CHAPTER 1

INTRODUCTION
1.1 GENERAL
Worldwide, there is a growing contamination of soil and irrigation water, caused, among
other reasons, by intensive agricultural use and environmentally-unfriendly activity, which is due
to the need to generate ever greater quantities of food to meet the demands of the growing
population. Today, aquaculture is growing rapidly: according to the FAO, aquaculture provides
47% (51 million tons) of the global human fish consumption. In order to keep up with population
growth and increasing per capita fish consumption, aquaculture output is set to increase by a
further 60%100% over the next 2030 years. In 2015, the production from aquaculture will be
74 million tons. More than 40% of the world population lives not more than 100 km away from
the coastlines, putting high pressure on the coastal ecosystems. Aquacultures as monocultures
have been developed in the last decades, from keeping fish in ponds for easier harvesting to high
technological fish farms extensively using feed, hormones and often antibiotics with a known
impact on the environment. To achieve sustainability, it is necessary to intensify the production
using technologies such as water recirculation systems and proper treatment to optimize this
valuable resource. Further, is it important to reduce the pressure on the coastlines and produce
large amounts of fish also in inland aquaculture systems close to consumers. In recent years
long-forgotten historical approaches have been recovered and adapted to new technologies, such
as the parallel production of fish with filter feeders and plants or algae, even in multi-trophic
systems. This concept is applicable to many standard aquaculture installations, such as ponds or
net cages. With respect to the pollution generated by aquaculture, nitrogen and phosphorus are
considered as waste components of fish farming, causing serious environmental problems. In
addition, several fish excrete nitrogenous waste products by diffusion and ion exchange through
the gills, urine and feces. Decomposition and reuse of these nitrogenous compounds is especially
important in aquaculture using recirculation systems due to the toxicity of ammonia and nitrite
and the chance of hypertrophication of the environment by nitrate. All aspects of water treatment
play a significant role in intensive fish production, because the control and monitoring of water
quality is of vital importance to the success or failure of the production. It is therefore necessary
to develop new research applications focused on avoiding or at least reducing the negative
impacts of aquaculture effluents on the environment.
1.2 AQUACULTURE WASTE.

The quality and quantity of waste from aquaculture depends mainly on culture system
characteristics and the choice of species, but also on feed quality and management. From
intensive aquaculture systems, the principal wastes are solid wastes, chemicals, and therapeutics.
The release of bacteria, pathogens and farmed species escapees should also be included as waste
components. Solid wastes, otherwise known as particulate organic matter, often consist of faces
or uneaten food. A build-up of solid wastes within the system should be prevented as it can cause
oxygen depletion and ammonia toxicity when it decomposes. Organic wastes are present in three
main forms in the recirculation system: settled solids-accumulate on the bottom of the tank;
suspended solids-float in the water column and will not settle out of water; fine and dissolved
solids-float in the water column and can cause gill irritation and health damage to fish. The urine
and faces from the aquatic animals can cause high content of ammonia nitrogen and an increase
of BOD (biochemical oxygen demand). Ammonia is the main nitrogenous waste that is produced
by fish via metabolism and is excreted across the gills. Nitrite is a naturally occurring
intermediate product of the nitrification process. The nitrate ion (NO 3) is the most oxidized form
of nitrogen in nature and is relatively non-toxic to fishes. However, when nitrate concentrations
become excessive and other essential nutrient factors are present, eutrophication and associated
algae blooms can become a serious environmental problem. A wide range of chemicals is used in
aquaculture industry, including compounds applied to construction materials (stabilizers,
pigments,

