Professional Documents
Culture Documents
OF PLUMBING ENGINEERING
HISTORY OF PLUMBING
The history of plumbing has special significance to all who arc involved
in the design and installation of plumbing systems. It provides depth
of knowledge, broad objectivity, helpful guidance, needed cautions, and
informative records of plumbing performance and adverse experiences.
Recognition of past mistakes and learning from them provides an elevated basis for plumbing system design and installation.
The progressive development of sanitary standards in America
evolved from very primitive and rude beginnings. Intolerable health
conditions and epidemics of waterborne diseases caused strong health
protection measures to be adopted in highly populated metropolitan
areas. Extcnsive disastrous tires in congested city rcgions led to construction of large public waterworks sy~lems used for both fire-fighting purposes and for potable water supply to buildings.
Introduction of plumbing systems in buildings brought with it unique
problems related to public health, personal hygiene, building design,
plumbing- materials, advanced techniques, and governmental regulations. As these problems evolved during a revolutionary period of industry, the solutions den'loped were intimately related to new materials,
methods, standards, and standardization.
HislOry provides a clear record of many mi~lakes, bad practices,
shoddy materials, and insanitary installations which were made in the
introduction of plumbing systems into buildings. In each case, appropriale corrections had to be made and precautions prescribed for the future.
Performance required of building plumbing systems gradually became
a recognized subject, and a long list of plumbing principle~ was developed and published. The broad performance objective is to provide
reasonable safeguards for sanitation in and adjacent to buildings to protect the public heahh, safety, and welfare against the hazards of inadequate or insanitary plumbing installations.
ANCIENT PLUMBING
In ancient tImes, plumbing and sanitation wen: not alwavs pnmltive.
Human beings elevated them to significant levels in past ages. HislOry
reveals that one of lhe hmdamental diHerences between civilization and
barbarism is related tu the imtallation of piping systems for providing
an adequate, pressurized supply of safe drinking water, sanitary disposal
of sewag-e, and efficient, unobjectionahle disposal of storm water. This
is evidenced by the fad that those peoples who enjoyed high ('ivili/.ations
in the past had developed plumbing- systems for protening healrh.
Confirmation un this matter is provided in the reports of discoveries
by archeologists while dig-g-ing in various parts of the world where ancient
civilizations were known to have Hourished. For example, the ruim of
a plumhing svstem estimated to be from 3000 to {iOOO years old were
{(lUnd in excavations in the Indus River valley in India. In Egypt, sections
of copper waler pipe estimated to he about .1500 years old were unearthed along with palace apartments in which each bedroom apparently
bad btTH provided with a !>;lthroom.
In the ancient empire of Balwlonia, a nation centered in lhe general
area between the Euphrates and the Tigris Rivers, the science ofhydraulie engineering- seems to have had its beginning. A nctwork of canals,
all skillfully planncd <llld regulated, covered the area. Large brick draillag-e sewers with access holes were imtalled in Babylon. Greek writers
told of the I Ianging- Gardens of B;lhylon; from this, il fIlay be inferred
that some means for pumping water to considerahle heights had been
developed at thaI time.
From Babylonia came [he Hammurabi Code, a code onaws regulating
business <lTl{l cmlOffi. Il is reported to have been drawn up prob;lbly
by Shulgi, second king- o!" the third tTr dynasty, in the period between
2400 and 21~0 II.C. Included in this code were regulations governing
the construction ofbuTidillgs. This period evidently was a vcry !()fmative
one In the organization o!" society and the progress of civilizalion in
Bab~lonia.
bonic plague swept the continent and England reponedly killed 25 million people. To improve sanitary conditions in Paris in 1395, the
authorities ordered a stop to the practice of throwing sewage out of
building windows onto the streets below. But this was a common practice
that continued unabated in other cities.
As late as the <-'ady part of the eighteenth century, European cities
had not been equipped with sanitary sewage disposal hl.Cilities. The mortality rate in many (:lties eXC('eded the birth rate. When building owners
were ordered to install domestic sewage vaults, considerable opposition
was raised. It was not until the latter part of the eighteenth and early
part of the nineteenth centuries that European cities started to provide
public sewer systems beneath city streets. Slowly people began to use
the convenient public sewer facilities for the disposal of sewage from
buildings and to develop progressively higher sanitary standards.
action and led to developments of great significance and benefit. Peopkbecame aware of the ne(:essity for having an adequate pre,surized water
supply system readily and constantly available for fire lighting in builtup areas. They also realized that there was great need, both as a sanitary
measure and as a laborsaving convenieIKe. fur having an adequate pressurized water supply system from which sale drinking water could be
piped directly to buildings. Soon after the fire, plans were proje(:ted
for providing a large public water supply system which would satisfy
both of these Il('eds.
