Generalized Coordinates

Apply constraints: L = 1
m(`2 2 ) mg` cos
2

State of physical system, encodes constraints

Number of Degrees of Freedom = min num of coords
needed = total num of coords - num constraints
ex: {, }

Calculus of Variation
Z

L=

Conservation
Three levels of conservation:
= 0 L
= cons
1) cyclic variables: L
q
q

f (q, q,
. . . , x)dx
x1

Stationarized when Euler-Lag eqns satisfied (1st or

2nd variation)
f
qj

d f
dx qj

= 0,

dx

qj

!
=0

qj

Examples: geodesics, Brachistochrone, surface of

revolution
Strategy: Formulate an integral quantity, obtain EL
eqns, solve (coupled) ODEs

Constraints
Limits the solns. Can set the coordinates at the
beginning (reduce DoF) or use Lagrange Multipliers.
If g(x, y11 , y21 , . . . ) = 0 7 f f + g
If g is global is a const, if g is local is a
funct.
Lagrange Multipliers,
L
q

d L
dt q

k (t)

fk

X L

j = cons

X L
q

j g = cons

0
q
~ = ~
v + ~
q ,

=0

q L)t

d L
dt qj

= 0,

L
t

d
dt

E =

qj

qj

L=

=0

L=
Cyclic in

1 m|~
Free particle: L = 2
v |2
2
Harm. Osc: L = 1
m|~
v
|
+ 1
k|~
x|2
2
2
1 m|~
k
Kepler: L = 2
v |2 + |~
x|

T =

1
2

m|~
v| ,

1
2

E = r

+ q( +

I , (I =

1
2

1~
v
c

~
A)

mr )

1 k|~
~
Various potentials: mgy, q( +
A),
x|2
2
Choosing coords consider: inherent symmetry and
constraints
T = 1
m(x 2 + y 2 + z 2 ) = 1
m( 2 + 2 2 + z 2 ) =
2
2
1 m(r 2 + r 2 2 + r 2 sin2
2)
2
Big from small:

E =

L
qj

L
r
1
2

1
2

L=

Vef f =

`2
2mr 2

2
1
2

1
2

(r + r ) +

~ ~
m|~
u+
r | Urot (~
x)
1
2

~ ~
m|
r | Urot (~
x)
U
~
r

~rotation =
~ I
~
T

k
r

1) Orbits are ellipses (closed)

p
2) Period, T = 2 a3 /GM , a is semi-major axis
3) Bound & free orbits (circles, ellipses, parabolic,
hyperbolic)

~ +
~ ~
~
vj = ~
x = R
ri

~ is rotation of pieces rel. to CoM and

~ is
where
rotation.
L=

mj |~
vj | U (~
x1 , ~
x2 , . . . )

1
~ I
~ U
~ +
MR
2
2
P
Total mass: M =
j mj
~ = 1 P m ~
Center of Mass: R
r

M
Moment of inertia:
X
X 2
Iij
m (ij
x,k x,i x,j )

where ~
a is vector between rotation point of I to I 0 .
Strategy: Choose convenient origin & compute, shift
to CoM, diagonalize

Rigid Bodies

X 1

( 0

I = I + M (|~
a|2 1 ~
a~
a)
0
= Iij + M (|~
a|2 ij ai aj )
Iij

1
2

Moment of inertia

k = GmM

2 2

Parallel Axis Thm

, like spherical coords giving orientation of e

3
how far around e
3
Free Symmetric Top:

1st term: Coriolis force, 2nd: centrifugal force

~ +~
~
xj = R
rj ,
,

Spherical tops: I1 = I2 = I3
Symmetric tops: I1 = I2 6= I3
Asymmetric tops: I1 6= I2 6= I3

Euler Angles

m|~
u+~
g t|

~ ~
m|~
u| + m~
u (
r) +

+U

but restrict to plane and set origin of frame on CoM,

L=

Types of Tops

~ ~
~ (~
~
mu
~ = 2m(
r ) + m[~
r
r )]

1
k
~ 2 + (r 2 + r 2 2 + r 2 sin2 2 ) +
L = MR
2
2
r

M1 M2
M1 + M2

~
x=~
r+

m|~
x | Uint (~
x) =

L = L1 + L2 + (L12 )

L
1
2
2 2
L = m(r + r ) + U

2

mr + Vef f ,

mj (1rj ~
r~
r)

I1 , 0, 0

Principle Moments & Axes I = 0, I2 , 0 in

0, 0, I3
{
e1 , e
2 , e
3 } where I1,2,3 and the principle moments.