antifoulants

etc.),

pigments

incorporated

into

feeds,

disinfectants

and

chemotherapeutants. Antimicrobials are administered in the diet and most end up in the
environment in association with uneaten food and feces. Many studies reported increases in
resistance and even multiple resistances in pathogens as a result of the widespread use of
antimicrobials by aquaculture. The abuse of chemicals can also kill the effective microbes which
probably accounts for an unbalance of the aquatic ecology system. It is widely argued that
translocated species. The impact critically analysed the different types of wastes from various
industries, establishments and households that are discharged into the aquatic environment and
their potential impact on aquaculture are also considered. Mitigating strategies that can reduce or
eliminate these environmental impacts on aquaculture or strains may carry exotic diseases that
could spread and devastate indigenous wild populations and that farmed stock escape and
become established, again to the detriment of wild stocks. There is little quantitative information
on the numbers of animals that escape from aquaculture operations. Penczak et al (1982)

estimated that about 5% of caged rainbow trout escaped each year. The fear is that feral animals
become established and reduce biodiversity through habitat modification, competition, or by
interbreeding with native stocks.
1.3. POLLUTION CAUSED BY AQUACULTURE WASTEWATER
If continuously discharged wastewater without treatment, which contains high
concentration of nitrogen and phosphorus nutrients, may result in a remarkably chronic elevation
of the total organic matter contents, especially in badly managed or poorly located sites.
Consequently, a series of negative ecological impacts may occur:
i.
ii.

Serious oxygen deficit caused by the decomposing of organic substances.

Eutrophication or algae bloom caused by the accumulation of organic nutrients like
nitrogen and phosphorus, which promotes a high biomass in the superficial water. Apart
from increased phytoplankton production, eutrophication can cause many other effects
which may be more sensitive and relevant indicators such as changes in: energy and
nutrient fluxes, pelagic and benthic biomass and community structure, fish stocks,

iii.
iv.
v.

sedimentation, nutrient cycling, and oxygen depletion .

Water deterioration will bring about low productivity
Diseases may break out.
Aside from this, inadequate handling of wastewater has serious consequences for human

vi.

health, the environment and economic development.

It contaminates water supply, increasing the risk of infectious disease and deteriorating
groundwater and other local ecosystems, for instance after flooding.

1.4. WASTE MANAGEMENT

In order to reduce the negative impact of aquaculture waste, production of waste products
in aqua farms should be studied and water quality standards of the environment where effluents
are discharged should be set. But to our knowledge, no studies have characterized waters
receiving aqua farm effluent and waters used by the farms, or have related water quality to
farming activity. Past, obsolete technologies and incomplete arrangement of waste management
systems are still used in aquaculture, which might cause a great economic loss, destroy the
aquatic biodiversity, and to some extent, hinder the sustainable development in aquaculture.
Thus, imperative treatment of aquaculture waste should be spread and strengthened. Closed and
semi-closed water systems that recycle water through a series of reservoirs, treatment ponds
(with fish, bivalves and algae) and canals back to production ponds serve to reduce the amount
of discharged wastes and minimize the entry of disease organisms from natural waters. Pond
sludge may be reduced through the application of probiotics, or by the tilling and drying of the

pond bottom. Alternatively, sludge may be collected and stored near the farm for mangrove
planting or subsequent transfer to agricultural or forest land. Mangroves can be used to treat
shrimp pond effluents with high levels of solids, organic matter and nutrients.
1.5. METHODS FOR WASTE REMOVAL
1.5.1. Raceway and Tank Design
Proper engineering can be an economical means of controlling the wastes from a fish
operation. By controlling the flow of water through a system, most solids can be collected and
concentrated before fragmentation occurs. Round tanks can be designed with dual effluent areas.
The high volume-low solids flow, can exit the tank from the upper perimeter while a low
volume-high solids pipe, in the centre of the tank, will remove most settleable material
(Summerfelt and Timmons, 2000). Circular tanks with properly designed inlets, drains, and
filters can remove the majority of solids with minimum labor. Centrifugal forces will move
settleable solids to the center drain when water velocity exceeds 20 cm/sec. Vacuum removal of
solids can be labor intensive. In raceways, if the flow is less than 3 cm/sec. non-fragmented trout
feces will settle out if fish cannot stir the bottom. Figure 1 shows a typical raceway system with
waste management options. Raceways should be designed with an optimum flow, which will
allow an area at the end of each raceway, called the quiescent zone, to collect settleable solids for
periodic removal by the operator. Concrete raceways are difficult to modify once constructed.
Research is planned to improve the waste collection abilities of raceways by inserting a device
that will create a circular flow to collect the majority of the solids in the center. Like the round
tanks, the concentrated waste can be removed by allowing 10-20% of the flow to exit from the
center (Wong and Piedrahita, 2001). Research is underway at WVU to develop raceways made
of alternative lighter materials that will permit more flexibility in design. Rectangular raceways
can be designed to channel water into a circular pattern before exiting the unit. This will allow
most of the settleable solids to be concentrated and removed from the center while most of the
water flows out the end, into the next rectangular raceway.
1.5.2. Transformation
Dissolved organic waste (phosphorus and nitrogen) is a nutrient for plants. Biofilters will
transform a toxic form of nitrogen (ammonia) into a nontoxic form (nitrate), which is a nutrient
for many algae. Artificial wetlands have also been used for waste treatment in aquaculture