This p[(~ject was completed seven years later, in 1842, at whidl time
the original Croton Aqueduct System was placed in operation. In this
system, water from th(' Croton River was collected in Croton Reservoir,
40 mi north urthe city, and supplied tlu:,refrulll through ,m und(,rground
piping system to two distribution resel"\'oiL~ in the city, one at42d Street
and another in Central Park. From these reservoirs, water was di~tributed
through a system of cast-iron water mains installed underground in city
streels, and fire hydrants were installed on ~idewalks at appropriate locations along the curb. Building owners were permitted to have water
service connections made to the public main, and water service piping
extended therefrom to supply laucets or hydrants in building cellars
or yards. At that time, the population of the city of ;'\Jew York was about
:~OO,OOO.
for Hushing fixtures and also could safely and efliciendy dispose of sewage and other wastes from buildings. Extensions were built on many
homes specifically to provide bathrooms at the upper stories of existing
buildings. Lavatories, bathtubs, and water closets were installed in these
extension bathrooms, many of which were also provided with heating
equipment. Double doors were placed in passageways between extension
bathrooms and the main building in order to prevent bathroom odors
and sewer gases from entering the living quarters.
Dire(:tly f()llowing the Civil War, immigration swelled the populations
of industrial cities in the eastern part of the country. In many cities,
rows of attached three- and lour-story tenement houses were built to
take care of the additional population. These buildings were provided
just with yard hydrants for drinking water supply, while toilet facilities
consisted of rows of privies built above watertight privy vaults located
in the backyards of the buildings. Extremely objectionable, unsanitary
nmditions soon devt'loped under such circumstances. Health authorities
had to take stringent action to hah the spread of dise'lse. To protect
the health of building OCCUp'lnts, the public was alerted to the necessity
of equipping buildings with 'ldequate means for supplying safe drinking
water for domestic purposes and with adqu'lle facilities for sanitary dispos'll of sewage. Health amhorites advocated the installation of plumhing
systems in buildings, and as 'l result this became a subject of re!!;ulation
in sanit'lry codes.
In the early I H70s, water-supplied kitchen sinks came into general
use in private homes and other small buildings. Fireboxes of coal-tired
kitchen ranges were equipped with water backs and water fronts, and
circulation piping was installed between these water-heating units and
hot water storage t'lnks so as to make pressurized hot water available
in volume at Jixtures. The use of outdoor privies and privy vaults for
private homes was discontinued gradually 'lS indoor water dosets, directly connected to building drains, were installed in toilet rooms an:essihie from backyards.
A major stymie to more rapid introduction of plumbing systems in
buildings was the fact thaI, as latc as I H74, no way was known for preventing fixture trap seals from being lost because of siphonage and backpressure conditions in the drainage systern. Where fixture trap seals
were lost, objectionable odors and sewer gases escap<-'d Irom the system
at fixture outlets and f"{mIed the atmospher<-' of rooms in buildings. A
significant instance of this occurred when a plumbing system was installed in a large new private dwelling in New York City in 1874. Soon
'lfter occupying the building, the owner complained to the plumbing
contractor that the sten<-h of sewer gas from fixtures in the building
was unbearable.
10
III
11
the laner part of the decade. This period was devoted principally to
the correction and modernization of plumbing systems and equipment
in existing buildings. Many buildings with inadequate plumbing facilities
were improved by the installation of additional, new plumbing fiX{lJres
and the replacement of old, obsolete types. lmportantcorrenions were
made in the potable water supply systems of huildings to diminate all
water supply piping connections and fixture supply connections which
were recognized as potential sources of contamination. This drive for
correction of systems was led by health, water supply, and building of~
ficals so as to avoid a repetition of the amoebic dysentery epidemic
which occurred in the city of Chicago during its World's Fair in 1933.
Other imponam improvements were made in the hot water supply sys~
terns in existing buildings. Many were equipped with modern, automatically controlled hot water heaters designed for use with gas, oil, or
electricity as the source of heat. During this period, the public utility
systems around the country extended their electric supply lines into a
great portion of the rural area. This provided a soun:e of power for
pumping water from wells and for supplying plumbing systems with
all the water needed to maimain the same sanitary standards that were
eI~oyed in the cities. Private sewage disposal systems were provided
by means of undergT(mnd septi(: tank and leaching field installations
in appropriate locations. In this way, modem sanitary plumbing systems
and fixtures became available even in remote regions of the country.
