Professional Documents
Culture Documents
Jan-May 2016
Review Notes Chapter 1,2 ,3, 4,5 6
Chapter 1
-
3. Modern roads
Macadam
Tresaquet
Developed
an
improvement
method
of
road
b.
Metcalf
c.
Telford
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
8.
Chapter 2
-
Types of highways
Highway Materials
-Soils,
Concrete
AGGREGATES
Soil
b.
Aggregates
c.
Bituminous materials
d.
Cement
INTRODUCTION
Aggregate which has been defined as inert mineral fragments and particles
forming the main structure of a mixture such as asphalt, tar-macadam or concrete is
the basic material for road construction. This material which forms the greater part of
the body of the road, bears the main stresses occurring in the road and resists wear
from surface abrasion.
The particles are bound together using bituminous materials and cement
which act as binders and develop a strong structure forming the crust of the road. As
such properties of all these materials are of great importance to the highway
engineers. A knowledge of their characteristics is useful in the design of road
structure.
4.1 SOILS AND ITS CHARACTERISTIC
The term soil has different meanings and connotations to different
professional groups. From an engineering stand-point the term soil refers to all the
unconsolidated mineral material lying above the bed rock with which and upon which
highways and other structures are constructed. It may contain air, water, organic
matter and other substances which may be dispersed throughout the minerals
Certain characteristics of the soil particles are useful in predicting the performance
and behavior of soils ; namely the grain size, shape, surface texture, and chemical
position. These are briefly discussed here.
4.1.1.1
Grain size.
fine sand and have the same mineral composition. However, they may
be produced by chemical decay rather than by grinding. Occasionally,
silts contain pumice, loess or other materials foreign to the associated
sand. The presence of silt in fine soil may be detected in the field by
the feeling of roughness that it gives when rubbed between fingers.
4. Clay.
Clay results almost entirely from chemical weathering and are
often plate like in shape. The structure of moist clays is considered
to be very complicated and has not been fully understood yet,
although attempts have been made by many Chemists, Physicists,
Geologists and Engineers to interpret it in the various fields of the
Lambe has given a very good account of the structure of clays in his
paper entitled The Structure of Inorganic Soil, presented to the
ASCE.
5. Colloids.
hese are finer clay particles that remain suspended in water
and do not settle under the force of gravity. When observed under
microscope they are found to be in a state of disorderly motion. For
most of the highway engineering works, coarse grained materials are
preferable. Clayey soils are extremely troublesome and require
specialized treatments and methods of handlings. Brownian
Movement specially silty soils present problems in the areas
susceptible to frost action.
4.1.2
SHAPE OF PARTICLES.
Strength and toughness of the material is indicated to a large extent
by the shape of the particles. For example, gravels found in the river beds
have undergone a large process of wear and are stronger than the flat and
flaky particles.
In the construction of base courses where usually granular material is
recommended, there is little percentage of the clay particles. Here the shape
of the bigger stone particles recommended is angular as they are better resist
the tendercy to deformation. Hence many specifications for base-course
require that the mixture of different materials used must contain a specified
percentage of crushed rock particles.
The effect of the shape of particles on the performance of mass
composed mainly of clay-size fraction is not conclusively known. Here the
presence of the free and absorbed moisture, particle ionization presence of
chemicals and density are some of the more important factors.
4.1.3
SURFACE TEXTURE
The surface texture of the large size soil particles greatly influences
CHEMICAL COMPOSITION
Chemical composition indirectly affects the behavior of soils since the
4.2
particles
thanthat
in the
particles.
All soil engineers
agree
thesand
properties
of soils composed largely of
b.
The
soil
particles
have
the
property
clinging
coarse grained materials are primarily controlled by theofcharacteristics
of the
to each
other due
to the
existence
of thin the properties are
particles but for soils
composed
largely
of clays
and colloids,
in water films.
forces
primarily controlledtensile
by theforces
characteristics
of theThese
moisture
filmare
surrounding the
particles.
INFO
4.3
mass consists of dry soil particles and air when in the dry state, and soil particles, air
and water when in the wet state. If the density of soil changes, say increase, the
quantity of soil solids in unit volume increases so that lesser voids would be left for
air and water.