1
1
2
2
2
m|~
u| + m~
u~
g t + m|~
g t| = m|~
u| + m~
u~
gt
2
2
2
as we can drop the last term in the Lagrangian.
If frame is in free fall, can ignore any terms of gravity
in the final Lagrangian (can be represented as total
time derivatives).
~ ~
Rotating frame: ~
x = u
~ +
r where u
~ is velocity in
~ is the angular rotation of frame, and ~
rot frame,
r is
position in the rot frame.

L=

= ` (ang. mom.)

m|~
v|

X
j

2
2 2
m(r + r ) U (~
r)

U =

X 2
xk xi xj )d
k

I =

~
r=~
x2 ~
x1

m|~
v | U (~
r)

Kepler

1~
v
c

L(t, q1 , q2 , q1 , q2 ) =
L1 (t, q1 , q1 ) + L2 (t, q2 , q2 ) + L12 (t, q1 , q2 )
Strategy: Write down all kin/pot energy terms
(L = T U ), apply constraints
Examples: pendulum
1 m( 2 + 2 2 ) mgy
Write all terms: L = 2

1 2
~
gt
2
For a free particle Lagrangian in a linearly
accelerating frame,

All motion is planar = /2, = 0

Common Lagrangians

(~
r )(ij

Non-inertial frames tend to induce fictitious forces

(centrifugal, Coriolis) as a result of the frame
accelerating.
Strategy: Write everything in inertial frame,
transform/boost to non-inertial frame, throw away
f
terms d
dt
Linearly accelerating frame: where v, x are in inertial
frame, u, r are in non-inertial frame and g is the
acceleration of the frame.

Orbits & Central Potentials

qj

qj L

Rotation symm angular momenta conserved

L=T U

Particle in EM field: L =

j = cons

Translation symm canonical momenta conserved

pj =

Uniqueness of Lagrangian
f
L0 = L + d
same EL eqns
dt

1 m|~
v |2
2

X L

t1

M1 ~
x1 + M2 ~
x2

L=

f (q, q,
. . . , t)dt

S is the action, L is the Lagrangian. We want to

stationarize the path of S. Use Euler-Lagrange eqns.

1
2
~ 2 + |~
M |R|
r | U (r)
2
2
1st term is free particle, 2nd/3rd for 1D central
potential
L=

No time dependence energy conserved

Z t2

qj

Iij =

m|~
v2 | U (|~
x1 ~
x2 |)

~
v=u
~ +~
g t,

Hamiltons Principle
S =

t = t + t

Noethers Theorem shows that if L is invariant under

the above shift, then
(

Or equivalently add to the Lagrangian each

constraint, g, where g is a constraint function that
equals zero. Now, take EL eqns with respect to all
coords and all Lagrange Multipliers.

Non-Inertial Reference Frames

More on Noethers
Small/continuous shifts in coordinates (no reflection,
etc - must be continuous),
q
~ =q
~ + ~
q ,

m|~
v1 | +

M = M1 + M2 ,

3) Extended Noethers Thm If

L(qj + j ) L(qj ) =  dg
dt

~ = CoM =
R

2) Noethers Thm (continuous translation):

If L is invariant under qj = qj + j to linear order,

x2

S =

2 Body 1 Body

~ I
~ =

I1 ( sin + ) +

1
2

I3 ( + )

One Fixed End Symmetric Top:

L=

1
2

(M R + I1 )( sin + ) +

1
2

I3 ( cos + )

Spherical Top:
1
2

~ I
~ =

1
2

I( + )

Precession
Regular About CoM, no forces, angular
momentum fixed but not angular velocity.
pr = = I` , precession
1

, spin
3 = = ` cos
I3

Oscillations
1
2
2
m|~
x | kx
2
2
Can perturb around a known solution, so
 !
1 2U 
2

L = L0
~
x 1

2 ~
x2 ~
x0
L=

= k~
Eq. of Motion: m~
x
x
~ cos(t) + B
~ sin(t) = A
~ 0 cos t +
~
x=A
00 it
00 it
~
~
=A e
+B e
where 2 = k/m

Free Coupled Harm Osc.