In the latter 1940s, following World War II, and continuing through
the 1950s, 1960s, and imo the 1970s, there was a tremendous expansion
of housing developments and industrial plant construction outside the
cemral areas of cities in the United States. New buildings were erected
along new principal highways, and public water, sewer, gas, and electric
systems were provided for building service needs in most areas. Private
systems were utilized in many areas where public systems were not available. All such buildings were equipped with modern plumbing systems
conforming to sanitary standards elevated to a higher level than ever
previously el~oyed by people. In the central areas of cities, many old
buildings were removed, and in their places large skyscraper office buildings and residential buildings were erected. They too were equipped
with modern plumbing systems designed in accordance with the higbest
sanitary standards in history in order [0 serve the gr~'atest occupancy
loads of all time.
Tower building LOllstruetiorl aCLelerated in the late 1950s and early
1960s, and necessitated changes in design to meet changing conditions.
Increased building heights and increased water usage, including water
for air conditioning, required water supply tanks so large that they caused
significant space problems and were uneconomical. To meet the chang-
FIXTURE DEVELOPMENT
The modern sink, laundry tray, lavatory, bathtub, water closet, and other
fixtures did not evolve overnight. Their development extended over a
period exceeding 130 years. Even after appropriate fixture designs were
achieved, public demand for them had to be stimulated. Expressions
such as "Cleanliness is next to Godlinl'ss," were adopted and popularized
to induce people to practil:e sanitary habits. Fixtures were sold more
14
iron sink was of the rectangular flat-rim type and was installed on a
supporting wooden frame or was placed against the wall with the rear
rim resting on a wall cleat while tbe front was supported from the Aoor
by means of two cast-iron legs inserted into slots on the front of the
sink. Often a cast-iron splash back was fastened to the wall above the
rear rim of the sink. A single hole was provided in the center of the
.~plash back so as to permit a faucet to be connected there and firmly
fastened above the sink. Later models of splash backs were provided
with two holes to permit installation of both hot and cold water faucets.
Early lavatory installations evolved from the old wooden w<lshst<lnd
and pottery toilet set. A gl<lzed pottery w<lshbasin, either round or oval
ill shape, was installed beneath a large opening in a marble slab and
all<lched to the underside of the slab bv me<lIlS of bolts. Holes wen"
drilled through the slab to permit long-shank IdllcetS 10 be att<lched
{hereto with spouts project inp; <lbo\'(' the basin. An opening in the botlom
of the basin was equipped with a waste plug outlet filling for direct
connection to Ihe drainage piping system. The joint between the top
of the basin and underside of the nwrblc slab was sealed bv, means of
plaster of p<lris. lhuatly the marhle slab and washbasin assembly was
installed against a wat! and supported by wooden framework. Drip trays
ohen were installed 011 the Hoor beneath washbasins beGlUse of the
incidence of leakage dcvelopment at the plaster joint between basin
and slab.
One early improvement in washbasin design was the provision of
an overflow lining on Ihe side of the bowl so that an overflow pipe
could be imtalled between the overflow fitting and the dram just below
the waste-om let plug. This was followed by another improvement, an
integral overHow built into one side 01 the glazed pottery washba~ill.
The first of the early water closets was known as the l!ah'e rlose!. It
was devdoped by Joseph Hramah, an English inventor, about l7H8.
As the original model did not work too welt, it \\'as improved later by
the addition of a Hushing rim. The deep bowl of this do~et was flushed
and relilled with water by means of a valve controlled by an air cylinder
adjusted in anordance with the water pressure provided by a Bramah
pump. This type of water closet was used for many years in toilet {'(Impartments of railroad cal~.
About lR:13, the pan doset <lppeared on the scene, after having origiluted in England. This type of water closet soon gained prd(:rence,
as it was much cheaper than the Bramah valve closet, and continued
to be in common ust.' for more than 40 years. The pan closet consisted
of a deep lead bowl with a hinged copper pan that held water in the
bowl to form a water seal. The hinged pan was dumped by means of
a hand crank. The bowl was Hushed hy manual operation of a valve in
16
18
the fixture and between the !LxLUre and the adjacent wall. As a result,
many free-standing bathtubs ""'ere later proYidcd with cast-iron bases,
rather than short cast-iron legs, m order to keep the floor under the
bathtub dean.
