessparallellines.

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VI
Thefactthatbothofthetwoscholars,YiGanandHanWonjin,quotedChuHsi'sideaimpliesthattheirscholarlypositionsremainedwithintheboundaryofChu
Hsi'sthought.IftheycouldmaintaincontrarypositionsonthebasisofChuHsi'sphilosophy,itmaybesaidthatChuHsi'sthoughtitselfcontainedantitheticalaspects
orcontradictions.
TomakethispointclearletusreviewChuHsi'sideasstatedintheTahsehhuowenandtheMengTzuchichu.First,ChuHsi'sideaintheformerworkcanbe
summarizedbysayingthatnature(theFiveConstantVirtuesornobilityandmeanness)ofmanandthingsisidenticalfromthepointofviewofprinciplebutdifferent
fromthepointofviewofmaterialforce.Principleandmaterialforcecannotbeseparatedinrealityitinvolvesacontradictiontospeak,allegedlyforthepurposeof
theoreticalclarification,oftheaspectofprinciplealoneoroftheaspectofmaterialforcealone.Asidefromthisproblem,YiGanandHanWonjin,fromthebeginning
oftheircontroversy,approvedoftheessentialpointoftheTahsehhuowen,thatis,ChuHsi'stheoryonthenatureofmanandthingsformedonthebasisof"nature
isprinciple."
ChuHsi'sideaintheMengTzuchichu,however,wasdifferent.Itcanbesummarizedassuggestingthatwhilefromthepointofviewofmaterialforcethereisno
differenceofsensoryfunctionbetweenmanandthings,fromthepointofviewofprincipletherereallyisadifferenceofhumanity,righteousness,propriety,andwisdom
ortheendowmentoftheFiveConstantVirtuesbetweenthem.Inotherwords,fromthepointofviewofmaterialforcethereisnodifferencebetweenthenatureof
manandthenatureofthings,whereasfromthepointofviewofprinciple,thereisadifferencebetweenthem.
Inthelastanalysis,thepointoftheMengTzuchichumaybesaidtocontradictthatoftheTahsehhuowen(andtheChungyungchangchap[Commentaryon
theDoctrineoftheMean]).Thus,itmaybeconcludedthatthereisatheoreticalcontradictioninChuHsi'sideaonthenatureofmanandthings.Howareweto
interpretthisseemingcontradiction?
IfweprobeintothecontentsoftheTahsehhuowenandtheMengTzuchichu,wecanfindthateachworkusesthesametermsindifferentcontexts.Inother
words,weneedtocallattentiontothefactthatChuHsiusedtermssuchasprinciple,materialforce,andnaturewithdifferentconnotationsinthecontextofeach
work.
Materialforce,mentionedintheTahsehhuowen,constitutesconcretesensorysubstances,for,withitscharacteristicsof"clearness,""turbidity,""purity,"and
"impurity",itenableseverythingtohaveitsownappearance,color,andsize.Ontheotherhand,principleisanoriginal,abstract,anduniversalentityandsinceitis
usuallyassertedthatprinciplecomesbeforemate

Page579

rialforce,itisfreefrommaterialforce.Therefore,inthiscase,natureasprinciplemeanstheoriginalnatureconsideredintermsofprinciplebeingoneandits
manifestationsbeingmany(liifenshuaq)inthetheoryoftheGreatUltimate.Inthiscase,therefore,nature,whichwascalled"theOneOrigin"byYiGan,
correspondstotheoriginalnatureofeverything,manandthingstogether.Ifmanandthingsessentiallyhavesuchnatureincommon,thedifferencebetweenthemis
reducedtoonlyaphenomenalone.
ButthesametermsareuseddifferentlyintheMengTzuchichu.Here,materialforceisusedmoreasasensoryfunctionorcharacteristicthanasaphenomenal
sensorysubstance.Andprincipleinthisworkmeanshumanity,righteousness,propriety,andwisdommentionedintheBookofMencius,2A:6and6A:6,andis
believedtobeinherentinthehumanmind.Therefore,itmeanstheprinciplewithinmaterialforce.Thus,inthiscasenaturemeansman'sessentialnaturethat
distinguishesmanfromotheranimals.Moreover,natureherecanbeextendedtomeaneveryinnatecharacteristicofthingsthatdistinguishesonekindfromtheother.
Seeninthislight,thedifferencebetweenmanandthingsismadepossibleessentiallyonthebasisthattheoriginalnatureisprinciple.Thus,thedifferencebetweenthem
originatingonthebasisofnonessentialandchangeablematerialforceisrathernegligible.Withrespecttoprincipleandmaterialforce,therefore,theTahsehhuo
wenstandsincontrasttotheMengTzuchichu.Accordingly,onemayinsistthattheseemingcontradictionbetweenthetwoworksisamatterofdifferencein
expression,notincontent.ChuHsihimselfmighthaveexplainedhimselfinsomesuchaway.
Thoughsuchanexplanationmaybeacceptable,thisproblemmaybesaidtoremainunsolvedaslongasthereisacontradictionsuggestedinthedifferentwaysof
expressionwithrespecttoprincipleandmaterialforce.ThedifficultyarisesbecauseChuHsifrequentlyusedtheterms"principle"and"nature"interchangeably.
Principle,however,hasonlyoneusagewhilenatureissometimesusedastheoriginalnatureandsometimesasthephysicalnature.Thus,theobscurityremainsbecause
ofthedifficultycausedbyidentifyingeitheroftwonatureswithoneprinciple.Viewedinthisrespect,thedifficultyinexpressionmaybethoughttobeamethodological
ambiguityimplicitinChuHsi'stheoryofhumannature.
ThemethodologicalweaknessofChuHsi'sphilosophycomesfromhiswantingtoholdtoatwowaydivisionofprincipleandmaterialforce.Forhim,principleand
materialforcearealwaysincontrast,andtheircharacteristics,whichareoftenexplainedrespectivelyasbeingabovephenomenalforms(hsingerhshangar)andbeing
withinphenomenalforms(hsingerhhsiaas),arealsoopposedtoeachother.Inaddition,thefundamentalideaofhistheoryofprincipleandmaterialforceholdsthat
thephenomenalnatureisformedbytheinseparablerelationofantitheticalprincipleandmaterialforce.Itmaythereforebesaidthattheambiguityofhismethodology
resultedfromhis

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applyingtheantitheticalandcontraryidearegardingprincipleandmaterialforcetoanexplanationofaphenomenonorafact.
CanitreallybesaidthatChuHsi'stheoryonthenatureofmanandthingshasaflawonlyinexpressionandnotincontent?
VII
WehaveseenthatboththeTahsehhuowenandtheMengTzuchichumeanbyprincipletheoriginalnature,andthateachworkmentionsoriginalnaturein
differentcontextsandsenses.Tousethesametermindifferentsensesisthecauseofconfusion.ThecontradictioninChuHsi'sideadiscussedabovecanbesaidto
resultfromhisambiguoususeofatermbyemployingtwocontradictorysensesofthesametermondifferentoccasions.
Nevertheless,itisnotlikelythatChuHsimentionedtheoriginalnaturewithoutrecognizingthetwocontradictorysensesoftheword.Rather,thefactseemstobethat
thetwofoldmeaningoforiginalnaturewasindispensableinhisphilosophicalsystem.For,assuggestedinhisremark"eachthinghasitsownGreatUltimate,"31he
consolidatedthesystemof"principlebeingoneanditsmanifestationsbeingmany,"ontheonehand,andfollowedwholeheartedlyMencius'thoughtontheother.
Thus,itmaybethatthecontradictionimplicitinChuHsi'sviewoforiginalnatureisunavoidableinhisphilosophy.
Thereisalogicalcontradictionintheassumptionitselfthatmanretainshisnatureasathingwhileatthesametimemaintaininghisuniquehumannature.Likewise,the
twocontradictoryaspectsascribedtooriginalnaturecausedifficultiesinChuHsi'sphilosophy.Inthathis"originalnature"referstosomethingoriginalandultimate,it
transcendsthecategoryofindividualityorofhumanattribute.Ontheotherhand,originalnaturewithoutinnatehumanindividualitywouldloseitssignificanceinhis
philosophy.Therefore,thecontradictionimplicitinChuHsi'sphilosophyashasbeendiscussedmaybeascribed,aboveallelse,tohisconceptoforiginalnature.We
maysay,then,thattheoppositepositionsofYiGanandHanWonjinaboutthenatureofmanandthingsarethemanifestationsofthecontradictionimplicitinthe
conceptoforiginalnatureinChuHsi'sphilosophy.
Itmustberecalledthatthediscussionaboutoriginalnaturehasaxiologicalimplicationsaswellasphilosophicalsignificance.Ithasbeenalreadysaidthataccordingto
Menciusoriginalnaturereferstohumanity,righteousness,propriety,andwisdom,characteristicsthatinthiscaseindicatethebasicgoodnessofhumannature,thatis,
theyarespokenofwithrespecttogoodandevil.Similarly,theGreatUltimateasoriginalnatureshouldbeconsiderednotonlyintermsoffactualimplicationas"the
sumtotalofprincipleofallcreation"32butalsointermsofthevaluejudgmentofgoodandevilas"thestandardofsupremegoodofallcreation."33Fundamentally,
originalnatureispredicatedonlyontherealityofprinciple.Butconsideringthatprincipleisinactivein

Page581

materialexistenceunlessitisinconjunctionwithmaterialforce,therealityoforiginalnatureasprincipleismeaningless.Thesignificanceoforiginalnatureliesinits
aspectofvalue,thatis,assupremegood.ThatChuHsiunderstoodtheproblemisclear.IntheTahsehhuowenheexamineswhetherthenatureofmanandthe
natureofthingsarethesamefromthepointofviewofnobilityandmeanness.
ItisinthisethicalcontextthatwecanunderstandthesignificanceofChuHsi'sideaonthenatureofmanandthings:ChuHsi'sthinkingonthedifferenceorsamenessof
man'snatureandthings'naturewasmotivatedbyhisdesiretoconserveandembodythehighestgoodandnoblestvalueinnateinthehumanmindandtopromotea
virtuousandmeaningfulhumanlifecommensuratewiththestatusofmanasthelordofallcreation.
VIII
ThesignificanceofYiGan'sandHanWonjin'sideaonthesamenessordifferenceofthenatureofmanandthenatureofthingscanalsobeevaluatedintheseterms.
LikeChuHsi,theyemphasizedthevalueoforiginalnature.YiGan,whomaintainedthesamenessofthenatureofmanandthenatureofthingsonthebasisthat
originalnatureistheGreatUltimateandMandateofHeaven,triedtopersuadeHanWonjinthat"notonlytheFiveConstantVirtues,butalsotheMandateofHeaven
andtheGreatUltimateareallnobleandgood."34Ontheotherhand,HanWonjin,whoupheldthedifferenceofthemonthebasisoftheFiveConstantVirtues,told
YiGanthat"thenatureofmanisnoblerthanthenatureofthings."35
Judgingfromtheabovequotation,wecansaythatYiGantriedtoconfirmtheignityofhumannaturebyemphasizingtheabsolutegoodnessoforiginalnature,while
HanWonjinattemptedtoestablishthedignityofhumannaturebyemphasizingtheuniquenobilityofgoodnessinherentinoriginalnature.Thus,theyhaveincommon
theintentionofestablishingthedignityofhumannatureasoriginalnature.Theydifferonlyinthewayofexpressingtheintention.Therefore,itmaybesaidthatthe
significanceoftheideasofthesetwoscholarsonthenatureofmanandthingsisnotdifferentfromthatofChuHsi.Theyalsorecognizedthesamenessordifferenceof
man'snatureandthings'nature,andthentriedtoconserveandembodythehighestgoodandnoblestvalueofhumannatureinordertopromoteanoblelifebecoming
manasthelordofallcreation.TheirideasonthenatureofmanandthingsaredevelopmentsoutofChuHsi'sphilosophy,foreachstoodononeofthetwoantinomic
positionsimplicitinChuHsi'sthought.
ThiscontroversyonthenatureofmanandthingsbroughtaboutanimportantconsequenceintheintellectualdiscussionofKoreanNeoConfucianism.Withthe
knowledgeandexperienceaccumulatedthroughthiscontroversyandalsothroughthedebateabout150yearsearlierontheinterpretationoftheFourSevenThesis,
NeoConfucianscholarsinKoreabegantostop

Page582

acceptingChuHsi'sthoughtindiscriminatelyandtoinquireintoChuHsi'sphilosophymorecarefullyandthoroughly.Asaresult,theycametodiscriminateinChuHsi's
thoughtthepointsofcertaintyanduncertainty,inconsistenciesduetotypographicalerrorsandmisinterpretations,andsoon.Andtheytriedtosortoutproblematic
pointssubjectbysubject.TheChuchaeonrondongigoat(TheidentityofthetheoryandremarksofMasterChu),whichhadbegunwithSongSiyeolandwas
completedfiftyyearslaterbyHanWonjin,representsonesuchattempt.Thiswork,motivatedbydebatescenteredonNeoConfucianissues,canbesaidtobea
monumentallandmarkinthedevelopmentofChuHsi'sthoughtinKorea.
TranslatedbySohnYootaekau
Notes
1.TheFourSevendebatecentersontheissuewhetherthefourmoralqualities(humanity,righteousness,propriety,andwisdom)andthesevenfeelings(pleasure,
anger,sorrow,joy,love,hate,anddesire)originatefromprincipleormaterialforce.Thisthesiswasintroducedinmy"AStudyonToegye'sViewonHumanNature,"
AStudyonToegye'sPhilosophy(Seoul:KoreaUniversityPress,1980),andinTuWeiming'sav"YiHwang'sawPerceptionoftheMind,"ToegyeHakboax[The
journalofToegyestudy],vol.19,(SeoulTheToegyehakStudyInstitute,1978).
2.YiGan,Woeahmyugoay[InheritedmanuscriptsofYiGan],(Seoul:ChoYongsung,az1977),7:15b.
3.Ibid.,7:16a.
4.Ibid.,7:16ab.
5.Ibid.,7:19ab.
6.Ibid.,7:18b.
7.HanWonjin,Namdangjipba[CollectedworksofNamdang],(Seoul:ChaeInsik,bb1976),10:33b.
8.Ibid.,7:2b.
9.Ibid.,7:2b3a.
10.Ibid.,7:2b.
11.Woeahmyugo,7:17b.
12.Ibid.,7:18b.
13.Ibid.,7:22a.
14.Namdangjip,11:10a.
15.Ibid.,10:24b,30b.
16.Ibid.,10:22b.
17.Ibid.,10:30a.
18.Ibid.,10:32b33a.
19.Ibid.,10:22b.
20.Ibid.,10:25b.
21.Ibid.,11:44abandWoeahmyugo,12:25,2634.
22.Woeahmyugo,12:34b.
23.Chungyungchangch,ch.1.
24.Namdangjip,10:25a.

Page583

25.Ibid.,11:16b.
26.Ibid.,10:32a.ChuHsi'scommentisontheBookofMencius,6A:3.
27.Ibid.,11:1b.ChuHsi'scommentisonthetextoftheGreatLearning.
28.MengTzuchichu,11:88a.KaoTzu(420350B.C.?)wasanopponentofMenciusandheldthatman'snatureisneithergoodnorevilandthatrighteousness
comesfromtheoutside.SeetheBookofMencius,6A:16.
29.Tahsehhuowen(Seoul:Kyongmunsa,bc1977),pp.2223.
30.Woeahmyugo,7:18a.
31.ChuTzuylei[ClassifiedconversationsofMasterChu],(Seoul:ChoYongsung,1977),94:365a.
32.Ibid.,94:367b.
33.Ibid.
34.Woeahmyugo,7:19a.
35.Namdangjip,11:24b.
Glossary

Page584

31
TheTraditionoftheWayinJapan
YamazakiMichio
TheTraditionoftheWay
TheTraditionoftheLearningoftheWayoriginatedwithMencius(372289B.C.?),whosaid,"ThesourceoftheLearningoftheWayistobefoundinYaoaand
Shun,b1andConfucius[551479B.C.]inheritedit.Iliveinthetimeclosetothatwhenhelived,andIwasbornintheneighborhoodofhisnativeplace.UnlessIgo
forthtotransmitthesacredWay,howcoulditbehandeddowntoposterity?Itismyselfthatcandoit,Ibelieve."2
YoshidaShoin*c(18301859)wasanardentJapaneseworshiperofMencius.Thoughitwasforbiddeninhiscountryinthosedaysforanyonetogoabroad,he
intendedtoboardanAmericanbattleshipanchoredintheHarborofShimoda,dIzueProvince,andgotoAmerica.3Tohisgreatregret,hewasrefusedandwas
captured.HewassenttohisnativeplaceatHagi,fChofugProvince,4andputinprison.TakingnoticeoftheabovesayingoftheBookofMencius,heremarkedinhis
Komoyowa*h(ThesupplementallecturesontheBookofMencius)whichhewroteinNoyamaiPrison,"ItisagreatsurprisethatMenciushimselfwishedtobean
inheritorofConfucius.Letuslistentohim.Weshouldkeepwhathesaidinourmindsaslongaswelive."5Yoshidawasamanofinspirationandsincerity.Hewas,in
mybelief,impressedsodeeplybyMencius'sayingthathewishedtocompletethereconstructionthatledtotheMeijijrestorationin1868.
Menciusconcludedhisbookwiththeremark"inthesecircumstances,istherenoonetotransmithisdoctrines?Yea,istherenoonetodoso?"6Itmeansthat,if
anyoneseesandknowstheWayofConfuciusanddoesnothanditdown,noonewilleverknowofit.Theformer"wuyu"k(noone)meanstoseetheWayofYao
andShunandknowit,andthelatter"wuyu"(noone)meanstoheartheWayandknowit,accordingtotheinterpretationofChuHsiwhohadfollowedLinChihch'il
(11311162).7Mencius,admiringConfuciusmostheartily,saidveryfirmly,"WhocouldhanddowntheWayofthegreatSageinlateryearsexceptmyself?"
HanYm(768824)inhis"Yantao"n(OntheWay)said,"WhatIcallthe

Page585
o

p8

q9

r10

WayisnottheWayoftheBuddhaorLaoTzu. ItistheWayYaoandShunoriginatedandhandeddownsuccessivelytoT'ang, Wen, Wu, theDukeof

Chou,s11Confucius,andMencius.Itwasforgottenafterhim.''12
MasterCh'eng,t13havingtakennoticeofthesayingofHanYthatMenciuswasthepurestofthepureandthatHsnTzuu(313238B.C.?)andYangHsiungv(53B.C.
A.D.18)didnotselecttheWayinitspurityandmoreoverdidnotapprehenditthoroughly,praisedHanYhighlyforknowingtheWayinthetruesenseathousand
yearsafterthedeathofMencius.14
WhydidthequestionofthetraditionoftheWayarise?MenciusregardedYangChu'sw(440360B.C.?)doctrineof"foroneself,"MoTi'sx(468376B.C.?)doctrine
of"universallove,"andTzumo'sy15doctrineof"holdingtheMeanbetweenthetwo"asobstaclesandrejectedthem.Tohim,theyareheterodoxy.16Whyisthe
principleofholdingtheMeanbetweenthetwoaheterodoxy?WhatisthedifferencebetweenhisprincipleandthatoftheMeantaughtbyYaotoShun?Mencius
attackedTzumofornotweighingthecircumstancesinadheringtotheMean.Weighingmeansbalancing,showingadaptability,shiftingtotherightortheleftaccording
totheweightofathing.IfonedoesnotconsiderthecircumstancesinadheringtotheMean,onesticksonlytoonesideanddoesnotseetheotherside,andintheend
hedestroystheWay.HetakesonlytheintermediateprincipleofYangChuandMoTiinhisunderstandingoftheMean.ChuHsiaffirmedthiscriticisminhis
commentaryonthepassage,saying,"TheMeanoftheWayofTzumolacksweighing.Tzumodoesnotweighevenwhenhetakesit.Headheresonlytoonesideof
athingwithouttheconsiderationofthecircumstances."ChuHsialsosaid,"'Beingforoneself'inflictsinjuryuponhumanity(jenz'benevolence'),'universallove'does
harmtorighteousness(iaa),andholdingtotheMeanofTzumohurtstheMeanaccordingtothetime(shihchungab).ShihchungintheDoctrineofMeandenotes
theadaptationtomoderation,consideringthecircumstancesaround."17
IntheageofHanY,theprincipleoftheBuddhaandLaoTzuspreadabroadandspoiledtheworld.HanYroseupagainstthem,sayingthattheirprinciples
dispelledhumanityandrighteousnessfromtheworld.18
IntheSungdynasty(9601279),theprincipleoftheLearningoftheWaywasshownfirstintheepitaphforthetombofCh'engHao(Ch'engMingtao,ac10321085)
writtenbyhisyoungerbrotherCh'engI(Ch'engIch'uan,ad10331107),19whichChuHsiquotedinhisMengTzuchichuae(CollectedcommentariesontheBookof
Mencius).19Ich'uanremarkedinit,"MyelderbrotherwasthemostsuitableforsucceedingMencius."IntheprefaceofhisChungyungchangchaf(Commentary
ontheDoctrineoftheMean)ChuHsiexplainedwhyTzussuag20hadwrittentheChungyung.ahHealsosupplementeditandexplaineditindetail.Headdedthatin
theSungdynastythetwoCh'engbrothershadsucceededTzussu.
Now,whatistheessenceofthespiritualcontentsofthetraditionoftheWay?AccordingtoChuHsi'sprefacetotheChungyungchangch,when

Page586
ai22

EmperorYaohandedoverhisempiretoShun,hetoldhimtotaketheMeanoftheWay,andShuntoldY thatitwasveryeasyforonetobemisledbyone'sown
avariceandoneshouldendeavortotaketheMeanoftheWaywithgreatcare,addingthatitwastheverybestwaytolivebyintheworld.23
HuangKan(HuangMienchai,aj11521221),thebestdiscipleofChuHsi,wrotetheShenghsientaot'ungtsunghsshuoak(Generaltreatiseonthetransmission
oftheWayofsagesandworthies)inwhichheenlargedtheinstructionsofhisteacher,explainedthetraditionoftheWayindetail,andtoldofthethoughtsofancient
sagesinthirteenarticleswithasummaryattheend.Hesaid,"ItistheprincipleofChuHsithatleadsonetoknowledgebystudies,abolishesone'savaricebydintof
selfcontrol,andmakeshimsincerebyabidinginsincerity."24
YamazakiAnsaial(16181682),foremostinthetraditionoftheWayinJapan,respectedtheChinssuluam(Reflectiononthingsathand)andexcludedallthe
explanationswrittenbyYehTs'aian(fl.1248),regardingthemasunsuitable.He,moreover,publishedabookwrittenbyWangCh'ichihaointheoriginalwithhis
preface.ItwasbywayofthisgreatworkinthetraditionoftheWayinJapanthatheexaltedthespiritoftheChinssulu.Hesaidinhisprefacein1670thattheway
oflearningisforonetoachievefullknowledgeandtoendeavortopracticeit,andtheonlywaytoaccomplishtheseistokeepone'soriginalmindandcultivateone's
nature.ThethirdchapteroftheChinssuluisonextensionofknowledge,thefourthchapter,onpreservingthemindandnourishingnature,andthefifthonconquering
oneselfYamazakiAnsaiexplainedinhisprefacethatabidinginseriousnessandplumbingprincipledependonselfcontrol.
InabaMokusaiap(17321799)wasastudentofSatoNaokataaq(16501719)inYamazakiAnsai'sschool.ItissaidthatMokusaiwasagreatscholarandthoroughly
absorbedYamazaki'sstudiesandlearning.HisdisciplewrotedownhislecturesandentitleditHakurokudokeijihikkiar(NotesontheannouncementattheWhite
DeerGrottoAcademy)in1797.Inhislecturehesaid,"Myteacher,YamazakiAnsai,publishedtheChinssuluinChuHsi'soriginalandhisownannotationsonthe
'Pailutunghsehkuei'as(AcademicregulationsattheWhiteDeerGrottoAcademy)withhighpraiseforitsauthor,ChuHsi."ThisshowsusthatAnsaiwasthe
originatoroftheLearningoftheWayinJapan.ThisremarkofMokusai'sonAnsaihasbeenhighlyregarded.
ThePrincipleofLearning
TheLearningoftheWaymeansthelearningbywhichoneknowstheSage'swayofliving.Ithastwomeanings:thelearningofConfucianisminthebroadsenseand
thatofthenatureandprincipleoftheCh'engbrothersandChuHsiinthenarrowsense.LetusexaminemoredeeplywhatthetruesenseoftheLearningoftheWayis
andwhohastrulytransmittedit.

Page587

IntheprefaceofChuHsi'sChungyungchangch,itissaidthatthecommentarywaswrittenbecauseTzussuwasworriedaboutthelossoftheLearningofthe
Way.Thiswasthefirsttimethattheterm"theLearningoftheWay"(Taot'ungat)appeared.IthadneverbeenusedinthetimeofYao,Shun,Confucius,orMencius.
ItshowsthattheageofChuHsihadbecomeconsciousoftheexistenceofheterodoxy.
Sato*NaokatawrotetheDogaku*hyotekiau(ThegoaloftheLearningoftheWay),whichincludesthelecturesofInabaMokusai.IntheseMokusaisaid,"My
fatherInabaUsaiav[16841760]said,'Thereasonwhytheterm"theLearningoftheWay"hascomeisthattheworldhasdeclinedandheterodoxlearninghas
appearedintheworld.Ithasbecomedifficulttorecognizewhetherlearningisgenuineornot,andthegenuinelearningcametobeknownastheLearningoftheWay
justasgoldiscalledgenuineorimitation.Just"learning"wouldbesufficient,butChuHsicalledittaohsehawtomeantheLearningoftheWay.'"25Now,Mokusai
saidinhislecturesonthe"Pailutunghsehkuei''asfollows:"Oneshouldlearnaswidelyaspossible,butunlessonereturnstothetwoworks,the'Pailutunghseh
kuei'andtheChinssulu,hislearningisofnouse."
Ansaisaidintheabovementionedpreface,"Itistobeadmiredextremelythatthe'Hsehkuei'explainstheWay.Itistobereadandappreciatedtogetherwiththe
Hsiaohsehax(Elementarylearning)andtheTahsehay(TheGreatLearning).FewreaditbecauseitiscollectedamongChuHsi'swritings.Ihangacopyofitin
mystudytoappreciateitasmuchaspossible.AfterwardsIreadtheTzushengluaz(Recordsofselfexamination)writtenbyLiTuihsi[YiHwang,YiToegyeba
15011570]tofindwithgreatadmirationthatitdealtwiththeWayinfulldetails."
AnsaiwasamanofkeeninsightenoughtofindoutthatLiT'uihsiwasthegreatestscholaronChuHsiinChosen(Korea).SatoNaokata,oneofAnsai'sgreatest
studentsalongwithAsamiKeisaibb(16521711)andMiyakeShosai*(16621741),wrotethe"Tojibun"bd(Essayatthetimeofthewintersolstice)forhisown
students.InithesaidthatLiT'uihsihadbeenthegreatestscholaroftheLearningoftheWaysinceChuHsi.Hehadtheinsighttofindthisoutjustashisteacher
Ansaihaddone.WhydidNaokatanotmentionhisteacherAnsaiasthegreatestscholarontheLearningoftheWayinhistreatise?ItwasbecauseAnsaiadvised
peopletoShinto*togetherwithConfucianisminhislateryears,accordingtoNaokata,whilehiscomradesremainedveryfaithfultotheLearningoftheWay.Naokata
andhiscirclewereagainstAnsai,becausetheyhatedtheconfusionofthetwosystemsandadmiredthepurityoftheLearningoftheWay.LiT'uihsi'sChuTzushu
chiehyaobe(EssentialsofMasterChu'sletters)andTzushengluhadagreatinfluenceonthestudyofChuHsiinJapan.ItistobenotedthatSatoNaokataandhis
schoolregardedtheChuTzushuchiehyaoand"Instructionstopupils"(chapters114121)oftheChuTzuyleibf(ClassifiedconversationsofMasterChu)as
absolutelyindispensableforstudentsoftheLearningoftheWay.

