Natural gas

For the rock band, see Natural Gas (band).

over time by two mechanisms: biogenic and thermogenic.
Natural gas is a naturally occurring hydrocarbon Biogenic gas is created by methanogenic organisms in
marshes, bogs, landlls, and shallow sediments. Deeper
in the earth, at greater temperature and pressure, thermogenic gas is created from buried organic material.[4][5]
When gas is associated with petroleum production it may
be considered a byproduct and be burnt as are gas. The
World Bank estimates that over 150 cubic kilometers of
natural gas are ared or vented annually.[6] Before natural
gas can be used as a fuel, it must be processed to remove
impurities, including water, to meet the specications
of marketable natural gas. The by-products of this processing include: ethane, propane, butanes, pentanes, and
higher molecular weight hydrocarbons, hydrogen sulde
(which may be converted into pure sulfur), carbon dioxide, water vapor, and sometimes helium and nitrogen.
The global natural gas trade in 2013. Numbers are in billion
cubic meters per year.[1]

Natural gas is often informally referred to simply as gas,

especially when compared to other energy sources such
as oil or coal. However, it is not to be confused with
gasoline, especially in North America, where the term
gasoline is often shortened in colloquial usage to gas.
Natural gas was used by the Chinese in about 500 BCE
(possibly even 1000 BCE[7] ). They discovered a way to
transport gas seeping from the ground in crude pipelines
of bamboo to where it was used to boil salt water to
extract the salt,[8] in the Ziliujing District of Sichuan. The
worlds rst industrial extraction of natural gas started at
Fredonia, New York, United States in 1825.[9] By 2009,
66 000 km (or 8%) had been used out of the total 850
000 km of estimated remaining recoverable reserves of
natural gas.[10] Based on an estimated 2015 world consumption rate of about 3400 km of gas per year, the total
estimated remaining economically recoverable reserves
of natural gas would last 250 years at current consumption rates. An annual increase in usage of 23% could result in currently recoverable reserves lasting signicantly
less, perhaps as few as 80 to 100 years.[10]

Natural gas extraction by countries in cubic meters per year

gas mixture consisting primarily of methane, but commonly including varying amounts of other higher alkanes,
and sometimes a small percentage of carbon dioxide,
nitrogen, hydrogen sulde, or helium.[2] It is formed when
layers of decomposing plant and animal matter are exposed to intense heat and pressure supplied by existing
under the surface of the Earth over millions of years. The
energy that the plants originally obtained from the sun is
stored in the form of chemical bonds in the gas.[3]
Natural gas is a fossil fuel used as a source of energy
for heating, cooking, and electricity generation. It is also
used as fuel for vehicles and as a chemical feedstock in the
manufacture of plastics and other commercially important organic chemicals. It is a non-renewable resource.[3]

1 Sources

Natural gas is found in deep underground rock formations or associated with other hydrocarbon reservoirs in See also: List of natural gas elds, List of countries by
coal beds and as methane clathrates. Petroleum is an- natural gas proven reserves, and List of countries by
other resource and fossil fuel found in close proximity natural gas production
to and with natural gas. Most natural gas was created
1

1 SOURCES

Natural gas coming out of the ground in Taiwan.

Trends in the top ve natural gas-producing countries (US EIA

data)

was usually burned o at oil elds. Today, unwanted gas

(or stranded gas without a market) associated with oil extraction often is returned to the reservoir with 'injection'
wells while awaiting a possible future market or to repressurize the formation, which can enhance extraction rates
from other wells. In regions with a high natural gas demand (such as the US), pipelines are constructed when it
is economically feasible to transport gas from a wellsite
to an end consumer.
In addition to transporting gas via pipelines for use in
power generation, other end uses for natural gas include
export as liqueed natural gas (LNG) or conversion of
natural gas into other liquid products via gas to liquids
(GTL) technologies. GTL technologies can convert natural gas into liquids products such as gasoline, diesel or
jet fuel. A variety of GTL technologies have been developed, including FischerTropsch (FT), methanol to
gasoline (MTG) and STG+. FT produces a synthetic
crude that can be further rened into nished products,
while MTG can produce synthetic gasoline from natural gas. STG+ can produce drop-in gasoline, diesel, jet
fuel and aromatic chemicals directly from natural gas via
a single-loop process.[11] In 2011, Royal Dutch Shells
140,000 barrel (16 dam) per day FT plant went into
operation in Qatar.
Natural gas drilling rig in Texas.

1.1

Natural gas

In the 19th century, natural gas was usually obtained as

a by-product of producing oil, since the small, light gas
carbon chains came out of solution as the extracted uids underwent pressure reduction from the reservoir to the
surface, similar to uncapping a soft drink bottle where the
carbon dioxide eervesces. Unwanted natural gas was
a disposal problem in the active oil elds. If there was
not a market for natural gas near the wellhead it was prohibitively expensive to pipe to the end user.

Natural gas can be associated (found in oil elds),

or non-associated (isolated in natural gas elds), and
is also found in coal beds (as coalbed methane).[12]
It sometimes contains a signicant amount of ethane,
propane, butane, and pentaneheavier hydrocarbons removed for commercial use prior to the methane being
sold as a consumer fuel or chemical plant feedstock. Nonhydrocarbons such as carbon dioxide, nitrogen, helium
(rarely), and hydrogen sulde must also be removed before the natural gas can be transported.[13]

Natural gas extracted from oil wells is called casinghead gas (whether or not truly produced up the annulus
and through a casinghead outlet) or associated gas. The
natural gas industry is extracting an increasing quantity of
gas from challenging resource types: sour gas, tight gas,
In the 19th century and early 20th century, unwanted gas shale gas, and coalbed methane.

1.3

Town gas

There is some disagreement on which country has the

largest proven gas reserves. Sources that consider that
Russia has by far the largest proven reserves include the
US CIA (47 600 km),[14] the US Energy Information
Administration (47 800 km),[15] and OPEC (48 700
km).[16] However, BP credits Russia with only 32 900
km,[17] which would place it in second place, slightly
behind Iran (33 100 to 33 800 km, depending on the
source). With Gazprom, Russia is frequently the worlds
largest natural gas extractor. Major proven resources
(in cubic kilometers) are world 187 300 (2013), Iran 33
600 (2013), Russia 32 900 (2013), Qatar 25 100 (2013),
Turkmenistan 17 500 (2013) and the United States 8500
(2013).