By 1900, American pOllery manufaclIlrers had developed glazed vitreous chinaware with smooth, impervious surfaces. Tbis materi<ll was so
well suited to plumbing fixtures that it became a stand<lrd for water
closet bowls and was preferred by many individuals for various other
fixtures. In view of this, lllallY plumbing-fixture manufacturing firms
combined so as to unite the arts of pottery, founding, and enameling
under single firms.
Bathtubs, sinks, wash trays, and lavatories made of glazed terra cotta
were 1JI,lTlufanured and proved popular for a time. These sinks, washtrays, and lavatories were relatively heavy and had to be provided with
sturdy legs or bases lor support. The bathtubs were designed to be
built mto wall and floor constructioIl, a feature which was hailed as an
advance of considerable merit from a sanitary view. The popularity of
these terra cotta IixHlres gradually diminished with the development
of similar designs in enameled cast iron, whidl were lighter and more
economical. However, fixtures made of g1<lzed vitreous (:hina continued
to (:ompete in terms 01" weight and (ost with those made of enameled
cast Iron.
The beginning of the twentieth century saw the development of the
water doset as we know it today. \Vater closets designed for wal1hung installation appeared ahout 1905. In 1915, manufacturers introduced the lowdown Hush tank and water closet as a combination unit.
consisting of a Hoor-outlet type washdown water closet and a porcelain
flush tank designed for installation on the wall just above the top of
the water closet. From 1916 to 1920, other advances in water closet
desig-n included a reverse-trap model and the use of siphon jets for
stronger siphoni{: <lction and a reduction of noise in operation.
During- th(' 1920s, improved design features appeared, such as priming
jets in washdown~type and reverse trap water closets. increased surface
area of water in closet bowls, and hlrther reduction of noise in operation.
One-piece water closet bowl and flush tank units were introduced in
the 1930s. They provided relatively silent operation owing (() a number
of design improvements, including the use or a quiet-action ball cock
in the flush tank compartment and a bowl design which produced rotary
ur vortex movement of water in the closet bowl sullicient to aHord adequate scouring action and complete siph<magt of the cOIltents of the
bowl.
Improvements have continued to be made in the design of water
cloS(,ts. The most recent has been the introduction in 1960 of a wall-
19
21
Table 1-1
STANDARDS FOR PLUMBING MATERIALS'
Materials
Siandards
SODrcet
A1I2.19.2-1973
AI12.19.1-1979
AI12.19.3-1976
AI12.19.4-1977
ANSI
ANSI
ANSI
ANSI
ZI24.1-1974
ANSI
ZI24.2-1974
AI97.2-1973
AI97.1-1973
AI97.3-1973
ANSI
ANSI
ANSI
ANSI
A1I2.11.3-1973
AI12.21.1-1974
ANSI
ANSI
A 112.18.1 M-1979
ANSI
WW-S-001913-1975
FS
AI12.6.1-1978
ANSI
AI12.5.1-1973
816.12-197\
ANSI
ANSI
301-75
310-78
CISPI
CISPI
A21.6-1975
ANSI
A21.8-1975
A21.12-1971
A2l.1O-1977
ANSI
ANSI
ANSI
A120-77
BI6.3-1971
ASTM
ANSI
BI6.14-1971
AI12.21.2-1971
ANSI
ANSI
22
Standards
Sourcet
AII2.14.1-1975
Al'\ST
WW-\'-58b-1971
WW-N-35IB(I)1970
\\'W -V-53! 0-1973
FS
1'S
B43-76
B135-74
B42-78
H26.2-76
BSS-7M
B306-78
ASTM
ASTM
ASTM
A:\SI
ASTM
AS1'M
BI6.15-78
BI6.18-78
A:\SI
A:\"ST
B 1t-1.2:i7ii
A'S!