Page588

InabaMokusai,whenheknewthathisteacherYamazakiAnsaihadbeenextremelyexcitedbyLiT'uihsi'sTzushenglu,said,"MyteacherAnsaiwasregardedasa
manofobstinatecharacter,buthewassomodestastoadmireLiT'uihsi.Ansaistudiedsohardonhowtocultivatehimselfthathecouldappreciatethespiritofthe
Tzushengluverydeeply.Itwasfromhishumblepersonalitythathesaidheowedhisnoteson'Pailutunghsehkuei'toT'uihsi.Itisveryinterestingthat,attheage
ofthirtythree[in1650],hesaid,attheendofthepreface,'HowcouldIbeinferiortohiminspiteofthedifferenceofournationalities?'"
InabaMokusai'sschoolproducedMikamiZeanbg(18161876),oneofthebestdisciplesofOkudairaSeichianbh(17691822).HewrotetheFumotonoshirubebi
(Guidepostatthefootofahill)asaguidebooktotheLearningoftheWay,withasupplementalpedigreeentitled"LineageoftheLearningoftheWay"separatelyin
Hant'ubj(China)andinJapan.Theformerpartreads:"ItcamefromahighsenseofSato'sschool,anditisnoteworthythathementionedLiT'uihsiasthelastthinker
oftheLearningoftheWayinHant'u."26
InabaMokusaidaredremarkinhisDogaku*hyoteki*hikkibk(NotesontheGoaloftheLearningoftheWay),"ItisthebestforourSchooltoregardourteacher
Yamazakiasthestandard,Ithink,butIdislikehisconfusionofConfucianismwithShinto*.ItwasinordernottohurttheLearningoftheWaythatSato*Naokata
wrotetheDogakuhyoteki.ThemixtureofotherthoughtsintheLearningoftheWaywillbecomeanobstacletoit.ItisnotgoodfortheLearningoftheWay.When
helistenedtohisteacherYamazakiAnsaiexplainingShinto,MasterNaokatawishedthatShintowoulddisappearlikeatemporarydream."Thenheadded,"Some
disapproveofmebecauseofmyignoranceofSinto*,butitisnottrue.WhenanyonespeaksoftheLearningoftheWay,heshouldmentionnobodyexceptConfucius,
TsengTzu,bl27Tzussu,Mencius,ChouTunibm(10171073),thebrothersCh'engHaoandCh'engI,ChangTsaibn(10201077),andChuHsi.IknowthatIowe
whatIamtoMasterYamazakienoughtobeabletopreachtheLearningoftheWay,butwhenIspeakofthegoaloftheLearningoftheWay,Iamobligedto
mentionhisfaults."28IcanseefromthispointofviewthatcertainlyitwasthekeynoteofSato's*schooltoinvestigatetheLearningoftheWaythoroughly.
MikamiZeansaidinhisFumotonoshirube,"AccordingtoChenTehsiubo(11781235),theoriginoftheLearningoftheWayistobefoundinthefourwordsthat
YaotoldShunandthesixteenwordsthatShuntaughtY.OutofthemcamenotonlytheTahseh,theDoctrineoftheMean,theAnalects,andtheBookof
Mencius,butalsoallthetechnicaltermsintheBookofOdesandtheBookofHistory.Itisastreamoflearning."29Hepreachedtheinvestigationofprinciple,self
control,thestrictkeepingoftheWay,andthemethodoflearningwhichhiswisepredecessorshadshownhim.
ToreturntoSatoNaokata,hesaidintheprefaceofhisDogakuhyoteki,"ThephrasetaohseharoseintheSungdynasty.ItwasknownbeforeConfuciusand
MenciusthatlearningmeantmerelylearningtheWay,butvarious

Page589

namesforitcameoutafterMencius.InabaMokusaithoughtthatagoalwasneededfortheLearningoftheWay,andmadeselectionsfromConfucius,TsengTzu,
Tzussu,Mencius,MastersChou,Ch'eng,Chang,andChutoconstitutetheDogaku*hyoteki*."InabaMokusaiwroteinhisDogakuhyotekihikki,"Thebook
[Dogakuhyoteki]containsthesayingsoftheDoctrineoftheMeantotheeffectthatthefullalertnessofthemindtotheLearningoftheWayisthemasteringofthe
Waybybanishingtriflingavaricesandworldlythoughtssothemindcanbepurified,andthatitisnotuntiloneentersintothecoreofthemindsofthesagesthatone
caninherittheLearningoftheWay."30AnotherworkbyInabaMokusai,theDogakunijisetsubp(Atreatiseontheterm"taohseh"),isnotfoundinanyofhis
collectedworks.Acopyofitbymyteacher,UchidaShuhei*bq(18571944),isatreasurepreservedintheMukyukai*brLibraryinTokyo.InitInabaMokusaisaid,
"Thetwowords,taohseh,aretao(theWay)oftaot'ibs(thesubstanceoftheWay)combinedwithhseh(learning)ofweihsehbt(topursuelearning)inthe
ChinssuluandmeantheLearningoftheWay,accordingtotheprefaceoftheDoctrineoftheMean."31
Now,MiyakeShosai*,studentofAnsai,remarkedinhisKinshirokuhikkibu(NotesontheChinssulu),"Thetaot'iinthetitleofthefirstchaptermeansthe
substanceandexistenceoftheWay,whichistheobjectoflearning.OnewouldbelostintheWaywithouttheknowledgeofit.ThetitleWeihsehinthesecond
chaptermeansthemethodoftheLearningoftheWay.Theremainingtwelvechaptersdonotgobeyondthesetwoideas."32
WakabayashiKyosai*bv(16791732)wasadistinguisheddiscipleofAsamiKeisai,andOnoKakuzanbw(17011770)wasaleadingdiscipleofKyosai.The
Kinshirokukogi*bx(LecturesontheChinssulu)writtenbyKakuzanisanexcellentbook.Hesaid,"TheWayisthesubstanceofthingsintheirnaturalstateand
qualities.Firedries,waterdamps,someflowersarered,parentsaredear,andchildrenarelovely.Theyareinthestateofnatureitself.ItisthesubstanceoftheWay.
ItisbestforonetoactsolelyaccordingtothesubstanceoftheWay.Speakingoftaot'i,itisthefoundationoftheWay.Wherethereistaot'i,thereistheWay,and
humanmoralityexists."33ShosaiandKakuzanwereofthesameopinionasMokusai.
Now,MokusaisaidinhisDogakuhyotekihikki,"TheChinssulubyChuHsiisthebestandultimatebook.Oneneedsnootherbookthanit."Healsosaidinhis
TreatiseontheTermTaohseh,
ItwasYaoandShunwhooriginatedthetaohseh.WhentheytaughttofollowtheMean,itmeanttheMeanoftheWay,anditwastolearnitthoroughlyandexclusively.When
theLearningoftheWayhasbeenrealizedinaction,itistobeintimatewiththeninetribesasYaowas,34anditisthewayofShuntopracticetheFiveTeachings.35Therefore,the
WayofYaoandShunismoralityitself,whileMenciussaid,'TheWayofYaoandShuniffilialpietyandbrotherlyrespect,thatisall.'36TheprincipleofYaoandShunwashanded
downthrough

Page590
theThreeDynastiesofHsia[21831752B.C.?],Shang[17511112B.C.?],andChou[1111249B.C.]anditwasnaturalthatthelearningshouldbetheclarificationofmorality.The
WayofthesagesisbasedupontheFiveRelations37andtheFiveConstantVirtues38whichoriginatedfromHeaven.TheyarecalledtheWay,andthelearningofitiscalled
Learning.Therefore,intheLearningoftheWay,manisunitedwithHeaven.39

ItwasMokusaiwhoexplaineduniquelytheLearningoftheWaybyexplainingthetwowords,taoandhseh,forthefirsttime.
Healsosaid,
Therearetobeseen,inthe"CanonofKaoyao"byoftheBookofHistory,theFiveStandards,whicharerighteousness,affection,friendliness,respect,andfilialpiety.40Thisisthe
learningthatkeepspeoplecorrectandearnest.Heaven,destiny,andnatureintheDoctrineoftheMeanarethesubstanceoftheWay,anditisthemasteringoflearningthat
makesonecautiousandapprehensiveenoughtocatchholdofthem.Thesentenceinchapter30oftheDoctrineoftheMean,"SincerityisthewayoftheHeaven,"isastatement
onthesubstanceoftheWay,anditisessentialforlearningtomakesincerityone'sown.
TurningtoChuHsi,affection(betweenfatherandson),righteousness(betweenrulerandminister),separatefunctions(betweenhusbandandwife),order(betweenbrothers)and
faithfulness(betweenfriends)inthe"AcademicRegulationsattheWhiteDeerGrottoAcademy"areastatementonthesubstanceoftheWayandlearningextensively,inquiring
accurately,thinkingcarefully,siftingclearly,andpracticingearnestlyaretheessentialsforlearning.Theseareallmethodsoflearning.Itisverynaturalfortaoandhsehtogo
togetherwitheachother.Sometimestheygotogetherwitheachotherinheterodoxyalthoughtheyarewrong.Forinstance,LaoTzutaughtthattheWayisnonbeing.Hislearning
wastonothing.TotheBuddha,theWaymeansdeath.TheirlearningwasfarfromtheWay.Aheretictalksabouttaoandhseh,buttheyaredifferentfromtheWay.Whatis
basedupontheHeavenandhumanmoralityiscalledtheLearningoftheWay,whiletheother,heterodoxy.

Mokusaicontinued,"ThemeaningoftheLearningoftheWayisexplainedfullyinthe'Pailutunghsehkuei'byChuHsiandtheDogaku*hyoteki*bySato*
Naokata.Whenoneactsinaccordancewiththetwoworks,onecanrecognizethemeaningandsecretoftheLearningoftheWay."41Ansai,originatorofhisSchool,
wrote,attheageofthirtythree,theCollectedCommentariesonthe"Pailutunghsehkuei,"admiringandrecommendingit.Mokusai,followinghim,broughtto
aclimaxthelearningofhisSchool.
HealsosaidinhisDogakuhyotekihikki,"WhydidSatoNaokatawritetheDogakuhyoteki?TheChinssulubyChuHsiisthesupremeandultimatebookonthe
LearningofthetheWay.NaokatawrotetheKogaku*bensakurokubz(Recordsofencouragementoflearning)attheageofthirtysix,selectingChuHsi'ssayingsin
ordertoencourageandpromotethemmoreover,hewrote,attheageofsixtythree,theDogakuhyotekiinordertomakeclearer

Page591
42

theendandaimoftheLearningoftheWay.NaokataadvisedustoreadtheHyoteki*first,andthentheBensakuroku."

HowwastheprincipleoftheDogaku*hyoteki*transmittedtoInabaUsaiandhissonMokusai?ItisexplainedintheHimejimakogi*ca(LectureratHimejima).43
UsaiwrotetheessenceoftheDogakuhyoteki,andsenthissonMokusaitohiseightdiscipleslivinginKazusacbProvince.Thesonthenpresentedhisfather'swritings
andgavelecturesatHimejimaontheDogakuhyoteki,whichcametobecalledHimejimakogi.HemovedthereattheageoffiftyfromEdocc(nowTokyo)to
devotehimselftostudyandcultivationuntilhediedthereattheageofsixtyeight.Hiswritings,whichhegavetohisdisciples,areveryvaluableforunderstandingthe
traditionoftheWayfromSato*NaokatatoInabaUsaiandMokusai.MokusaiandallhisSchoolregardedtheAnalects,4:844astheirdoctrine.MikamiZean,
discipleofMokusai,saidinhisKoshin*Zatsurokucd(Miscellaneousjottings)writtenin1860whenhewasfortythree,"NaokataadoptedtheAnalects,4:8,asthe
basisofhislearning.MyteacherOkudairaSeichiansaidthatthesagesofSato's*Schoolwouldbethesameasthoseofotherschoolsiftheydidnottakemuchnotice
ofthissaying."Zeanalsosaidinchapter14ofhisOgawanoMasagoce(Realsandinasmallriver)thatonefeelsjoyfulwhenonehearsandknowstheWayjustasa
blindmandoeswhenhiseyesareopenandcanseethings.Sato'sSchoolhastransmittedlinesselectedfromafamouspoembyChuHsi:"Isalutethemindofa
thousandyears./Theautumnmoonshinesonthecoldwater."45Thepassagemaybeinterpretedthus:WhenIthinkrespectfullyofthesageswhohavebeenkeepingthe
principleofthetraditionoftheLearningoftheWayforthousandsofyearssinceYaoandShun,itshinesandreflectsuponmymind,justastheclearmoonisshining
andreflectinguponthepurewater.TheautumnmoonpointstotheprincipleofYaoandShunandthecoldwatertotheauthor'spure,unspoiledmind.
ReturningtoMokusaionceagain,hesaidinhisDogakuhyotekihikki,"OnefeelsconfuseduntilhehasheardtheWay.Whenhehasheardit,hegetsreadyfor
death.Thesentence,'InthemorningheartheWayintheevening,diecontent!'doesnotmeanoneiswillingtodieactually,butmeanstheimportanceoftheWay."46
MokusaialsosaidinhisDogakuhyotekihikkithatthetraditionoftheWayisnotonlyheardandwritten,butalsotobekeptinmind,andthatwhenonehasacquired
theprincipleofChuHsi,onehasgainedthatofYaoandShun.Hewrotehislastbook,theRokuhachirokucf(Recordedattheageofsixtyeight)in1799anddiedin
thesameyear.InthebookhesaidthatthemindofasagecontainsnothingexceptthemindoftheWay,justastheautumnmoonreflectsonthecoldwater.
Similarly,MikamiZeansaidinchapter14ofhisOgawanomasago,"Mokusaiadoptstheautumnmoonandthecoldwaterwhicharethepurestintheworld.The
principleoftheWayalwaysreflectsonthemind,justasthemoonshinesonthewater.ItisthetraditionoftheWaythattheprinciplereflectsonthemind."Thereare
twokindsofsagesinthetraditionofthe

Page592

LearningoftheWay,hesaid,theperfectandthenearperfect.PerfectsageswereYao,Shun,Y,T'ang,Wen,Wu,theDukeofChou,Confucius,certainConfucian
pupils,MenciusandtheearlySungNeoConfucianists,andChuHsi,whilethenearperfectsageswerecertainotherConfucianpupils,followersofearlySungNeo
Confucianists,andfollowersofChuHsi.
KusumotoSekisuicg(18321916)undertheinfluenceofMiyakeShosai*gavelecturestoKaizanch(18731921),sonofhiselderbrotherKusumotoTanzanci
(18281883),whichwerecollectedandproducedunderthetitletheSeigakuyoryo*cj(EssentialsoftheLearningoftheSage).Itbeginswiththe"CannonofY"in
whichShun'sdoctrinesweretransmittedtoY,andendswiththesentenceintheprefaceoftheChinssuluwrittenbyYamazakiAnsai.Topreservethemindand
nourishnature,penetratethroughextensionofknowledgeandearnestpractice,itmaybesaidthathespeakstothepoint,mentioningthebeginningofthetraditionof
theLearningoftheWayandtheendofit.
TranslatedbyEto*Hatsumick
Notes
1.LegendarysageemperorsofthethirdmillenniumB.C.
2.BookofMencius,7B:38.
3.NowShimodaCity,ShizuokaclPrefecture.
4.NowHagiCity,YamaguchicmPrefecture.
5.YoshidaShoin*zenshu*cn[CompleteworksofYoshidaShoin*](Tokyo:IwanamicoBookCo.,1939),ch.3,p.511.
6.BookofMencius,7B:35translationbyJamesLegge.
7.AhighofficialinthegovernmentofSouthernSung(11271279).
8.FounderoftheShangdynasty.
9.FounderoftheChoudynasty.
10.SonofKingWenandfirstrulerofChou.
11.YoungerbrotherofKingWu.
12.HanY,HanCh'anglich'anchicp[CompleteworksofHanY],(SPPYed.),11:5a.
13.ThebookdoesnotspecifyifthisisCh'engHao'sorCh'engI'ssaying.
14.Ishucq[Survivingworks],1:3b4a,intheErhCh'engch'anshucr[CompleteworksofthetwoCh'engs],(SPPYed.).
15.AsageinthestateofLu.
16.BookofMencius,7A:26.
17.MengTzuchichucs[CollectedcommentariesontheBookofMencius].
18.HanY,op.cit.
19.Ich'uanwenchict[CollectionofliteraryworksofCh'engI],7:7b,intheErhCh'engch'anshu.
20.CommentontheBookofMencius,7B:38.
21.GrandsonofConfuciustowhomtheDoctrineoftheMeanhasbeentraditionallyattributed.

Page593

22.FounderoftheHsiadynasty,asagekingintheConfuciantradition.
23.BookofHistory,ch.3,"CounseloftheGreatY."
24.Mienchaichicu[CollectedworksofHuangKan],(PreciousworksoftheFourLibrariesed.),36:39b.
25.ManuscriptpreservedattheMukyukai*,preface,p.1b.
26.Fumotonoshirube(Tokyo:Dogaku*kyokai*,cv1921),p.3b.
27.TsengTzu'sprivatenamewasTs'an.cwOneofthemostoutstandingpupilsofConfucius,heisinthemainlineoftransmissionoftheWay.
28.A1790manuscriptpreservedattheMukyukai,pp.6b7a.
29.Fumotonoshirube,p.5a.
30.PrefacetotheDogaku*hyoteki*.
31.AmanuscriptpreservedattheMukyukai.
32.ExplanationofthetitleofthefirstchapterinhiscommentaryontheChinssulu.
33.ExplanationofthetitleofthefirstchapterinhisKinshirokukogi*.
34.SeetheBookofHistory,ch.1,"CanonofYao,"sec.2.
35.Ibid.,ch.2,"CanonofShun,"sec.19.ShuntoldhisministerHsehcxtospreadtheFiveTeachings,namely,affectionbetweenfatherandson,righteousness
betweenrulerandminister,separatefunctionsbetweenhusbandandwife,orderbetweenbrothers,andfaithfulnessbetweenfriends.
36.BookofMencius,6B:2.
37.Thefiverelationsmentionedinn.35.
38.Humanity,righteousness,propriety,wisdom,andfaithfulness,orthefivemoralqualitiesmentionedinn.35.
39.Dogakunijisatsu.
40.Ch.2intheBookofHistory.
41.Dogakunijisatsu.
42.PrefacetotheDogakuhyoteki.
43.HimejimaisinKazusa,ChibacyPrefecture(formerlyKazusaProvince).
44.HereConfuciussaid,"Inthemorning,heartheWayintheevening,diecontent!"
45.From"FeelingArousedWhileRestingintheStudy,"ChuTzuwenchicz[CollectionofliteraryworksofMasterChu],ch.4,thetenthof20verses.
46.Dogakuhyotekihikki,p.12a.
Glossary

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Page595

AppendixA
BiographyofChuHsi
WingtsitChan
ChuHsi'sfamilycameoriginallyfromWuyan,awhichwaspartofHuichoubPrefecture,earliercalledHsinan.cHisfather,ChuSungd(10971143),movedto
Fukientoserveasadistrictsheriff,andChuHsiwasbornin1130whenthefamilywaslivingtemporarilyinYuch'i(orYuhsie),Fukien.Hebeganhisschoolingat
five,andevenatthatagehewasinquisitiveenoughtoaskwhatlaybeyondthesky.Ateight,whenhewasgiventheClassicofFilialPiety,hedeclaredthatoneis
notamanunlessonefulfillsitsideals.
In1140hisfather,thenassistantdirectorintheministryofpersonnel(lipuyanwailangf),resignedbecauseheopposedmakingpeacewiththeChininvadersand
wenttoliveinChienyanggCounty,Fukien.ChuHsiwastutoredathome.Threeyearslaterhisfatheronhisdeathbedexpressedthewishthatheshouldstudywith
LiuTzuhuih(11011147),LiuMienchihi(10911149)andHuHsienj(10861162).LiuMienchihlikedhimsomuchthathegavehimhisdaughterinmarriage.He
obtainedthechinshihkdegreein1148,atnineteen.
In1151hewasappointeddistrictkeeperofrecords(magistrate)(chupu1)ofT'unganmCountyinFukienandservedtherefrom1153to1156.Heincreasedschool
enrollmenttocapacity,builtalibrary,regulatedsacrificialrites,enforcedmarriageceremonies,strengthenedcitydefense,andbuiltamemorialtempleforalocal
worthy.BeforehewenttoT'ungan,hewenttoseeLiT'ungn(10931163)andonhiswaybackin1158hewalkedseveralhundredlio(aliisonethirdofamile)to
seehimagain.In1160heattendedhimasapupil,andin1162hevisitedhimagain.ThroughhisinfluenceChuHsidiscardedhisinterestinMeditationBuddhism
(Ch'anp)andconcentratedonConfucianism.TheConfuciandoctrineasdevelopedbyCh'engHaoq(10321085)andCh'engIr(10331107)wastransmittedtoLi
T'ungbyLoTs'ungyens
Reproduced,withmodifications,fromHerbertFranke,ed.,SungBiographies(Wiesbaden:FranzSteinerVerlag,1976),pp.282290.

Page596
t

(10721135),whohadreceiveditfromtheCh'engbrothers'pupilYangShih (10531135).SotheConfuciantraditionwasfirmlyestablishedinChuHsi'searlylife.
In1159ChuHsiwascalledtothetemporarycapital,Linanu(modernHangchou),butbecausesomeonehadtriedtoblockhim,hedeclined.WhenEmperorHsiao
tsungvascendedthethronein1162,ChupresentedasealedmemorialinwhichheurgedtheemperortopracticetheConfucianteachingsofsincerityofthewilland
rectificationofthemindastaughtintheGreatLearning,nottomakepeacewiththeChin,andtoputworthymeninoffice.Inresponsetoanimperialsummons,he
reachedLinanlatein1163.Atthattimetheprimeminister,T'angSsut'uiw(d.1164),wasintentonmakingpeacewiththeChin,butinhisthreeaudienceswiththe
emperorChuHsiexhortedtheemperortoinvestigatethingsandtoextendhisknowledge(alsotaughtintheGreatLearning),torepulsetheChin,andtolistentothe
people.Atyear'sendhewasmadeprofessorofthemilitaryacademy(wuhsehposhihx).Hewenttotakeofficein1165,butfindingthatprimeministerHungHuay
(11171184)wasabouttoappeasetheChin,hereturnedtoWufuzVillageinCh'unganaaCounty,Fukien,whichhadbeenhishomesince1143.Forthenext
fourteenyears,herepeatedlydeclinedoffice.
Hewasextremelyproductiveinthisperiod,writingmanybooks,attractingpupils,andcarryingonvoluminouscorrespondenceinscholarlydiscussions.In1166he
correspondedwithChangShihab(11331180)andothersinHunanonthesubjectofequilibriumandharmony,believingthatthesecanbeattainedonlyafterthemind
hasbecomeactive.Infurtherlettersexchangedwiththemin1169,hecametorealizethattheattainmentcancomebothbeforeandafter,apointwhichmaybe
regardedasthefullmaturityofhisideas.HecompiledtheHonanCh'engshihishuac(SurvivingworksofthetwoCh'engsofHonan)in1168,afactthatsuggests
thatbythistimehehadtakentheConfucianism,orratherNeoConfucianism,developedbytheCh'engbrothersastheorthodoxline.In1172hewrotetheHsiming
chiehiad(ExplanationofthemeaningoftheWesternInscription[byChangTsai,ae10201077])andayearlater,theT'aichit'ushuoaf(Commentaryonthe
ExplanationoftheDiagram[ofChouTuni,ag10171073]),usingthemrespectivelyastheethicalandthecosmologicalpatternsforNeoConfucianism.Heregarded
theseworks,however,asofsuchsubtlesignificancethathedidnotshowthemtostudentsuntil1188.In1175LTsuch'ienah(11371181)cametovisithim,and
togethertheyselectedfromtheworksofChouTuni,theCh'engbrothers,andChangTsaitoformtheChinssuluai(Reflectionsonthingsathand).Thefirst
anthologyofitskind,itformedthebroadbasisofNeoConfucianthought,servedastheprototypeoflateranthologiesforseveralhundredyears,andwasthemodel
fortheHsinglitach'anaj(Greatcollectionof

Page597

NeoConfucianism)of1415whichcametodominateChinesethoughtforcenturies.DuringthisvisitLTsuch'ienarrangedameetingofChuHsiandLuChiuyan
(LuHsiangshan,ak11391193)attheGooseLakeTempleinKiangsitocomposetheirconflictingviews.Each,however,continuedinhisownopinion,LuHsiang
shanfor''honoringthemoralnature"andChuHsifor"followingthepathofinquiryandstudy."In1177ChuHsiannotatedtheAnalectsandtheBookofMencius,
supportinghisowninterpretationswiththoseofotherNeoConfucianists.HehadbeenworkingintheseClassicsforyearsandhewantedthesedraftstorepresent
thehighestlevelofhisreconstructionofNeoConfucianism.Buthislifewasbynomeansconfinedtotheories.Inhisvillage,forexample,heestablishedacommunity
granarywhichprovidedthesurroundingareaofsomefiftyliwithsufficientfoodandbecamethemodelinmanyareasforcenturies.
In1179hebecameprefectofNank'angalPrefecture(presentHsingtzuamCounty,Kiangsi).Hehadrefusedtheappointmenttwiceandacceptedonlyatthestrong
proddingofLTsuch'ienandChangShih.WhileinNank'anghepromotededucation,personallylecturingtostudentseveryfourorfivedays.Hebuiltatemplefor
ChouTuniandreestablishedtheWhiteDeerHollowAcademy,animportantinstitutionwhichwastoplayagreatroleinNeoConfucianismandwhichservedasthe
leadingacademyforhundredsofyears.Hebuiltdikesandgreatlyimprovedmeasurestopreventfamine.In1180heinfuriatedtheemperorbysendinginasealed
memorialinwhichheinsistedthateconomicdistress,militaryweakness,andpoliticalcorruptioncanberemovedonlyiftherulerrectifieshismind.HeinvitedLu
HsiangshantotheWhiteDeerHollowAcademytolecture,andLu'slectureonthedistinctionbetweenrighteousnessandprofitmovedhisaudiencetotears.ChuHsi
hadthelecturewrittendownforhisstudents,anditwaslaterinscribedonstone.
Whenhistermexpiredin1181,hewasappointedsuperintendentdesignateinchargeofaffairsofevernormalgranaries,tea,andsalt(ch'angp'ingch'ayenkung
shihan)inChiangnanaoWest(elevenprefecturesinAnhuiandChekiang).Whilewaitingtotakeoffice,hereturnedhome,andwhenlaterintheyeartherewasagreat
famineinChekiangEast(sixprefecturesinChekiang),theprimeminister,WangHuaiap(11271190),recommendedthathebegiventhesamepositioninthatarea.
Duringthetwelvemonthsheheldthispost,hetouredthestrickenareaextensivelyandestablishedcommunitygranariesimpeachedtwoprefects(includingarelative
ofWangHuai),twomagistrates,andseveralbigfamiliesforcontributingtothefamineanddestroyedCh'inKuei'saq(10901155)temple.Hehadanaudiencewith
theemperorandtookhimtotaskforallowingwickedofficialstorule.Atthattimetheministerofcivilpersonnel(hupushangshuar),ChengPingas

Page598
at

au

(fl.11311198),memorializedtoattackthedoctrinesofthetwoCh'engs.ThecensorCh'enChia attackedtheTaohseh, asNeoConfucianismwasthencalled,

ashypocrisy.BothofthemwereaimingatChuHsi,buttheirattacksdidnotdeterhimfrompromotingNeoConfucianism.In11841185hecriticizedin
correspondencetheidealisticdoctrineofLuHsiangshanandtheutilitarianismofCh'enLiangav(11431194).EvenLTsuch'ienwasnotspared.Twoyearslaterin
1187,ChuHsiwasappointedjudicialintendantofChiangnanWest(Chiangnanhsilut'itienhsingyehaw)butinthesixthmonthof1188,beforehetookoffice,
hehadanaudiencewiththeemperorduringwhichheemphasizedthatonlywhenthePrincipleofHeavenovercomeshumanselfishdesires,whenthemindisrectified,
andwhenthewillbecomessincerecaneconomicdifficultiesberemoved,thegovernmentbereformed,andtheenemyberepulsed.Bythistime,theemperorwas
tiredofhismoralizing.Hewasappointedtobedirectorinthearmyministry(pingpulangkuanax)buthedeclined.Thereuponhewastoldtoassumethejudicial
intendency.Intheeleventhmonth,feelingthathehadstillnotfullyexpressedhimself,hesentasealedmemorialinwhichheadvocatedthesixmeasuresofrectifyingthe
mind,employingworthyofficials,enforcingdiscipline,reformingsocialcustoms,providingforthewelfareofthepeople,andreformingthemilitary.Thoughthe
emperorhadretiredbythetimethememorialarrivedatmidnight,hegotupandreaditbycandlelight.ThenextmorningChuHsiwasappointedjuniorexpositorin
waiting(Ch'ungchengtienshuoshuay),butsincesomeofficialsstillconsideredtheTaohsehasevil,hedeclinedtheappointment.
From1190to1191hewasprefectofChangchouazPrefectureinFukien.Hepromotedmoraleducation,regulatedceremonies,abolishedirregulartaxes,prohibited
menandwomenfromcongregatinginBuddhistabodestorecitescriptures,bannednunneries,andimpeachedamagistrateforprofiteering.Hisrecommendationsfor
landandtaxreforms,however,wentunheeded.In1194hewaspacificationcommissionerofChinghubaSouthbasedatT'anchoubbPrefecture(presentCh'angsha,
Hunan)forthreemonths,justlongenoughtopersuaderebelliousnativestosurrenderandtocarryoutsomeeducationalreforms.WhenEmperorNingtsungbc
ascendedthethronethatyear,attherecommendationoftheprimeministerChaoJuybd(11401196)hewasmadelecturerinwaitingandpropoundedtheGreat
Learning.Hereducedthenumberofholidaysandlecturedoneverysecondday.Hewasawardedanearldom.Butthen,becauseheattackedtheinfluentialimperial
relativeHanT'ochoube(d.1207),hewasrelievedinspiteoftheinterventionofChaoJuy.Theemperorhadwantedhimonlytolecture,nottointerferewithhis
affairs.ChuHsireturnedtoFukienandsettledinK'aot'ingbfinChienyangCounty,about120lifromWufuVillage.