3
Main article: Shale gas

Shale gas is natural gas produced from shale. Because

shale has matrix permeability too low to allow gas to ow
in economical quantities, shale gas wells depend on fractures to allow the gas to ow. Early shale gas wells depended on natural fractures through which gas owed;
almost all shale gas wells today require fractures articially created by hydraulic fracturing. Since 2000, shale
gas has become a major source of natural gas in the
United States and Canada.[20] Following the success in the
United States, shale gas exploration is beginning in countries such as Poland, China, and South Africa.[21][22][23]
Because of this increase in shale production, the United
It is estimated that there are about 900 000 km of un- States is now the number one natural gas producer in the
conventional gas such as shale gas, of which 180 trillion world[24]
may be recoverable.[18] In turn, many studies from MIT,
Black & Veatch and the DOE predict that natural gas will
account for a larger portion of electricity generation and 1.3 Town gas
heat in the future.[19]
Main article: History of manufactured gas
The worlds largest gas eld is the oshore South Pars /
North Dome Gas-Condensate eld, shared between Iran
and Qatar. It is estimated to have 51 000 cubic kilometers Town gas is a ammable gaseous fuel made by the deof natural gas and 50 billion barrels (6 km) of natural gas structive distillation of coal. It contains a variety of
caloric gases including hydrogen, carbon monoxide,
condensates.
methane, and other volatile hydrocarbons, together with
Because natural gas is not a pure product, as the resersmall quantities of non-caloric gases such as carbon
voir pressure drops when non-associated gas is extracted
dioxide and nitrogen, and is used in a similar way to natfrom a eld under supercritical (pressure/temperature)
ural gas. This is a historical technology and is not usually
conditions, the higher molecular weight components may
economically competitive with other sources of fuel gas
partially condense upon isothermic depressurizingan
today. Still, it remains the best option in some specic
eect called retrograde condensation. The liquid thus
cases and it may be so into the future.
formed may get trapped as the pores of the gas reservoir
get depleted. One method to deal with this problem is Most town gashouses located in the eastern US in the
to re-inject dried gas free of condensate to maintain the late 19th and early 20th centuries were simple by-product
underground pressure and to allow re-evaporation and ex- coke ovens that heated bituminous coal in air-tight chamtraction of condensates. More frequently, the liquid con- bers. The gas driven o from the coal was collected and
denses at the surface, and one of the tasks of the gas plant distributed through networks of pipes to residences and
is to collect this condensate. The resulting liquid is called other buildings where it was used for cooking and lighting. (Gas heating did not come into widespread use until
natural gas liquid (NGL) and has commercial value.
the last half of the 20th century.) The coal tar (or asphalt)
that collected in the bottoms of the gashouse ovens was
often used for roong and other waterproong purposes,
1.2 Shale gas
and when mixed with sand and gravel was used for paving
streets.

1.4 Biogas
Main article: Biogas

The location of shale gas compared to other types of gas deposits.

Methanogenic archaea are responsible for all biological

sources of methane. Some live in symbiotic relationships
with other life forms, including termites, ruminants, and
cultivated crops. Other sources of methane, the principal component of natural gas, include landll gas, biogas,
and methane hydrate. When methane-rich gases are produced by the anaerobic decay of non-fossil organic mat-

4
ter (biomass), these are referred to as biogas (or natural
biogas). Sources of biogas include swamps, marshes, and
landlls (see landll gas), as well as agricultural waste materials such as sewage sludge and manure[25] by way of
anaerobic digesters, in addition to enteric fermentation,
particularly in cattle. Landll gas is created by decomposition of waste in landll sites. Excluding water vapor,
about half of landll gas is methane and most of the rest is
carbon dioxide, with small amounts of nitrogen, oxygen,
and hydrogen, and variable trace amounts of hydrogen
sulde and siloxanes. If the gas is not removed, the pressure may get so high that it works its way to the surface,
causing damage to the landll structure, unpleasant odor,
vegetation die-o, and an explosion hazard. The gas can
be vented to the atmosphere, ared or burned to produce
electricity or heat. Biogas can also be produced by separating organic materials from waste that otherwise goes to
landlls. This method is more ecient than just capturing the landll gas it produces. Anaerobic lagoons produce biogas from manure, while biogas reactors can be
used for manure or plant parts. Like landll gas, biogas is
mostly methane and carbon dioxide, with small amounts
of nitrogen, oxygen and hydrogen. However, with the
exception of pesticides, there are usually lower levels of
contaminants.
Landll gas cannot be distributed through utility natural
gas pipelines unless it is cleaned up to less than 3 per cent
CO2 , and a few parts per million H
2S, because CO2 and H
2S corrode the pipelines.[26] The presence of CO2 will
lower the energy level of the gas below requirements for
the pipeline. Siloxanes in the gas will form deposits in gas
burners and need to be removed prior to entry into any
gas distribution or transmission system. Consequently, it
may be more economical to burn the gas on site or within
a short distance of the landll using a dedicated pipeline.
Water vapor is often removed, even if the gas is burned
on site. If low temperatures condense water out of the
gas, siloxanes can be lowered as well because they tend to
condense out with the water vapor. Other non-methane
components may also be removed to meet emission standards, to prevent fouling of the equipment or for environmental considerations. Co-ring landll gas with natural
gas improves combustion, which lowers emissions.
Biogas, and especially landll gas, are already used in
some areas, but their use could be greatly expanded. Experimental systems were being proposed for use in parts
of Hertfordshire, UK, and Lyon in France. Using materials that would otherwise generate no income, or even cost
money to get rid of, improves the protability and energy
balance of biogas production. Gas generated in sewage
treatment plants is commonly used to generate electricity.
For example, the Hyperion sewage plant in Los Angeles
burns 8 million cubic feet (230,000 m3 ) of gas per day
to generate power[27] New York City utilizes gas to run
equipment in the sewage plants, to generate electricity,
and in boilers.[28] Using sewage gas to make electricity is

2 NATURAL GAS PROCESSING

not limited to large cities. The city of Bakerseld, California, uses cogeneration at its sewer plants.[29] California
has 242 sewage wastewater treatment plants, 74 of which
have installed anaerobic digesters. The total biopower
generation from the 74 plants is about 66 MW.[30]

The McMahon natural gas processing plant in Taylor, British

Columbia, Canada.[31]

1.5 Crystallized natural gas hydrates

Huge quantities of natural gas (primarily methane) exist in the form of hydrates under sediment on oshore
continental shelves and on land in arctic regions that experience permafrost, such as those in Siberia. Hydrates
require a combination of high pressure and low temperature to form.
In 2010, the cost of extracting natural gas from crystallized natural gas was estimated to be as much as twice the
cost of extracting natural gas from conventional sources,
and even higher from oshore deposits.[32]
In 2013, Japan Oil, Gas and Metals National Corporation (JOGMEC) announced that they had recovered commercially relevant quantities of natural gas from methane
hydrate.[33]

2 Natural gas processing

Main article: Natural gas processing
The image below is a schematic block ow diagram of a
typical natural gas processing plant. It shows the various
unit processes used to convert raw natural gas into sales
gas pipelined to the end user markets.
The block ow diagram also shows how processing of the
raw natural gas yields byproduct sulfur, byproduct ethane,
and natural gas liquids (NGL) propane, butanes and natural gasoline (denoted as pentanes +).[34][35][36][37][38]

4.2

Power generation

Raw
gas

Acid
gas

Gas
wells

CONDENSATE
AND
WATER REMOVAL
Raw gas
pipeline

SULFUR UNIT
Claus process

ACID GAS REMOVAL

Amine treating
Beneld process
PSA unit
Sulnol process
Others

Waste water

Tail
gas

TAIL GAS TREATING

Scot process
Clauspol process
Others

Elemental sulfur
Ogas to incinerator
DEHYDRATION
Glycol unit
PSA unit

To sales gas pipeline

FRACTIONATION TRAIN
De-ethanizer
Depropanizer
Debutanizer

JouleThomson skid
Cryogenic or chiller system

Condensate to an oil renery

NGL RECOVERY
Turbo-expander and
demethanizer
Absorption (in older plants)

ular weighted gases for use at the natural gas engine. A

few technologies are as follows:

NITROGEN REJECTION
Cryogenic process
Sbsorption processes
Adsorption processes

MERCURY REMOVAL
Mol sieves
Activated carbon

Chemical enzymology system[41]