L=

X
1
(mij ~
x i ~
x j kij ~
xi ~
xj )
2
ij

~
~
M X
= K X
1

Strategy: Diagonalize M
K , get eigenvalues and
eigenvectors,
solve 1D harm osc, combine
P
~
x=
ej
j [Aj cos(j t) + . . . ]
Stability:
2
> 0 stable, will oscillate
2 < 0 unstable, exponential growth

Hamiltons Equations
Identical physics to Lagrangian.
canonical momentum
p = L
q

H
p

2
1

sin x =

cos x =

dS = pdq Hdt = Ldt

S

H =

p q

p=

p
Z

Phase space: 2ND space spanned by {q, p}

Known Moments of Inertia

Solid cylinder, symm axis: I = 1
M R2
2
2
Hoop, symm axis: I = M R
Solid sphere: I = 2
M R2
5
Rod, about center: I =

1 M L2
12
2

2 MR
Spherical shell: I = 3

Misc Matrix/Vector
M

MM

2
` = mr = ~
rp
~ = m(~
r~
v)

1x
e

=1+x+

x2

x2
2!
x3

sin x = x

3!

x3

2!

x4

4!
x5

+
x3
3

5!

x4

3!

~ = U
F

b2 4ac

= 1 + x + x + x ...

ln 1 + x = x

2a

b
a

where vj is the eigenvector to the eigenvalue j

arctan x = x
b

cos (x)

= sin

(x)

dx

Z
(x),

Rigid Body (find I ): use defn of Iij to find all

elements (note, Iij = Iji ). If not already
diagonalized (principle moments/axes), then two
equivalent options: Gauss-Jordan elimination (long
and drawn out) or (much better option) find the
eigenvalues of I . The eigenvalues are I1 , I2 , I3 the
principle moments of inertia. To find principle axes,
1

x2 1

= cosh

(x)

dx

= tan

Z
(x),

1 +  cos

dx

1 x2

d = p

= tanh

(x)

2
1 2

Trig Identities

=1

A vj j vj = (A j 1)vj = 0

Quadratic formula:
x=

Eigenvalues: Av v = 0 A 1 = 0
Eigenvectors (after finding ):

`k = m(ri vj rj vi )

= sinh

For 2 2 matrix,



1
a
b
d
1
, M
=
M =
c
d
|M | c

cos x = 1

Angular momentum,

1 x2

sin (x)

Inverse matrix (for couple harm. osc.),

Misc

Force-potential relation,
Z
~ d~
U =
F
r,

dx

Random integral,
Z 2

~ 2 = r 2 + r 2 2 + r 2 sin2 2
R

Taylor Series

1 M L2
Rod, one end: I = 3

Mass on massless rod (pivot other end): I = M R2

Moments of inertia add, as long as on same axis
Simple parallel axis thm: I + M d2

1 + x2

1 + x2

Velocity in spherical/cylindrical,

Liouvilles Thm: dqdp = dQdP , in particular

evolution with F (q, Q, t) = S(q, t) S(Q, t + T )

dx

Non-inertial reference frames: Start with the

Lagrangian in the inertial frame and develop the
corresponding velocity/position expression in the new
reference frame (see section above) and sub into
Lagrangian. Drop any terms that are constant or can
be written as a total time derivative.

x = r cos , y = r sin , z = z

Spherical,

d~
` = dr
r + rd + r sin d

H (Q, P ) = H(q, p) +

(q, P, t)

P =

cos x

(9 sin x + sin(3x))

cos x sin x =

Cylindrical,

12

Misc Coordinate

d~
` = dr
r + rd + dz z

12
1

sin x cos x =
Z

1
2

(9 cos x + cos(3x))