This increase in density and decrease in moisture content would add to the
strength of the soil. The maximum density is achieved at optimum moisture content
which can be determined by any standard test. In addition to the increase in strength,
the rate of water movement through the soil and volume change due to variation in
moisture, subsequent to compaction, register a measurable decrease. In order to
secure these advantages, it has been accepted as a normal practice to compact the
sub grade soils so as to obtain maximum dry density.
4.4 ROAD AGGREGATE
The raw material which is used as road aggregate can be further classified as
:
Gravels
Sand.
b. Artificial Aggregate
-
Each of the three types mentioned under (a) above is one or the other form of
natural rock. The crushed road aggregate is prepared by quarrying natural rock from
the quarries having suitable road construction material and crushing it to the required
size. The coarse material which results from the disintegration of natural rocks due to
weathering, is carried away by water into the rivers and is deposited as gravel.
During transit, the particles are worn out by attrition and become more or less
rounded in shape with smooth surfaces. Sand, on the other hand, is the final residue
of resistant mineral grains resulting from rock-weathering and has often been through
many cycles of deposition and weathering.
Blast furnace slag is, perhaps, the only artificially prepared aggregate used in
road construction. It is obtained as a by-product in the manufacture of steel.
4.4.2 Gravels
Gravel may consist entirely of one type of hard rock such as Flint or
Quartzite (silicious sedimentary variety) or may have a wider variety of rocks
of different types and hardnesses. Gravels of softer variety of rocks are
generally not available, though at places, limestone gravels also occur and
are used for the construction of roads, where other suitable material is not
available.
In general, the properties of the gravels depend upon the properties of
the rocks from which they are formed. Mixed gravels usually contain, in
addition to the hard varieties, soft particles of chalk, clay lumps, shale or soft
sandstone and, therefore, whenever gravels have to be used in road
construction, they must be tested lest any such materials should form a high
proportion and thus act as a source of weakness.
4.4.3 Sands
Natural sands consist largely of the final residue of resistant mineral
grains resulting from rock weathering and have often been through many
cycles of deposition and weathering. Quartz is the most important mineral in
sands, since this substance is hardly affected by ordinary weathering agents.
Sand occurs sometimes in combination are the larger particles of sand in
such a combination are the chips from gravel itself.
4.4.4 Slag
Slag obtained as a by-product from blast furnaces is extensively used
as road aggregate. It is composed of a number of alumino-silicates of calcium
and magnesium, minerals that are found in some basic igneous rocks. Owing
to the rapid cooling of material, slag becomes a much more variable material
than natural rock. There is tremendous difference in the grain-size and
porosity of exterior and interior of the cooling masses, the exterior cooling
rapidly so as to form an amorphous glass. Slag can become a very good
aggregate, if it is manufactured under carefully-controlled conditions.
BITUMINOUS MATERIAL
5.0 INTRODUCTION
removed. They may range from liquid road oil having poor binding
characteristics to a very viscous material having excellent binding
characteristics and requiring heat to become workable. These oils set
very slowly and are employed where the same consistency of binder is
desired both at the time of processing and after the curing period has
elapsed. They are designated by the letters SC, and range from light
liquid SC-0 to semisolid SC-5 consistencies. It may be noted here that
higher the number following the letters SC, the higher is the asphalt
content with a corresponding decrease in the quantity of fluxing oil. The
application temperatures may range from 50 0C to 3750F.
5.4.2 Cut-Back Asphalts Medium Curing Type
Medium curing cut-back asphalts are produced by cutting back
asphalt cement with heavier oils like kerosene or light diesel oil. The
addition of these oils increases the fluidity of the asphalt cement. These
oils evaporated slowly when exposed to heat or air. The presence of
these oils makes the asphalt workable at relatively low temperatures,
gives it good wetting properties and ensures a satisfactory coating of
the fine-graded and dusty aggregates. They are designated by the
letters MC and range from light MC-0 to almost semi-solid MC-5. The
higher the number, the higher is the quantity of asphalt in the cut-back.
The application temperature ranges from 50 0C to 2750F.