BI6.24-71
A'SI
BI6.26-7.1)
A:"SI
B16.22-73
A'SI
BIG.29-73
W\V -P-:i25A-191:i7
W\V -lJ-516A-1967
WW-V-35B-1973
\VW-V -.'l4 D-1974
Ai'Sl
WW-V-.'lIE-1974
A II:! ,26.2-197.1)
FS
FS
FS
FS
FS
1'5
A),ISI
AST~I
C428-7H
C400-77
C508-76
A\V\VA
AS1'M
01861-73
AST~I
D2312-73
A$1'M
Materials
40
Plastic Hlsert fiLLings fur pulyethvkne
(PE) plastic pipe
Polyviml chluride (PVC) plastic pipe,
schedules 40, HO, and 120
Polyvin;.-l chloride (pVC) plaslic pipe fittings, socket type, schedule 40
Polyvinyl chloride (PVC) plastic drain,
waSle and vent pipe and fillings'
SohTnl cement II)r polYVlllvl chloride
(PVC) plastic pifJe <Iud fillings
Backflow prcvcntion deVICes:
Ail g<lpS ltl pllllllhing S\"stcms
Vacuum breakers, antisiphon
Vacuum breakers, hose nmneu]on
Vacuum breakers, prc%u!"c' typc
Doubk chcck wilh atmospheric vent
Reduced pressure pnnciple ba(:k presSlllT, hackflow preventer
Double check v<llve hack pressurc. hackHow assemblv
Standards
Sourcet
AI76.2-72
ANSI
AI 76..?-7 I
ANSI
AI06.H-7H
ANSI
C4~5-77
C14-78
ASTM
ASTM
01.?27-77
ASTM
D2468-76
ASTM
D2661-7H
ASTM
1J223.?-76a
ASTM
02104-74
ASTM
m60Y-74
ASTI\!
01785-76
ASTM
024667H
ASTi\f
1)2665-78
ASTM
D2.?64-71h
AST~I
AI 12.12-1979
AI12.I.l-1971
AI 12.1.:1-1976
AI 12.1.7-1976
1012-1971'\
ANSI
A;\JSI
ANSI
ANSI
ASSE
1013-1971
ASSE
IOI.''i-197R
ASSE
Materials
Standards
Miscellaneous materials:
Cleanom.~, metallic
Calkill~ lead, type I
Cement lining
Coal-tar enamel, protective coatlllgs for
steel water pipe
Fixture setling compound
Grease inteneptors
Hose damps
Hydrants for utility and maintenance use
Pipe hangers and supports
Rdiefvalves, pressure and temper<ltllre,
and automatic gas shutolr devices for
hot waler supply systems
Rubber gaskets for asbestos-cement pipe
Rubber gaskels for cast-iron soil pipe
and fittings
Rubber gaskets for concrete sewer pipe
Water hammer arresters
Water heaters, automatic storage type
\\later heaters, electric, storage lank
W<lter he<ltcrs, instantaneous
Water meters, cold, displacement type
Water meters, cold, current type
Water meters, cold, compound type
Sheet copper
Sheet le<ld, grade A
Soft solder
Sourcet
AI12.36.2
QQC-40(2}-1970
A21.4-1974
ANSI
FS
ANSI
C203-78
n"-p-OO 1536-1968
GIUI
WW-C-140B(2) 1973
Al 12.21.3-1976
WW-H-17ID-1970
AWWA
Z21.22-1979
Dl869-78
ANSI
ASTM
C564-76
C443-78
AI12.26.1-1975
Z21.10.1-1975
W\"l-H-196H-1971
WW-H-19IB-1970
C700-71
C701-70
C702-70
B152-76
QQL-20IF(2) 1970
QQS-571E-1972
ASTM
ASTM
ANSI
A:-JSI
FS
POI
FS
ANSI
FS
FS
FS
AWWA
AWWA
AWWA
ASTM
FS
FS
Sl~n<l~n.h h,wd in lhis lable an, lh,' latest ~,'ailable ~t publica,ion of ,hi, book A, stan<lard. arc
cnlSed ~nd updaled regularly, cefcrcnu' 10 standards m contracl specificalions should be made to
,he late" edilion in each e~,,,
,~ble to
",ulllg
org~o"~lIons:
AKSI
ASSE
A,n"ri~~n
ASTM
AWWA
CISI'I
I'D!
tI", f()lIo",ing
IlIunlln~,ing
Bltildi"g.
Ck,'d~nd.
OH 44 113,
S"ci",y foc T"sttng ,md Ma'<>cials, 1'tl6 Ran' S',",'"l, Philaddphia, PA 1'1103.
A,.">c;~';,,n.
6666 W
R<:o~dw~,'.
Am"rie~n
~nd
Qum~y
~.W ..
ROllle\'~rJ
Washington, DC 20405.
FS F"d"ral Supply Serv;ce, Standards Division. General Senic". Administration (standards are oblainabl., from lhe Supcnn'endent of Documents, Government Print;nR Office, WashinRtOn, DC 204(2).