Nitrogen-rich gas

SWEETENING UNITS
Merox process
Sulfrex process
Mol sieves

Ethane
Propane
Butanes
Pentanes +

4.2 Power generation

Natural gas is a major source of electricity generation

through the use of cogeneration, gas turbines and steam
Schematic ow diagram of a typical natural gas processing plant. turbines. Natural gas is also well suited for a combined
use in association with renewable energy sources such
as wind or solar[42] and for alimenting peak-load power
3 Depletion
stations functioning in tandem with hydroelectric plants.
Most grid peaking power plants and some o-grid enginegenerators use natural gas. Particularly high eciencies
Main article: Gas depletion
can be achieved through combining gas turbines with a
steam turbine in combined cycle mode. Natural gas burns
Natural gas production in the US reached a peak in 1973,
more cleanly than other hydrocarbon fuels, such as oil
and went over a second lower peak in 2001, but recently
and coal, and produces less carbon dioxide per unit of
[39] [40]
has peaked again and is continuing to rise.
energy released. For transportation, burning natural gas
produces about 30 percent less carbon dioxide than burning petroleum. For an equivalent amount of heat, burning
4 Uses
natural gas produces about 45 percent less carbon dioxide than burning coal for power.[43] The US Energy InNatural gas is primarily used in the northern hemisphere. formation Administration reports the following emissions
in million metric tons of carbon dioxide in the world for
North America and Europe are major consumers.
2012:[44]

4.1

Mid-stream natural gas

Natural gas owing in the distribution lines and at the natural gas well head are often used to power natural gas
powered engines. These engines rotate compressors to
facilitate the natural gas transmission. These compressors are required in the mid-stream line to pressurize and
to re-pressurize the natural gas in the transmission line as
the gas travels. The natural gas transmission lines extend
to the natural gas processing plant or unit which removes
the higher molecular weighted natural gas hydrocarbons
to produce a British thermal unit (BTU) value between
950 and 1050 BTUs. The processed natural gas may then
be used for residential, commercial and industrial uses.

Natural gas: 6,799

Petroleum: 11,695
Coal: 13,787

Coal-red electric power generation emits around 2,000

pounds of carbon dioxide for every megawatt hour generated, which is almost double the carbon dioxide released
by a natural gas-red electric plant per megawatt hour
generated.[45] Because of this higher carbon eciency of
natural gas generation, as the fuel mix in the United States
has changed to reduce coal and increase natural gas generation, carbon dioxide emissions have unexpectedly fallen.
Those measured in the rst quarter of 2012 were the lowOften mid-stream and well head gases require removal est of any recorded for the rst quarter of any year since
of many of the various hydrocarbon species contained 1992.[46]
within the natural gas. Some of these gases include Combined cycle power generation using natural gas is
heptane, pentane, propane and other hydrocarbons with currently the cleanest available source of power using hymolecular weights above Methane (CH4) to produce a drocarbon fuels, and this technology is widely and innatural gas fuel which is used to operate the natural gas creasingly used as natural gas can be obtained at increasengines for further pressurized transmission. Typically, ingly reasonable costs. Fuel cell technology may eventunatural gas compressors require 950 to 1050 BTU per ally provide cleaner options for converting natural gas into
cubic foot to operate at the natural gas engines rotational electricity, but as yet it is not price-competitive. Locally
name plate specications.
produced electricity and heat using natural gas powered
Several methods are used to remove these higher molec- Combined Heat and Power plant (CHP or Cogeneration

plant) is considered energy ecient and a rapid way to

cut carbon emissions.[47] Natural gas power plants are increasing in popularity and generate 22% of the worlds total electricity. Approximately half as much as generated
with coal.[48]

4.3

Domestic use

Natural gas dispensed in a residential setting can generate temperatures in excess of 1100 C (2000 F) making it a powerful domestic cooking and heating fuel.[49]
In much of the developed world it is supplied through
pipes to homes, where it is used for many purposes
including ranges and ovens, gas-heated clothes dryers,
heating/cooling, and central heating. Heaters in homes
and other buildings may include boilers, furnaces, and
water heaters. Both North America and Europe are major consumers of natural gas. Boilers use low pressure,
usually 6 to 7 inches of water (6 to 7 WC), which is
about 0.25 psig. The pressures in the supply lines under
the streets vary, either utilization pressure (UP, the aforementioned 6 to 7 WC) or elevated pressure (EP), which
may be anywhere from 1 psig to 120 psig. Systems using
EP have a regulator at the service entrance to step down
the pressure to UP.
In the US Compressed natural gas (CNG) is used in rural
homes without connections to piped-in public utility services, or with portable grills. Natural gas is also supplied
by independent natural gas suppliers through Natural Gas
Choice programs throughout the United States. However,
as CNG costs more than LPG, LPG (propane) is the dominant source of rural gas.

USES

India (1.5 million), and China (1.5 million).[50] The energy eciency is generally equal to that of gasoline engines, but lower compared with modern diesel engines.
Gasoline/petrol vehicles converted to run on natural gas
suer because of the low compression ratio of their engines, resulting in a cropping of delivered power while
running on natural gas (10%15%). CNG-specic engines, however, use a higher compression ratio due to this
fuels higher octane number of 120130.[51] [52]
Besides use in road vehicles, it is also used in aerial vehicles. Compressed natural gas has been used in some
aircraft like the Aviat Aircraft Husky 200 CNG[53][54][55]
and the Chromarat VX-1 KittyHawk[56]
LNG is also being used in aircraft. Russian aircraft
manufacturer Tupolev for instance is running a development program to produce LNG- and hydrogen-powered
aircraft.[57] The program has been running since the mid1970s, and seeks to develop LNG and hydrogen variants
of the Tu-204 and Tu-334 passenger aircraft, and also
the Tu-330 cargo aircraft. It claims that at current market prices, an LNG-powered aircraft would cost 5,000
roubles (~ US$218/ 112) less to operate per ton, roughly
equivalent to 60 per cent, with considerable reductions to
carbon monoxide, hydrocarbon and nitrogen oxide emissions.
The advantages of liquid methane as a jet engine fuel are
that it has more specic energy than the standard kerosene
mixes do and that its low temperature can help cool the air
which the engine compresses for greater volumetric eciency, in eect replacing an intercooler. Alternatively,
it can be used to lower the temperature of the exhaust.

4.5 Fertilizers
Natural gas is a major feedstock for the production of
ammonia, via the Haber process, for use in fertilizer production.

4.6 Hydrogen
See also: Industrial gas

A Washington, D.C. Metrobus, which runs on natural gas.

4.4

Transportation

Natural gas can be used to produce hydrogen, with one

common method being the hydrogen reformer. Hydrogen has many applications: it is a primary feedstock for
the chemical industry, a hydrogenating agent, an important commodity for oil reneries, and the fuel source in
hydrogen vehicles.

CNG is a cleaner and also cheaper alternative to other

automobile fuels such as gasoline (petrol) and diesel. By 4.7 Other
the end of 2012 there were 17.25 million natural gas vehicles worldwide, led by Iran (3.3 million), Pakistan (3.1 Natural gas is also used in the manufacture of fabrics,
million), Argentina (2.18 million), Brazil (1.73 million), glass, steel, plastics, paint, and other products.

Storage and transport

CNG is transported at high pressure, typically above 200

bars. Compressors and decompression equipment are
less capital intensive and may be economical in smaller
unit sizes than liquefaction/regasication plants. Natural
gas trucks and carriers may transport natural gas directly
to end-users, or to distribution points such as pipelines.

Peoples Gas Manlove Field natural gas storage area in Newcomb

Township, Champaign County, Illinois. In the foreground (left)
is one of the numerous wells for the underground storage area,
with an LNG plant, and above ground storage tanks are in the
background (right).

Polyethylene plastic main being placed in a trench.