Page599
bg

bh

BythistimeHanT'ochouhadcentralizedpowerinhisownhands.HeaccusedChaoJuyofconspiracy,andChaofledtoYungchou (presentLingling County,

Hunan)towardtheendof1195.ChuHsidraftedalongmemorialtoattackwickedofficialsandbyinferencetodefendChaoJuy.Hispupils,sensingthegrave
consequencesofsuchamove,urgedhimtoreachadecisionthroughdivination.Theresultofthedivinationwasthehexagramtunbi(towithdraw)initsvariationof
chiajenbj(family),whereuponChuHsiburnedthedraftandchangedhisliterarynametoTunwengbk(oldmanwhohaswithdrawn).
Duringthealmostfiftyyearsafterhereceivedhisdegree,heheldofficeinthegovernmentforonlynineyearsandattendedatCourtfornomorethanfortysixdays.In
histhreesealedmemorialstotheemperorin1162,1180,and1188andinthethreeaudienceswiththeemperorin1163,1181,and1188hedesperatelytried
politicalandmoralreforms.Inofficeheprovedtobeacourageousandeffectiveadministrator.Buthedidnotcherishapoliticalcareer.Hedeclinedmanypositions,
notablycompilerdesignateofthebureauofmilitaryaffairs(Shumiyanpienhsiubl)in1169,librarianoftheimperialarchivesin1176,anotherpostintheimperial
archivesin1181,judicialintendencyinChiangnanWestin1182,ministryexecutiveinthedepartmentofarmyandjuniorexpositorinwaitingin1188,assistant
regionalfinancecommissionerofChinghuSouth(inHunanandpartofKwangsi)(Chinghunanlubm)in1191,andpacificationandplanningcommissionerof
KuangnanbnWest(inKuangsi)in1192.In1169hedeclinedthepostofcompilerinthebureauofmilitaryaffairsthreetimes,andbetween1170and1173he
declinedthesummonstothecapitalfivetimes.In1178heacceptedthepostatNank'angonlyafterfourrefusals.Oftenhepleadedafootailmentbutactuallyhewas
unwillingtosupportappeasersandcorruptofficials.
Apoormanpracticallyallhislife,heseveraltimesrequestedandobtainedatempleguardianship,asinecurethatenabledhimtostayathomewithleisuretoteach,
write,anddiscusswiththemostoutstandingscholarsoftheday.InthesewayshededicatedhislifetothesynthesisandcompletionofNeoConfucianism.By
organizingthephilosophiesofChouTuni,theCh'engbrothers,andChangTsaiintoaharmoniouswhole,hedeterminedthedirectionofNeoConfucianism,
completeditstheoriesoftheGreatUltimate,principle(libo),andmaterialforce(ch'ibp),definedthelineoforthodoxtransmissionoftheConfuciantradition,brought
Ch'engI'sdoctrineofinvestigationofthingstothehighestpoint,andinauguratedthemovementofoverthrowingtraditionalinterpretationsofsuchConfucianClassics
astheBookofHistory,theBookofOdes,andotherworks.
ButtogovernmentofficialsNeoConfucianismwasadangerousdoctrine.By1196theirattacksonNeoConfucianismas"falselearning"had

Page600
bq

br

becomeintense.TheteachingsofCh'engIandotherswereproscribed.Theinvestigatingcensor(chiench'ayshih )ShenChitsu impeachedChuHsiforten

crimes,including"falselearning."ThisactionwasinstigatedbyHuHungbs(1163cs),vicepresidentofimperialsacrifices(T'aich'angshaoch'ingbt),whohadbeen
offendedbecauseyearsbeforewhenhevisitedChuHsi,hewastreatedwithplainfoodwithoutwineorachickendish.Anofficialcandidate,YChe,bueven
petitionedforhisexecution.AsaresultoftheseattacksChuwasdismissedfromhiscompilerappointmentandfromhistempleguardianshipaswell.Ts'aiYantingbv
(11351198),whomChuHsiregardedasafriendratherthanapupilandwithwhomheassociatedlongerthananyoneelse,wasbanishedandwassoughtforarrest
andin11971198theattackson"falselearning"becameevenmoresevere.Inthefollowingyear,athisrequest,histitlewasremovedandhebegantoreceivevisitors
intheinformalattireofaplaincitizen.Ayearlater,in1200,hedied.Inspiteofthepoliticalatmosphere,almostathousandpeopleattendedhisfuneral.Whenthe
politicalclimateimprovednineyearslater(1209),hewashonoredwiththeposthumoustitleofWenbw(Culture),andin1230,hewasgiventhetitleofStateDukeof
Huibxin1241histabletwasplacedintheConfucianTemple.
DuringhislifetimeChuHsiwrote,compiled,andannotatedalmostahundredworksinthefieldsofphilosophy,history,religion,literature,andbiographicalwriting.
Besidesthosealreadymentioned,theSsushuchangchchichuby(DivisionintochaptersandsentencesandcollectedcommentariesontheFourBooks)mustnot
beoverlooked.InadditiontotheannotationsontheAnalectsandtheBookofMencius,thisincludestheTahsehchangchbz(TheGreatLearningdividedinto
chaptersandsentences)andtheChungyungchangchca(TheDoctrineoftheMeandividedintochaptersandsentences).Hehadbeenworkingonthesetwofor
yearsalthoughhedidnotwritetheprefacesforthemuntil1198.TheworkontheGreatLearningwasneveractuallyfinishedthreedaysbeforehediedhewasstill
workingonit.In1313animperialdecreeorderedthathiscommentariesontheFourBooks,whichhehadpublishedin1190,bethestandardofficialinterpretations
andthebasisofcivilserviceexaminations.Theyremainedtheauthorityuntiltheexaminationswereabolishedin1905.Thusforalmostsixhundredyearstheywere
virtuallytheChineseBible.HisconversationshavebeencollectedintheChuTzuyleicb(ClassifiedconversationsofMasterChu),140chapters,andhisliterary
worksintheChuTzuwenchicc(CollectionofliteraryworksbyMasterChu),121chapters.Hismother,aformerMissChu,cddiedin1169attheageofseventy.His
wifediedin1176.Theyhadthreesons,includingTsaice(b.1169),whorosetobeassistantministerofthedepartmentofcivilpersonnel(Hupushihlangcf),andfive
daughters,oneofwhomwasmarriedtoHuangKancg(11521221),astarpupil.

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Glossary

Page603

AppendixB
ConferencePersonnel
Administration
HonoraryChairmen:HungWoChing,FujioMatsuda
ConferenceDirector:WingtsitChan
ConferenceCommittee:Wm.TheodoredeBary,ChairmanIreneBloom,WingtsitChan,ChungyingCheng,WeimingTu
AdministrativeDirector:StephenUhalley,Jr.
AssistantAdministrativeDirector:PeggyBlumenthal
LocalCommittee:RogerAmes,C.Y.Cheng,PriscillaChingChung,EliotDeutsch,DanielW.Y.Kwok,BrianMcKnight,StephenUhalley,Jr.,K.N.Upadhyaya
CommitteeofConferenceHistorians:IreneBloom,PeterBol,DanielK.Gardner,MichaelKalton,M.TheresaKelleher,DavidGedalecia
Interpreters:RichardShek,CharlesWeihsunFu,HuangChunchieh,ShigenoriNagatomo,WangIhua
Participants
Panelists
IRENEBLOOM,Lecturer,DepartmentofEastAsianLanguagesandCultures,ColumbiaUniversityPh.D.,ColumbiaMellonFellowintheHumanities,Columbia
recipientofNationalEndowmentfortheHumanitiesfellowshipcoed.(withdeBary),PrincipleandPracticality:EssaysinNeoConfucianismandPractical
Learning.
WINGTSITCHAN
,GillespieProfessorofPhilosophy,ChathamCollegeProfessorEmeritusofChinesePhilosophyandCulture,DartmouthCollegeVisiting
ProfessorofChineseThought,ColumbiaUni
Dataaboutparticipantsandobservershavenotbeenupdatedsincetheconference.

Page604

versityHonoraryDoctorofHumaneLetters,DartmouthHonoraryDoctor,ChinaAcademy,TaiwanPh.D.,Harvardformerdean,LingnanUniversitylife
member,AcademiaSinicarecipientofGuggenheim,RockefellerFoundation,AmericanPhilosophicalSociety,andNationalEndowmentfortheHumanities
fellowshipsauthorandtrans.,ReligiousTrendsinModernChina,ASourceBookinChinesePhilosophy,TheWayofLaoTzu,InstructionsforPractical
Living,ReflectionsonThingsatHand,
CHANGLIWEN

CHUNGYINGCHENG
(CH'IENMU

ed.forChinesephilosophy,TheEncyclopediaofPhilosophy.

trans.,TaiChen'sInquiryintoGoodness.
.

JULIACHING
,ProfessorofEastAsianandComparativeReligions,UniversityofTorontoPh.D.,AustralianNationalUniversityauthor,ToAcquire
Wisdom:TheWayofWangYangming,ConfucianismandChristianity.
CHIUHANSHENG

(4vols.).

WM.THEODOREDEBARY
,JohnMitchellMasonProfessoroftheUniversity,ColumbiaUniversityPh.D.,ColumbiaHonoraryDoctor,St.Lawrence
UniversityandLoyolaUniversityofChicagoformerdirector,EastAsianLanguageandAreaCenterchairman,UniversityCommitteeonOrientalStudiesexecutive
vicepresidentforAcademicAffairsandprovost,Columbiaformerpresident,AssociationforAsianStudiesGuggenheimfellowauthor,NeoConfucianOrthodoxy
andtheLearningoftheMindandHearted.,PrincipleandPracticality:NeoConfucianismandPracticalLearning,TheUnfoldingofNeoConfucianism,
SelfandSocietyinMingThought,SourcesofChineseTradition.

Page605

CHARLESWEIHSUNFU

,GuidetoChinesePhilosophy(withWingtsitChan).

FUNGYULAN

TheSpiritofChinesePhilosophy.

A.C.GRAHAM
,ProfessorofClassicalChinese,SchoolofOrientalandAfricanStudies,UniversityofLondonM.A.,OxfordPh.D.,LondonFBAauthor,
TwoChinesePhilosophers:Ch'engMingtaoandCh'engYich'uanLaterMohistLogic,EthicsandScienceChuangTzu,theSevenInnerChapters:And
otherwritingsfromthebookChuangtzuBookofLiehtzu.
(HSFUKUAN

HUANGSIUCHI
,ProfessorEmeritusofPhilosophyandformerdepartmentchairman,BeaverCollege(Pennsylvania)Ph.D.,Pennsylvaniaformerlyvisiting
professorattheUniversityofHawaiiandZiamen(Amoy)Universityauthor,LuHsiangshanATwelfthCenturyChineseIdealistPhilosophertrans.into
Chinese,GeorgeBerkeley'sThreeDialoguesbetweenHylasandPhilonousandJosiahRoyce'sSourcesofReligiousInsight.
KAOMING
LIZEHOU

(40vols.).
.

(LIANGSHUMING
,inabsentia),elderofChineseintellectualsformerProfessorofIndianandChinesePhilosophy,PekingUniversity,anddeanofShantung
ReconstructionInstituteformermemberofNa

Page606

tionalDefenseCouncilfounderofDemocraticLeaguememberof1946PoliticalCouncilpresentexecutivememberofDraftingofConstitutionauthor,
.
SHUHSIENLIU
LIUTS'UNYAN
STANISLAUSLOKUANG

.
(2vols.).
.

RICHARDJOHNLYNN,Lecturer,DepartmentofAsianStudies,UniversityofBritishColumbiaPh.D.,StanfordformerlytaughtatUniversityofAuckland,Universityof
Massachusetts,AmherstUniversity,IndianaUniversityformerlyseniorlecturerandheadoftheDepartmentofChinese,MacquarieUniversity,Sydneyauthor,Kuan
YunShin,ChineseLiterature:ADraftBibliographyinWesternEuropeanLanguages.
MAOHUAIXIN
Ch'en.

,AssociateProfessor,InstituteofHistory,TheChineseAcademyofSocialSciencesauthor,StudyofShaoYung,Ts'aiYantingandTs'ai

BRIANMCKNIGHT,ProfessorandChair,DepartmentofHistory,UniversityofHawaiiPh.D.,ChicagoFulbrightfellowformerlyprofessoratUniversityofNebraska
author,VillageandBureaucracyinSouthernSungChina,TheQualityofMercy:AmnestiesandTraditionalChineseJustice,TheWashingAwayofWrongs:
ForensicPracticein13thCenturyChinaed.,AsianStudiesatHawaii.
DONALDMUNRO
,ProfessorofPhilosophy,UniversityofMichiganrecipientofFordFoundationForeignArea,SocialSciencesResearchCouncil,and
Guggenheimfellowshipsformerchairman,CommitteeonStudiesofChineseCivilizationoftheAmericanCouncilofLearnedSocietiesandmemberoftheCommittee
onScholarlyCommunication

Page607

withPeople'sRepublicofChinaauthor,TheConceptofManinEarlyChina,TheConceptofManinContemporaryChina.
OKADATAKEHIKO
RENJIYU

(52vols.).
.

SATOHITOSHI

CONRADSCHIROKAUER,ProfessorofHistory,TheCityCollegeoftheCityUniversityofNewYorkPh.D.,Stanfordcochairman,RegionalSeminarinNeoConfucian
Studiesauthor,ABriefHistoryofChineseandJapaneseCivilizationtrans.,China'sExaminationHellTheCivilServiceExaminationsofImperialChina.
BENJAMINSCHWARTZ
,LeroyB.WilliamsProfessorofHistoryandGovernmentandDirectorofAcademicPolicyoftheCouncilonEastAsianStudies,
HarvardUniversityformerassociatedirectoroftheEastAsianResearchCenter,Harvard,andpresidentoftheAssociationofAsianStudiesauthor,InSearchof
WealthandPower:YenFuandtheWest,CommunisminChinaandtheRiseofMao.
SHIMADAKENJI
TENGAIMIN

.
(2vols.).

TOMOEDARYUTARO *
,Professor,SeinanUniversityProfessorEmeritus,HiroshimaUniversityformerlyprofessorattheArmyOfficersAcademyand
TokyoUniversitylectureratFutan,Peking,

Page608

TaipeiNormal,andKoreauniversitiesparticipantininternationalconferencesauthor,
TS'AIJU

WEIMINGTU
,ProfessorofChineseHistoryandPhilosophy,HarvardUniversityPh.D.,HarvardformerlytaughtatTunghaiUniversity,Princeton
University,andUniversityofCaliforniaatBerkeleyauthor,NeoConfucianisminAction:WangYangming'sYouth,CentralityandCommonality:AnEssayon
ChungYung,HumanityandSelfCultivation:EssaysinConfucianThought,andtwocollectionsofessaysinChinese.
MONIKABELHR

,Ph.D.,HamburgUniversityLehrbeauftragtefrSinologie,UniversittMarburgtrans.ShimadaKenji'sShushigakutoYomei*gaku.

WEICHENGT'UNG

(8vols.).

YUYAMANOI
YAMAZAKIMICHIO

.
.

YOUNSASOON
,ProfessorandChair,DepartmentofPhilosophy,andDirectoroftheCollegeofLiberalArts,KoreaUniversityvicepresident,Committee
onKoreanPhilosophyauthor,AStudyofthePhilosophyofToegye,AStudyofKoreanConfucianism(bothinKorean).
YINGSHIHY
,CharlesSeymourProfessorofHistory,YaleUniversityPh.D.,HarvardLL.D.,TheChineseUniversityofHongKonglifemember,
AcademiaSinicaformerlyprofessoratHarvard,presidentofNewAsiaCollege,andproVicechancellorofTheChineseUniversityofHongKongchairman,U.S.
DelegationofHanStudiestoPeople'sRepublicofChinaauthor,TradeandExpansioninHanChina,

Page609

EarlyChineseHistoryinthePeople'sRepublicofChina,

Fellows
JosephA.Adler,TeachingAssociate,DepartmentofReligiousStudies,UniversityofCalifornia,SantaBarbaraPh.D.thesis,''DivinationandPhilosophy:ChuHsi's
InterpretationoftheIching."
JohnH.Berthrong,ResearchAssistant,CenterforReligiousStudies,UniversityofTorontoPh.D.,Chicago,1979,thesisonChuHsiasinterpretedbyCh'enCh'un.
AlisonH.Black,VisitingAssistantProfessor,SchoolofInternationalStudies,UniversityofWashingtonPh.D.,Michigan,1979,"Nature,Artifice,andExpressionin
thePhilosophicalThoughtofWangFuchih(16191692)."
PeterBol,Fellow,SocietyofFellowsintheHumanitiesLecturer,ColumbiaUniversityPh.D.,Princeton,1981.
JohnW.Chaffee,AssistantProfessor,DepartmentofHistory,StateUniversityofNewYorkatBinghamtonPh.D.,Chicago,1979,"EducationandExaminationsin
SungSociety(9601279)."
ChaoLingling
thesisonShaoYung.

,Chair,DepartmentofPhilosophy,SoochowUniversity,TaipeiFuJenCatholicUniversityMinistryofEducationNationalPh.D.,1974,

RonGueyChu
,GraduateResearchAssistant,ColumbiaUniversityMaster'sthesis,"AStudyofHsiehLiangtso(1050c.1120)asExpounderofthe
PhilosophyoftheErhCh'eng."
JohnW.Ewell,Jr.,UniversityofCalifornia,BerkeleyPh.D.thesis,"TaiChen'sModernistReconstructionoftheConfucianTradition."
DanielK.Gardner,AssistantProfessor,DepartmentofHistory,SmithCollegePh.D.,Harvard,1978,"TheClassicsDuringtheSung:ChuHsi'sInterpretationofthe
Tahseh."
DavidGedalecia,AssociateProfessor,DepartmentofHistory,CollegeofWoosterPh.D.,Harvard,1971,"WuCh'eng:ANeoConfucianoftheYan."
JamesJ.Griffin,CommonwealthScholar,EdinburghUniversityPh.D.thesis,"CaritasandRen:AComparativeStudyofThomasAquinasandZhuXi."
RussellHatton,AssistantProfessor,DepartmentofPhilosophy,UniversityofDelawarePh.D.,StateUniversityofNewYorkatBuffalo,1979,"AComparisonof
Ch'iandPrimeMatter."
ChinshingHuang

,Ph.D.,Harvard,1982,"TheLuWangSchoolintheCh'ingDynasty."

Page610

HuangChunchieh
,AssociateProfessor,DepartmentofHistory,NationalTaiwanUniversityPh.D.,Washington,1980,"TheRiseoftheMencius:
HistoricalInterpretationofMencianMorality,ca.A.D.2001200."
LionelMillardJensen,JuniorFellow,CenterforChineseStudies,UniversityofCalifornia,BerkeleyPh.D.thesis,"TheNeoConfucianMindandHungerfor
Wholeness."
PaulYunmingJiang
,Head,ChineseSection,SchoolofModernLanguages,MacquarieUniversityPh.D.,UniversityofAuckland,1976,TheSearch
forMind:Ch'enPaisha,PhilosopherPoet(Singapore:SingaporeUniversityPress,1980).
MichaelC.Kalton,AssistantProfessor,DepartmentofReligion,WichitaStateUniversityPh.D.,Harvard,1977,"TheNeoConfucianWorldViewandValue
SystemofYiDynastyKorea"trans.,EthicsEastandWest:WesternSecular,Christian,andConfucianTraditionsinComparativePerspective(Seoul:
ChristianLiteratureSociety,1977).
M.TheresaKelleher,Ph.D.,Columbia,1982,"PersonalReflectionsonthePursuitofSagehood:AnInterplayofDarknessandLightintheJournalofWuYpi
(13921469)."
R.OaksookChunKim,DepartmentofOrientalLanguages,UniversityofCalifornia,LosAngelesPh.D.,Iowa,1980,"ChuHsiandLuHsiangshan:AStudyof
PhilosophicalAchievementsandControversyinNeoConfucianism."
KimYungSik
,AssociateProfessor,DepartmentofChemistry,SeoulNationalUniversityPh.D.,Harvard,1973Ph.D.,Princeton,1980,"TheWorld
ViewofChuHsi:KnowledgeabouttheNaturalWorldinChutzuCh'anshu."
KomiyaAtsushi

,KyushuUniversityM.A.thesis,"OntheInterpretationofChouibyChuTzu."

ThomasHongchiLee
,Lecturer,DepartmentofHistory,TheChineseUniversityofHongKongPh.D.,Yale,1975,"EducationinNorthernSongChina,
9601126"author,DiscoursesonSungEducation,1979TheTraditionofPrivateLectures,1982(bothinChinese,Taipei).
OkadaSusumu
ParkYangJa

,AustralianNationalUniversityM.A.,KyushuUniversity.
,DepartmentofPhilosophy,HiroshimaUniversityM.A.thesis,"OnChuHsi'sLectureatYushan."

TimPhelan,Ph.C.,AsianLanguagesandLiterature,UniversityofWashingtonPh.D.,Washington,1982,"TheNeoConfucianCosmologyinChuHsi'sIhseh
ch'imeng."

Page611

SatoAkira

,KyushuUniversityM.A.thesis,"OnthethoughtsofLinHsii."

RichardShek
,AssistantProfessorofHumanities,CaliforniaStateUniversity,SacramentoPh.D.,UniversityofCalifornia,Berkeley,1980,"Religionand
SocietyinLateMing:PopularMoralityandFolkSectarianisminSixteenthandSeventeenthCenturyChina."
RodneyL.Taylor,AssistantProfessor,DepartmentofReligiousStudies,UniversityofColorado,BoulderPh.D.,Columbia,1974,TheCultivationofSagehoodas
aReligiousGoalinNeoConfucianism:AStudyofSelectedWritingsofKaoP'anlung(15621626)(Missoula,Montana:AmericanAcademyofReligionand
ScholarPress,1978).
KirillO.Thompson

,Instructor,DepartmentofPhilosophy,UniversityofHawaiiPh.D.,thesisonanorganisticinterpretationofChuHsi.

HoytC.Tillman
,AssistantProfessor,DepartmentofHistory,ArizonaStateUniversityPh.D.,Harvard,1976,"ValuesinHistoryandEthicsinPolitics:
IssuesDebatedBetweenChuHsiandCh'enLiang"author,UtilitarianConfucianism:Ch'enLiang'sChallengetoChuHsi(Cambridge,Mass.:HarvardEast
AsianMonographSeries,1982).
TsengCh'unhai
,AssistantProfessor,DepartmentofPhilosophy,FuJenCatholicUniversity,TaipeiPh.D.,FuJen,1977,"TheMeaningofIChing
AccordingtoWangFuchih'sThought"author,TheCosmologyoftheIChingAccordingtoWangFuchih(Taipei:FuJenUniversity,1978,inChinese).
UshioHirotaka
,Lecturer,EducationDepartment,OitaUniversityM.A.,KyushuUniversity,1975,"OntheThoughtsofYangCihutheCharacter
ofHisMindandHeartLearning."
AnnpingChinWoo,ColumbiaUniversityPh.D.thesisonChanJoshui.
Observers
Dr.CarlB.Becker,ProfessorofPhilosophy,SouthernIllinoisUniversity.
Mr.MatthewA.Levey,DepartmentofHistory,UniversityofMichigan.
Dr.TorbjornLoden,Researcher,DepartmentofOrientalLanguages,UniversityofStockholm.
Dr.JasonH.Parker,ExecutiveAssociate,AmericanCouncilofLearnedSocieties,NewYorkCity.
Dr.RobertE.Reuman,Professor,DepartmentofPhilosophyandReligion,ColbyCollege,Maine.