operations (Summerfelt et al., 1995). In a wetland, sediments are trapped and used for grass and
aquatic plant growth. Various types of vegetables and herbs have been produced using
hydroponics with recirculating water from fish operations. In order for the herbs or vegetables to
significantly reduce the nutrient level in a commercial recirculating system, the time spent on
fish culture can become secondary to the plant cultivation and marketing. In all of the above
methods, nutrients are transformed or removed from the discharge with the help of common
plants and bacteria.
1.5.3. Filtration
Drum, disk, bead, and sand filters are commonly used to trap and remove particles as
small as 60 microns from the water. Cartridge filters will remove particles down to 1 micron but
that level of purification is usually not necessary, and very costly. High volume flows require
expensive filtration units. With flows of 1000 gpm and above, the maintenance and cost of
mechanical filters become burdensome. That is why the dual drain design, mentioned earlier,
works well. By treating only the low flow of concentrated solids, the cost of treatment can be
greatly reduced by using smaller filters. If land is available a settling pond would be another
inexpensive option.
1.5.4. Radiation / Ozone
Ultraviolet radiation is used for disinfection of water. Many pathogens, including viruses
can be killed with relatively low levels of radiation. For UV treatment to be effective the solids
must be removed before treatment. UV systems are a low maintenance, low risk method of
disinfection. Low levels of ozone dissolved in the water will also remove most pathogens. Ozone
will improve particulate filtration and reduce the dissolved organic waste in the water. Low
levels of ozone in the air are detrimental to human health. Residual ozone is toxic to fish at low
levels and should be monitored.
1.6. SEQUENCING BATCH REACTOR
SBRs are a variation of the activated-sludge process. They differ from activated-sludge
plants because they combine all of the treatment steps and processes into a single basin, or tank,
whereas conventional facilities rely on multiple basins. SBR comprises of following stages,

Filling
Mixing
Reaction
Settle

Decant
Idle

Fill
During the fill phase, the basin receives influent wastewater. The influent brings food to
the microbes in the activated sludge, creating an environment for biochemical reactions to take
place. Mixing and aeration can be varied during the fill phase to create the following three
different scenarios:
Static Fill Under a static-fill scenario, there is no mixing or aeration while the influent
wastewater is entering the tank. Static fill is used during the initial start-up phase of a facility, at
plants that do not need to nitrify or denitrify, and during low flow periods to save power. Because
the mixers and aerators remain off, this scenario has an energy-savings component.
Mixed Fill Under a mixed-fill scenario, mechanical mixers are active, but the aerators remain
off. The mixing action produces a uniform blend of influent wastewater and biomass. Because
there is no aeration, an anoxic condition is present, which promotes denitrification. Anaerobic
conditions can also be achieved during the mixed-fill phase. Under anaerobic conditions the
biomass undergoes a release of phosphorous. This release is reabsorbed by the biomass once
aerobic conditions are reestablished. This phosphorous release will not happen with anoxic
conditions.
Aerated Fill Under an aerated-fill scenario, both the aerators and the mechanical mixing unit
are activated. The contents of the basin are aerated to convert the anoxic or anaerobic zone over
to an aerobic zone. No adjustments to the aerated-fill cycle are needed to reduce organics and
achieve nitrification. However, to achieve denitrification, it is necessary to switch the oxygen off
to promote anoxic conditions for denitrification. By switching the oxygen on and off during this
phase with the
blowers, oxic and anoxic conditions are created, allowing for nitrification and denitrification.
Dissolved oxygen (DO) should be monitored during this phase so it does not go over 0.2 mg/L.
This ensures that an anoxic condition will occur during the idle phase.
React
This phase allows for further reduction or "polishing" of wastewater parameters. During
this phase, no wastewater enters the basin and the mechanical mixing and aeration units are on.