Because of its low density, it is not easy to store natural gas or to transport it by vehicle. Natural gas
pipelines are impractical across oceans, since the gas
needs to be cooled down and compressed, as the friction
in the pipeline causes the gas to heat up. Many existing
pipelines in America are close to reaching their capacity,
prompting some politicians representing northern states
to speak of potential shortages. The large trade cost implies that natural gas markets are globally much less integrated, causing signicant price dierences across countries. In Western Europe, the gas pipeline network is
already dense.[58] New pipelines are planned or under
construction in Eastern Europe and between gas elds in
Russia, Near East and Northern Africa and Western Europe. See also List of natural gas pipelines.

In the past, the natural gas which was recovered in the

course of recovering petroleum could not be protably
sold, and was simply burned at the oil eld in a process known as aring. Flaring is now illegal in many
countries.[59] Additionally, higher demand in the last 20
30 years has made production of gas associated with oil
economically viable. As a further option, the gas is now
sometimes re-injected into the formation for enhanced oil
recovery by pressure maintenance as well as miscible or
immiscible ooding. Conservation, re-injection, or aring of natural gas associated with oil is primarily dependent on proximity to markets (pipelines), and regulatory
restrictions.

Natural gas can be indirectly exported through the absorption in other physical output. A recent study suggests
that the expansion of shale gas production in the US has
caused prices to drop relative to other countries. This has
caused a boom in energy intensive manufacturing sector
exports, whereby the average dollar unit of US manufacturing exports has almost tripled its energy content beLNG carriers transport liqueed natural gas (LNG) tween 1996 and 2012.[60]
across oceans, while tank trucks can carry liqueed or
compressed natural gas (CNG) over shorter distances. A master gas system was invented in Saudi Araaring.
Sea transport using CNG carrier ships that are now under bia in the late 1970s, ending any necessity for [61]
Satellite
observation,
however,
shows
that
aring
and
development may be competitive with LNG transport in
[62]
are
still
practiced
in
some
gas-extracting
counventing
specic conditions.
tries.
Gas is turned into liquid at a liquefaction plant, and is returned to gas form at regasication plant at the terminal. Natural gas is used to generate electricity and heat for
Shipborne regasication equipment is also used. LNG is desalination. Similarly, some landlls that also discharge
the preferred form for long distance, high volume trans- methane gases have been set up to capture the methane
portation of natural gas, whereas pipeline is preferred for and generate electricity.
transport for distances up to 4,000 km (2,485 mi) over Natural gas is often stored underground inside depleted
gas reservoirs from previous gas wells, salt domes, or in
land and approximately half that distance oshore.

ENVIRONMENTAL EFFECTS

tanks as liqueed natural gas. The gas is injected in a 6.1 Eect of natural gas release
time of low demand and extracted when demand picks up.
Storage nearby end users helps to meet volatile demands, See also: Atmospheric methane
but such storage may not always be practicable.
With 15 countries accounting for 84 per cent of the
worldwide extraction, access to natural gas has become
an important issue in international politics, and countries
vie for control of pipelines.[63] In the rst decade of the
21st century, Gazprom, the state-owned energy company
in Russia, engaged in disputes with Ukraine and Belarus
over the price of natural gas, which have created concerns
that gas deliveries to parts of Europe could be cut o for
political reasons.[64] The United States is preparing to export natural gas.[65]
Floating liqueed natural gas (FLNG) is an innovative
technology designed to enable the development of oshore gas resources that would otherwise remain untapped because due to environmental or economic factors it is nonviable to develop them via a land-based LNG
operation. FLNG technology also provides a number of
environmental and economic advantages:
Environmental Because all processing is done
at the gas eld, there is no requirement for long
pipelines to shore, compression units to pump
the gas to shore, dredging and jetty construction,
and onshore construction of an LNG processing
plant, which signicantly reduces the environmental
footprint.[66] Avoiding construction also helps preserve marine and coastal environments. In addition,
environmental disturbance will be minimised during
decommissioning because the facility can easily be
disconnected and removed before being refurbished
and re-deployed elsewhere.
Economic Where pumping gas to shore can be
prohibitively expensive, FLNG makes development
economically viable. As a result, it will open up
new business opportunities for countries to develop
oshore gas elds that would otherwise remain
stranded, such as those oshore East Africa.[67]
Many gas and oil companies are considering the economic and environmental benets of oating liqueed
natural gas (FLNG). There are currently projects underway to construct ve FLNG facilities. Petronas is close
to completion on their FLNG-1[68] at Daewoo Shipbuilding and Marine Engineering and are underway[69] on their
FLNG-2 project at Samsung Heavy Industries. Shell Prelude is due to start production 2017 and the Browse LNG
project has completed FEED with nal investment decisions expected in mid-2016.[70]

Environmental eects

See also: Environmental impact of the energy industry

Natural gas is mainly composed of methane. After release to the atmosphere it is removed by gradual oxidation to carbon dioxide and water by hydroxyl radicals
(OH) formed in the troposphere or stratosphere, giving the overall chemical reaction CH4 + 2O2 CO2 +
2H2 O.[71][72] While the lifetime of atmospheric methane
is relatively short when compared to carbon dioxide,[73]
with a half-life of about 7 years,[74] it is more ecient
at trapping heat in the atmosphere, so that a given quantity of methane has 84 times the global-warming potential of carbon dioxide over a 20-year period and 28
times over a 100-year period. Natural gas is thus a more
potent greenhouse gas than carbon dioxide due to the
greater global-warming potential of methane.[75] But because when it is burned, it produces more water than carbon dioxide by mole, in contrast to coal which produces
mainly carbon dioxide, it produces only about half the
carbon dioxide per kilowatt-hour that coal does. Current
estimates by the EPA place global emissions of methane
at 85 billion cubic metres (3.01012 cu ft) annually,[73] or
3.2 per cent of global production.[76] Direct emissions of
methane represented 14.3 per cent by volume of all global
anthropogenic greenhouse gas emissions in 2004.[77]
During extraction, storage, transportation, and distribution, natural gas is known to leak into the atmosphere,
particularly during the extraction process. A Cornell University study in 2011 demonstrated that the leak rate of
methane may be high enough to jeopardize its global
warming advantage over coal.[78] This study was criticized later for its over-estimation of methane leakage
values.[79] Preliminary results of some air sampling from
airplanes done by the National Oceanic and Atmospheric
Administration indicated higher-than-estimated methane
releases by gas wells in some areas,[80] but the overall
results showed methane emissions in line with previous
EPA estimates[81]
Natural gas extraction also releases an isotope of radon,
ranging in activity from 5 to 200,000 becquerels per cubic
meter of gas.[82]

6.2 CO2 emissions

Natural gas is often described as the cleanest fossil fuel.
It produces about 29% and 44% less carbon dioxide
per joule delivered than oil and coal respectively,[43]
and potentially fewer pollutants than other hydrocarbon
fuels.[83] However, in absolute terms, it comprises a substantial percentage of human carbon emissions, and this
contribution is projected to grow. According to the IPCC
Fourth Assessment Report, in 2004, natural gas produced
about 5.3 billion tons a year of CO2 emissions, while coal
and oil produced 10.6 and 10.2 billion tons respectively.