Page612

Dr.GeneC.Sager,ProfessorofPhilosophyandReligiousStudies,PalomarCollege,California.
Dr.HaroldP.Sjursen

,Chairman,DepartmentofPhilosophy,AugustanaCollege,Illinois.

Dr.MalcolmF.Stewart,ProfessorEmeritusofPhilosophyandReligion,IllinoisCollege.
Mrs.ChengSun(Tiehkang)(Ms.ChengKuo
Prof.SunTiehkang

),DepartmentofCommunication,UniversityofMichigan.

,DepartmentofHistory,NationalChengchihUniversity,Taipei.

Prof.HiroshiWatanabe,AssistantProfessor,FacultyofLaw,TokyoUniversity.
Dr.SandraA.Wawrytko,AssistantProfessor,SanDiegoStateUniversity.
Fr.BenjaminWren,S.J.,LoyolaUniversity,NewOrleans.
Ms.LorettaO.Q.Pang,DepartmentofHistory,KapiolaniCommunityCollege,Honolulu.

Page613

AppendixC
Sponsors:
InternationalConferenceonChuHsi
Individuals
Allen,LeroyRobertCenturyCenter,Inc.
AshfordandWristonAttorneysatLaw
Ching,HungWoandElizabethAlohaAirlines
Chuck,WalterG.AttorneyatLaw
Eu,EdwardandPeggyUniversalMotors
Gentry,TomandNoraGentryHomes
Gumpert,JackShirtStop
Kosasa,SidneyABCDrugs
Leong,HarryY.O.OahuFurniture
Luke,KanJungHawaiiNationalBank
McCabe,ThomasandSumieF.McCabeHamilton&Renny
Pflueger,JamesPfluegerLincolnMercury,Inc.
Wong,HarryC.andNeeChangH.W.ChingRealty
Wong,HowardandRobertT.W.Architects
Wong,EstateofKwaiLunHeiWaiWong
Corporations
Alexander&Baldwin,Inc.(R.J.Pfeiffer,Jr.)
AlexanderofHawaii,Inc.(WarrenDaspit)
AlohaAirlines(HungWoChing)
AmericanSecurityBank(DenisY.M.Ching)
BankofHawaii(FrankManaut)
E.E.Black,Ltd.(RobertE.Black)
BishopInsuranceofHawaii,Inc.(ClarencePhilpotts)
ChunKimChow,Ltd.(FredericChun)
B.F.DillinghamCo.,Ltd.(BayardDillingham)
FoodlandSuperMarket,Ltd.(MauriceSullivan)
HauoliSales,Ltd.(JamesK.C.Doo)

Page614

HawaiianDredging&Construction(PaulBanks)
HawaiianTelephoneCompany(DonKuyper)
HawaiiTokyuGroup(NoboruGotoh)
HiranoEnterprises(HerbertHirano)
HongKongLandCo.,Ltd.andJardineMathesonCo.,Ltd.(RobertSutton)
TheHonoluluAdvertiser(ThurstonTwiggSmith)
HoritaRealty,Inc.(HerbertHorita)
SheridanIngCorp.(SheridanC.F.Ing)
King'sBakery(RobertTaira)
LibertyBank(LaurenceS.L.Ching)
LoyaltyEnterprises,Ltd.(ClarenceT.C.Ching)
OccidentalUnderwritersofHawaii(SiegfriedKagawa)
OkadaTruckingCo.,Ltd.(SonnyOkada)
PacificFoodServices,Inc.(AndrewWong)
PacificResources,Inc.(JamesGary)
PalamaMeatCo.(DonaldLau)
ParadisePark,Inc.(JamesW.Y.Wong)
Richards,Ltd.(RichardW.C.Chow)
RoyalGroveHotel(LeonardK.M.Fong)
SenPlexCorp.(FrancisF.Sen)
ShimayaShoten(IchiroOnoye)
StarSuperMarket,Ltd.(JohnFujieki)
StarkVentures,Ltd.(BruceStark)
RichardK.W.Tom,Inc.(RichardK.W.Tom)
WKHCorporation(WilliamWeinberg)
WaikikiBusinessPlaza(WilliamK.H.Mau)
WailanaCoffeeHouse(FrancisJ.Tom)
WatumullBrothers,Ltd.(GulabWatumull)
C.S.Wo&Sons(RobertWo)
Foundations
Amfac
AthertonFamily
C.BrewerCharitable
GovernorJohnA.Burns
SamuelN.andMaryCastle
FinanceFactors
ChinnHo
LouiseandY.T.Lum
McInerny

Page615

Index
A
Academies:
inChienyang,525
fourleading,525,544n
others,3,6,507,524525,533,544n
Academyregulations(forWhiteDeerHollowAcademy),586588,590
Activityandtranquillity:
alternationof,125129,172,202
ChouTunion,283
ChuHsion,300307
possessedbyprinciple,98
possessedbyT'aichi,95,97,100101,111.
Seealso"Activityandtranquillityhavenobeginning"IfaT'aichit'ushuoWeifaYinyang
"Activityandtranquillityhavenobeginningandyinyanghavenostartingpoint":
discussed,126129
quoted,100,125,172,202.
SeealsoActivityandtranquillity
Adler,JosephA.,609
Agamapramana*(ThenormofBuddha'steachings),361
Ai,Duke:
askingaboutConfucius'pupils,26
toldtheidealwaytogovern,329
askingaboutgovernment,332
Akta,422
AmendedcommentaryontheGreatLearning:
ChuHsi'srevision,10
criticized,15,540
discussed,39,243,246
quoted,29,145146,174,285,327328,365,454.
SeealsoHuojankuant'ungKe
AmericanCouncilofLearnedSocieties,6
Ames,Roger,603
AnHsi,524
Analects:
ChinLhsiang'sstudyof,540
ChuHsi'sworkon,419420,seealsoLunychichu,Ssushuchichu
onchungshu,443
intheConfuciantradition,54,474,
seealsoFourBooksportrayalofConfucius,36
Confuciusstandingbyastream,442
ondisciplineofthemind,281
onHeaven,448
onimprovingoneself,483
onjen,213214,222223,284,370371
comparedwithLichi,313
onfourcategoriesofman,132
natureof,2,33
orderintheFourBooks,47
originalpatternof,462
asrecordedsayings,35
onspiritualbeings,445
onthesuperiorman'sbehavior,142
ontheWayofHeaven,443
Anselm,360
Aquinas,SaintThomas:
comparedwithChuHsi,3,551
ontologyof,68
periodof,360
ArakiKengo,379
Aristotle:
comparedwithChuHsi,109110
investigatingthehighestprinciple,61
ArtandNeoConfucianism,198
Arts:
studyof,236237
andtheWay,237
AsamiKeisai:
onChuHsi'stheoryofknowledge,200
onChuHsi'sdoctrineofwisdom,206
writingsof,218
andYamazaki,587
Astronomy,162
Augustine,139
AwakeningofFaith,The:
philosophyofSiniticMahayana*,384
twowaytheoryin,392
B
BaJin.SeePaChin
Becker,CarlB.,611
Becoming:
intheBookofChanges,61
inChuHsi,159
Being:
intheBookofChanges,61
inChuHsi,159
inNeoTaoism,94
inTaoism,382.
SeeNonbeing
Benevolence(jen).SeeJen
Berthrong,JohnH.,609
Bette,Emilies,238,251n
Black,AlisonH.,609
Bloom,Irene,603
Bol,Peter,603,609
Booklearning:
ChuHsion,233234,245246,286287
curriculumof,234235
andinvestigationofthings,234
LuHsiangshanon,247
BookofCeremonial(Ili):
ChuHsi'sevaluationof,4,320321,324
ChuHsi'sremarkson,318
ChuHsi'suseof,312
studyof,313
RonGueyChuhasrenderedvaluableassistanceinthepreparationoftheIndex.

Page616

BookofChanges:
antecedentto,540
authorshipof,34,444
bookon,16
meaningofchange,301
theCh'engs'discussionof,552
commentarieson,3536,39,52,58,274,seealsoIchuan,Chouipeni,Ihsehch'imeng
commentariesforcivilserviceexaminations,527528
commentariesasschooltexts,526
intheConfuciantradition,474,503
andformandnumber,298,506507
comparedwiththeGreatLearning,552
onthegreatman,72,74
onHeaven,150,446
onthediagramsofChange,293
onhsingerhshang,58
ontologyin,6162
onoperationoftheworld,201203
originalpatternof,462
onprincipleandmaterialforce,64
PrincipleofHeavenin,89
onthesage,277,280
ShaoYung'sstudyof,524
onsimplicity,471
specialistson,294295
andT'aichi,8182,85
ontheWayofHeaven,36,462
onwisdomashidden,200,204
onwisdomtaughtbyMencius,204205
WuCh'eng'sworkon,532
yinyangin,67,295.
SeealsoChangeFiveClassicsMindofHeavenandEarthShengshengSixClassicsT'aichit'ushuo
BookofDocuments.SeeBookofHistory
BookofHistory:
ChuHsion,3,599
commentaryforcivilserviceexaminations,508
commentaryasschooltext,526
controversyover,538
ideaofcreationin,88
onthediagramsofChange,293294
onFiveStandards,590
LTsuch'ien'scommentaryon,14
onthemind,276
onthesage,280
sixteenwordformula,276,588
technicaltermsin,588
T'ienin,88
astextforclassicalConfucianism,503
WuCh'eng'sworkon,532
BookofMencius:
authorshipof,33
ChinLhsiang'sstudyof,540
intheConfuciantradition,54,474
doubtson,320
onfeelings,278
comparedwiththeGreatLearning,47
influenceof,313
ontheoriginalmind,248
originalpatternof,462
ontheunicorn,223
BookofMusic(onprimitivereligion),357
BookofOdes:
ChuHsion,3,345346,599
ChuHsi'scommentaryasprincipaltext,526
oncreation,88
praiseofKingWen,529
onliterarystyle,342,344
standardforpoetry,350
onthestudyof,346
teachingof,345
technicaltermsin,588
T'ienin,88
ontheunicorn,223
BookofRites:
comparedwiththeAnalects,313
onancientrites,322
authorshipof,34
ChuHsi'sevaluationof,3,318,321
ChuHsi'sselectionsfrom,2,27,312
asclassicaltextforConfucianism,503
commentariesasschooltexts,526
commentaryon,325
compilationof,342,356
onliterarystyle,342
onprimitivereligion,357
onPrincipleofHeaven,89
onrites,315
asthestandard,511
studyof,313315
onwisdom,203
WuCh'eng'sworkon,532
Breath(ch'i).SeeCh'i
Buddha,meaningoftheWayto,590
Buddhism:
andChuHsi,282,403
ChuHsi'scriticismof,55,439440,
seealsoBuddhismandTaoismandConfucianism,401,440
controversyoverbowingbeforeaking,366
flourishingof,446
ongoodandevilnature,494
landownershipof,428,430
onlifeanddeath,401402
onreincarnation,493.
SeealsoBuddhismandTaoismCh'anBuddhismHeterodoxy
BuddhismandTaoism:
andChuHsi,274,551
appropriatedbyChuHsi,551
ChuHsi'scriticismof,55,106,204,223,389,396,398,439,440,510
influenceonConfucianism,446447
dominatingChina,197,369
attackbyHanY,585
inSouthernSung,410,415416.
SeealsoCh'anBuddhismHeterodoxy
Bultmann,240
C
Calendar,162
CanonofKaoyao(FiveStandardsin),590
CaoYu.SeeTs'aoY
Centrality(chung).SeeEquilibriumandharmony
CeramicsinSungtimes,198
ChaeBongahm.SeeChaeJihong
ChaeJihong(memberofthefoursevendebate),571
Chaffee,JohnW.,417,609
Ch'aiChunghsing,524
ChanT'ijen,524
Chan,Wingtsit,603
author,120,12,595601
cited,110,382,437438,443444
Ch'anBuddhism:
ChuHsiand,377,386,595,seealsoBuddhismandTaoism,Heterodoxy
suddenenlightenment,395
goingdirectlytothemind,454
analogyofthemoon,66,105,120,149,171
influenceonNeoConfucianism,3839,367
spreadof,362,368
andstandardandexpediency,400
teachingsof,361
ChangChien(onChuHsiasaliterarycritic),349350,351n
ChangChihtung(advocatingChineselearningforessenceandWesternlearningforfunction),513
ChangChingfu.SeeChangShih
ChangchouPrefecture:
Buddhistownershipoflandin,428
whereChuHsiwasaprefect,507,509,598
ChangChn,504
ChangErhch'i,321
ChangHungch'.SeeChangTsai

Page617

ChangI(d.309B.C.),341
ChangI(b.1071),504
ChangLiwen,604
onChuHsi'ssystemofChange,8,292307
ChangLhsiang(revisingtheGreatLearning),326
ChangNanhsien.SeeChangShih
ChangNanhsan.SeeChangShih
ChangPohsing(revisingtheGreatLearning),325
ChangShih(ChangChingfu,ChangNanhsien,ChangNanhsan):
onthestudyofthearts,236
relationtoChuHsi,217,313,596597
onequilibriumandharmony,182183
onHuHung,469,492,496
aboutHuHung'spoem,483
andtheHunanSchool,504
ondoubtingtheBookofMencius,320
onT'aichi,97
ChangShihchieh,514
ChangT'ang,516
ChangTsai(ChangHengch'):
admirerof,513
onbenefitingothers,seeWesternInscriptiononbooklearning,235
commentaryontheBookofChanges,35,5859
comparedwithChuHsi,59,554
praisedbyChuHsi,131
inChuHsi'ssynthesis,599
commentaryforcivilserviceexaminations,528
cosmologyof,161
discussed,551
followersof,504
onGreatHarmony,60
onGreatVacuity,59,363
onhumannature,138,276
onjen,215,368
onknowledge,241243,454
onmaterialforce,2,8,101,108,152,154,275,380,383,585
onthemind,63,179,185,195,278,493,497
onnatureofHeavenandphysicalnature,131132
inNeoConfucianism,461
onphysicalendowment,seePhysicalendowment
realityofnature,462
asSchoolofMind,99
timeof,360
intransmissionoftheWay,1,27,438,525
Ch'angsha,598
Ch'angtsung,487488,494
Change(i):
ChuHsi'ssystemof,292307
thediagramsof,292,294295,298,301305,308n
meaningof,158,301
Needhamonthediagrams,310n
numbersin,298,302304
schoolsof,292
andtransformation,301,303307
ChaoFu:
biographyof,523
introducingNeoConfucianismtothenorth,514,522,530,542
ChaoHsieh(ChaoPaofeng),541
ChaoJuy:
accused,599
interveningforChuHsi,598
Chao,King,345
ChaoKuanghan,516
ChaoLingling,609
Chaomingwenhsan(AselectionofliteraryworkscompiledbyPrinceChaoming).SeeWenhsan
ChaoPaofeng.SeeChaoHsieh
ChaoPi,523524
ChaoPots'ung,422
ChaoShihhsia(onLiT'ung'sideaofliifenshu),378
ChaoShihyan,536
ChaoShunsun,533
ChaoTs'o,341
Ch'aoYehchih,513
ChekiangEast,597
ChenDuxiu.SeeCh'enTuhsiu
ChenLuan,302
ChenQue.SeeCh'enCh'eh
ChenTehsiu:
appraised,542
inheritancefromChuHsi,524,533
emphasisontheFourBooks,532
intheFukienSchool,504
ontheLearningoftheWay,588
worksof,523,533,538
Ch'enChen(Ch'enCh'engchai),540
Ch'enchengshihshu(Memorialongovernmentaffairs),34
Ch'enCh'engchai.SeeCh'enChen
Ch'enCh'ichih,201
Ch'enChia(attackingtheTaohseh),598
Ch'enChih(meritinganindependentchapterintheSungYanhsehan),508
Ch'enChingcheng,221
Ch'enChingming.SeeCh'enYan
Ch'enCh'eh(ont'ienlijeny),516,563
Ch'enCh'un:
accountof,509
Ch'engI'sinfluenceon,216
asfollowerofChuHsi,515
ChuHsiregardedaschitach'eng,503
meritinganindependentchapterintheSungYanhsehan,508
Ch'enKuei,516
Ch'enLi:
correctingChuHsi,28
emphasizingunity,40
Ch'enLiang:
ChuHsi'scriticismof,11,512,598
asaNeoConfucianist,515
schoolof,13
utilitarianismof,512,516
Ch'enP'u,509
Ch'enTuhsiu,566
Ch'enTzulung,514,518n
Ch'enYan(Ch'enChingming),541
ChengChungying,603,604
onChuHsi'smethodologyandtheoryofunderstanding,169192
onChuHsi'sinvestigationofthings,169179
onprinciple,9,170179
Chenghoperiod,342343
ChengHsan:
commentariesonritualtexts,319321
comparedHanandT'angsystems,312
onthediagramsofChange,294
synthesizingthevariousschools,35
ChengKuo,612
Chengmeng(correctingyouthfulignorance):
basedonBookofChanges,35
proceeding

Page618

fromcosmologytoethics,552
discussed,131
onnature,130
ChengPing(attackingthetwoCh'engs),597
ChengYi.SeeCh'engI
ChengYichuan.SeeCh'engI
ChengY:
reconcilingChuHsiandLuHsiangshan,535,542
criticizingscholarsofhistime,536
loyaltytoYan,531
Ch'eng(sincerity).SeeSincerity
Ch'engChfu.SeeCh'engWenhai
Ch'engChuSchool:
disputewithLuWangSchool,395
MouTsungsan'sdivisionof,464
natureisidenticalwithprinciple,99,470.
SeeCh'engHaoCh'engIChuHsi
Ch'engCh'uan,318
Ch'engHao(Ch'engMingtao)
Life:
attacked,598
shunnedwritingbooks,35
differencesfromCh'engI,45
studyof,intheChufamily,595
followersof,504
neverspokeaboutnumbers,513
sayingsidentifiedbyMouTsungsan,465
inthetransmissionoftheWay,1,27,362,437438,463,525,588
Thought:
andBuddhism,392
inChuHsi'ssynthesis,599
onHeaven,4850
onHeavenandmanasone,49
onhumannature,51,138
oninvestigationofthings,45
onjen,142143,149152,215,367,468
onliterature,337
onmaterialforceandnature,51
oncultivationofmind,179180
onmoralnature,4950
inNeoConfucianism,503
ontheonesource,462
onphysicalendowment,4950
onPrincipleofHeaven,275,462
onspiritualbeings,5354
teachingsof,552
Ch'engI(Ch'engIch'uanCh'engYi)
Life:
attacked,598,600
asauthor,35
borrowedfromBuddhism,447
differencesfromCh'engHao,45
studyofintheChufamily,595
commentary,seeIchuan
commentaryrecommendedforcivilserviceexaminations,528
followersof,504
neverspokeaboutnumbers,513
sayingsidentifiedbyMouTsungsan,465
intransmissionoftheWay,1,27,362,437438,463,525,588
timeof,360
Thought:
comparedwiththatofChuHsi,463
inChuHsi'ssynthesis,599
ondivination,52
onequilibriumandharmony,466
onextensionofknowledge,48
onHeavenandman,49,212
onhumannature,51,138,276
oninvestigationofthings,45,47,174
onjen,3,215216
onknowledge,150,241
onknowledgeandaction,47
onlearning,46
onliifenshu,see"Principleisonebutitsmanifestationsaremany"
onmaterialforce,51,64
onthemind,463
onmoralnature,4950
inNeoConfucianism,461,503
developedownlineofthought,462
onphysicalnature,4950
onprincipleandmaterialforce,64
famoussayings,see"Activityandtranquillityhavenobeginning,""ThemindofHeavenandEarth,""Principleisone,""Selfcultivationrequiresseriousness,''
"Substanceandfunctioncomefromthesamesource"
onseriousness,46,180,230,280
onspiritualbeings,5354
onstandardandexpediency,255,259,267268
onsubstanceandfunction,101
andT'aichi,18n
teachingsof,552
onthewidow,4
Ch'engIch'uan.SeeCh'engI
Ch'engJoyung,524525
Ch'engMincheng(revisingtheGreatLearning),325
Ch'engMingtao.SeeCh'engHao
Ch'engShaok'ai:
foundedTaoiAcademy,533
influenceonWuCh'eng,524
Ch'engshihchiashutushufennienjihch'eng(AchronologicallyarrangedsyllabusforclassicalstudiesusedintheCh'engs'familyschool):
ChuHsicited,535
ChuHsi'sessayincludedin,527
JaoLu'sworkpreservedin,524
describesliterarystyle,529
Ch'engT'ingtso(ontwotypesofknowledge),252n
Ch'engTuanli.SeeCh'engshihchiashutushufennienjihch'eng
Ch'engTuanmeng,524
Ch'engWenhai(Ch'engChfu),524
Ch'engYi.SeeCh'engI
CheongShihan(CheongWoodam),571
CheongWoodam.SeeCheongShihan
Chikukochents'angmipenshumu(BibliographyofrareeditionskeptintheChikuPavilion),316
Chilu.SeeTzulu
ChiPen(revisingtheGreatLearning),325
Chitach'eng(acompleteconcord,completion,synthesis):
byChuHsi,14,77,110,135,188
byConfucius,1
historyof,516n
translationof,1
Chitsang,384
ChiYn,515
Ch'i(breath,ether,materialforce,vitalforce).SeeMaterialforce
Ch'ichih(endowmentofmaterialforce,physicalendowment).SeeEndowment,physical
Ch'i,Kingof.SeeHsan,King
Ch'iState,468,484,491,541
Ch'iwulun(Ontheequalityofthings),67
Chiaching,Emperor,511
ChiaI:
memorialtoemperor,34
aswriter,341
Chiajen(family)hexagram,599
ChiaKungyen:
providedbasisforChuHsi'sworkonritualtexts,319320
commentary

Page619

ontheIli,321
ontheT'angritualsystem,312
Chiali(Familyetiquette,familyrites).SeeFamilyEtiquette
Chialiichieh(CeremonialusagesfortheFamilyEtiquette),319
Chialik'aowu(ExaminationoftheerrorsintheFamilyEtiquette),317
Chialipienting(TheFamilyEtiquettecriticallyfinalized),319
Chiayuperiod,342
ChiangKuanghs,316
ChiangnanWest,597598
Chiang,PaulYunming,610
Chiangyinarea,514
ChiangYanshih.SeeChiangYung(11241172)
ChiangYung(ChiangYanshih,11241172),377
ChiangYung(16811762),321
Ch'iaoKan,294
Chiehch'it'ingchi(CollectedworksfromthePavilionofClamGathering),522
ChiehHsissu,539
Chieh,King(banishedbyKingT'ang),264,268
ChienanCounty,419
Chienwen,Emperor,511
ChienyangCounty:
academiesin,525526
ChuHsi'sstudyat,509
ChuHsi'sdeathin,521
ChuHsi'sfather'sresidencein,595
ChuHsi'sresidencein,507508,521,598
Ch'iench'eng,264
Ch'ien(heaven,male)hexagram:
asthefather,107
asheavenlyhexagram,201202
positioninadiagram,297
assourceofformsandnumbers,301
asstrength,136n
asyang,149
theWayof,71,106
Ch'ienlung,Emperor(promotionofChuHsi),4
Ch'ienMu,604
ChuHsi'slearning,onthehistoricalperspectiveof,3240
cited,5,182,247,377,388389,395,418
opposedtoFungYulan,99
emphasisonsimilarities,14,32
Chihts'ang(Wisdomashiddenandstored).SeeWisdom
Chihyen(Knowingwords,understandingwords):
ChuHsi'scriticismof,469,492496
onhumannature,390
ontheKingofCh'i,491
onknowledge,483485,490
onthemind,489490.
SeealsoChihyeniiHuHung
Chihyenii(MisgivingsconcerningtheUnderstandingWords):
ChuHsi'scriticismof,469,492496.
SeealsoChihyenHuHung
Chihyanperiod,526
Child,fallingintoawell,555
Chindynasty,350,351
ChinhuaSchool,532
ChinKingdom:
invasion,408409,422,514,595596
ChinLhsiang:
appraised,537,540
wroteontheFourBooks,532
teacherofHsCh'ien,536
viewsof,537,540
Chinshihdegree(inrelationtoBuddhism),415416
Chinssulu(Reflectionsonthingsathand):
compilationof,35,189,523,596
contentsof,189190
comparedwiththeFourBooks,532
Germantranslationof,6
ongovernmentservice,12
theGreatUltimatein,2,552
quotingtheIchuan,38
importanceof,35
andpursuitoflearning,587,589
praised,586,589590
ChinState,356
Ch'in(tobeintimate),326
Ch'inHuit'ien,321
Ch'inKuei:
ascendencyof,482
deathof,483
scholarsduringthetimeof,485
templedestroyedbyChuHsi,597
ChineseThoughtfromConfuciustoMaoTsetung,80
Ching(mindmastery,reverence,seriousness):
evolutionofmeaning,280282
Westernequivalentsof,281.
SeealsoSeriousness
Chingch'uan(standardandexpediency).SeeStandardandexpediency
ChingChung,Pricilla,603
ChingFang(onthediagramsintheBookofChanges),294
ChinghuSouth,599
ChingHungWo,6,603
Ching,Julia,604
onhumannature,11
onpersonalcultivation,11,273288
Chingshuo(ExplanationoftheClassics),125
Chingtienshihwen(GlossarytoClassics),331
Chingtso(meditation,quietsitting).SeeQuietsitting
Ch'ing(ch'ingshih,whatisthecase),451
Ch'ingdynasty:
ChuHsi'sinfluenceonresearchin,4
HanandSunglearningin,3940
NeoConfucianismin,15,40
ChiuHansheng,604
onChuHsi'sdoctrineoftheGreatUltimate,8
onChuHsi'sdoctrineofprinciple,116135
Ch'iuChn,317,319
Ch'iungli(investigationofprincipletotheutmost).SeeInvestigationofthings
ChofuProvince,584
ChoiJinghu(ChoiMaebong),571
ChoiMaebong.SeeChoiJinghu
Chosen(Korea),587
Chou,Dukeof:
preservedChineseculture,356
andConfucianism,32,36
emphasisonman,48
executionofbrothers,264265
filialpietyof,329
asasage,592
in