5.4.3 Cut-back Asphalt Rapid Curing Type
Rapid curing cut-back asphalts are produced by cutting back
asphalt cement with light oils like naphtha or gasoline. These products
are more volatile than kerosene and diesel oil, and since the distillates
evaporate more rapidly than kerosene. The cutbacks are known as
rapid curing. Lower penetration asphalt-cements are usually mixed with
these oils to prepare rapid-curing cut back asphalt. They are
designated by the letters RC and range from RC-0 to RC-5
consistencies. Here also, the higher the number, the higher is the
Aspects to be considered
Highway construction process:
(a) Site Survey
(b) Site Clearance
(c) Earthworks & Drainage
(d) Pavement Construction
(e) Road markings/Finishing
Stages, scope and main types of works covered under each process
Highway construction process can be divided into 5 phases.
a. Site survey
Done to obtain various site maps/plans.
To be used in the road/pavement design. Products from this work
are topographical map, site plan, aerial photo, cross-sectional
plan and ground profile, among others.
b. Site clearance
Involves several works that differ based on location, i.e. rural or
urban.
For rural areas the works involved are clearing, grubbing and top
soil stripping.
Clearing involves cutting/taking down everything above ground
level, while grubbing involves removing surface vegetation/tree
stumps/roots. 100 mm of top soil is also removed.
For urban areas some extra works need to be done, viz.
relocating service/utility lines, providing detour/alternative
routes and provide traffic control where necessary.
c. Earthwork & drainage
To prepare a level surface for road construction via excavation,
filling, draining and compaction basically the subgrade.
Unsuitable materials for the subgrade is removed (e.g. peat, silt,
mud, soil with LL>80), or set for treatment.
Excavation and filling is included in this phase, in order to
prepare a level surface/obtain the required elevation.
Where filling and excavation are done together, the soil obtained
from cutting/excavation may be used for filling to save on haul
cost.
Chapter 4
JKR Malaysia Design Method is a combination of two methods above using a formula
and figures from the result of the testing. A complete guideline for pavement design
can be found in Arahan Teknik (Jalan) 5/85. The thickness of the pavement
depends on the CBR value and the Total Cumulative of Standard Axle ( JBGP ).
E.g 1
A road with hierarchy of 05 has a surface width of 7.5 m, shoulders width
1.25 m, and two lanes (both ways) are to be built as a main road in a
residential area. It has an initial average daily traffic of 6,800 cv/day in
both directions. The rate of traffic growth is 8%. Percentage of
commercial vehicle is 20%. Design a flexible pavement for the road
which needs a design life of 10 years. The CBR for sub-grade of the road
is 5%. (Employ the JKR Malaysia Design Method).
Analyse the thickness design for the pavement using the JKR
Malaysia Design Method if the requirement for the pavement
layers is:
Wearing course = asphalt concrete.
Road base = Dense bituminous Macadam.
Sub-base = cement stabilized.
Suggested answers
Eg.2
A road with hierarchy of 05 has a surface width of 7.5 m, shoulders width 1.50
m, and two lanes (both ways) are to be built as a trunk road in a urban
residential area. It has an initial average daily traffic of 6,800 cv/day in both
directions. The rate of traffic growth is 6%. Percentage of commercial vehicle
is 25%. Design a flexible pavement for the road which needs a design life of
10 years. The CBR for sub-grade of the road is 6%. (Employ the JKR
Malaysia Design Method).
Analyse the thickness design for the pavement using the JKR Malaysia Design
Method if the requirement for the pavement layers is:
Suggested answers
V 0=6800 x
V C=
25
( 12 x 365 x 100
)=310,250
Percentage of commercial vehicle is 25% for trunk road, so from the table,
value e is 3.0
ESA=4,089,342 x 3.0=12,268,026
= 1.23 x 107
2000/2
1000
0.97
100/(100 + 25)
0.8
/ln
hr
c=
2000
x 0.97 x 0.8=776
2
C=10 x 776=7760
V X=
veh
/lane
day
6800
veh
(1+0.06)10=6 ,089
/lane
2
day
C>V X OK
28 cm
ESA=1.227 x 10
, the required
TA = 28.0 cm.
30.0 cm
1.00
a2
0.32
a3
0.23
4+5
9 cm
Base Course
10 cm
Sub Base
10 cm
SN
SN
2.
28 cm
D1
D2
10
D3
15
SN
15.7 cm < 27 cm
D1
15
D2
25
D3
20
SN
28 cm = 28 cm
OK...!