7.2

Fracking

According to an updated version of the Special Report 7.2 Fracking

on Emissions Scenario by 2030, natural gas would be the
source of 11 billion tons a year, with coal and oil now 8.4
and 17.2 billion respectively because demand is increas- Main article: Environmental impact of hydraulic fracturing
ing 1.9 percent a year.
Releasing natural gas from subsurface porous rock formations may be accomplished by a process called hydraulic
fracturing or fracking. Its estimated that hydraulic
Natural gas produces far lower amounts of sulfur diox- fracturing will eventually account for nearly 70% of natide and nitrous oxides than other fossil fuels.[84] The ural gas development in North America.[87] Since the
other pollutants due to natural gas combustion are listed rst commercial hydraulic fracturing operation in 1949,
approximately one million wells have been hydraulically
below[83][85] in pounds per billion BTU:
fractured in the United States.[88] The production of natural gas from hydraulically fractured wells has utilized the
Carbon monoxide 40
technological developments of directional and horizontal drilling, which improved access to natural gas in tight
Sulfur dioxide 1
rock formations.[89] Strong growth in the production of
unconventional gas from hydraulically fractured wells oc Nitrogen oxide 92
curred between 2000-2012.[90]

6.3

Other pollutants

Particulates 7

Safety concerns

A pipeline odorant injection station

7.1

Production

Some gas elds yield sour gas containing hydrogen sulde

(H2 S). This untreated gas is toxic. Amine gas treating,
an industrial scale process which removes acidic gaseous
components, is often used to remove hydrogen sulde
from natural gas.[86]
Extraction of natural gas (or oil) leads to decrease in pressure in the reservoir. Such decrease in pressure in turn
may result in subsidence, sinking of the ground above.
Subsidence may aect ecosystems, waterways, sewer and
water supply systems, foundations, and so on.

In hydraulic fracturing, well operators force water mixed

with a variety of chemicals through the wellbore casing into the rock. The high pressure water breaks up or
fracks the rock, which releases gas from the rock formation. Sand and other particles are added to the water
as a proppant to keep the fractures in the rock open, thus
enabling the gas to ow into the casing and then to the surface. Chemicals are added to the uid to perform such
functions as reducing friction and inhibiting corrosion.
After the frack, oil or gas is extracted and nearly 30
percent to 70 percent of the frack uid, i.e. the mixture
of water, chemicals, sand, etc., ows back to the surface.
Many gas-bearing formations also contain water, which
will ow up the wellbore to the surface along with the
gas, in both hydraulically fractured and non-hydraulically
fractured wells. This produced water often has a high
content of salt and other dissolved minerals that occur in
the formation.[91]
The volume of water used to hydraulically fracture wells
varies according to the hydraulic fracturing technique. In
the United States, the average volume of water used per
hydraulic fracture has been reported as nearly 7,375 gallons for vertical oil and gas wells prior to 1953, nearly
197,000 gallons for vertical oil and gas wells between
2000-2010, and nearly 3 million gallons for horizontal gas
wells between 2000-2010.[92]
Determining which fracking technique is appropriate for
well productivity depends largely on the properties of the
reservoir rock from which to extract oil or gas. If the
rock is characterized by low-permeability which refers
to its ability to let substances, i.e. gas, pass through it,
then the rock may be considered a source of tight gas.[93]
Fracking for shale gas, which is currently also known as
a source of unconventional gas, involves drilling a borehole vertically until it reaches a lateral shale rock formation, at which point the drill turns to follow the rock
for hundreds or thousands of feet horizontally.[94] In con-

10

ENERGY CONTENT, STATISTICS, AND PRICING

trast, conventional oil and gas sources are characterized

by higher rock permeability, which naturally enables the
ow of oil or gas into the wellbore with less intensive hydraulic fracturing techniques than the production of tight
gas has required.[95][96] The decades in development of
drilling technology for conventional and unconventional
oil and gas production has not only improved access to
natural gas in low-permeability reservoir rocks, but also
posed signicant adverse impacts on environmental and
public health.[97][98][99][100][101]
The US EPA has acknowledged that toxic, carcinogenic
chemicals, i.e. benzene and ethylbenzene, have been
used as gelling agents in water and chemical mixtures for
high volume horizontal fracturing (HVHF).[102] Following the hydraulic fracture in HVHF, the water, chemicals, and frack uid that return to the wells surface,
called owback or produced water, may contain radioactive materials, heavy metals, natural salts, and hydrocarbons which exist naturally in shale rock formations.[103]
Fracking chemicals, radioactive materials, heavy metals,
and salts that are removed from the HVHF well by well
operators are so dicult to remove from the water they're
mixed with, and would so heavily pollute the water cycle,
that most of the owback is either recycled into other
fracking operations or injected into deep underground
wells, eliminating the water that HVHF required from the
hydrologic cycle.[104]

7.3

Added odor

Gas network emergency vehicle responding to a major re in

Kiev, Ukraine

but can sometimes collect in dangerous quantities if ow

rates are high enough. However, considering the tens of
millions of structures that use the fuel, the individual risk
of using natural gas is very low.

7.5 Risk of carbon monoxide inhalation

Natural gas heating systems may cause carbon monoxide
poisoning if unvented or poorly vented. In 2011, natural
gas furnaces, space heaters, water heaters and stoves were
blamed for 11 carbon monoxide deaths in the US. Another 22 deaths were attributed to appliances running on
liquied petroleum gas, and 17 deaths on gas of unspecied type. Improvements in natural gas furnace designs
have greatly reduced CO poisoning concerns. Detectors
are also available that warn of carbon monoxide and/or
explosive gas (methane, propane, etc.).[106]

In order to assist in detecting leaks, a minute amount

of odorant is added to the otherwise colorless and almost odorless gas used by consumers. The odor has been
compared to the smell of rotten eggs, due to the added
tert-Butylthiol (t-butyl mercaptan). Sometimes a related
compound, thiophane, may be used in the mixture. Situations in which an odorant that is added to natural gas
can be detected by analytical instrumentation, but cannot 8 Energy content, statistics, and
be properly detected by an observer with a normal sense
pricing
of smell, have occurred in the natural gas industry. This
is caused by odor masking, when one odorant overpowers the sensation of another. As of 2011, the industry is Main article: Natural gas prices
conducting research on the causes of odor masking.[105] See also: Billion cubic metres of natural gas
Quantities of natural gas are measured in normal cubic meters (corresponding to 0 C at 101.325 kPa) or in
standard cubic feet (corresponding to 60 F (16 C) and
7.4 Risk of explosion
14.73 psia). The gross heat of combustion of 1 m3 of
Explosions caused by natural gas leaks occur a few times commercial quality natural gas is around 39 MJ (10.8
each year. Individual homes, small businesses and other kWh), but this can vary by several percent. This comes
structures are most frequently aected when an internal to about 49 MJ (13.5 kWh)3for 1 kg of natural gas (asleak builds up gas inside the structure. Frequently, the suming a density of 0.8 kg m , an approximate value).
blast is powerful enough to signicantly damage a building but leave it standing. In these cases, the people inside
tend to have minor to moderate injuries. Occasionally,
the gas can collect in high enough quantities to cause a
deadly explosion, disintegrating one or more buildings in
the process. The gas usually dissipates readily outdoors,

The price of natural gas varies greatly depending on location and type of consumer. In 2007, a price of $7
per 1000 cubic feet (about 25 cents per m3 ) was typical
in the United States. The typical caloric value of natural gas is roughly 1,000 British thermal units (BTU) per
cubic foot, depending on gas composition. This corre-

11

30

U.S. Natural Gas Production

25

80

20

60

15

40

10
5
0

20
0

1900 1920 1940 1960 1980 2000 2020

Year

1010 cubic metres per year

United States

Trillion cubic feet per year

8.2

US Natural Gas Marketed Production 1900 to 2012, source US

EIA
Natural gas prices at the Henry Hub in US dollars per million
BTUs ($/mmbtu).