Materials
Miscellaneous materials:
Cleanuuts, metallic
Calking lead, type 1
Cement lining
Coal-tar enamel, protective cuatings for
steel water pipe
Fixture setting compound
Grease intercepturs
Hose damps
Hydrants for utility and maintenance use
Pipe hangers and suppons
Rdiefvalves, pressure alld temperature,
and automatic gas shutoff devices lor
hot waler supply systems
Rubber gaskets for asbestos-cement pipe
Rubber gaskds for cast-iron soil pipe
and fillings
Rubber gaskets for concrcle sewer pipe
Water hammer arreSlers
Water healers, automatic storage type
Water healers, electric, storage tank
Water heaters, instantaneous
Water meters, cold, displacement type
Water meters, cold, current lype
Water meters, cold, compound type
Sheet copper
Sheet lead, grade A
Soft solder
Standards
Soured
A112,36.2
QQC-40(2}-1970
A21.4-1974
ANSI
FS
ANSI
C203-78
TI"-P-OO 1536-196H
G 101
WW-C-440B(2) 1973
.'\112.21.3-1976
WW-H-171D-1970
AWWA
Z21.22-1979
Dl86978
ANSI
ASTM
C564-76
C443-78
AI12.26.1-1975
Z21.10.1-1975
WW-11-19611-1971
WW-H-19IB-1970
C700-71
C701-70
C702-70
B152-76
QQL-20IF(2) 1970
QQS571E-1972
ASTM
ASTM
ANSI
A:.JSI
FS
POI
FS
ANSI
FS
FS
FS
AWWA
AWWA
AWWA
ASTM
FS
FS
Standards hsted In thi., t"bl<' arc the latest a"ailable at publication 01 tins book As 'tandards arc
revi,,,d and up,dmcd rel(Ularly. refcrcn'T to ,t1ndard' In conlra("( 'peuh.-"tion, ,hould h" made 10
the latcst edition in each case,
t Abbrc"i"'i",,, ,,'cd in lhis table tu irrdi""te the ,ourn' of "".-I, par' Kubr "an,L,rd rd"r 10 !he !"II"winl\
ISSUIllI\ o"galn,a"on"
~y
AKSI
ASSE
ASTM
AWWA
CIS!'I
P\)J
10018.
American Sueiet)' lorT"'hog "od Male'nab, 1911i Ibn' S'"'. Plnbddplll". PA 19103.
Am,";mn Water Works A"o";a,ion. 66li6 W Quiney A,'enue. Denyer. CO 110235,
Cast 11'00 Suil Pipe Institute. 2029 K Street. N.W .. Wasl!inl\ton. DC 20405,
tS Federal Supply S,'nl<"e. Standards Ilivision. General Se ...... ices ,\dm;nistr"t;on (standards are "b",;n"hie lrom the Superintend"n' of I'k>ntmeot'. Guyernment Pnnting Office. Washing",n, I)C 20402).
25
26
HISTORICAL DEVELOPMENT
or
PLUMClING ENGINEERING
27
The enanrnent of plumbing- system re~ulations in other densely populated cities of the countrv pr()(:eeded almost simultaneousl\" with those
put into dICct in New York City, as cited in the f()regoing discussion.
All m<Jjor cities adopted plumbing system regulations as part of their
sanitary codes, but V\'ashingtun, DC, in the 1870s, put its plumbing
regulations into a separate code, which became known as the first
plumbing (:ode in thc nation.
:\1any ("ilits followed the example ofWashiIlgton, DC, and established
separate plumhing codes. States began to authorize the establishment
of examining boards of plumbers in cities and to empower such boards
to write plumbing regulations in cooperation with local health boards.
As plumbing praetia's in difttrent municipalities varied considerably,
their code requirements soon refleeted these variations, althou~h thev
were usually of minor importance.
A most signifiulH regulation was put into e1ren in Nev,' York City
hy the Board of Health in l8H3. All water supply ("(lIlnections made
to fixHlres below rim level were ordered removed; their future use was
disomtinued, and it was strictly prohibited to make them. This regulation
was the result of an investig'ation aud series of tests conducted by the
board after receiving a report from both master plumber and journeymen
plumber associations that many existing water supply connections to
plumbing fixtures were potential sources ofuJlllantination to the potable
water supply system, as water could he drained or siphoned back into
the system tbroug-h supplv ronne-nions made- 10 fixtures below rim level.