= , = , =

x = r sin cos , y = r sin sin , z = r cos

Canonical trans: {p, q} {P, Q}

Generating functions
F (q, Q, t),

cos x =

p q

Canonical Transformation

sin x =

B A

{A, k} = 0 k is conserved, {A, {B, C}} + cyclic

permutations = 0, additive, inverse is negative.
In terms of Hamiltonian, if f (q, p) (aka no t dep)
df
= {H, f } = 0 and f is conserved
dt

(x + sin x cos x)

sin x cos x =

Z
A B

(x sin x cos x)

Poisson Brackets defn and properties

{A, B} =

Orbits & Central Pot: Write down Lagrangian in

equatorial plane, find a conserved angular
momentum. Find the energy (time in independent)
and rewrite one term in terms of the conserved
quantity and this plus the original U is the Veff .
Sketch this potential - for free orbits will never touch
a part of the line, for unbound will only touch one or
none; for bound must touch two and oscillate
between; if goes to at r = 0 it will be consumed.

tan x = ln | sec x|

Action and Hamiltonian,

p=

vu

p =

uv = uv

{q, p} canonically conjugate coords (c.f. {q, q})

Hamiltonian,
H(q, p) = pq L

q =

and equals zero (if radius and height are equal,

g = h r = 0, so with Lag Mult add (h r) to
Lagrangian. Take EL eqns to all coordinates and all
Lagrangian Multipliers, solve for s and input into
other ELs until find a eqn of motion.

Integrals

4!
...

...

3
+

x5
5

Binomial expansion,

(1 + x)

...

1 + x

x4
4

...

...

Finding Eigenfreq/modes of System (coupled osc,

LRC circuits): start by determining the Lagrangian
and finding the eqns of motion/Kirchoff eqns. Put
this in matrix form, assume that the motion is
harmonic (q = Aet , q = 2 q). Plugging this in, can
distribute the 2 through the 2nd derivative matrix,
and now have same vectors on both sides (able to
divide out). Will now have two matrices that need to
equal each other, so subtract and find that causes
the results matrix determinant to be zero
(eigenvalues). M q
= K q 2 M q = K q
2

M =K

det | M K| = 0

sin(u) = sin(u), cos(u) = cos(u)

sin(u v) = sin u cos v cos u sin v
cos(u v) = cos u cos v sin u sin v
sin(2u) = 2 sin u cos u, cos(2u) = cos2 u sin2 u

Find the eigenvalues, i as well as

p the eigenvectors
~
ei . The eigenfrequencies is i = i and the
eigenmodes are the eigenvectors.
Way from notes, but dont understand: Find the

Worked Examples

matrices that are M and K or at least look like them.

Calculus of Variation (Brachistochrome and

Caternary): start by writing
R an integral
R for the thing
we want to minimize (t = ds/v, U = gyd`). Now
rewrite the differential term
in
a
way
the
breaks it up
p
p
into components (ds = dy 2 + dx2 = dy 1 + x02 )
and has spatial derivatives. Now use E-L Eqns
(either 1st or 2nd form, whichever has one term
cancel to zero). Rearrange for the primed value on
one side, in terms of
pthe other value on the other
(x0 = dx/dy = ky/ 1 k2 y 2 ). Solve the integral to
get an expression, use IC and BC to get constants.
Write Down Lagrangian: start by seeing what things
are moving, write a general Lagrangian for each
(remember any potentials). Work out the constraints,
inputting them into the Lagrangian. Drop any
constants.
NOTE: If using small angle approx, put that in the
Lagrangian first (being careful to keep signs) and any
throw out any constant values or terms of O(q 3 ),
including q 2 q,
q q 2 and such.
Lagrange Multipliers: start out by writing the most
general Lagrangian in proper coords, with no
constraints added in. Add to the Lagrangian a Lag
Mult times a function that encodes the constraint

Compute M

K.

Finding Hamiltonian (knowing Lagrangian): use defn

to find canonical momenta, rewrite all qj in terms of
pj s. Should only be a function of {q, p}