8.2 United States

In US units, one standard cubic foot 1 cubic foot (28
L) of natural gas produces around 1,028 British thermal
units (1,085 kJ). The actual heating value when the water
formed does not condense is the net heat of combustion
and can be as much as 10% less.[112]
In the United States, retail sales are often in units of
therms (th); 1 therm = 100,000 BTU. Gas meters measure the volume of gas used, and this is converted to
therms by multiplying the volume by the energy content
of the gas used during that period, which varies slightly
over time. Wholesale transactions are generally done in
Comparison of natural gas prices in Japan, United Kingdom, and decatherms (Dth), or in thousand decatherms (MDth), or
United States, 20072011
in million decatherms (MMDth). A million decatherms
is roughly a billion cubic feet of natural gas. Gas sales to
domestic consumers may be in units of 100 standard cubic feet (scf). The typical annual consumption of a single
sponds to around $7 per million BTU, or around $7 per
family residence is 1,000 therms or one RCE.
gigajoule. In April 2008, the wholesale price was $10
per 1,000 cubic feet (28 m3 ) ($10/MMBTU).[107] The
residential price varies from 50% to 300% more than the
wholesale price. At the end of 2007, this was $12$16 8.3 Canada
per 1000 cubic feet (about 50 cents per m3 ).[108] Natural gas in the United States is traded as a futures contract Canada uses metric measure for internal trade of petroon the New York Mercantile Exchange. Each contract is chemical products. Consequently, natural gas is sold by
for 10,000 MMBTU (~10,550 gigajoules), or 10 billion the gigajoule, cubic metre (m3 ) or thousand cubic metres
BTU. Thus, if the price of gas is $10 per million BTUs (E3m3). Distribution infrastructure and meters almost
on the NYMEX, the contract is worth $100,000.
always meter volume (cubic foot or cubic meter). Some
jurisdictions, such as Saskatchewan, sell gas by volume
only. Other jurisdictions, such as Alberta, gas is sold by
the energy content (GJ). In these areas, almost all meters
for residential and small commercial customers measure
8.1 European Union
volume (m3 or ft3 ), and billing statements include a multiplier to convert the volume to energy content of the local
gas supply.
[109]
Gas prices for end users vary greatly across the EU.
A single European energy market, one of the key objectives of the EU, should level the prices of gas in all EU
member states. Moreover, it would help to resolve supply and global warming issues,[110] as well as strengthen
relations with other Mediterranean countries and foster
investments in the region.[111]

A gigajoule (GJ) is a measure approximately equal to half

a barrel (250 lbs) of oil, or 1 million BTUs, or 1000 cu ft
of gas, or 28 m3 of gas. The energy content of gas supply
in Canada can vary from 37 to 43 MJ per m3 depending
on gas supply and processing between the wellhead and
the customer.

12

8.4

12

Elsewhere

In the rest of the world, natural gas is sold in gigajoule retail units. LNG (liqueed natural gas) and LPG (liqueed
petroleum gas) are traded in metric tons or MMBTU as
spot deliveries. Long term natural gas distribution contracts are signed in cubic metres, and LNG contracts are
in metric tonnes (1,000 kg). The LNG and LPG is transported by specialized transport ships, as the gas is liquied at cryogenic temperatures. The specication of each
LNG/LPG cargo will usually contain the energy content,
but this information is in general not available to the public.
In the Russian Federation, Gazprom sold approximately
250 billion cubic metres of natural gas in 2008. In 2013
the Group produced 487.4 billion cubic meters of natural
and associated gas. Gazprom supplied Europe with 161.5
billion cubic meters of gas in 2013.
In August 2015, possibly the largest natural gas discovery
in history was made and notied by an Italian gas company ENI. The energy company indicated that it has unearthed a supergiant gas eld in the Mediterranean Sea
covering about 40 square miles. It was also reported that
the gas eld could hold a potential 30 trillion cubic feet
of natural gas. ENI said that it is about the energy equivalent of 5.5 billion barrels of oil. The eld was found in
the deep waters o the northern coast of Egypt and ENI
claims that it will be the largest ever in the Mediterranean
and even the world.[113]

Natural gas as an asset class for

institutional investors

REFERENCES

11 See also
Associated petroleum gas
Gas oil ratio
Natural gas by country
Peak gas
Power to gas
Renewable natural gas
General:
World energy resources and consumption

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13

External links

The future of Natural Gas MIT study

A Comparison between Shale Gas in China and Unconventional Fuel Development in the United States:
Health, Water and Environmental Risks by Paolo
Farah and Riccardo Tremolada. This is a paper presented at the Colloquium on Environmental Scholarship 2013 hosted by Vermont Law School (11 October 2013)

GA Mansoori, N Enayati, LB Agyarko (2016),

Energy: Sources, Utilization, Legislation, Sustainability, Illinois as Model State, World Sci. Pub. Co.,
ISBN 978-981-4704-00-7