Page620

thetransmissionoftheWay,437,585
venerationof,33
theWayof,346
ChouHsingchih,332
Chouichichieh(CollectedexplanationsoftheIchingofChou),294
Chouipeni(OriginalmeaningoftheBookofChanges):
authorshipof,538
dateof,52
andthediagramsofChange,295
ondivination,38
reactiontoIchuan,293
onnumbers,301
popularityof,529
praised,539
studyof,530
Chouipenichich'eng(CollectedcommentariesontheChouipeni),538
Chouipenit'ungshih(AthoroughstudyoftheChouipeni),538
Chouit'u(Ichingdiagrams),295
Chou,KingofShang,264,268
ChouKingdom,344346
Choukuan(GovernmentofChou),312
Choukuanhsini(NewmeaningsoftheChoukuan),312
ChouK'uei,424
Chouli(RitesofChou,RitualofChou).SeeRitesofChou
Choulichu(AnnotationoftheChouli),312
Choulisanteshuo(ThethreevirtuesoftheChouli),312,319
Choulishu(CommentaryontheChouli),312
Choulit'aichuchiupaipien(DiscussionontheGrandPlayer'sninesalutes),312
ChouLiench'i.SeeChouTuni
ChouLienhsi.SeeChouTuni
ChouMi,428
Choupichingchi(Illustrationsofthebookofastronomy),294
ChouTuni(ChouLiench'i,ChouLienhsi,ChouTunyi):
asauthor,35
Change,systemof,3,275,295296
teacheroftheCh'engs,46,534
inChuHsi'ssynthesis,599
cosmologyof,274,seealsoT'aichit'ushuo
doctrineof,461462
refusingtocutthegrass,202,215,558
onhumannature,138
onjen,215
onliterature,337
inNeoConfucianism,461
asfounderofNeoConfucianism,363
onsagehood,187
borrowingfromTaoism,447,506
timeof,360
intransmissionoftheWay,1,27,362,437438,525,588
ChouTunyi.SeeChouTuni
Christianity:
faithin,442
Godandmanin,164
reformationin,40,442.
SeealsoChristologyJesus
Christology(Tillichon),442
Chuchaeonrondongigo(TheidentityofthetheoryandremarksofMasterChu),582
ChuChen,295
ChuCh'en,507
ChuHsi(ChuChunghui,ChuHuian,ChuWenKung,ChuYanhui)
Life:
accomplishments,595598
adulthood,595
ancestry,595
biography,317318,418431
interestinCh'anBuddhism,595
andtheChininvaders,408,422424,514,596
divination,57n,599
education,595
family,595,600
establishmentofgranary,165,597
imperialaudiences,514,596598
memorialstoemperors,426430,596597,599
namesandtitles,193n,208,225n,228,248n,295,453,539,599,600
politicalcareer,595
socialandeducationalreforms,595
asasage,592
socialandeducationalservice,3,165
teachersof,595
templeguardianship,599
timehelivedin,408431
reconstructionofWhiteDeerHollowAcademy,36,597
Works:
worksonBookofChanges,308n
compilationofChinssulu,596
commentaries,596597
commentariesontheClassics,507
commentariesontheFourBooks,507
revisionofGreatLearning,seeAmendedcommentary,GreatLearning
ritualtexts,312332,511
works,600.
SeealsoChialiChinssuluChouipeniChuTzuwenchiChuTzuyleiCh'utz'uchichuSsushuchichuSsushuhuowenT'aichit'ushuo
chieh
Thoughts:
onbooklearning,15,51,493
cosmology,161
oncreation,10
ontheDoctrineoftheMean,seeDoctrineoftheMean
ondoubt,239
dualismof,451
inequilibriumandharmony,158,181185,378,463
onextensionofknowledge,seeExtensionofknowledge
onHeaven,7990,366,371,444
onhonoringthemoralnature,228230,240241,475
onhsingerhshang,61
oninvestigationofthings,seeInvestigationofthings
onjen,seeJen
onknowledge,seeKnowledge
onman,163166
onmaterialforce,51,6870
onthemind,seeMind
onnature,seeNature
onphysicalendowment,152,276,496
practicalphilosophyof,166
onprinciple,seePrinciple
onprincipleisone,see"Principleisone"
onPrincipleofHeaven,11,89,116129,364,555556
ontherectificationofnames,424,426427
onselfcultivation,273288,469
onselfcultivationrequiringseriousness,240241,284285,469
onselfdiscipline,219222
onseriousness,seeSeriousness
onshentu,280
onshengsheng,61,67,7075
onsoijan,164,166,200,474
onstandardandexpediency,5,11,255269,399402
onsubstanceandfunction,seeSubstanceandfunction
onsubstanceandfunctionfromthesamesource,6263,99,101
ontheT'aichit'ushuo,seeT'aichit'ushuo
onT'aichi,seeT'aichi
systemofthought,54,229230
theoreticalsystem,312319
on

Page621

FiveConstantVirtues,seeFiveConstantVirtues
onFourFundamentalVirtues,seeFourFundamentalVirtues,worldviewof,5052
onyinyang,seeYinyang
onyanhenglichen,seeFourQualitiesofCh'ien
AndConfucianismandNeoConfucianism:
completionof,14,37,110,135,188
andtheConfuciantradition,595
andtheClassics,599
failedtounderstandMencius,470
inNeoConfucianism,461
asaNeoConfucianist,516
inNorthernSungNeoConfucianism,463466
asorthodoxy,93,443
ontheTaot'ung,seeTaot'ung
inthelineoftransmission,437438,588
AndtheCh'engs,4,65
failedtounderstandCh'engI,472
similaritiestoanddifferencesfromCh'engI,12,38,45,50,64,243,255256
AndLuHsiangshan:
agreementwith,507
compared,380,470472
criticismof,380,598
debatewith,178,seeGooseLakeTemplemeeting
friendshipwith,597598
equatingLuwithKaoTzu,39
synthesisinYantimes,533
AndHuHung,467470,472473
ontheChihyen,492496
compared,497
AndotherNeoConfucianists:
andChangShih,217,313,596597
comparedwithChangTsai,59,554
criticismofCh'enLiang,11,512,598
onHuAnkuo,482,506
onHuHsien,483
onLiT'ung,505506
failedtounderstandLiT'ung,472
onLoTs'ungyen,467,585
onWangAnshih,482
AndBuddhismandTaoism:
appraised,551
andBuddhism,15,282,403
andChuangTzu,67
criticismof,55,106,204,223,377,389,396,398,439440,510
influencedby,274
Andart,civilserviceexaminations,literature,religion,andscience:
onarts,236237
ondeities,53,166
ontheexaminations,3,27,527,529
onliterature,347348
onpoetry,343350
andscience,110111,372,513
viewonTi,109,371.
SeealsoChialicreationHeavenShengshengSpiritualbeings
Influenceof:
Fukienfollowers,508
inKoreaandJapan,3,4,93,332,507.
SeealsoNeoConfucianismCh'ingdynasty,NeoConfucianismin,MingNeoConfucianismYanNeoConfucianism
Appraised:
attackedandcriticized,46,28,597598
conferenceon,68,16
contradictionsin,558559,578580
contributionsof,14,6,165,197,237,332,399,472,474476,537
evaluationof,516,538
feudalethics,seeFeudalism,Chinese
innovationsof,2,276,368,599
comparedwithKantandHegel,243,278,360,551,553554,557558
comparedwithLuther,40
inmodernChina,565567
modernstudiesof,80
synthesis,1,503,507,510,599
ChuItsun,307
ChukoLiang,347
ChuRonGuey,609
ChuSsuRivers,369
ChuSung,482
ChuTzuch'aoshih(SelectionsfromMasterChuexplained),9
ChuTzuch'anshu(CompletecollectionsofMasterChu),4
ChuTzuhsinhsehan(NewstudyofChuHsi):
atruebiographyofChuHsi,418
greatinterestin,99
onLiT'ung,182.
SeealsoCh'ienMu
ChuTzulitsuan(CollectionofMasterChu'ssayingsonpropriety),318319
ChuTzunienp'u(ChronologicalbiographyofMasterChu):
ontheFamilyEtiquette,317
ChuTzushuchiehyao(EssentialsofMasterChu'sletters),587
ChuTzutushufa(MethodsofstudyintroducedbyMasterChu),535
ChuTzuwenchi(CollectionofliteraryworksofMasterChu):
oncivilserviceexaminations,527
numberofchaptersof,507,600
t'aichi,frequencyint'aichi,82,89
frequencyint'ien,89
onritualtexts,313,317
onwisdomashidden,200201
ChuTzuwuchingylei(ClassifiedconversationsofMasterChuconcerningtheFiveClassics),318
ChuTzuylei(ClassifiedconversationsofMasterChu):
onactivityandtranquillity,seeActivityandtranquillity
ontheCh'engfollowers,504
contentsof,552
oncosmology,552
editionsof,318
theEightTrigramsin,294
onequilibriumandharmony,183
onheavenandearthandspiritualbeings,475
onheavenlybodies,158,161
indispensabletoLearningoftheWay,587
criticismofLiT'ungandLoTs'ungyen,505
praiseofLiPo,349,475
asthemaintext,93
onmanandthings,130
numberofchaptersof,507,600
onphysicalendowment,132,134
onpoetry,343
fivemainpointsofprinciple,118
unityofallprinciples,176
asrecordofconversations,508
selectionsfrom,910
frequencyofint'aichi,82
WenT'ingshih'scommenton,516
onwisdomashidden,201
WuCh'eng'squotationof,532
onyinyang,98,126
ChuTzuyleh(AsimpleselectionofsayingsbyMasterChu),9
ChuWenKungwushuwentahs(PrefacetoquestionsandanswersonthefiveworksofMasterChu),534

Page622

ChuYn,316
Ch'utz'u(SongsofthesouthofCh'u):
ChuHsion,340,344,346
translationofChuHsi'sprefaceon,344346
Ch'utz'uchichu(CollectedannotationstotheSongsofCh'u),343
Ch'Yan:
authorofCh'utz'u,343
ChuHsi'scommentson,344,346
asanindividualauthor,34
Ch'uYung,316
Ch'anchen(PreservingtheTrueState)sect,361
Ch'anTsuwang:
appraisalofCh'enCh'un,509
appraisalofChuHsi,530
ontwotypesofknowledge,252n
onLinKuangch'ao,507
compilerofSungYanhsehan,521522
onYangShih,506
onYanscholars,531
ChuangTzu:
antirationalismof,143
asauthor,33
andChuHsi,67
influenceof,384
ontwokindsofknowledge,242
KuoHsiang'sdistortionof,382
onprinciple,144145
onquietsitting,282
transcendentalismof,219
ChuangTzu:
commentaryon,35
repletewithmetaphors,34
metaphorofmirrorsin,144
principlein,145
Ch'unch'iu(Springandautumnannals).SeeSpringandAutumnAnnals
Ch'unch'iufanlu(LuxuriantgemsoftheSpringandAutumnAnnals),34
Ch'unch'iuwei(ApocryphalexplanationoftheSpringandAutumnAnnals),294
Ch'unhsiperiod,346
Chungho(centralityandharmony,equilibriumandharmony).SeeEquilibriumandharmony
Chunghuifu(literarynameofChuHsi),295
Chungshu(beingtruetotheselfandaltruism,fulldevelopmentofone'smindandtheextensionofthatmindtoothers,honestyandtolerance,loyaltyand
consideration):
inChuHsi,444,535
as"onethread,"150,443
forselfcultivation,329
Chungyung(TheMean).SeeDoctrineoftheMean
Chungyungchangch(CommentaryontheChungyung,theDoctrineoftheMeandividedintochaptersandsentences):
ChuHsi'sworkon,116,314,600
importanceof,328
inKoreanNeoConfucianism,578
onliifenshu,121
onnatureandtheWayofHeaven,36
prefaceof,276,585,587
Taoistideasin,39
WuCh'eng'scommenton,541.
SeealsoDoctrineoftheMeanSsushuchichuChungyunghuowen
Chungyunghuowen(QuestionsandanswersontheDoctrineoftheMean):
onfen,10
onoperationoftheWay,125
WuCh'eng'scommenton,541.
SeealsoChungyungchangchDoctrineoftheMeanSsushuchichu
Ch'unganCounty,419,596
Ch'ungchengpien(Indefenseofreveringcorrectness),482
Ch'ungk'anChuTzuIlichingchuant'ungchieh(ReprintofMasterChu'scomprehensiveexegisesofthetextandcommentoftheIli),319
ChungcheongProvince,571
ClassicofSupremeMystery(T'aihsanching),34,301
ClassifiedConversationsofMasterChu.SeeChuTzuylei
Confucianism:
attacked,370
controversywithBuddhism,361
differencesfromBuddhism,380,401
developmentof,4348
inHanandT'angtimes,147
onlifeanddeath,401502
asreligion,28,40,357,360,371372
schoolsof,450
asonlyoneschoolofthought,27
andscience,372
onselfdiscipline
andTaoism,33,38,142
Confucius:
andtheancients,343
asauthorofBookofChanges,444
followedbyChuHsi,355
ChuHsi'sinfluencesince,1
inConfucianorthodoxy,43
andtheDukeofChou,36
onHeaven,445,448
onjen,44,213
comparedwithJesus,40
teachingonknowledge,4344
learningof,26,32
lifeof,26,306
inthelineoftransmission,437438,584585,587588
ontheMandateofHeaven,4849,445
ontheodes,345
onstandardandexpediency,255,262,267
nativeofstate,357
teachingsof,461
venerationof,33
theWayof,346
Creation:
asthegreatvirtueofHeavenandEarth,74
matchinghumanity,73,76
asPrincipleofHeaven,123.
SeealsoMindofHeavenandEarthShengsheng
Creel,H.G.,80
Cremation,267
CulturalRevolution,373
D
Daikanwajiten(GreatChineseJapanesedictionary),10
DaiZhen.SeeTaiChen
Danzhu.SeeTanchu
Daotong(traditionoftheWay).SeeTaot'ung
Davis,Richard,417
Daxuehuowen(QuestionsandanswersontheGreatLearning).SeeTahsehhuowen
Daxuezhangju(TheGreatLearningdividedintochaptersandsentences).SeeTahsehchangch
deBary,Wm.Theodore,5,6,16,603604
Deities.SeeSpiritualbeings
Democracy,370,373
Desires:
ChuHsion,279280
FungYulan

Page623

on,2324
havingno,179,283.
SeealsoT'ienlijeny
Deutsch,Eliot,603
Dharma:
asempty,386387,390
truenatureof,383384
DiamondSutra*,384
Divination:
theBookofChangesfor,53
resortto,599
DoctrineoftheMean:
comparedwithBookofChanges,552
achapterinBookofRites,27
theCh'engson,506
ChuHsi'scommentary,325,328332
translationofChuHsi'spreface,437
ChuHsi'srearrangementandelucidation,314,325,331332
intheConfuciantradition,54,474
onthecreativeimpulse,381
dateandauthorshipof,34
originaldoctrineof,462
onequilibriumandharmony,275,279,468,484,489
onfeelings,146,278
comparedwithGreatLearning,47,188,315
onhumannature,36,44,49,138,388,576
importanceof,325
onMandateofHeaven,207
ontheMean,142
metaphorsin,383
onthemind,181
onmoralcultivation,180
ontwostagesofnatureandmind,490
questionabout,332
onthesage,277
onshentu,280
onsincerity,74,330,461462
settingstandard,346
ontaot'ung,589
Taoistinfluenceon,449
teachingsof,74,590
ontheWayofHeaven,36
comparedwithWesternInscription,108
YangShih'sinsighton,466
Dogaku*hyoteki*(ThegoaloftheLearningoftheWay):
contentsof,587,589
reasonfor,590
recommended,591
ontheWay,590
Dogakuhyotekihikki(NotesontheGoalofLearningoftheWay):
ontheChinssulu,590
onConfucianismandShinto,588
ontheWay,589,591
Dogakunijisetsu(Atreatiseonthetermtaohseh),589
DonZhongshu.SeeTungChungshu
Doubt,239
Duty(i).SeeRighteousness
E
Ebrey,Patricia,413414,417
Edo(Tokyo),591
Egoism.SeeYangChu
EightTrigrams,85.SeealsoHexagrams
Elite(inSouthernSung),414415,418,425,430
Emblemsandnumbers.SeeFormandnumber
Emptiness(Buddhist):
notionof,382383
realmof,441
andSuchness,391
teachingof,387
trueversusstubborn,385386.
SeealsoDharma
Endowment,physical(ch'ichih):
inChangTsai,131132
Ch'engHaoon,4950
Ch'engIon,4950
ChuHsion,152,276,496
andFiveAgents,104
andinvestigationofthings,389
inmanandthings,122
degreeofpurity,6768,72,75,105,132133,147.
SeealsoMaterialforce
Enlightenment:
Buddhist,181,208,392,394395
Confucian,287
sudden,seeHuojankuant'ung
EoKiwon.SeeEoYaobong
EoYaobong,571
Equilibriumandharmony(chungho):
attainmentof,328
Ch'engIon,46,466
ChuHsion,158,181185,276,279,378,463
ChuHsi'ssearchfor,484
convergenceof,158
intheDoctrineoftheMean,181,279,468,489
inKoreanNeoConfucianism,576
andseriousness,102
assubstanceandfunction,490
Equilibrium,timely.SeeMean
ErhCh'engishu(SurvivingworksofthetwoCh'engs).SeeIshu
Eruditionandessentialism(poyeh):
ChuHsi'sdiscussionon,236,240
polarityinConfucianism,229
Ether(ch'i).SeeMaterialforce
Eto*Hatsumi,592
Evil,372.SeealsoGoodandevil
Ewell,JohnW.,Jr.,609
Examinations(civilservice):
andChuHsi,3,27,527,529
commentariesusedin,508,526528
inSouthernSung,417,425,429,434n
intheYandynasty,5,372,526530
inYan,Ming,andCh'ingdynasties,372
Expediency:
practicing,262267
andtimelyequilibrium,259261.
SeealsoStandardandexpediency
"ExplanationoftheDiagramoftheGreatUltimate."SeealsoT'aichit'ushuo
Extensionofknowledge:
Ch'engIon,48
ChuHsion,48,146,199,207,230233,284287
toreachtheGreatUltimateandgoodness,150,154.
SeealsoInvestigationofthings
F
Fayen(Modelsayings),34
"Falselearning"(weihseh),6,599
Family,566
Family(inSouthernSung),412414
FamilyEtiquette(Chiali):
ChuHsi'sworkon,11,313
contentsof,315
dateof,333n
discussionson,316319
editionsof,316
teachingsof,322325
FamilyPreceptsoftheYanFamily,414
FanChungyen:
asanadministrator,530
asamodel,480
asawriter,347
FangHsiaoju,511
FangIchih,518n
FangPao,516
Fangyen(Recordeddialects),529

Page624

Feelings:
ChuHsion,63,70,164165,275,seealsoIfa,Foursevendebate,Weifa
intheDoctrineoftheMean,146,278
goodnessof,277278
asneutral,278280
Fei(wide),331
FengYungchih,263
Feudalism,Chinese:
inChinesehistory,106,356357,369
inChinesesociety,131,511
inChuHsi,107111,363364,372,559
hierarchyin,109,134
inNeoConfucianism,511
comparedwiththeWest,93,109111,355
Filialpiety(conflictwithloyalty),263
FilialPiety,Classicof:
inspiringChuHsi,595
WuCh'eng'scommentson,541
WuCh'eng'sworkon,532
FiveAgents(wuhsing):
intheBookofChanges,61,305
absenceinBuddhism,383
inChuHsi,69,73,75,83,100,103,132,134,161,171
intheHandynasty,45,51
matchingothersets,148,203
andnumbers,303304
inphysicalendowment,133
intheT'aichit'ushuo,52,84,118,120,147,274
intheprocessoftransformationandnourishment,123
FiveClassics:
ChuHsi'ssayingson,318
intheChuTzuylei,318
incivilserviceexaminations,513,515
comparedwithFourBooks,2
inHantimes,33,40
mentioned,481
asstandard,40
studyof,240
inT'angtimes,35,40
inYanNeoConfucianism,525
FiveConstantVirtues(wuch'ang):
neglectedinBuddhismandTaoism,391,440
inChuHsi,73,110,128129,204,213,273,367,507,559,564
inConfucianism,273,288n,361
described,30n,288n,374n,517n
inKoreanNeoConfucianism,572,575,577,581
inLuHsiangshan,507
matchingothersets,73,133,166
promotionof,28
andtheWay,590
intheWhiteDeerHollowAcademyannouncement,590
FiveElements(wuhsing).SeeFiveAgents
FiveEvolutions(wuyn),85
FivePhases(wuhsing).SeeFiveAgents
FiveRelations:
described,353n,590,593n
importanceof,347
FiveStandards,590
FiveTeachings,593n
Foreigncountries,514
Formandnumber(hsiangshu):
neverspokenofbytheCh'engs,513
schoolof,2
slightedbyChaoYehchih,513.
SeealsoChange,thediagramsofNumbersShaoYung
FourBeginnings(ssutuan):
inChuHsi,224,241
described,156n,457n
andtheFourFundamentalVirtues,205
matchingtheFourQualitiesofCh'ien,164
taughtbyMencius,152153,204
inherentinthemind,71,72,153
FourBooks:
forChuHsi,46,276
ChuHsi'scommentarieson,9,10,35,83,507,531533
ChuHsi'sgroupingof,2,2728,40
incivilserviceexaminations,4,513,526,528,531
ideaofcreationin,88
emphasison,532
integrityof,541
inNeoConfucianism,503
orderof,234
inorthodoxy,4,515
sixteenwordformulain,588
studyof,234,240
supplementaryremarkson,528
intheYandynasty,15,524525,530533.
SeealsoSsushuchichuSsushuhuowen
FourDharmaRealms:
intheHuayenSchool,385
identified,404n
FourElements,382
FourForms(ssuhsiang),61,85
FourFundamentalVirtues(FourCardinalVirtues,FourfoldMoralPrinciple):
inanimals,105,131
inChange,202
ChuHsion,63,84,203,206,212,222
asclassvirtues,131
inherentinhumannature,7072,75,123,163164,221,388,451
allincludedinjen,24
inKoreandebate,seeFoursevendebate
matchingothersets,74,203,207
FourLibraries.SeeSsuk'uch'anshu
FourQualitiesofCh'ien(yanhenglichen):
ChuHsion,73,161,202,212,364,367
matchingothersets,203
wisdomequatingfirmness,202
WuCh'eng'sequationwithNeoConfucianists,525
Fourseasons,74,203
Foursevendebate:
centralissuein,582n
inKoreanNeoConfucianism,570582
Fox,Robin,413
Freese,RoseanneE.,269
Freedman,Maurice,413
Fu,CharlesWeihsun,603,605
onChuHsiandBuddhism,15,377403
FuchouPrefecture:
Academyin,524
Buddhistlandownershipin,428
degreeholdersin,434n
elitein,415
Fu(toreturn)hexagram:
ChuHsion,207
HuHungon,486
WangPion,219
Fuhsi:
timeof,294
inlineoftransmission,437
inventoroftrigrams,447
FukienSchool:
accountof,15,466467
lineageof,504
membersof,507509
andNorthernSungNeoConfucianism,470
principlesof,510
FuKuang,508,533,535
Fumotonoshirube(Guidepostatthefootofahill),588
FungYulan,605
emphasisonagreement,14
onChuHsiandLuHsiangshan,253n
onChuHsi'sideaoftheGreatUltimate,9698
ontheGreatUltimate,66,276
Hsinlihseh,5
onNeoConfucianism,2125

Page625

comparedNeoConfucianismwithWesternphilosophy,2225,109
statement,2125
G
Gaozi.SeeKaoTzu
Gardner,Daniel,603,609
Gedalecia,David,603,609
GeneralHistoryofChineseThought,A,80
God:
Kanton,23
relationwithman,164
withpersonality,166
comparedwithT'aichi,160
GongxiHua.SeeKunghsiHua
Goodandevil:
distinctionof,165
inhumannature,74,133134,391.
SeealsoEvilFeelings
GooseLakeTemplemeeting:
accountof,1314,178,247248,450,470,597
arrangedbyLTsuch'ien,597
topicsofdiscussion,14.
Seealso"Honoringthemoralnature"
Graf,Father,6
Graham,A.C.,605
onhumannature,9,11,138154
Grains:
analogyforliifenshu,106
analogyforthemind,215
Granaries,3,165,597
GreatHarmony(T'aiho),WangFuchih'sinterpretationof,60
GreatLearning:
authorshipanddateof,34
comparedwithBookofChanges,552
achapterinBookofRites,27
fortheCh'engs,326,506
ChuHsi'scommentaryon,326328
ChuHsi'selucidationof,314,325
ChuHsi'semphasison,596,598
ChuHsi'srevisionof,9,314,325326
intheConfuciantradition,54
doctrinesof,145146,190,286
andtheDoctrineoftheMean,188,315
firstoftheFourBooks,46
orderinFourBooks,47
importanceof,325
oninvestigationofthings,seeInvestigationofthings
reasonforbeginningwithinvestigationofthings,492
basictextinJapan,587
firststepinlearning,4647
emphasisinmemorials,426427
openingpassagequoted,426
orderin,492
two"passes"of,532
threebasicprinciplesandeightitems,326,506,517n
rearrangements,312,314,325326
onshentu,28.
SeealsoAmendedcommentaryFourBooks,SsushuchichuTahsehchangchTahsehhuowen
Greatman,72,74.SeealsoSage
GreatUltimate(T'aichi):
ChangShihon,97
nevermentionedbytheCh'engs,507
ChuHsion,2,8,66,7990,93102,118120,127,145,149,158161,171172,176,273
inChouTuni,seeT'aichit'ushuo
powertocreate,54,159
described,9496
ineverything,81,104105,120,275276,295298,366367
FungYulanon,66
comparedwithGod,166
inNeoConfuciansm,551
andprinciple,8081,86,172173,203,208
Taoistoriginof,3
WangFuchihon,60
WangPion,540
Yamanoion,9.
SeealsoLiifenshuMaterialforceMoonT'aichi
GreatVacuity(T'aihs):
asmaterialforce,363
withoutphysicalform,59
Griffin,JamesF.,609
Gun.SeeKun
Gun.SeeKun
GuoMoruo.SeeKuoMojo
H
Hagi,534
Hailing,Emperor,422
Hakurokudokeijihikki(NotesontheannouncementoftheWhiteDeerGrottoAcademy),586
Handynasty:
classicalstudiesin,27,33,35,320
declineof,197
FiveConstantVirtuesin,204
onjen,215216
literaturein,350351
studyofritualtextin,312313,320
onstandardandexpediency,257259,267268,269n
intransmissionoftheWay,1
HanK'angpo,58
HanNamdang.SeeHanWonjin
Hanshangichuan(CommentaryontheBookofChangescompletedbesidetheHanRiver),507
Hanshihwaichuan(MoraldiscoursesillustratingtheHantextoftheBookofOdes),257
Hanshu(HistoryoftheHandynasty),540
HanT'ochou:
attackbyChuHsi,598
irridentismof,408
powerof,425,599
premiershipof,508
Hant'u(China),588
HanT'uichih.SeeHanY
HanWonjin(HanNamdang):
appraised,572,575,579580
leaderinfoursevendebate,15,571
ontheFiveConstantVirtues,575576,581
ontheGreatUltimate,575576
ontheMandateofHeaven,575
onnature,572575,577578,581
viewsof,572,582
Hanyang(selfcultivation).SeeSelfcultivation
HanY(HanT'uichih):
onhumannature,138,276,358,363
onjen,3,216
andthelineoftransmission,437438
aswriter,341,347,349
"Yantao,"584
Hangchow,5,433n,596
Hare,R.M.,140
Hartwell,Robert,412,430
Hatton,Russell,609
Heaven:
theCh'engson,4850
ChuHsion,7990,366,371,444
Confucius'conceptof,445,448
developmentoftheideaof,446
intheDoctrineoftheMean,446
relationwithprincipleandmaterialforce,88
Heavenandearth(physical):
cosmologyof,161163
movementof,177
Heavenandman:
lawapplicabletoboth,365