One- of the most hazardous of these connections was the direct water
supply \'al\T for flushing hopper-lype water dosets. Flush tanks equipped
witb bottom supplied, submerged ball cocks and bathtubs equipped with
either bottom or side-wall bell supply inlets were- among- the fixture~
from which watn I.:ould dram back into the potahle waler supply ~ysteill.
Iow('\'('r, tbis n~gulation was not strictly enfoHTd once the power
ovn plumbing st<lndards was transferred from the Hoard of Health in
1890 to an Examining Board of Plumbers and a Department ofBuilding-s.
These agencies did uot havc the same strict means of eni()fcelllent as
did tbe Hoard of lIeahh. This was of special importancc with regard
to fixlures which had been origmally approved in existing buildings.
I kalth boards had power to ordn correction of unsanitary conditions
and health hazards regardless of prior approvals. The altitude of building
depanment ollicials became relaxed on the subject of this regulation.
In lH9G, they permitted installation uf a patented Hush valve, known
<lS a Flu~hometer, for Hushing- water dosels -and urinals by means of a
dired connection to the pOlablc water supply system, Al hrst, these
valves were permined 10 be installed onlv when supplied from a separate
water supply system for wate-r closets and urinals. But this was later
29
30
31
Office for Emergency ~Ianagemcnt as the Emergency Plumbing Standards f(Jr Defense Housing. It was based upon plumbing requirements
mntained in Building Materials and Structures Report No. 66, "Plumbing Manua!," but appropriate changes were made as required for the
conservation 01" uitical metal.s. This emergency plumbing c"ode was applicable throughout the natioIl for the balance of the war period.
In 1946, as a result of favorable experience with the EmergeIlcy
Plumbing Standards dunng the war period, the United States Housing
and Home Finance Agency sponsored a joint committee, known as the
Uniform Plumbing Code Committee, to engage in research on the nation's plumbing needs and to drali a plumbing mde suitable for adoption
by code autborities throughoul the nation. Participating with representatives of many federal agenc'ies on this commiuee were representatives
of the ~ational Association 01" Master Plumbers and the United Association of Journevmen and Apprentices of the Plumbing and Pipe Fitting
Industry of the United States and Canada. Research work at the :-.Jational
Bureau of Standards and ,It the Public
, Health Service Environmental
Health Center provided lht" committt"e with scientific data to resolve
some of the controversial matters in plumbing system regulations. The
committee's work resulted in the publication "Report of the Uniform
Plumbing Code Committee," dated July 1949, and published by the
V.S. Department of Commerce and the Housing and Home Finance
Agency.
For lIlany years, tbe \Vestern Plumbing Officials Association (WPOA)
had also worked anively to develop uniformity of plumbing code regulations. This association produced a model plumbing code in 1938 and
designated it as the Uniform Plumbing Code <ldopted by the WPOA.
It was revised at 2-year intervals in order to keep <lbreast or new materi<lb
and mel hods of construction, the last edition appearing in 1948.
Another organization interested in stalldar-dization of plumbinp; system regulations was the American S()(:iety of Sanitary Engineering. In
1942, this organi,.atioll published a set of standards for use as a guide
in plumbing inst<lllation. A uJmmittee was established also to develop
a model plumbing code. BUI, somewhat later, instead of pursuing this
task independently, the society decided to collabor,lte with other organizations <llId ap;encies interested in developing a model plumbing code
th;lt would have broad sponsorship.
The American Swndards Association, founded in 1918 by live great
engineering sorieties and later broadened in membership to include
all nationally recognized terhnical societies, trade associations, and government agencies having an interest in standards, became actively interested in lhe coordination of dJ(nts to develop a single, generally accepted
standard plumbing code. In 1936, the association's A40 sectional committee organized a subcommittee to undertake the task of establishing
minimum requirements for plumbing, but little progress was made and
the subcommittee was disbanded in 1939. A new subl'ommitLee was
organized in 1941 to develop an American Standard plumbing codt".
This nt"w group was made up of official representatives from a wide
rangt" of interested organizations. The final report of the subcommittee
was approved by the A40 sectional committee and its sponsors, the
American Society of Mechanical Engineers and the American Public
Health Association, and then was suhmitted to the American Standards
Association for adoption and designation as an American Standard. This
standard was adopted on February 17, 1949, and designated American
Standard Plumbinp; Codt", A40.7-1949.