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14.1

TEXT AND IMAGE SOURCES, CONTRIBUTORS, AND LICENSES

Text and image sources, contributors, and licenses

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Jeq, Robbot, Jotomicron, Kadin2048, Altenmann, Nurg, Hemanshu, Jondel, Bkell, Wikibot, Phanly, Cyrius, MikeCapone, Alan Liefting, Giftlite, Graeme Bartlett, DocWatson42, Andries, Fennec, Yama, Mporter, Fudoreaper, Tom harrison, Zigger, Wwoods, Everyking,
Leonard G., Nkocharh, Slyguy, Jorge Stol, Solipsist, Darrien, Bobblewik, Christopherlin, Isidore, Chowbok, Andycjp, Soup, Quadell,
Antandrus, Beland, Salasks, Gunnar Larsson, Rdsmith4, Kesac, H Padleckas, Icairns, GeoGreg, Sam Hocevar, Popadopolis, Tooki, Joyous!, AmRadioHed, Sonett72, Deglr6328, WikiDon, Shotwell, Mike Rosoft, CALR, JTN, EugeneZelenko, Bornintheguz, Alexrexpvt,
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Mwanner, Edward Z. Yang, Shanes, Tom, RoyBoy, Dennis Brown, Femto, Bobo192, NetBot, Harald Hansen, Wipe, Reinyday, Cmdrjameson, Vortexrealm, Cohesion, Giraedata, La goutte de pluie, Kjkolb, Nk, Rje, RussBlau, MPerel, Sam Korn, AmeriDesi, Jakew, Alansohn,
Gary, Elwood00, Marnen, Blackboxes, Eric Kvaalen, Arthena, Atlant, M@, SHIMONSHA, Kel-nage, Wdfarmer, Rwendland, Bart133,
Wtmitchell, Velella, KingTT, Yuckfoo, RJFJR, RainbowOfLight, Sciurin, Dzhim, Bsadowski1, Reaverdrop, Gene Nygaard, Algocu,
Tobyc75, Ultramarine, Kenyon, Woohookitty, LrdChaos, LOL, Lifung, WadeSimMiser, MGTom, Kgrr, Schzmo, Firien, Macaddct1984,
DocRuby, Prashanthns, Alcoved id, Dlinga, Dysepsion, Gwil, V8rik, BD2412, FreplySpang, RxS, Grammarbot, Mendaliv, BorgHunter,
Canderson7, Sjakkalle, Jake Wartenberg, Pabix, Vegaswikian, Ligulem, Brighterorange, The wub, Klonimus, Matt Deres, GregAsche,
DirkvdM, FayssalF, FlaBot, Ground Zero, Latka, RexNL, Gurch, Leslie Mateus, Fresheneesz, TeaDrinker, Preslethe, Argyrios Saccopoulos, Zotel, King of Hearts, Guanxi, DaGizza, Scoops, DVdm, Antipatros, Roboto de Ajvol, YurikBot, Wavelength, Borgx, Crotalus horridus, Sceptre, Hairy Dude, Huw Powell, Jimp, Kafziel, Mukkakukaku, Gerfriedc, Arado, Fabartus, Pigman, Casey56, Hydrargyrum,
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as led, Irishguy, RUL3R, Bkil, Misza13, Mazer, Emersoni, Dbrs, Mysid, Rwalker, TastyCakes, DeadEyeArrow, Bota47, Sebleblanc,
Haemo, Wknight94, Phgao, Lt-wiki-bot, Imaninjapirate, Knotnic, Chase me ladies, I'm the Cavalry, Arthur Rubin, NHSavage, JoanneB,
Chriswaterguy, CWenger, Emc2, JLaTondre, Flowersofnight, Caballero1967, Whouk, Katieh5584, Jonathan.s.kt, RG2, Austinbirdman,
JDspeeder1, Kindathirsty, Roke, SkerHawx, Mikegrant, Mejor Los Indios, Luk, MaeseLeon, Amalthea, Crystallina, MartinGugino, Drcwright, SmackBot, Unschool, KnowledgeOfSelf, Hydrogen Iodide, Unyoyega, C.Fred, Od Mishehu, Mycroft007, Jfurr1981, KVDP,
Delldot, Jab843, Dpwkbw, Munboy, Edgar181, Commander Keane bot, Yamaguchi , Gilliam, Ohnoitsjamie, French fuck, Hmains,
Skizzik, Kmarinas86, Chris the speller, Bluebot, Mark126, TDS, VQuick, MalafayaBot, SchftyThree, K4zem, Deli nk, PureRED, Gaagaagiw, EScribe, DHN-bot~enwiki, Onkelschark, Dual Freq, Darth Panda, Gracenotes, Brideshead, Modest Genius, Peter Campbell, J00tel,
Can't sleep, clown will eat me, MyNameIsVlad, OrphanBot, TheKMan, Rrburke, GeorgeMoney, Oseymour, RedHillian, Dali, Roseave,
Theanphibian, NoIdeaNick, Smooth O, Iapetus, Valenciano, Duckbill, Torrmoz, RJN, BocoROTH, Dreadstar, TGC55, RandomP, Superinniti, Filpaul, Dwaynew, Mion, Pilotguy, Kukini, Daquell, Birdman1, SashatoBot, Craig Bolon, Kuru, John, AmiDaniel, Tazmaniacs,
Gobonobo, Agape negates fear, AstroChemist, Mbeychok, Accurizer, Interestingstuadder, Bjankuloski06en~enwiki, Scetoaux, NongBot~enwiki, Ben Moore, Ckatz, Loadmaster, Stwalkerster, Beetstra, Mr Stephen, Jimmy Pitt, Dicklyon, Geologyguy, E-Kartoel, Ryulong,
Gazjo, H, RMHED, Onionmon, Hu12, DabMachine, Norm mit, PaulGS, Dead3y3, Iridescent, JoeBot, Pvt Parts, Courcelles, Pgeraghty,
Tawkerbot2, Pi, Dlohcierekim, Blinking Spirit, Daedalus969, JForget, VoxLuna, Oensiveandconfusing, Mikiemike, DangerousPanda,
CmdrObot, Ale jrb, Mattbr, Iuio, Scohoust, John Riemann Soong, Bryan.ziebart, SupaStarGirl, Basawala, CuriousEric, N2e, NaBUru38,
Michael B. Trausch, Tjoneslo, Cydebot, Altaphon, Mato, Rieman 82, Gogo Dodo, Paly, NewProvidence, B, Tawkerbot4, Shirulashem,
DumbBOT, Pi3832, Optimist on the run, Billtubbs, CieloEstrellado, Thijs!bot, Epbr123, Junckerg, Malcolm2341, Tsogo3, Jackhmo,
N5iln, Gralo, Mojo Hand, Marek69, Chris01720, NorwegianBlue, Ufwuct, Nezzadar, Khottorp, NigelR, Big Bird, TangentCube, Pfranson, Obsidian-Dove, CTZMSC3, LachlanA, Mentisto, Porqin, KrakatoaKatie, AntiVandalBot, Luna Santin, Seaphoto, QuiteUnusual,
Paste, Lyricmac, Cinnamon42, Vanjagenije, SteveOnline, Culling, Dictyosiphonaceae, Xbaby-jazx, Myanw, Gkhan, Res2216restar,
Maddieandannie, Demonkey36, Arifsaha, MER-C, Plantsurfer, Andrewericoleman, Fetchcomms, Zaindy, Mwarren us, Hut 8.5, Savant13,
Zero76, Robsavoie, Cromagno, Connormah, Skyemoor, Gsaup, Bongwarrior, VoABot II, JNW, Mike409, TARBOT, Bwhack, Rami R,
Blackicehorizon, Twsx, Prestonmcconkie, VegKilla, Gabriel Kielland, Ciaccona, Allstarecho, Justanother, LorenzoB, Beagel, DerHexer,
Partymetroid, Ratherhaveaheart, Jackson Peebles, MartinBot, Racepacket, ChemNerd, Rettetast, R'n'B, AlexiusHoratius, Leyo, Majer
editer, Lilac Soul, Tgeairn, N4nojohn, J.delanoy, Pilgaard, Trusilver, Rgoodermote, Rlsheehan, Uncle Dick, Dleyva3, Yonidebot, Lee
Vonce, Patrick987, Dwachter, Thaurisil, OttoMkel, Acalamari, AtholM, Shawn in Montreal, McSly, Pmbcomm, Skier Dude, Gurchzilla,
Fauxcouture, Belovedfreak, NewEnglandYankee, Cadwaladr, DadaNeem, Student7, Hanacy, KylieTastic, 12remage, Remember the dot,
Bigtex899, DorganBot, Mike V, Gtg204y, Rob Cranll, S (usurped also), Carrmedia, Idioma-bot, Lights, VolkovBot, Johnfos, ABF,
SSpeedracer, Je G., Alexandria, AlnoktaBOT, LeilaniLad, Philip Trueman, Fsmatovu, PNG crusade bot, TXiKiBoT, Oshwah, Zamphuor,
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Mazarin07, Ham&eggs, Madhero88, Plazak, Michaeldsuarez, Dirkbb, Lamro, Synthebot, Altermike, Enviroboy, Anna512, Makbryan2,
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EJF, AledJames, SieBot, Nikopoul, Restre419, Tiddly Tom, Work permit, Jauerback, Runningman7574, Jsc83, Caltas, Yintan, Flyer22
Reborn, Radon210, Qst, Johnmckay777, Oda Mari, Ohalabieh, Nopetro, Spaceme555, Abdullafahim, Teketime, Nicksh, Oxymoron83,
Hello71, Lightmouse, Tombomp, Poindexter Propellerhead, Hobartimus, Shruti 123potter, RStrategies, Afudge, StaticGull, Princeboy,
Nn123645, Pinkadelica, Liz-ldavis, Escape Orbit, Mrfebruary, Ocdcntx, ClueBot, Mariordo, Andr Neves, GorillaWarfare, The Thing
That Should Not Be, Keeper76, Zirrio, Unbuttered Parsnip, Wysprgr2005, Arakunem, Franamax, Idleloop~enwiki, Boing! said Zebedee,
AirdishStraus, Niceguyedc, Blanchardb, Yaki-gaijin, OziBattler, CallidoraBlack, Excirial, Eeekster, Dcpc0807, Abrech, Lartoven, Trevor
Fields, Sun Creator, Niewiem33, Promethean, Dekisugi, The Red, ChrisHodgesUK, Environnement2100, Kakofonous, Eurogy, Thingg,
7, Motoroladigital, Versus22, Callinus, NJGW, Mythdon, Miami33139, Supermatique, Crazy Boris with a red beard, XLinkBot, AgnosticPreachersKid, Spitre, Ninja247, Wikinaut11, R Stillwater, Nepenthes, Avoided, Frood, Benboy00, Dfoxvog, HexaChord, NaturalGasMan, Addbot, Proofreader77, Speer320, Willking1979, Some jerk on the Internet, Jojhutton, Penuin, Betterusername, Ocdnctx, Libtwo.su,
Yo2009, Dszubie, Fieldday-sunday, Laurinavicius, Moosehadley, CanadianLinuxUser, PGHGEOLOGIST, MrOllie, Download, Bhavpreet
says hi, Tent405, Kyle1278, Quercus solaris, Redcrane, Anmapenn, Energtek, Numbo3-bot, Ehrenkater, Squirill15, Tide rolls, Lightbot,
Krano, Teles, Genius101, Ben Ben, Luckas-bot, Yobot, 2D, Fraggle81, TaBOT-zerem, Vman404, Cm001, Brougham96, Eric-Wester,
AnomieBOT, Andrewrp, KDS4444, Glen Dillon, 1exec1, New guy2008, Jim1138, IRP, Dwayne, Piano non troppo, Kingpin13, Kpulliam, Bluerasberry, Dblord, Materialscientist, SusanRummers, Maartenvr22, Vince55555, The High Fin Sperm Whale, A123a, LKKB,