Page626

relationof,139,552553
unityof,44,50,159,212,266,486
Heaven,Mandateof:
ChuHsion,494,555
Confuciuson,4849,445
intheGreatLearning,95
Heaven,Wayof:
inChuHsi,121
inNeoConfucianism,110,461
Hegel:
comparedwithChuHsi,551
comparedwithNeoConfucianism,360
HengchouPrefecture,544n
Heterodoxy(ituan):
ChuHsi'sattackon,106,377,396.
SeealsoBuddhismandTaoismMoTzuYangChu
Hexagrams.SeeCh'ienFuK'anK'unLi
HeXinyin.SeeHoHsinyin
Himejimakogi*(LecturesatHimejima),591
HistoryofChinesePhilosophy:
EarlyModernConfucianism,A,80
History(studyof),234
HoChi,532
onChuHsi,540
ontheFourBooks,532
HoChing,523
HoHsinyin,563
HonanCh'engshihishu(SurvivingworksofthetwoCh'engsofHonan).SeeIshu
"Honoringthemoralnatureandfollowingthepathofinquiryandstudy"(tsuntehsing,taowenhseh):
ChuHsion,228230,240241,475
issuebetweenChuHsiandLuHsiangshan,1415,39,228230,453,471472,597
intheDoctrineoftheMean,228
LuHsiangshanon,533
Horse(analogyforprincipleridingonmaterialforce),99
HoseoSchool,570
Hot'u(YellowRivermap).SeeChange,diagramsof
HouWailu,80
HoYen,35
Hsiming(Westerninscription).SeeWesternInscription
Hsimingchiehi(ExplanationofthemeaningoftheWesternInscription),596
HsiaWanch'un,514,518n
HsiangAnshih(HsiangP'ingfu),228
HsiangP'ingfu.SeeHsiangAnshih
Hsiangshu(emblemsandnumbers,formandnumber).SeeFormandnumber
Hsiaochinghslu(ProlegomenaoftheClassicofFilialPiety),541
Hsiaochingkoumingcheh(PropheticcommentaryontheClassicofFilialPiety),85
Hsiao,Duke,512
Hsiaohseh(Elementaryeducation,PrimerofClassic):
commentaryon,529
aboutHuAnkuo,480
importanceof,523
LiuYin'sstudyof,524
printingof,523
abasictext,3,15,587
translationoftheterm,3
intheYandynasty,15,523524,530531
Hsiaotsung,Emperor:
ascendingthethrone,422
ChuHsi'saudienceswith,514
ChuHsi'smemorialsto,428430,596
enforcementoflandsurvey,410
HsiaoT'ung,348
Hsiaotz'ut'angshumu(BibliographyofHsiaotz'uHall),316
HsiehChishih.SeeHsiehShihlin
HsiehLiangtso(HsiehShangts'ai),466
andBuddhism,387,505
influenceontheHunanSchool,220,504
onjen,216,223,367,472,558
HsiehPingte,514,518n
HsiehShangts'ai.SeeHsiehLiangtso
HsiehShihlin(HsiehChishih),542
Hsin(torenovate),326
HsinanCounty,346,535,595
HsinchouPrefecture,524
Hsinhseh(mindlearning).SeeLuWangSchool
Hsinlihseh(Newlearningofprinciple),5
Hsint'iyhsingt'i(Substanceofthemindandsubstanceofhumannature),540
onNeoConfucianschools,464.
SeealsoMouTsungsan
Hsingchuang(Biographicalaccount),316317
Hsingerhhsia(posteriorto,after,physicalform).SeePhysicalform,after
Hsingerhshang(priorto,before,physicalform).SeePhysicalform,before
Hsinglichingi(EssentialsofNeoConfucianism),3,4
Hsinglich'nshuchchieh(Punctuationandannotationsonthevariousbooksonnatureandprinciple),218
Hsinglihseh(schoolofnatureandprinciple).SeeNeoConfucianism
Hsinglitach'an(GreatcollectionofNeoConfucianism):
andtheChinssulu,596
andtheT'aichit'ushuo,3,4
Hsinglitzuhsn(Expositiononwordsconcerningnatureandprinciple),524
Hsinglitzui(Meaningsoftermsonnatureandprinciple),509
HsingtzuCounty,597
Hsiushen(selfcultivation).SeeSelfcultivation
HsiungChieh,218
HsiungHo:
accountof,509
accountoftheK'aot'ingAcademy,526
criticizingutilitarianism,512
forecastChuHsi'sinfluenceinAsia,507
HsiungLiangfu,538
HsiungPenglai,523,528
HsiungShihli,359
HsCh'ien:
appraised,537
teachingsof,536537
worksof,532,536
HsCh'ienhseh,321,538
HsFukuan,5,605
comparedChuHsiwiththeCh'engbrothers,12,4355

Page627

HsHeng:
appraised,531,534
aleadingNeoConfucianist,523525
promulgationofNeoConfucianism,530,542
HsKuangch'i,513
HsMengling,415
HsShunchih,393
HsTehsin,415
Hsanhoperiod:
theGreatLearningexpoundedin,505
literarystylein,343
Hsan,King:
unabletobearthesufferingoftheox,468,484,491
HsehHsan(praisedtheSsushuchichu),510
HsnShuang:
onastronomicalemblems,58
ondiagramsofChang,294
HsnTzu:
emphasisondissimilarity,38
onHeaven,49
onhumannature,138,358,363364
influenceof,313
onthemind,476
andorthodoxy,450,585
onselfdiscipline,45
HuAnkuo:
andCh'angtsung,487
ChuHsion,482,506
commentaryontheSpringandAutumnAnnals,523
andtheHunanSchool,466,480,494,504
ontheSpringandAutumnAnnals,481,526
supplementtoSsumaKuang'swork,481
teachingsof,484,515
andYangShih,505
HuCh'angju(shiftedfromChuHsitoLuHsiangshan),541
Hufamily(intheHunanSchool),480482,494
HuFangp'ing,538
HufengAcademy,525
Hufengshuyanchiangi(NotesforlecturesdeliveredattheHufengAcademy),525
HuHsiangSchool:
schoolofChangShih,504
andNorthernSungNeoConfucianism,464,470
teachingsof,467.
SeealsoChangShihHuHungHunanSchool
HuHsien:
acceptingoffice,483
teacherofChuHsi,482483,507,595
HuHung(HuWufeng,11061161):
criticismofBuddhism,482,488
andCh'engHao,468
Chihyen,390,485,492,494
andChuHsi,12
comparedwithChuHsi,447
ChuHsi'sevaluationof,491496
ChuHsi'spoemon,483
discussed,480497
familyof,481
onhistory,482
onhumannature,138,155n,389390,481,484,486489,493
onjen,219,491
onknowledge,485
onliifenshu,488
onlifeanddeath,493
lineageof,463,504
onthemind,484,490491
onprincipleandmaterialforce,487
onthesage,487489
schoolof,13,464,480
onselfcultivation,469470,483486
onseriousness,486
onsubstanceandfunction,488,490,495
teachingsof,467470
ont'ienlijeny,488.
SeealsoChihyenHuHsiangSchoolHunanSchool
HuHung(1163cs),600
HuNing,481
HuPingwen(HuYnfeng),533,538
HuShih(11361173),494
HuShih(18911962),111,239
HuTashih,494
HuTayan,494
HuTzuChihyenii(MisgivingsconcerningMasterHu'sUnderstandingWords).SeeChihyenii
HuWei:
onthediagramsofChange,295
revisionoftheGreatLearning,325
criticismofShaoYung,307
HuWufeng.SeeHuHung(11061161)
HuYikuei,538
HuYin:
attackonBuddhism,482
familyrelationof,481,494
remarksonFourBooks,528
HuYan:
commentaryrecommendedforcivilserviceexaminations,527
forerunnerofNeoConfucianism,362
HuYchin,316
HuYnfeng.SeeHuPingwen
Huahsia(China),356
Huayenching(Scriptureofflowerysplendor):
commentarieson:35
themoonanalogyin,510.
SeealsoMoon
HuayenSchool:
influenceontheCh'engs,447
influenceonliifenshu,122
doctrineofoneandall,105107,171
teachingsof,384385.
SeealsoHuayenchingMoon
Huainanarea,429
HuainanTzu,38
HuanT'ui,445
HuangChen:
criticismofChuHsiandShaoYung,539
revisionoftheGreatLearning,325
Huangchichingshih(Greatnormforregulatingworldaffairs),179
Huangchichingshihchihyao(AguidetotheSupremeUltimategoverningtheworld),508
HuangChin:
onliifenshu,536
onLiuYin,524
HuangChinhsing,609
HuangChunchieh,610
HuangDaofu.SeeHuangTaofu
HuangKan(HuangMienchai),508,524,600
accountof,508509
onChuHsi'sphilosophy,54
learningof,512
onthetransmissionoftheMean,586
workonritualtexts,315316,322,511
transmissionofteachings,532
inthelineoftransmission,438
HuangMienchai.SeeHuangKan
HuangPochia(commentsonNeoConfucianists),506,533,538,540
Huangshihjihch'ao(DaytodayjottingscompiledbyMr.Huang),539

Page628

HuangSiuchi,605
HuangTaofu,117
HuangT'ingchien,348
HuangTsunghsi:
onChuHsiandLuHsiangshan,229,507
cited,467
discipleofLiuTsungchou,522
onthemind,564
theMingitaifanglu,512,
onrighteousnessandprofit,556
scholarshipof,40,307
compileroftheSungYanhsehanandtheMingjuhsehan,521522
onutilitarianism,212
partialtoWangYangming,40
commentonYanNeoConfucianism,537
HuangTsungyen,307
HuangTzuheng,419
Huangwangtachi(Greatrecordsofemperorsandkings),481
HuangZongxi.SeeHuangTsunghsi
Huian(literarynameofChuHsi),498n
HuichouPrefecture:
Buddhismin,428
ChuHsi'sancestralhome,595
falltoMingforces,535
Hui,King,511
Huineng:
disputewithShenhsiu,395
doctrineof,390391
HuiShih:
paradoxesof,142
Hui,StateDukeof(posthumoustitleofChuHsi),600
Huitsung,Emperor:
contemporarywithChouTuni,360
recruitmentunder,417
HuiTung(onkeintheGreatLearning),327
Humannature.SeeNature(hsing)
Humaneness.SeeJen
Humanism(inConfucianism),445
Humanity.SeeJen
Humanity,righteousness,propriety,andwisdom(intelligence).SeeFourFundamentalVirtues
Hume,139
HunanSchool:
accountof,480491
ChuHsi'scriticismof,224
onjen,219220,222223.
SeealsoChangShihHuHung(11061161)HuHsiangSchool
Hungfanhuangchi(GreatnormandtheSupremeUltimate),508
HungHua,596
Huojankuant'ung(suddenintegration,suddenunderstanding,thoroughunderstanding,widepenetration),23,146,175176,285.SeealsoAmendedcommentary
Hymes,Robert(cited),414417,428
I
Ichuan(CommentaryontheBookofChanges):
authorshipof,35,52
quotedinChinssulu,38
ChuHsion,53,236,293,307
onthemindofHeavenandEarth,219
publicationof,523
Ifa(afterthefeelingshavebeenaroused).SeeEquilibriumandharmony
Ihsehch'imeng(StudyoftheBookofChangesforbeginningstudents):
authorshipof,538
commentaryon,302
dateof,52
andthediagramsofChange,295
reactiontoIchuan,293
onnumbersandemblems,301
passagesquoted,297
praised,539
Ts'aiYanting'scontributionto,508
Ikuan(onethread).SeeChungshu
Ili(BookofCeremonial,BookofRituals).SeeBookofCeremonial
Ilichangch(TheIliwithdivisionofparagraphsandsentences),321
IliChengchuchtu(TheIliannotatedbyChengHsanwithdivisionofsentences),321
Ilichingchuanchichu(CollectedcommentariesontheannotationsoftheIli),315316
Ilichingchuant'ungchieh(ComprehensiveexegesisofthetextandcommentariesontheIli):
onancientrituals,318
appraised,321322
ChuHsi'sworkon,313315,320
continuedbyHuangKan,316,509
ILorivers,369
Ipenwanshu(Substanceisonebutitsdifferentiationsaremany).SeeLiifenshu
Ishu(Survivingworks):
compilationof,596
identificationofsayingsin,464465
onselfexamination,365
Ishuo(CommentaryontheBookofChanges),58
Ituan(heterodoxy).SeeHeterodoxy
Iyin,264
ImperialCriticalVersionofChuHsi'sT'ungchienkangmu,539
InabaMokusai:
promotionofChuHsi'steachingsinJapan,16,586
ontheLearningoftheWay,589591
followerofYamazaki,586,588
InabaUsai(ontheLearningoftheWay),587,591
India(andChinacompared),360
Innateknowledgeofthegood:
dependentonselfcultivation,260
oftheWangYangmingSchool,392
Investigationofprinciple(ch'iungli).SeeInvestigationofthings
Investigationofthings(kewu):
inCh'engHao,45
inCh'engI,45,47,174
inChuHsi,29,39,48,54,165,169179,207,231232,244248,365366,472,475,557
intheGreatLearning,165,285,327,389,461,492
inNeoConfucianism,461.
SeealsoAmendedcommentaryExtensionofknowledgeKeKnowledge''Selfcultivationrequiresseriousness"
J
JanYu,124
JaoLu,524
evaluated,533
quoted,535
praisedbyWuCh'eng,541

Page629

Japan:
ChuHsi'sinfluencein,3,4,93,332,507
discussionsonjen,214,218
NeoConfucianinfluencein,11,15,197
theTraditionoftheWayin,584592
wisdomashiddenin,200
Jen(benevolence,humaneness,humanity,love):
Ch'engHaoon,seeCh'engHao
Ch'engIon,seeCh'engI
Chinesescriptexplained,213
ChuHsion,3,72,205,216224,365367,396,444
ChuHsi'scriticismofYangShihandHsiehLiangtso,367
ChuHsi'sdebatewithChangShihon,217224
ChuHsi'sdefinitionof,9,221,224,365
inclassicalConfucianism,407,448
Confuciuson,444
asconsciousness,seeHsiehLiangtsoandfilialpiety,397
historicaldevelopmentof,3,213214
inNeoConfucianism,24,45,186,215216,222,370,441,461
asseed,3,215,558
onselfdisciplineandreturningtopropriety,399
asunitywithHeavenandEarth,seeYangShihasuniversallove,3
variousviewsof,213224
YangShihon,416,seealsoYangShih.
SeealsoFourFundamentalVirtuesJenshuoWesternInscription
Jenhsintaohsin(ThemindofmanandthemindoftheWay):
theBookofHistory'sstatementquoted,276,438
choicebetween,388
distinctionof,364,559561
identical,562
correspondingtoPrincipleofHeavenandhumandesires,276,287,363,seealsoT'ienlijeny
inWangYangming,561
Jenilichih(humanity,righteousness,propriety,andwisdom).SeeFourFundamentalVirtues
Jenshuo(Treatiseonjen):
ChuHsi'swritingof,218
importantideasin,11
onnatureandmind,213
SatoHitoshion,8,11,212224
Jensen,LionelMillard,610
Jentsung,Emperor,360,530
Jesus:
comparedwithConfucius,40,443
Tillichon,442
Jingshuo.SeeChingshuo
Jinsetsumondo(QuestionsandanswersontheTreatiseonJen),218
Jinsetsumondoshisetsu(TheMaster'sviewsontheJinsetsumondo),218
Jinsetsuyogi(Essentialsofthetheoriesofjen),214
Jinsilu.SeeChinssulu
K
K'aich'engshihching(ClassicsengravedonstoneslabsintheK'aich'engperiod),325
K'aiyanli(EtiquettepreparedintheK'aiyanperiod),322
Kalton,Michael,603,610
K'an(pit)hexagram,297
Kangmunarea,571
KangYouwei.SeeK'angYuwei
K'anghsi,Emperor:
promotionofChuHsi,4,539
andRitescontroversy,4
K'angYuwei:
influenceof,564
onthemind,561
Kant:
comparedwithChuHsi,243,278,360,551,553554,557558
comparedwithNeoConfucianists,360
KaoKung:
revisionoftheGreatLearning,325
KaoMing,605
onChuHsi'sritualtexts,8,11,312332
Kaotsung,Emperor,422
KaoTzu:
ChuHsi'scriticismof,130,389391,394,494
onhumannature,387
likenedtoLuHsiangshan,39
K'aot'ing(honorificnameforChuHsi),539
K'aot'ingAcademy,525526
K'aot'ingarea,521,598
Karma,359
Ke(ko)(toinvestigate,tomeasure),327
K'echaichi(Recordsofthestudioofselfmastery),218
Kelleher,M.Theresa,603,610
Khubilai(Shihtsu).SeeShihtsu
KihoSchool,570
KimChanghyup(KimNongahm),571
Kim,R.OaksookChun,610
KimYungSik,610
KimonSchool,200
Kinshirokuhikki(NotesontheChinssulu),589
Kinshirokukogi*(LecturesontheChinssulu),589
Knowledge:
andaction,4748,232,564
Ch'engIon,47,147,150
ChuHsion,15,4748,114,176,191,199200,242243
genuine,147,150
ofmoralnature,179
andmorality,231248
threegradesof,132
twokindsof,241243.
SeealsoBooklearningExtensionofknowledgeInvestigationofthings
Kowu(kewu,examinationofthings,investigationofthings).SeeInvestigationofthings
K'ochi(selfconquest,selfdiscipline).SeeSelfdiscipline
Kogakubensakuroku(Recordsofencouragementoflearning),590591
KomiyaAtsushi,610
Komoyowa*(SupplementallectureontheBookofMencius),584
Korea:
ControversyoverChuHsi'sviewonthenatureofmanandthings,570582
thefoursevendebatein,571582
NeoConfucianinfluencein,11,15,197
relationofprincipleandmaterialforcein,570582
Koshin*zatsuroku(Miscellaneousjottings),59
KuHsiench'eng(revisionoftheGreatLearning),325

Page630

KuYenwu:
feudalprivilegeof,511
criticismof,NeoConfucianism,512,515
scholarshiponNeoConfucianism,40
Kuanshu,264
KuanTzu,203
Kuanghsperiod,40
KuangnanWest,599
Kueishanchihming(EpitaphofYangShih),505
Kueishanylu(RecordedsayingsofYangShih),505
Kueishen(spiritualbeings,yinyang).SeeSpiritualbeingsYinyang
K'ueichouPrefecture,348
Kuln,ThomasS.,139
Kun,134,137n
K'un(earth,female)hexagram:
earthly,202,297
asfemale,149
asthemother,107
characterizedbyobedience,136n
ofpureyin,201
derivedfromtwostrokes,301
KunghsiHua,124
KungsunCh'ou,33
Kungyangcommentary,514
K'ungAnkuo(onthediagramsofChange),294
K'ungchiao(religionofConfucianism).SeeConfucianism
K'ungYingta:
onthediagramsofChange,294
onnobles,513
KuoHsiang(commentaryontheChuangTzu),35,382
KuoMojo,565
KuoShaoy(onliterarycriticism),338,351n
Kuoy(Conversationsfromthestates),342
KuoYujen,5
KusumotoKaizan,592
KusumotoMasatsugu,198
KusumotoSekisui,592
KusumotoTanzan,206207,592
Kwok,DanielW.Y.,603
KwonKugye.SeeKwonSangyoo
KwonSangha(KwonSiahm),571
KwonSangyoo(KwonKugye),571
KwonSiahm.SeeKwonSangha
L
Landsystem(inSouthernSung),410412
LaoTzu:
onbeing,382
quoted,384
onsincerity,33
transcendentalismof,219
"trick"of,535
ontheWay,590
LaoTzu:
commentaryon,35
asaformofmetaphor,34
LearningoftheWay.SeeTaohsehTaot'ung
Leclerq,CanonJacques,281
LecturesontheHistoryofChineseThought,79
LeeShuichuen,475
Lee,ThomasHongchi,610
Leibniz(comparedwithChuHsi),109
Levey,MatthewA.,611
Li(brightnessandseparation)hexagram,297
Li(order,pattern,principle):
meaningof,169170
translationof,155n.
SeePrinciple
LiAo:
onhumannature,138
andthelineoftransmission,437438
Lichi(Recordsofrites).SeeBookofRites
LiCh'i(onChuHsiasapoet),418
LiChichang,320
LiChih:
criticofNeoConfucianism,515
popularityof,564
onselfishness,563
LiChihts'ao,513
LiChingte,9
LiCh'unnien,410
LiErhch'.SeeLiYung
LiFan,524,533
LiFangtzu(LiKuochai),503,516n
LiHsinfu,419
Lihseh(SchoolofPrinciple),2,8,27,169.SeealsoNeoConfucianism
Liifenshu(Principleisonebutitsmanifestationsaremany),1011.Seealso"Principleisonebutitsmanifestationsaremany"
LiKuangti,318319
LiKung,28,516
LiKuochai.SeeLiFangtzu
LiK'uo,531
LiPo(LiT'aipai),343,349
Lisao(Encounteringsorrow):
ChuHsi'scommentson,36
individualauthorship,34
LiShan(onkeintheGreatLearning),327
Lishukangmu(GeneraloutlineoftheBookofPropriety),321
LiT'aipai.SeeLiPo
LiTingtso:
onthediagramsofChange,294
ontheFourFundamentalVirtues,203
LiTsehou,605
onNeoConfucianismintheMingandCh'ingdynasties,15,551567
LiT'uihsi.SeeYiHwang
LiT'ung(LiYenp'ing):
leadingChuHsiawayfromBuddhism,377378
inheritancefromCh'engHao,467
ontheChininvasion,424
ChuHsion,505506
ChuHsifailedtounderstand,472
influenceonChuHsi,483,491
teacherofChuHsi,180,217
onthedifferencebetweenConfucianismandBuddhism,106
deathof,430
onequilibriumandharmony,182183
aFukienese,507
onknowledge,537
onliifenshu,380
pupilofLoTs'ungyen,45,46
onselfrealization,183
teachingsof,466468
timeof,463
ontranquillity,182
intransmissionoftheWay,1
inheritancefromYangShih,38,467
LiTzuch'i(correctingChuHsi),28
LiYenp'ing.SeeLiT'ung
LiYung(LiErhch'),208
LiZehou.SeeLiTsehou
LiZhi.SeeLiChih
Liangchearea:
ravagedbywar,408
sufferedfrominvasionandlocusts,429

Page631

Liangchih(Innateknowledgeofthegood).SeeInnateknowledge
LiangShuming,605
onChuHsi,7,2630
Liangstate,511
LiangWanfang,319
LiaoTeming(LiaoTzuhui),55
LiaoTzuhui.SeeLiaoTeming
Lifeanddeath:
Buddhisttheoryof,493
HuHung'stheoryof,493
LinAihsan.SeeLinKuangch'ao
Linan,596
LinBiao.SeeLinPiao
LinChihch'i,584
LinChinghsi(LinChishan),514,518n
Linch'uanCounty,524
LinjuAcademy,524
LinKuangch'ao(LinAihsan):
propagatedtheteachingsoftheCh'engs,507
onvirtue,340
LinPiao,566
LinYungchung,492
LinglingCounty,599
LiteraryworksofMasterChu,collectionof.SeeChuTzuwenchi
Literature:
ChuHsion,347348
andNeoConfucianism,198
NeoConfucianistson,337343
studyof,234
tocarrytheWay,337,340
LiuChichang,525
Liuchiayaochih(Essentialsofthesixschoolsofthought),27,37
LiuChihfu.SeeLiuHsan
LiuhsiaHui(accountof),353n
LiuHsieh,415
LiuHsan(LiuChihfu),465
Liu,James,417
LiuKaisun,316
LiuKuan,531
LiuKung:
acceptingoffice,483
mistaken,6
LiuMienchih:
daughter'smarriagetoChuHsi,6,595
teacherofChuHsi,595
LiuPaonan(onchungshu),444
LiuP'ingshan.SeeLiuTzuhui
LiuShuhsien,55,601
onNeoConfucianorthodoxy,13,437455
LiuShuwen,117
LiuTeyan,538
LiuTs'unyan,606
onYanNeoConfucianism,15,521542
LiuTsungchou:
revisionoftheGreatLearning,325
andtheHuHsiangSchool,464
amartyr,514,518n
onthemindoftheWay,563
inNeoConfucianism,461
onthewill,564
LiuTsungyan,349
LiuTzuhui(LiuP'ingshan):
givinganametoChuHsi,208
teacherofChuHsi,348,507,595
LiuYin:
onHsHeng,534
aleadingNeoConfucianist,524
spreadingNeoConfucianism,514,523
interestinShaoYung,524
LiuYuyi,539
LoChengan.SeeLoCh'inshun
LoCh'inshun(LoChengan):
misunderstandingChuHsi,159
oninvestigationofthings,10
onliifenshu,10
onprinciple,165
Lo,Councilor,425
LoKentse,351n
Loshu(BookoftheRiverLo).SeeChange,thediagramsof
LoTs'ungyen(LoYchang):
ChuHsion,467,585
teacherofLiT'ung,504,525,595
teachingsof,466
pupilofYangShih,45,466
LoYchang.SeeLoTs'ungyen
Loden,Torbjorn,611
Lokuang,Stanislaus,8,606
onChuHsi'smetaphysics,5876
onphysicalform,8,58
Lostmind(seekingthe),468,491
Love.SeeJen
Lovejoy,ArthurO.,229
LuChiuling:
attheGooseLakeTemplemeeting,248
inthetransmissionoftheLearningoftheWay,27
LuChiushao(LuSoshan),160
LuChiuyan(LuHsiangshan).SeeLuHsiangshan
LuHsiangshan(LuChiuyan,LuTzuching)
Life:
criticismofBuddhismandTaoism,381,396
andChuHsi,39,223,380,507,597598
comparedwiththatofChuHsi,228,253n
rivalofChuHsi,438
comparedwithKantandHegel,360
influenceinKiangsi,524
lecturedattheWhiteDeerHollowAcademy,12,597
andMencius,410,452455
andorthodoxy,450
inthelineoftransmission,27
Thought:
onbooklearning,247248
andclassicalConfucianism,452453
andtheClassics,240,447
famouspassagestranslated,447,452
onhonoringthemoralnature,453
onthemind,99,150,247248,447,452453
theLearningoftheMindof,380
inNeoConfucianism,461
onprinciple,452
onsagehood,286
schoolof,13,564
ontheT'aichi,8
ontwoapproachestotheWay,252n
objectiontowuchi,9,14,160
LuHsiufu,514,518n
LuHsn,566
Llhsinshu(Anewbookontheoriesofmusic),509
LuLungch'i(onChuHsi'smethodofstudy),535