Because there are no additional volume and organic loadings, the rate of organic removal
increases dramatically.
Most of the carbonaceous BOD removal occurs in the react phase. Further nitrification occurs by
allowing the mixing and aeration to continuethe majority of denitrification takes place in the
mixed-fill phase. The phosphorus released during mixed fill, plus some additional phosphorus, is
taken up during the react phase.
Settle
During this phase, activated sludge is allowed to settle under quiescent conditionsno
flow enters the basin and no aeration and mixing takes place. The activated sludge tends to settle
as a flocculent mass, forming a distinctive interface with the clear supernatant. The sludge mass
is called the sludge blanket. This phase is a critical part of the cycle, because if the solids do not
settle rapidly, some sludge can be drawn off during the subsequent decant phase and thereby
degrade effluent quality.
Decant
During this phase, a decanter is used to remove the clear supernatant effluent. Once the
settle phase is complete, a signal is sent to the decanter to initiate the opening of an effluentdischarge valve. There are floating and fixed-arm decanters. Floating decanters maintain the inlet
orifice slightly below the water surface to minimize the removal of solids in the effluent removed
during the decant phase. Floating decanters offer the operator flexibility to vary fill and draw
volumes. Fixed-arm decanters are less expensive and can be designed to allow the operator to
lower or raise the level of the decanter. It is optimal that the decanted volume is the same as the
volume that enters the basin during the fill phase. It is also important that no surface foam or
scum is decanted. The vertical distance from the decanter to the bottom of the tank should be
maximized to avoid disturbing the settled biomass.
Idle
This step occurs between the decant and the fill phases. The time varies, based on the
influent flow rate and the operating strategy. During this phase, a small amount of activated
sludge at the bottom of the SBR basin is pumped outa process called wasting.
1.7. ADVANTAGES OF SBR

The SBR gives the higher degree of operational flexibility with respect to effluent quality
and dissolved oxygen controlled aeration system. It improves the removal efficiency of the total
suspended solids. The effluent quality meets current and anticipated future nitrogen requirements
for surface discharge. It does not require separate clarifiers. It requires only lower initial capital
cost. The power consumption is typically less than that of a conventional plant with substantial
power saving at lower flows.
1.8. CONCLUSION
The quantity of the waste water generation due to aqua culture system and the
constituents of the same water were discussed in this chapter. The effect of aquaculture waste
water on the environment leads to oxygen deficit, Eutrophication, water quality deterioration,
disease outbreaks. Hence an attempt was made in this study to reduce the impact of aquaculture
waste water on the natural systems. The constituents of the aqua culture waste water contains
solids, organic contaminants, nutrients and pathogens and these requires an efficient biological
treatment system to take care of all the constituents of the waste water. SBR may be an efficient
treatment system in all aspect to take care of the constituents of the waste water system. Hence in
this work an approach was made to study the efficiency of the SBR system on the removal of the
aquaculture waste water. Chapter 2 of this thesis reviews the literatures which are more relevant
to this study. The materials used and the methodology adopted during this study was presented in
chapter 3. The results that we obtained so far during this study were presented in chapter 4. The
summary of the work carried out so far was discussed in chapter 5.