14.2

Images

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Bmcintur, Ado2102, Maxis ftw, JohnnyB256, GB fan, ArthurBot, LovesMacs, LilHelpa, Lobtutu, Zariquiegui, Obersachsebot, Xqbot,
NSK Nikolaos S. Karastathis, Capricorn42, TracyMcClark, Learner505, 21AUSTIN21, Grim23, The Evil IP address, BritishWatcher,
J JMesserly, Recholes, GrouchoBot, Nathan of Gaza, RibotBOT, Amaury, Con-struct, The Wiki Octopus, Shadowjams, Samwb123,
A.amitkumar, Thehelpfulbot, Leblbren796, Ispdrudge, Sko1221, FrescoBot, Darkskynet, Dogposter, Peterbmoorman, HJ Mitchell,
Rkr1991, Neilbester, DivineAlpha, Moza Al, Citation bot 1, DigbyDalton, Biker Biker, Keegankeegan, Pinethicket, I dream of horses,
Edderso, 10metreh, Hamalsudip, A8UDI, Serols, , Francis Lima, EdoDodo, SkyMachine, Arjiebarjie, Vrenator, Zvn, Lmp883, MrX,
Lovegurulinks, Reaper Eternal, Jerd10, RobertMfromLI, DARTH SIDIOUS 2, Onel5969, Man50mans, Ford19Wiki57, Between My
Ken, Beyond My Ken, EmausBot, Santamoly, WikitanvirBot, Sparks1911, Gfoley4, Ajraddatz, Mordgier, GoingBatty, RA0808, Hemukwt,
Gheadgordon, Tommy2010, Wikipelli, Dcirovic, K6ka, Lucas Thoms, ZroBot, Caballo Loco, Josve05a, Shuipzv3, Timmytoddler, LightningTheFox, Jonathansammy, Kilopi, Lldenke, Wayne Slam, Tolly4bolly, Crazybox1, Hamiltha, WhaleChisolm, Donner60, VictorianMutant, X937, Michael-Zero, DASHBotAV, Rocketrod1960, Cgt, Will Beback Auto, ClueBot NG, Gareth Grith-Jones, Mastakiller13,
C4100, Xxmastakiller13xX, This lousy T-shirt, Catlemur, Baseball Watcher, Vacation9, Sarah91196, Hindustanilanguage, O.Koslowski,
Widr, Morgan Riley, Dougmcdonell, Itbach, Helpful Pixie Bot, Novusuna, JohnSRoberts99, L5gcw0b, Sanjay25, Calabe1992, BG19bot,
Aejgibson, Nen, MusikAnimal, AvocatoBot, J991, MrsEcoGreen, Mark Arsten, AdamTReineke, Silvrous, AdventurousSquirrel, Joydeep,
Snow Blizzard, Glacialfox, Bjenkins11, Tbismonte0127, Achowat, Wannabemodel, Kimfreeman, Haricophile, B.Andersohn, EricEnfermero, BattyBot, M k amin, Globe Trekker, EnergeticsAnalyst, Tuwa, Amandamal, Cerulean19, Tonyxc600, Fox starsh, GentlemAndScholar, EuroCarGT, MadGuy7023, Ugotbeefson, FoCuSandLeArN, Cwobeel, Seyedsalehi, Spray787, Lugia2453, Frosty, SFK2, Kleptopigstar, Jamesx12345, CaptainEntropy, Sriharsh1234, Vatsal4592, Joeinwiki, Hayhayrocks2012, Betweenspace, Hayther, BreakfastJr,
MilleniaAzure, Eyesnore, LaurentianShield, Boysuperstar1, Zac1199, Btmaxted, DavidLeighEllis, Pi3.124, Comp.arch, Ugog Nizdast,
McMunMasterX, Presuae, Achmad Fahri, Jianhui67, PierreFG5, Pa5tabear, 7yphoid, Bubba58, Mcstud99, JaconaFrere, Jadlerstein,
Talteori, 22merlin, Crossswords, Karenluo87, Dbsseven, Gothgirlblack62, Fotr04, Xoegki, Chimpoo64, Scarlettail, El Kaput, Randy Glad,
JWood13, Liance, Jonathan I Welch, Jjbowdish, Tjhlax, NickEastwood, DN-boards1, Saschmidgall, Khalnayak7, Tharney1234, KasparBot,
Extremelegitimacy, Qjmalecki, Coal man 24, KSFT, ParksandGs, Chevvin, Monica agrahara hanumaiah, Boilingorangejuice, Jesun.p, Viapek, Juans natural gas, Queencool987, Rebeccahdowen7, Awalsh621, Karrielucaselah, Grace.8124, Goosebumps 2003 and Anonymous:
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File:Ambox_globe_content.svg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/b/bd/Ambox_globe_content.svg License:

Public domain Contributors: Own work, using File:Information icon3.svg and File:Earth clip art.svg Original artist: penubag
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File:Fire_engines_in_Kiev,_Ukraine.JPG Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/9/9a/Fire_engines_in_Kiev%
2C_Ukraine.JPG License: CC BY 3.0 Contributors: 20100815_pozhezha Original artist: ANT Berezhnyi
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ngresources.html Original artist: US Energy Information Administration
File:Gas_Production_Top_5_Countries.png Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/d/de/Gas_Production_Top_
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does not exist)'>talk</a>) 16:45, 18 November 2009 (UTC)
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Mbeychok.
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License: Public domain Contributors: ? Original artist: ?
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Comparison.png License: Public domain Contributors: http://www.eia.gov/todayinenergy/detail.cfm?id=3310 Original artist: US Energy
Information Administration
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TEXT AND IMAGE SOURCES, CONTRIBUTORS, AND LICENSES

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Inspired from Developpement durable.jpg Original artist:
original: Johann Dro (talk contribs)
File:US_Natural_Gas_Production.svg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/9/9a/US_Natural_Gas_Production.
svg License: CC BY-SA 3.0 Contributors: http://tonto.eia.gov/dnav/ng/hist/n9050us2a.htm Original artist: Own work
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Contributors: Own work (Original text: self=made) Original artist: Photo taken by Adam E. Moreira (AEMoreira042281)
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-_Natural_Gas_Production_of_Countries.png License: CC0 Contributors: Own work Original artist: Maurice07

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