Page632

LNan,9
LPokung.SeeLTsuch'ien
Lshihch'unch'iu(SpringandautumnannalsofMr.L),38
LuSoshan.SeeLuChiushao
Lustate,329,356,369,541
LTalin(LYshu):
commentaryrecommendedforcivilserviceexaminations,528
deathof,504
onjen,216
inscriptiononselfdiscipline,216
LuTeming(onfei),331
LTsuch'ien(LPokung,LTunglai):
ontheChihyen,492,495
compilationofChinssulu,2,189,523,596
influenceonChuHsi,516
andtheGooseLakeTemplemeeting,seeGooseLakeTemplemeeting
emphasisonhistoryandsociety,515
onjen,217
schoolof,13
orderofstudy,234
worksonClassicsandhistory,523
LTunglai.SeeLTsuch'ien
LuTzuching.SeeLuHsiangshan
LuWangSchool:
comparedwithBuddhism,392,399
disputewiththeCh'engChuSchool,395
idealismof,99
themindasprinciplein,470
MouTsungsan'sdivisionof,464
onstandardandexpediency,400
LuXiangshan.SeeLuHsiangshan
LuXun.SeeLuHsn
LYshu.SeeLTalin
Lunheng(Balanceddiscourse),529
Lunychichu(CollectedcommentariesontheAnalects):
ontheNorthPole,158
quoted,123124,150
includedintheSsushuchichu,314
onstandardandexpediency,255
themesin,122.SeealsoSsushuchichu
Lunyhsnmengk'oui(AcatechismontheAnalectsforyoungstudents),420
Lunyhuowen(QuestionsandanswersontheAnalects),523
Lunyjizhu.SeeLunychichu
Lunyyaoi(EssentialmeaningsoftheAnalects),419420
Lunghsingperiod,418
Luther,Martin(comparedwithChuHsi),40
Lynn,Richard,8,606
onChuHsiasaliterarycritic,337351
M
McDermott,Joseph,411
McKnight,Brian,603,606
ontheworldChuHsilivedin,12,408431
Madhyamika*School(doctrinesof),384
Madman'sDiary,A,566
Magicsquare(inadiagramofChange),302
Mahayana*,35.SeealsoBuddhismCh'anBuddhismHuayenSchoolT'ient'ai
Man:
ChuHsi'sdoctrineon,163166.
SeealsoEndowment,physicalHeavenandmanManandthingsNature,human
Manandthings:
natureof,75,129135,165,368.
SeealsoEndowment,physical
Manners(li).SeeFourFundamentalVirtues
MaoCh'iling
correctingChuHsi,28
onkeintheGreatLearning,327
MaoHuaixin,606
ontheFukienSchool,15,503509
onprinciplesofNeoConfucianism,510516
MaoI,316
MaoTsetung:
Creelon,80
influenceof,565
MaoZedong.SeeMaoTsetung
Martyrdom(inSungandMingtimes),511,518n
Materialforce(ch'i):
Ch'engHaoon,51
Ch'engIon,64
ChuHsion,51,6870
influenceontemperament,134
inmanandthings,147
relationwithprinciple,seePrincipleandmaterialforce
degreeofpurityin,seeEndowment,physical
thetwoforcesof,seeYinyang
Materialism:
inCh'engI,124
inChuHsi,124
MayFourthMovement:
antiConfucianismin,369370
ChinesephilosophyincontrastwithWesternphilosophysince,359360
newliteratureafter,565
Mean,the:
definitionof,329
discussed,279
theDoctrineoftheMeanon,142,489,585
timely,259261
transmissionfromYaotoShun,586
Tzumoand,261,585
Meditation,Buddhist,282.SeealsoQuietsitting
MeijiRestoration,584
Mencius
Life:
asauthoroftheBookofMencius,33
ChuHsifailedtounderstand,470
inConfucianorthodoxy,43
learningtobelikeConfucius,32,36
contributionsof,197
influenceof,390
criticismofMoTiandYangChu,377,585
originatoroftheTraditionofLearning,584
asasage,592
statementascribedto,257
inthelineoftransmission,437438,585,587588
andthetransmissionoftheWay,584
criticismofTzumo,261
Thought:
meaningofch'ing(whatisthecase),451
onHeaven,49,446
onhumannature,4445,51,132,138,363364,446
onjen,3,214,216
andtwokindsofknowledge,242
seekingthelostmind,468,471
materialforcein,451
onthemind,70,276,278,446
doctrineoftheoriginalmind,470
onrighteousnessandprofit,511
onselfcultivation,180
onstandardandexpediency,256258
teachingsof,461.
SeealsoBookofMenciusMengTzuchichu
Mencius,Bookof.SeeBookofMencius
MengTzuchichu(CollectedcommentariesontheBookofMencius):
quotingCh'engI,

Page633

585
inKoreanNeoConfucianism,577580
onmanandthings,129
onnature,131
commentontheOxMountain,123
aspartofSsushuchichu,314
onT'ien,89.
SeealsoSsushuchichu
MengTzuhuowen(QuestionsandanswersontheBookofMencius),523
onfen,10
Mengzijizhu.SeeMengTzuchichu
Miaotuan,415
MikamiZean(onLearningoftheWay),588,591
Militarystrategy.SeeSunTzupingfa
MinhsienCounty,509
Mind:
ChangTsaion,seeChangTsaiChuHsion,51,56n,7071,231,277,363,560561
ChuHsi'sdoctrineoftherectificationof,598
inclassicalConfucianism,70,461
astheT'aichi,296
HuHungon,484,490491
LuHsiangshanon,99,150,247248,447,452453
inMencius,70,278,447
relationtonature,490491
inNeoConfucianism,247248,461
asprinciple,470
ofsages,246247
transmissionof,247,588
unitingnatureandfeelings,63,185,493,497.
SeealsoJenhsintaohsinMindofHeavenandEarthNature,humanFeelings
MindofHeavenandEarth,The:
theBookofChangeson,72,150,201,446
Ch'engIon,219220,366
ChuHsion,11,71,88,219220,365366
HuHungon,219.
SeealsoShengsheng
Mindofman(jenhsin).SeeJenhsintaohsin
MindoftheWay(taohsin).SeeJenhsintaohsin
MingchouPrefecture:
Academyin,421
chinshihdegreesin,425,434n
Mingitaifanglu(Waitingfordawn:
aplanfortheprince),512
Mingjuhsehan(CompendiousstudyofMingphilosophersandtheirworks),522
MingNeoConfucianism:
accountof,15
learningofChangesin,307
understandingofChuHsi,207
understandingofTaoandvirtuein,473
MiyakeShosai*:
onChuHsi'stheoryofknowledge,200
influenceonKusumoto,592
onLearningoftheWay,587
ontheWay,589
MiyazakiIchisada,417
MoTi.SeeMoTzu
MoTzu(MoTi):
ChuHsi'scriticismof,107
emphasisondissimilarity,38
Mencius'attackon,377,585
andtheMoTzu,33
universalloveof,396
exaltationofY,32
MohistCanon(onbenefitandharm),143
Mohists:
rationalityof,141,143
advocationofuniversallove,3233
Monasticorder(intheCh'anSchool),361
Mongols(educationfor),523524
Monks(inConfucianfunerals),266267
Moon:
Huayenoriginoftheanalogy,510
analogyofreflectionsinrivers,66,105,120,149,171.
SeealsoLiifenshu
MorohashiTetsuji(onfen),10
MouTsungsan:
efforttoidentifyCh'engs'sayings,465
studyofChuHsi,378
onChuHsi'sorthodoxy,255
onConfucianism,Taoism,andBuddhism,449450
workonNeoConfucianism,5,450
onNeoConfucianorthodoxy,1213,451455
onNeoConfucianschools,464
philosophicalsystemof,451
Mu,King,345
Muanchi(Collectedworksfromthehutofashepherd),523
Mukyukai*Library,589
Mulamadhyamakakarika*("Middle"wisdomtreatise),383
Munro,Donald,148,606
Mutuallove.SeeMoTzu
N
Nagarjuna,383
Nagatomo,Shigenori,603
NanchienCounty,466,503
Nanhsanwenchi(CollectedworksofChangShih),218
Nank'angPrefecture(ChuHsi'saccomplishmentsin),597,599
NaraSingde,538
Nature,human(hsing):
beyondgoodandevil,493
ChuHsion,51,63,70,75,129135,152154,163165,274277,363,577578
developmentof,74
andfeeling,204,451,seealsoMind
fivetypesof,134
goodnessof,138139,153,273
ofmanandthings,570
andmind,213,451
inNeoConfucianism,461
asprinciple,470.
SeealsoManandthings
Nature,physical(ChuHsi'sdoctrineofheavenandearth),161163
Necessity(conceptof),554
Needham,Joseph,7
onChuHsi'sprinciple,111
onthediagramsofChange,310
onChinesephilosophyoforganism,148
NeoConfucianism:
andart,198
attackedandcriticized,4,28,515,599
influenceofBuddhism,3839
oppositiontoBuddhismandTaoism,111,seealsoHeterodoxy
comparedwithCh'anBuddhism,23,360
developmentof,461
suddenenlightenment,395
forerunnersof,362
historicalbackground,3240
oninvestigationofthings,461
influenceinKoreaandJapan,11,15,197
andliterature,198
mainstreamof,463
modernreactionto,46,369370
orthodoxyof,1213,293
principlesof,510514
asreligion,28,369
revivalof,5
schoolsof,1213,15,99,463470
andsci

Page634

ence,503
onshentu,557
textsof,503
intheYandynasty,15,525.
SeealsoCh'ingdynastyChuHsiFungYulanMingNeoConfucianismSungNeoConfucianismT'angNeoConfucianism
NeoTaoism:
onbeingandnonbeing,94
influenceonBuddhism,384
flourishinWeiChintimes,446.
SeealsoTaoism
NiidaNoboru,413
NingteCounty,509
Ningtsung,Emperor,598
Nonaction:
inConfucianism,449
inTaoism,449
Nonbeing:
inNeoTaoism,94
inTaoism,382.
SeealsoUltimateofNonbeing
NoyamaPrison,584
Numbers:
inChange,298299,301304
nevermentionedbytheCh'engs,507.
SeealsoFormandnumber
O
Objectiveidealism(ChuHsi'sphilosophyas),99,128
OgawanoMasago(Realsandinasmallriver),591
gdai(T'aitsung).SeeT'aitsung,EmperorofYan
OhasiYoichi,90
OkadaSusumu,610
OkadaTakehiko,607
onChuHsi'sideaofwisdom,8,197208
OkudairaSeichian,588,591
Oneprincipleandmanymanifestations.See"Principleisonebutitsmanifestationsaremany"
"Onethread."SeeChungshu
OnoKakuzan,589
OpiumWar(Chinesescienceatthetimeof),372
Opposites(unityofinNeoConfucianism),2124,112
Origination,Flourish,Advantage,Firmness.SeeFourQualitiesofCh'ien
Orthodoxy:
ChuHsiSchoolas,510
intheConfuciantradition,274
lineof,450
inNeoConfucianism,43.
SeealsoTaot'ung
Ota*Kinjo,214
Ought,conceptof,140143,151,554555
OuyangCh'ienchih,518n
OuyangHsiu:
onBuddhism,383
ChuHsion,342,350
commentaryrecommendedforcivilserviceexaminations,527
manofliterarystyle,341
OuyangHsan:
accountofYanNeoConfucianism,523
writingof,539
Ox,sufferingof,468,484,491
P
Pagoda,415
Paichangch'ingkuei(RegulationsatthePaichangMountain),361
Paihut'ung(ComprehensivediscussionsintheWhiteTigerHall):
systemizingclassicallearning,357
onHeavenaspersonalGod,371
PailutungAcademy(WhiteDeerHollowAcademy).SeeWhiteDeerHollowAcademy
Pailutunghsehkuei(Academyannouncement,orregulations,attheWhiteDeerHollowAcademy),586588,590
Pait'ientsachu(MiscellaneousworksofWangMaohung),317
Painting(inSungtimes),198
Pairsofconcepts.SeePolarizedconcepts
PanKu,340
P'anKungshu,319
P'ang,LorettaO.Q.,612
P'angYn(praisedwoodchopping),398
ParentsScripture(ChuHsi'scriticismof),396
ParkPilju(ParkYeoho),571
ParkSaedang(ParkSeogye),571
ParkSeogye.SeeParkSaedang
ParkYangJa,610
ParkYeoho.SeeParkPilju
Parker,JasonH.,611
Paulsen,565
Pavlov,142
Perpetualrenewal.SeeShengsheng
Phelan,Tim,610
Physicalform,after(hsingerhhsia).SeePhysicalform,before
Physicalform,before(hsingerhshang):
intheBookofChanges,58
inChangTsai,5859
intheCh'engs,50,59,275
inChuHsi,5961,6465,96,100,118,129,380,579
FungYulanon,97
inHancommentaries,58
intheLus,160
correspondingtoprincipleandmaterialforce,64,70
TaiChenon,60
WangFuchihon,60
Physicalnature(ch'ichih).SeeEndowment,physical
Ping,Emperor,518
PlatformScripture,391
Plato:
comparedwithChuHsi,110
dualismof,451
FungYulanon25
ontologicalapproachof,22
Poetry(ChuHsion),343350
Polarizedconcepts:
inChuHsi,229230,252n.
SeealsoCh'engI,famoussayings
Poyeh(eruditionandessentialism).SeeEruditionandessentialism
Poynchi(CollectedworksofHsPoyn),536
Practicallearning(shihhseh):
ChuHsion,108
NeoConfucianemphasison,197
WangFuchih'sinfluenceon,111
Prajinaparamitasutra*(Perfectionofwisdomscripture),383

Page635

PrefacetoYChinglung'scommentaryonChuHsi'sHsiaohseh(oncivilserviceexaminations),529
Principle(li):
ChuHsi'stheoryof,6470,8182,86,104110,148149,159,169177,199,204205,243,248,273,379,381,451
inChuangTzu,144145
described,165,169170
andtheGreatUltimate,8081,86,172173,203,208
ashumannature,51,129130,243
investigationof,10,165
asprincipleoflife,7073
LuHsiangshanon,452
mainpointsof,118
producingmaterialforce,910,86,120
operationof,125
aspattern,144153
asbasisforvirtue,128.
SeealsoPrincipleandmaterialforce"Principleisonebutitsmanifestationsaremany"PrincipleofHeaven
Principleandmaterialforce:
dualismof,7980,85
analogyofhorse,99
correspondingtohsingerhshangandhsingerhhsia,64,70
inKorea,570582
relationof,2,89,51,58,6470,75,109,117118,171.
SeealsoPrinciple
"Principleisonebutitsmanifestationsaremany"(liifenshu):
Buddhistinfluenceon,106,122,537
Ch'engIon,2,10,108,119,244,510
ChuHsion,66,67,78,81,104,108109,120122,125,128,170171,363,378379,493,556
intheFourBooks,121122
inHuHung,488
inKoreanNeoConfucianism,579
LiT'ung'sinstructionson,378
LoCh'inshunon,10
comparedwithoneandall,105106
inSungNeoConfucianism,275
andtheT'aichi,81,seealsoMoon
intheWesternInscription,63,66,107108,121
inYanNeoConfucianism,536537
PrincipleofHeaven:
Buddhistfailuretorealize,397
Ch'engHao'srealizationof,462
Ch'engIon,50,89
ChuHsion,11,89,116129,364,555556
ascreator,123
fulfillmentof,401
asprincipleoffeeling,29
recoveryof,280
assourceofprinciple,275
transformationandnourishmentof,122125.
SeealsoT'ienliT'ienlijeny
Productionandreproduction(shengsheng).SeeShengsheng
PuShang,313
P'uch'engCounty,504
P'ut'ienCounty,507
Q
Qi(breath).SeeCh'i
Qian.SeeCh'ien
Quietsitting:
BuddhistandTaoistinfluenceon,282
criticismofBuddhistmeditation,394
ChuHsi'steachingof,5
NeoConfucianpracticeof,275,282
NeoConfucianadvocationof,180
roleinselfcultivation,282284
andseriousness,275
R
RakhaSchool(participationinthefoursevendebate),570
RanYou.SeeJanYu
Recollection(similaritywithseriousness),281
Rectificationofnames:
ChuHsion,424
appliedtoofficials,426427
ReflectionsonThingsatHand.SeeChinssulu
ReformMovementof1898,566
Religion:
objectsofConfucianworship,371,373
Confucianismas,28,40,357,360,371372
NeoConfucianismas,28,369
andphilosophy,359.
SeealsoThreeReligions
RenJiyu,607
onChuHsiandreligion,12,355374
Reuman,RobertE.,611
Reverence(ching).SeeSeriousness
Ricci,FatherMatteo,165166
Ridouer,Paul,239
Righteousness(i):
ChuHsion,260261
andexpediency,259261,264265
andprofit,555556
andseriousness,46
oneoffourfundamentalvirtues,seeFourFundamentalVirtues
RitesControversy,4
RitesofChou(Chouli):
ChuHsion,318,320
studyof,312,318
River,Lordof(intheChuangTzu),145
Rokuhachiroku(Recordat68),591
Rousseau(comparedwithConfucianists),139
S
Sage:
ChuHsias,592
describedintheDoctrineoftheMean,277
HuHungon,487489
humanityin,72
idealof,103,111,187
learningof,146
matchingHeavenandEarth,73,187,213
sagehood,111112,124125,164,241,273,277,286287,395
Taoist,144
twokindsof,591592.
SeealsoGreatman
Sagelinesswithinandkinglinesswithout:
ChuHsi'sconceptof,103
NeoConfuciangoalof,187189
Sager,GeneC.,612
Sakyamuni(veneratedbytheChinese),33
Sanchialifan(Examplesofproprietybythreescholars),313
Sankang(threebonds,threecardinalguides,threemoralprinciples,threestandards).SeeThreeBonds
Sanlihslu(Prolegomenatothreeworksonli),532
SatoAkira,611
SatoHitoshi,607
onChuHsi'sTreatiseonJen,8,11,212224
SatoNaokata,586587,590591
Schirokauer,Conrad,607
onChuHsiandHuHung,12
ontheHunanSchool,480497

Page636

SchoolofNatureandPrinciple(Hsinglihseh).SeeNeoConfucianism
SchoolofPrinciple(Lihseh).SeeNeoConfucianism
Schwartz,Benjamin,607
Science:
Chinesescience,372,513
ChuHsiand,110111,372,513
andConfucianism,372
demandfor,370
inNeoConfucianism,503
Ts'aiYanting'sinterestin,475476
Western,138,139,150,513
Seed(analogyforjen),3,215,558
Seigakuyoryo*(EssentialsoftheLearningoftheWay),592
Self:
knowledgeof,4345
studyfor,240
Selfcultivation:
ChangShihon,182,469470
ChuHsion,273288,469
intheDoctrineoftheMean,28
HuHungon,469470
inNeoConfucianism,187,273288.
Seealso"Selfcultivationrequiresseriousness"
"Selfcultivationrequiresseriousness,thepursuitoflearningdependsontheextensionofknowledge":
Ch'engI'snewdictum,46
ChuHsion,240241,284285,469
andknowledge,232
polarityof,229230,232
quoted,46,230,241,281,393,469,473,537
referredto,229.
SeealsoSelfcultivation
Selfdiscipline(k'ochi):
Ch'engHaoandCh'engIon,45
ChuHsion,219222
inConfucianism,186
Hanscholarson,45
LTalin'sinscriptionon,216
ofYenHui,284
Seoul,571
Seriousness(ching):
comparedwithBuddhism,393
Ch'engIon,46,180,230,280,seealso"Selfcultivationrequiresseriousness"
inChouTuni,283
ChuHsion,102,180,213,231,275,280284
andequilibriumandharmony,102
andrighteousness,46
andselfdiscipline,45
Shangshushengshihchechung(AnattemptatproperinterpretationoftheBookofHistoryandtheBookofOdes),523
Shangshutsuanchuan(CollectedcommentariesandnotesontheBookofHistory),538
Shangti(LordonHigh),109
ShangYang,512
Shangyusanjenliangishihshuo(OnthethreevirtuousmenandtworighteousonesoftheShangdynasty),509
Shaohsingperiod,505
ShaoK'angchieh.SeeShaoYung
ShaowuCounty,507
ShaoYung(ShaoK'angchieh):
relationtoalchemyofHan,506
systemofChange,297,307
contributiontoChuHsi'slearning,293
commentaryrecommendedforcivilserviceexaminations,527
cosmologyof,417
criticized,307,539
systemofdatinginhistory,481
philosophyofformandnumber,2,305,507,510,seealsoFormandnumber
doctrineoffourfolddivision,298
ofunderstandingHeaven,202
appreciatedbyLiuYin,524
onthemindasT'aichi,179
understandingofnaturalphenomena,202
theoryofonedividingintotwo,298
definitionofT'aichi,296
Taoistinfluenceon,506
inthelineoftransmission,1,438
Shek,Richard,30,40,224,603,611
ShenChitsu(attackonChuHsi),6,600
Shenhsiu(disputewithHuineng),395
ShenKua.SeeShenKuo
ShenKuo(ShenKua):
astronomicaltheoriesof,162
inventionofmovabletype,523
Shennung(inthelineoftransmission),437
Shentu(vigilanceinsolitude):
ChuHsion280
emphasisintheGreatLearningandtheDoctrineoftheMean,28
NeoConfucianistson,557
Shengchehuahsiangchi(Accountsofsketchesofsagesandwisemen),40
Shenghsientaot'ungtsunghsshuo(GeneraltreatiseonthetransmissionoftheWayofsagesandworthies),586
Shengsheng(creation,perpetualrenewal,productionandreproduction):
theBookofChangeson,67,72
ChuHsion,61,67,7075
theGreatUltimate'sabilitytocreate,96
thegreatvirtueofHeavenandEarth,74,201.
SeealsoCreation
ShibaYoshinobu,416
ShigaShuzo,413
Shihchi(Historicalrecords):
ChuHsion,341
defiesemulation,343
recordofeclipseofConfucianists,27
purposefor,37
Shihchichuan(CollectedannotationstotheBookofOdes),343
ShihChieh:
commentaryrecommendedforcivilserviceexaminations,527
forerunnerofNeoConfucianism,362
ShihHao(advocatedpeacewiththeChin),424,429
Shihhseh(practicallearning).SeePracticallearning
ShihK'ofa,514
ShihkuAcademy,544n
ShihMengch'ing,535
Shihsanchingchushu(CommentariesandsubcommentariesontheThirteenClassics):
ritualtextscitedin,313
synthesisin,40
Shihshihlun(TreatiseonBuddhism),387
ShihT'ientse,526
Shihtsu(Khubilai):
andcivilserviceexaminations,526
urgedstudyofMongol,523
YChion,531
ShimadaKenji,607

Page637

Shimodaharbor,584
Shinto(fusionwithConfucianism),588
Shu(altruism,consideration,tolerance).SeeChungshu
ShuCh'engTzu"T'ishuo"hou(PostscripttoCh'engI's"DiscourseonT'iSacrifice"),319
Shuchichuan(CollectedcommentariesontheBookofHistory),508
Shui(Correspondenceandetiquette),313
Shushuchii(Amathematicalmemorandum),302
Shun,Emperor:
abdicationof,264
filialpietyof,263
andtheMean,586,588
asasage,30,32,273,329,448,592
inthelineoftransmission,437,584585,587
wisdomof,329
Shuowenchiehtzu(Explanationsandanalysisofcharacters),331
Sin,original:
missinginChinesethought,164
notaproblemforConfucianism,139
Sincerity(ch'eng):
inChouTuni,552
intheDoctrineoftheMean,74,330
inNeoConfucianism,461
Sixarts(principleof),237
SixClassics:
intheConfuciantradition,54
Confuciuson,357
ineducation,234
forLuHsiangshan,240,447
religiouscharacterof,357
worldviewin,358.
SeealsoFiveClassics
Sixteenwordformula.SeeJenhsintaohsin
Sjursen,HaroldP.,612
Skillinmeans,385,387
Sodai*shogyoshi*(StudyofSungcommerce),416
Soijan(whatisso):
ChuHsi'stheoryof,164,166,200,474
inNeoConfucianism,151
indistinguishablefromsotangjan,166,200
theT'aichias,163
Solitude.SeeShentu
SongShu.SeeSungShu
SongSiyeol(SongWooahm),571,582
Sotangjan(whatshouldbe):
ChuHsi'stheoryof,164,166,200,494
inNeoConfucianism,151
principleas,163
indistinguishablefromsoijan,166,200
SouthernSung(politicalandeconomicconditions),408412,417418,422
Spinoza(comparedwithChuHsi),3,551
Spiritualbeings:
inChangTsai,53
inCh'engI,53
inChuHsi,53,166
Confuciusneverdiscussed,445
SpringandAutumnAnnals:
ChuHsi'sevaluationof,4
commentariesof,4,523
significanceforConfucianism,514
Confucius'authorshipof,33
HuAnkuo'scommentaryasschooltext,526
HuAnkuo'srelationto,480481
traditionof,37
WuCh'eng'sworkon,532
Ssuchinghslu(Prolegomenatofourclassicalworks),532
Ssuhsiang(fourforms,fourphenomena).SeeFourForms
Ssuk'uch'anshu(CompletecollectionoftheFourLibraries),316,322,532
Ssuk'uch'anshutsungmut'iyao(EssentialpointsaboutworksintheCompleteCollectionoftheFourLibraries),316
SsumaCh'ien:ashistorian,37,341
aswriter,340,343
SsumaHsiangju,340
SsumaKuang:
asauthor,35
followedbyChuHsi,540
praisedbyChuHsi,313
defendedbyHuHung,487
studyofritualtexts,312
inthelineoftransmission,1,438
worksof,322,481,538
SsumaT'an,37
Ssushuchich'eng(CollectedcommentariesontheFourBooks),533
Ssushuchichu(CollectedcommentariesontheFourBooks):
differencefromCh'engI,38
ChuHsi'sworkon,314
widelycirculated,325
inthecivilserviceexaminationssystem,27,600
errorsin,2728
penetratingstudybyHoPingwen,533
HsehHsan'scommenton,510
memorable,35
onnature,131
popularityof,529
praised,532
frequencyofint'aichi,83
nonimportanceofint'aichi,9
frequencyofint'ien,89
Ts'aiYanting'scontributionto,508
Ssushuchihi(QueriesontheFourBooks),28
Ssushuhuowen(QuestionsandanswersontheFourBooks):
philosophicaltermsin,8384
t'ienin,89.
SeeSsushuchichu
Ssushukaits'uo(RectifyingmistakesontheFourBooks),28
Ssushutach'an(GreatcompendiumoftheFourBooks),530
Ssushutsuanshu(ExpositionandcollectednotesontheFourBooks),533
Ssushut'ung(AthoroughstudyoftheFourBooks),533,538
Ssutuan(fourbeginnings).SeeFourBeginnings
Standardandexpediency:
ChuHsion,5,11,255269,399400
meaningof,257,259
Menciuson,585
andrighteousness,259261,264265
andtimelyequilibrium,259261.SeeExpediency
Stewart,MalcolmF.,612
SuChe:
ChuHsi'scommenton,494
talkedabouttheWay,320
SuCh'in,341
SuShih:
ChuHsion,348,494
remarksonFourBooks,528
onhumannature,138,155n,390,494
onliterature,320,338,340
SuT'iencheh,524
SuTungp'o.SeeSuShih