In 1949, the existence of several different model plumbing codes
rt"commendt"d by various authoritative associations dearly indicated the
desirability of reconciling differences between the various codes and
developing a single standard plumbing code which would be generally
accepted for adoption by code authorities
throughout the nation. Under
,
joint sponsorship of the U.S. Department ofComml'n:e and the Housing
and Homt" Finance Agency, a Coordinating Committee for a National
Plumbing Code was formed. Represented on this commitLee were the
American Public Health Association, American Society of Mechanical
Engineers, American Society of Sanitary Engint"t"ring, Building Officials
Conference of America, Conference of State Sanitary En,l,.-ineers, National Association of Plumbing Contractors, Western Plumbing Officials
Association, the Housing and Home Finance Agency, and the U.S. Department of Commerce. The committee was assisted by labor.,uory research at the National Bureau of Standards and the State University
of Iowa, and by advisory committee work of representatives of many
federal agencies. The report of this committee appeared in the publication "Report of the Coordinating Committee for a National Plumbing
Code," dated June 1951, and published by the U.S. Department of Commerce and the Housing and Home Finance Agency.
Soon thereafter, the American Society of Mechanical Engineers and
the Amt"rican Public Health Association, sponsors of the American Standards Association A40 sectional committee project, conducted a survey
of organizations interested in the plumbing code standardization project.
Favorable response to the coordinating committee's report was received.
Several suggestions for improvement of the report were considered and
incorporated into the draft of a proposed American Standard National
Plumbing Code. Following approval by the sponsor organizations, the
proposed new standard was submitted to the American Standards Association for adoption. This new standard was adopted on January 25, 1955,
and designated American Standard National Plumbing Code, A40.8-
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housing deve!opmt'uts which mushroomed afier the Wdr period in suhurban and rural areas, most of which had no effective protection in the
form of plumhing- system regulations, Rj.' 1956, twentv-six states had
codes to regulate plumbing system imtal1ations, These codes varied
in form alld applicability, Of theM' codes, R were mandatory statewide,
n were mandatory statewide with cerra in exceptions, 10 established
minimum standards below \...hich local municipal codes could not provide
aldlOugh they uHlld provide higher standards, 3 were IIIdlHlatory ouly
where adopted or dn'epted by municipalities, and 5 were model codes
[{'colJlHleuded to muncipalities for adoption,
A significant challge ill plumbing system regulations, the establishment of perf(lrmance requirements in codes. rather than specific requirements prescribing use of certain
, Hlethods, devices, materials, and
techniques. appeared in the State Building COllstruoion Code of New
YorL: State as the various portions of this (:ode were prolllulgated in
1951, 1953, 19,I)G, I (l5R, and in suhsequcnt amended editions, This
was OIH' of the three state codes which were mandatory only where
municipalities voluntarily accepted applicability of the code, Tbe reason
for the establislullent of performance requin:ments wa,s given in Ihe
!\ew York SLl\e Building Code Law. enacted in 1949, and appeared in
the statl'merlt of leg'i.~lati\'e findings and purposes, part of which is as
follows:
inducing high cu~b uf lOllstructioJl are various Iaw~,
ordinaJlce~, ruks, regulation~ ami code~ regulatinK the COJlstruction of
buildillg~ and the ll~e of m;nerials therem, The)' sene to increase cost,
wahout providing corrdative bl'llehb or sakt, to owners, buildl'l~, teJlaJlt~
and usns of hllildings, It i~ lhe purpose 01 this 'let to institute the preparalion of a stale code of building con~trll(1ion to pro\'lde, so far as mil}'
he pranicahle, h;Jsir <[lid unili)rm performance standards, Thus, while es
tabli~hillg reasonahle safeguards for the s('(uritv, welfare and safety of
1 he occu palll~ and users of buildi tl gs. the usc uf modern method s, devices,
materials and techniques will he encouraged. This should he effective in
lowering' cOllstnu:tion costs.
A.nlOng the
Eutor~
Performdnce regulations in plumhing codes have gained wider application ill recent. years. Bv making ddequate performance of any glvcn
plumbing system installation the test of its acceptilhility, the ingenuity
of the designer, inslaller, and manu!;'Uurcl' is permitted to he employed,
rather thilll being overly restrained by the necessity for conformini{
strirtly to specific requirements in codes, Such restrictions pose severe
difficulties in meeting the many Ilew and varied conditions for which
systems must be designed in differenT <Jreas, In addition, it has been
found in numerous instances that conformity with specific requirements
35