Page638

Substanceandfunction:
Buddhistinfluenceon,506
Ch'engIon,see''Substanceandfunctioncomefromthesamesource"
ChuHsion,53,6265,6970,99104,108,160,199,204,279
HuHungon,488,490,495
totalsubstanceandgreatfunctioning,174,198199
"Substanceandfunctioncomefromthesamesourceandthereisnogapbetweenthemanifestandthehidden":
ChuHsion,6263,99,101
ChuHsi'sextensionofmeaning,103
ChuHsi'sparaphrase,160
ChuHsi'squotation,101102
withreferencetodivination,53
withreferencetoprincipleandthings,50.
SeeSubstanceandfunction
Suddenenlightenment.SeeHuojankuant'ung
SuiyangAcademy,544n
Sunandmoon(rotationof),162
SunFu(forerunnerofNeoConfucianism),362
SunT'iehkang,612
SunTzupingfa(MilitarystrategyofMasterSun),35
Sungchiangarea,410
SungNeoConfucianism:
systemofChange,307
characterized,473
developmentof,33,35,307
onjen,seeJen
revivalof,197
inthetransmissionoftheWay,1.
SeealsoLiifenshuNeoConfucianism
SungShu,566
SungyangAcademy,544n
SungYanhsehan(anthologyof,compendiousstudy,scholarlyrecords,writings,ofSungandYanscholars):
onCh'engHao,464
Chihyenin,492
issuebetweenChuHsiandLuHsiangshan,229
editedbyCh'anTsuwang,521522
FukienSchoolsin,508
ontheforerunnersofNeoConfucianism,362
onthelineageofNeoConfucianism,364,504
onYanNeoConfucianism,537,541
SupremeUltimate(t'aichi).SeeGreatUltimate
Synthesis:
byChuHsi,1
byConfucius,1.
SeeChitach'eng
SystemofEthics,A,565
T
Tahseh(advancedlearning,greatlearning).SeeGreatLearning
Tahsehchangch(TheGreatLearningdividedintochaptersandsentences):
ChuHsi'swritingof,314,600
ontheMandateofHeaven,132
Tahsehhuowen(QuestionsandanswersontheGreatLearning):
inKoreanNeoConfucianism,577581
onthePrincipleofHeaven,123
ontheWayofHeaven,122
Tahsehyeni(ExpositionoftheGreatLearning),523
Tahui(Tsungkao),379
TaTailichi(ElderTai'sBookofRites),294,302
Tat'ung(greatsimilarity,greatunity),32
TaiChen(TaiTungyan):
attackonChuHsi,108109,243,565566
misunderstandingofChuHsi,159
ondesires,563
attackonNeoConfucianism,28,108110,252
interpretationofphysicalform,60
onprinciple,165,243
TaiLiang,531
TaiPiaoyan,529
TaiTungyan.SeeTaiChen
Taijitushuo.SeeT'aichit'ushuo
Taijituyishuo(AnexplanationofthediagramoftheGreatUltimate).SeeT'aichit'ushuo
T'aiChi(GreatUltimate,SupremeUltimate):
theterminBookofChanges,8182
theterminChuHsi'sworks,87,89
historyofthetermTa'ichi,8485.
SeealsoGreatUltimate
T'aichit'ushuo(ExplanationofthediagramoftheGreatUltimate):
fortheCh'engs,147
ChuHsion,8,5052,5455,7980,82,84,362,447
ChuHsi'scommentaryon,35,158,510,596,seealsoT'aichit'ushuochieh
discussed,83,551
debatewithonLuHsiangshan,472
modernstudyof,7980
outlineof,88,106,147
quoted,84,97,118119
T'aichiin,3,81,89,96,296
Taoistinfluenceon,2
asmaintextfordiscussion,93
stressestranquillity,179
UltimateofNonbeingin,69,85,158
WangFuchihon,60
WangPoon,540
andtheWay,103
yinyangin,seeYinyang.
SeealsoUltimateofNonbeing
T'aichit'ushuochieh(CommentaryontheExplanationofthediagramoftheGreatUltimate):
ChuHsi'sexplanations,82
dateof,158
maintextfordiscussionoftheGreatUltimate,93
asobjectiveidealism,99
onyinyang,159
T'aichia,264
T'aihseh(instituteofhigherlearning,nationaluniversity),325
T'aiho(GreatHarmony),60
T'aihs(GreatVacuity,GreatVoid):
asmaterialforce,363
withoutphysicalform,59
T'aihsanching(Classicofsuprememystery).SeeClassicofSupremeMystery
T'aitsung,EmperorofT'ang,264265
T'aitsung,EmperorofYan,526
Tanchu(anunworthyson),134,137n
TanSitong.SeeT'anSzut'ung
T'anchouPrefecture,598
T'anchouch'unghsiuYehlushuyanchi(RecordoftherepairoftheYehluAcademyinT'anchou),484

Page639

T'anSzut'ung:
attackonChuHsi,566
criticismofConfucianethics,110
influenceof,564
T'angChuni,5
T'angConfucianism:
classicalstudyof,27,320
declineof,197
onjen,216
intransmissionoftheWay,1
T'ang,King:
banishingChieh,264,268
idealized,265
asasage,592
inthelineoftransmission,437,585
T'angSsut'ui,596
Tao(astheGreatUltimate),296
TaochouPrefecture,508
Taohsin(themindoftheWay).SeeJenhsintaohsin
Taohseh(LearningoftheWay):
attacked,598599
discussionon,586592
formationof,286
beginswithinvestigationofthings,492
ontheterm,27,588590
TaoiAcademy:
chancellorof,533
founderof,524
Taoteching.SeeLaoTzu
Taot'ung(transmissionoftheWay):
ChuHsion,12,43,135,437438,442,474
andclassicalConfucianism,450
HuangKanon,586
inJapan,587592
originoftheterm,437
intheSungdynasty,27,43
transmissionof,247,437,585,587588
WuCh'engon,525.
SeealsoOrthodoxy
"Taot'ung"(AtreatiseonthetransmissionofConfucianteachings),525
TaoundJen(TheWayandhumanity),6
Taowenhseh(Followingthepathofinquiryandstudy).See"Honoringthemoralnature"
T'aoCh'ien,350
Taoism:
influenceonBuddhism,384
Ch'anchensectof,361
andConfucianism,33,38,142
influenceonNeoConfucianism,39
rivalof,33
onspontaneity,143144
unityin,142.
SeealsoBuddhismandTaoismNeoTaoism
Tathagata*,Tathagatagarbha*:
explained,404n
basicinMahayana*,386387
Mahayanatheoryof,390
Taylor,RodneyL.,611
Te(character,power,virtue),144
TeanCounty,522
TengAimin,607
onChuHsi'stheoryoftheGreatUltimate,8,93112
TengChungyeh,316
TengWenyan,528
ThirteenClassics.SeeShihsanchingchushu
Thompson,KirillO.,611
ThreeBonds(sankang):
neglectinBuddhismandTaoism,396,440
ChuHsion,128129,507,554
inConfucianism,28,273
described,30n,288n,374n,517n
asfeudalmorality,110,361,369,373
importanceof,347
LuHsiangshanon,507
ThreeDynasties:
principleshandeddownfrom,590
teachingsofthesagesof,338339
ThreeReligions.SeeThreeTeachings
ThreeTeachings:
metaphysicsin,384
confrontationamong,358,362
convergenceof,369,449
ThreeTruths(unityof),385
Thunderstorm,566
Ti(Lord):
ChuHsi'sviewon,109,371
inChoutimes,48,444
Confucius'conceptof,444
hadawill,366.
SeealsoT'ien
T'iyung(essenceandfunction,substanceandfunction).SeeSubstanceandfunction
T'iehch'int'ungchienloushumu(BibliographyoftheIronLuteBronzeSwordTower),316
T'ien(Heaven,theLord,physicalheaven,principle):
ChuHsion,7990,366,444
inChuHsi'sworks,89
intheClassics,88
inConfucius,445,448
doublemeaningof,88.
SeealsoHeaven
T'ienchushihi(TrueideaofGod),165
T'ienHoch'ing,523
T'ienjentuits'e(AnswerstoquestionsonHeavenandman),34
T'ienli(PrincipleofHeaven):
defined,11
historyoftheterm,89.
SeePrincipleofHeaven
T'ienlijeny(PrincipleofHeavenand[selfish]humandesires):
ChuHsion,287288,559560,598
conflictbetween,389
distinctionof,276,488
identificationof,495,516
inNeoConfucianism,553.
SeealsoDesiresJenhsintaohsinPrincipleofHeaven
T'ienming(MandateofHeaven).SeeHeaven,Mandateof
T'ient'ai:
anewmovementinBuddhism,35
roundeddoctrinesof,384385
Tiger(Ch'engI'sillustrationforknowledge),147,150
Tigerandwolves(moralsof),105
Tillich,Paul,442
Tillman,HoytC.,611
Timelymean.SeeMean
Tinghaiisland,531
TingHonien,531
Toegye.SeeYiHwang
TomoedaRyutaro*,8,607
onChuHsi'sphilosophy,158166
onChuHsi'spoem,483
Tongshu.SeeT'ungshu
Translationofliterarypieces:
amendedcommentaryontheGreatLearning,29,145146,174,285,327328,365,454
theBookofOdespoemonKingWen,529
ChuHsi'sessayonexcusingone'sownerror,370371

Page640

ChuHsi'spoemonHuHung,483
ChuHsi'spoemonlivingwater,382
ChuHsi'spoemonyinyang,159
ChuHsi'sprefacetotheCh'utz'u,344346
ChuHsi'sprefacetotheDoctrineoftheMean,437
ChuHsi'sprefacetotheliteraryworksofWangMeihsi,347348
astanzafromtheDiamondSutra*,384
famouspassagesfromLuHsiangshan,447,452
HuHung'spoem,483
LiuTzuhui'spoemonwisdom,208
thesixteenwordformulafromtheBookofHistory,276,438
WangYangming'spoemontheSupremeGood,449
TransmissionoftheWay.SeeTaot'ung
TreatiseonJen,A.SeeJenshuo
Ts'aiCh'en:
accountof,508509
ChuHsi,discipleof,504
commentaryincivilserviceexaminations,526
anindependentchapterinSungYanhsehan,508
worksof,538
Ts'aiChit'ung.SeeTs'aiYanting
Ts'aiChing,505
Ts'aiJenhou,608
reappraisalofChuHsi'sphilosophy,461476
onNeoConfucianschools,1213
Ts'aiPoching.SeeTs'aiYan
Ts'aishu(executedbytheDukeofChou),264
Ts'aiYan(Ts'aiPoching),162
Ts'aiYanting(Ts'aiChit'ung):
banished,600
aspartauthorofChouich'imeng,295,302
frequentassociationwithChuHsi,341
interestinscience,475
anindependentchapterinSungYanhsehan,508
Ts'aiYung,529
Ts'ant'ungch'i(Threewaysunifiedandharmonized),36
Ts'angchiehp'ien(LexiconofTs'angchieh),327
Ts'angchoustudy,508
Ts'ao,440
Ts'aoTs'ao,35
Ts'aoTuan(criticizedChuHsi),99
Ts'aoY,566
TsengChi,489
TsengCh'unhai,611
TsengHsi,124
TsenghsehluCh'enHuajuihs(FarewelltoMr.Ch'enHuajui),532
TsengKuofan,40
TsengShen.SeeTsengTzu
TsengTien,124
TsengTs'an.SeeTsengTzu
TsengTzu(TsengShen,TsengTs'an),313
onthe"onethread,"443
takingthepracticalapproach,252
inthelineoftransmission,437438,588
Tsochuan(Tso'scommentary):
assourceforClassicofFilialPiety,541
emphasized,515
HuAnkuo'sworkon,481
TsoKuangtou,516
Tsoustate,356357
TsouJung,566
Tsuant'uchichuWenKungChiali(ChuHsi'sFamilyEtiquettewithillustrationsandcollectedannotations),316
Tsntehsing(honoringthemoralnature).See"Honoringthemoralnatureandfollowingthepathofinquiryandstudy"
Tsungan,415
Tsunghsin,415
TuFu(TuTzumei),343,347349
Tulit'ungk'ao(Generalinvestigationintoreadingsofpropriety),321
TuMu(onhumannature),138
Tushihkuanchien(Observationsonreadinghistory),481
Tussushuts'ungshuo(AjotterpreparedwhilereadingtheFourBooks),532,536
TuWeiming,603,608
TuTzumei.SeeTuFu
TuY(735812),312
TuY(1208cs),508
T'uHui,415
Tun(towithdraw)hexagram,599
Tunweng(literarynameofChuHsi),599
TungChungshu:
andChinesereligion,357358
contributiontoConfucianism,355
onHeavenaspersonalgod,371
ontheunityofHeavenandman,366,553
famoussayingonrighteousness,512
onstandardandexpediency,269n
worksof,3435
Tunghuts'ungchi(CollectednotesofTunghu),316
Tungshutushuchi(ReadingnotesfromtheEasternStudio):
correctsChuHsi,28
emphasizesunity,40
T'unganCounty,421,595
T'ungchienkangmu(OutlineanddigestoftheComprehensiveMirror),481,540
T'ungchienkangmufanlik'aoi(AstudyonthedifferencesfoundintheintroductoryremarksofChuHsi'sT'ungchienkangmu),539
T'ungchienkangmushufa(OntheprinciplesofmoraljudgementintheT'ungchienkangmu),539
T'ungchihperiod,40
T'ungchiht'angchingchieh(CollectedcommentariesonConfucianClassicspublishedbytheHallofEverreachingSpirit),538
T'ungshu(PenetratingtheBookofChanges):
asacommentaryoftheBookofChanges,35
onliifenshu,120121
onfivetypesofman,134
emphasisonsincerity,552
T'ungtien(Anencyclopediaofinstitutionsandcustoms),312
T'ungwenAcademy,507
Twomodes(liangi),85
Tzuchiht'ungchien(Generalmirrorforaidin

Page641

government):
ChuHsi'soutlineof,35,538
HuAnkuo'ssupplementto,481
Tzukung:
takingtheintellectualapproach,252
remarksonConfucius,36
ontheMaster'sviews,110,443
Tzulu:
ambitionof,124
braveryof,329
askingabouttheidealman,28
askingaboutspiritualbeings,445
Tzumo(andtheMean),261,585
Tzushenglu(Recordofselfexamination),587588
Tzussu:
followerofConfucius,313
intentionof,576
inthelineoftransmission,437438,588
U
belhr,Monika,608
UchidaShuhei,589
Uhalley,Stephen,Jr.,603
UltimateofNonbeing(wuchi):
Confuciusnevertalkedabout,447
LuHsiangshan'sobjectionto,160
asametaphysicalentity,55
intheT'aichit'ushuo,8,69,85,94,118,160,274,551
Unicorn(astheanimalofjen),223
Universallove.SeeMoTzu
University,national.SeeT'aihseh
UnoTetsuto,7980
Upadhyaya,K.N.,603
UshioHirotake,611
Utilitarianism(NeoConfuciancriticismof),512513
V
Vitalforce(ch'i).SeeMaterialforce
Vietnam(ChuHsi'sinfluencein),507
W
WakabayashiKyosai*(ontheWay),589
WaltonVargo,Linda,421
WanChang,33
WanK'ai,415
WanyenWulu,422
WangAnshih:
assessedbyChuHsi,482
commentaryontheChoukuan,312
commentaryrecommendedforcivilserviceexaminations,527
"newlaw"of,512
politicalreforms,362,368,412
andtheSpringandAutumnAnnals,480
WangChi(onthemind),562
WangCh'ichih(andtheChinssulu),586
WangCh'ung,529
WangFuchih:
andChangTsai,40,60
conferenceon,6
philosophyofmaterialforce,111
onphysicalform,6061
onrighteousnessandprofit,556
asSchoolofMind,99
ont'ienlijeny,516
WangFuli,319
WangFuzhi.SeeWangFuchih
WangGan.SeeWangKan
WangHousun,536
WangHuai,597
WangJi.SeeWangChi
WangJihhsiu(ontheunicorn),223
WangKan(onthemind),562563
WangK'ok'uan,539
WangKueiling,348
WangMang,34
WangMaohung:
onChuHsi'sritualworks,317
onthediagramsofChange,293
WangMeihsi,348
ChuHsion,347
WangO(oncivilserviceexaminations),526
WangP'ang(remarksontheFourBooks),528
WangPi:
onthefuhexagram,219
onstandardandexpediency,262
worksof,35,52
WangPo:
teacherofChinLhsiang,532
onChuHsi,540
ontheFourBooks,532
revisionoftheGreatLearning,325
ontextualstudies,534
WangShoujen.SeeWangYangming
WangT'ieny,538
WangT'ung(WenchungTzu),3435
WangTzuho,319
WangWenyan,316
WangYangming(WangShoujen)
onChuHsiandLuHsiangshan,228,450
criticismofChuHsi,10,39
differencefromChuHsi,186,199200
failedtounderstandChuHsi,165
onChuHsi'sfinalconclusion,39
conferenceon,6
ongoodandevil,448449
onhumannature,390
oninnateknowledge,208,392
comparedwithKantandHegel,360
ontwokindsofknowledge,243,252n
onknowledgeandaction,564
andLuHsiangshan,472
onthemind,99,150,561562
onnatureasprinciple,470
inNeoConfucianism,461
translationofpoemontheSupremeGood,449
onprinciple,165
onsagehood,286,
seealsoSageschoolof,472
WangYingch'en,428
Watanabe,Hiroshi,612
Water:
analogyforhumannature,279280,288
analogyforthemind,364,490
Wawrytko,SandraA.,612
Way,theLearningof:
twoapproachesto,252n
transmissionof,247,seealsoTaot'ung.SeealsoTaohseh
WeiChengt'ung,608
onChuHsi'sdoctrineofstandardandexpediency,8,12,235269
Weifa(beforethefeelingsarearoused).SeeEquilibriumandharmony
Weihseh(falselearning),6,599
WeiHsehlien,512
WeiHuafu.SeeWeiLiaoweng
WeiLiaoweng(publicizedthestudyofChuHsi),533,542
WeiTachung,512
WeiYanlu,424
WenchouPrefecture:
buryingthebonesofSungemperorsin,518n
MaritimeTrading

Page642

Commissionestablishedin,410
theSungcourtdrivento,408
WenchungTzu(representingoneintellectualtradition),34
Wenhsan(Anthologyofliterature):
definitionofkein,327
poemsin,348349
Wen,King:
developedthesystemofChange,447
manoffilialpiety,329
inthelineoftransmission,437,448,585
authoroftrigrams,294
asasage,592
WenKung:
posthumoustitleforChuHsi,193n,225n,600
WenT'ienhsiang,514,518n
WenT'ingshih,516
West,the:
Chineseculturalinfluencein,373
comparisonwithChinesethought,22,25,74,139,143,148,359360
comparedwithChuHsi,40,6162,64,68,70,75,151
studiesonChuHsi,4,6
comparedwithConfucius,40
developmentofsincetheGreeks,141
similaritywiththeEast,166
Westernlearning,515
onWesternphilosophy,359.
SeealsoFeudalism,ChineseScience
WesternInscription(Hsiming):
commentarybyChuHsi,596
comparedwithFourBooks,532
andliifenshu,63,66,107,121
onphysicaltransformationandnature,82
teachingof,187,368
onworldbrotherhood,121
SeealsoLiifenshu"Principleisonebutitsmanifestationsaremany"
WesternParadise,369
WhiteDeerHollow(Grotto)Academy:
announcementat,586587,590
ChuHsi'sreconstructionof,3,6,597
oneoffourfamousacademies,544n
Whitehead:
comparedwithChuHsi,551
ontologyof,385
Williams,Robin,419
Widow'sremarriage(NeoConfucianismon),556.SeealsoWomen
Wisdom:
ChuHsion,197208
equatingfirmness,seeFourQualitiesofCh'ien
historicaldevelopmentofashidden,200
inKoreaandJapan,200
LiuTzuhui'spoemon,208.
SeealsoFourQualitiesofCh'ien
Women:
Ch'engIon,4
ChuHsion,45
inSouthernSung,412414,429.
SeealsoWidow'sremarriage
Woo,AnnpingChin,611
Wren,Benjamin,612
WuBaihui,307
Wuch'ang(FiveConstancies,FiveConstantVirtues,FiveRelations).SeeFiveConstantVirtues
WuChentzu,533
WuCh'entzu,524
WuChengch'uan.SeeWuShihtao
WuCh'eng:
onhonoringthemoralnature,228,540541
aleadingNeoConfucianist,524,533
reconcilingChuHsiandLuHsiangshan,535,540542
worksof,521,525
Wuchi(UltimateofNonbeing).SeeUltimateofNonbeing
WuChienhua,321
Wuchingchengi(PropermeaningsoftheFiveClassics),40
Wufuvillage,419,596,598
Wuhsing(FiveAgents,FiveElements,FivePhases):
wuhsinginChuHsi'sworks,83
translationoftheterm,156n.
SeealsoFiveAgents
WuHuishu.SeeWuI
WuI,158,319
Wu,King:
punishingKingChou,264,268
idealized,265
asasage,592
inthelineoftransmission,437,448,585
Wulit'ungk'ao(Generalinvestigationintothefivecategoriesofpropriety),321
WuShihtao,536
WuT'aich'ing,534
Wuwei(nonaction).SeeNonaction
WuY(d.1154),528
WuY(18711949),566
Wuy(havingnodesire).SeeDesires
WuyanCounty,595
WuYunzeng,112
X
XieLiangzuo.SeeHsiehLiangtso
Ximing(Westerninscription).SeeWesternInscription
Y
YamanoiYu,608
onChuHsi'sconceptsoftheGreatUltimateandHeaven,7990
onthet'aichi,8,9
YamazakiAnsai:
ontheChinssulu,586,592
promotionofChuHsi,200,207
studyofToegye,588
foremostintheTraditionoftheWayinJapan,586
wrotehisownTreatiseonJen,218
YamazakiMichio,608
onJapaneseNeoConfucianism,16,584592
YanHui.SeeYenHui
YanShannong.SeeYenShannung
YangChi,234
YangChien(YangTz'uhu),537
YangchouPrefecture,514
YangChu:
criticizedbyChuHsi,107,389390
attackbyMencius,377,585
egoismof,107,396
YangFu(revisionoftheGreatLearning),316,322
YangHsiung:
authorofFangyen,529
onhumannature,138,358,363,494
quoted,301
onthesage,213
inthelineoftransmission,585
worksof,3435
aswriter,340

Page643

YangKu,523
YangKueishan.SeeYangShih
YangLien(comparedwithChuHsi),516
YangShen,319,511
YangShih(YangKueishan):
pupiloftheCh'engs,38,466,505
spreadingtheCh'engdoctrinetothesouth,503
commentaryrecommendedforcivilserviceexaminations,528
doctrinesof,466
insightontheDoctrineoftheMean,466
influenceontheHunanSchool,220
onjen,216,367,466,472
teacherofLoTs'ungyen,45,504,525
onthetransmissionoftheConfuciantradition,596
YangShouch'eng(revisionoftheGreatLearning),325
YangT'ingho,511
YangTz'uhu.SeeYangChien
YangWeichung(andYanNeoConfucianism),522523
YangYli,9
Yao,Emperor:
abdicationof,264
andbooklearning,247
transmissionoftheMean,86,588
asasage,30,134,273,329,592
inthelineoftransmission,437,448,585586,587
YaoShu:
andYanNeoConfucianism,522,531
onYanNeoConfucianists,523
YehShih:
asaNeoConfucianist,515
criticizedbyNeoConfucianists,512
YehTs'ai(commentaryontheChinssulu),586
YellowEmperor:
idealizedbytheTaoists,33
inthelineoftransmission,437
YenChench'ing,347
YenFu(promotedWesternlearning),515
YenHui(YenYan):
deathof,445
humanityof,329
learningof,2627
pleasurefor,534535,556
selfdisciplineof,284
Yenp'ingtawen(LiT'ung'srepliestoqueries):
recordedbyChuHsi,467
emphasisonknowledge,537
Yen,Prince,511
YenShennung(ideasof),563
Yenstate,356
YenYen(expoundedtheconceptsofConfucius),313
YenYingyan,514
YenYan(16351704):
attackonChuHsi,5,252,283
criticismofConfucianism,5,28,370,512
asaNeoConfucianist,515
attackonorthodoxy,450
YenYan(YenHui).SeeYenHui
YiDoaham.SeeYiJae
YiGan(YiWoeahm):
appraised,572,575,579580
onFiveConstantVirtues,575576,581
leaderinfoursevendebate,15,571
ontheGreatUltimate,574,576
ontheMandateofHeaven,574
onnature,572574,577578,581
viewsof,572582
YiHwang(LiT'uihsi,YiToegye):
ontheLearningoftheWay,587
schoolof,570
worksof,587
YiI(YiYulgok),570
YiJae(YiDoahm),571
YiToegye.SeeYiHwang
YiWoeahm.SeeYiGan
YiYulgok.SeeYiI
Yin(minuteness),331
YinCh'un:
lecturerofClassicstotheemperor,504505
describedaspedantic,515
Yindynasty,356
Yinyang:
andagriculture,56n
intheBookofChanges,67,295
ChuHsion,69,75,104,132,171,299300
ChuHsi'spoemon,159
accordingtotheChuTzuylei,98
correspondingtoequilibriumandharmony,103
FungYulanon,97
inGreatHarmony,60
intheHandynasty,45
asmaterialforces,50,60,83,seealsoMaterialforce
operationof,75,84,101
andprinciple,86
schoolof,49
symbolsof,298
intheT'aichit'ushuo,118,120,126,147,153,274
intheprocessoftransformationandnourishment,123.
Seealso"Activityandtranquillityhavenobeginning"
Ying,Mister,317
Yingt'anAcademy,544n
Yitong(PenetratingtheBookofChanges).SeeT'ungshu
YongnamSchool(inthefoursevendebate),570
YoshidaShoin*(accountof),584
YoshitakeToshikazu,208
YounSasoon,608
onKoreanNeoConfucianism,15,570582
YuChe:
attackonChuHsi,600
YuChengfu,320
YChi:
accountoftheflourishingofChuHis'steaching,525526,531
dialoguewiththeemperor,530
inpraiseofHsHeng,531,534
descriptionofYanscholars,523524
Yuch'iCounty,595
YFan(onthediagramsofChange),294
YuhsiCounty.SeeYuch'i
Y,King:
afilialson,134
Heavenbestowingonhimthegrandplan,294
asasage,592
inthelineoftransmission,437
theWayof,32
Yshanlecture(onwisdomashiddenandstored),201
YuTso,504
Y,Yingshih,608
onmoralityandknowledgeinChuHsi'ssystem,228248
onbooklearning,knowledge,tsntehsing,seeBooklearning,Knowledge,"Honoringthemoralnature"
Yanchi,264

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YanChichung,294
Yanhenglichen.SeeFourQualitiesofCh'ien
Yanhui(literarynameofChuHsi),226n,228,453
YanMei(satirizedNeoConfucianism),515
YanNeoConfucianism:
accountof,15,521542
characterized,535539
introductionof,514,522
andliifenshu,536537
revisionandreconstructionof,539542
Yanshih(HistoryofYan),523
Yantao(OntheWay),584585
YanTs'ai:
onfamilyfortune,414
onpropertyinheritance,413
Yehchitungchingshuo(DiscussiononthedynamicsandstaticsoftheRecordofMusic),319
YehluAcademy,544n
reconstructionbyChuHsi,3
restorationof,6
Yehyat'ang(EleganceofKuangtung),492
Yulgok(YiI).SeeYiI
YunBonggu(YunByonggye),571
YunByonggye.SeeYunBonggu
Ynminglun(onfateanddestiny),327
Yunt'aicheni(pseudonymofChuHsi),295
Ynt'aitzu(pseudonymofChuHsi),295
Ynt'aiwaishih(pseudonymofChuHsi),295
Ynt'aiyinli(pseudonymofChuHsi),295
Yungchiachengtaoko(YungchiasongofvindicationofTao):
explainsthemoonanalogy,171
YungchouPrefecture,599
YungloEncyclopedia,522
Z
ZengDian.SeeTsengTien
ZengXi.SeeTsengHsi
ZhangZai.SeeChangTsai
Zhongyongzhangju(CommentaryontheDoctrineoftheMean).SeeChungyungchangch
ZhouDunyi.SeeChouTuni
ZhuXi.SeeChuHsi
Zhujiyulei(ClassifiedconversationsofMasterChu).SeeChuTzuylei
Zilu.SeeTzulu
ZouRong.SeeTsouJung