Chapter 5
Surface drainage is the system that drains surface water from the
surface of the pavement. This surface water consists of the
precipitation in the form of rain, ice and snow, less that which is
absorbed into the soil. Surface drainage system features are
The
components
of
construction comprises:
pavement
maintenance
in
highway
amount is laid and the surface can last for a long time (design life).
Resurfacing of roadway comprises of a procedure that is executed by
experts along with appropriate constructions signs and control of traffic for
the impulsion of society welfare and safety. The resurfacing process of
asphalt pavement embodies the ensuing steps:
a) Utilities modification to enable mill machines to pass through
the pavement devoid of destructing the machines
b) Obliteration of old surface with the help of mill machine. Roads
that are curb-free and gutter-free might require trimming before
milling for the sole impulsion of proliferating a more even surface.
c) Utilities modifications for the purpose of flushing with the new
surface
d) Tack coat use in milled surface that functions as a binder or
cement for the application of new surface
e) Pavement surface lying by pavement machines
f) Road marking (thermal plastic) application.
for the sole reason of expecting compaction from the traffic loads. The
surface evenness of the patch was ensured expending a straightedge or
string-line. Later, adequate compaction is then applied to the patch.
Usually,
small
patches
are
compacted
expending
vibratory-plate
enables
pavement
foundation
transverse
drainage.
Shoulder
Road markings are marks in the form of lines, symbols, alphabets, words
and numbers that are generally painted or pasted or fixed to the road
surface. Road markings differ from road furniture whereby it provides
interminable to the guides of the vehicle but they cant be seen easily
during rainy periods and night time. Generally, marks comprises of paints,
stickers on pavement, curb and sometimes materials that provides road
users warnings and express road regulations. Road markers can be put
into function together with road furnitures. Road markers are divided into
pavement marking, curb marking, object marking, delineators and colored
pavement. Generally, color, width as well as orientations of markers
conveys specific meanings. The type of road nark include middle, passage,
double line, arrow, desist line, pedestrian crossing line, yellow line. The
commonest materials include thermoplastic, paint and road stud/cats eye.
They guide road user and are helpful to reduce accidents.
are
products
proliferated
to
refurbish
the
original
are
usually
expended
on
pavements
of
airports.
There are two types of cut and patch of highway pavement namely hot
patch mix or cold patch mix. Patching is a ubiquitous technique of
treating a portion of pavement or pavement with restricted distress. It can
also be defined as the process whereby potholes and cut areas that are
formed in the wearing course are filled with certain materials. The
patching treatment of the pavement can be done expending various types
of slurries, hot asphalt mixes, emulsified asphalt mixes and stockpile
patching mixes. Patches need to be properly overfilled for the sole reason
of expecting compaction from the traffic loads. The surface evenness of
the patch was ensured expending a straightedge or string-line. Later,
adequate compaction is then applied to the patch. The reason behind
patching is to enhance and maintain high riding quality besides eluding
the introduction of water into the base course and the pavement overall.
Water introduction causes water or moisture to enter through the crack
into the base course. The seepage of water into the base course and
eventually throughout the whole pavement results in the reduction of the
strength and soil bearing capacity of the base course and sub-grade and
the whole pavement. The water that accumulates over time results in
excessive weight acting on the pavement that leads to excessive
structural
damage
and
eventually
structural
failure
that
needs
3) Recycling
a) Hot Recycling
This technique is expended to rectify cracks on the wearing course
provided that the base course is still in good conditions. This technique
comprises the procedure of expending the existing pavements whereby
the pavement is heated and then softened and milled to a predetermined
depth. The use of heat in this method causes it to be known as Hot
Recycling.
This
method
include
three
processes
namely
heater
b) Cold recycling
This method is executed for normal and not serious defects on the
pavement surface and its application goes along with the introduction of
stabilizers, rejuvenator and/or bitumen. This method involves processing
and treating together with the use of bituminous/chemical stabilizers of
current/old pavement without being subjected to heat for the impulsion of
proliferating a rectified layer of wearing course or pavement. This
technique involves seven (7) processes namely
1) Milling
2) Control of gradation
3) Introduction of additives
4) Placement of new mix
5) Compaction
6) Laying of fog seal
7) Addition of tack coat
c) Base recycling
This method involves the recycling of all section of the asphaltic pavement
and a known quantity of underlying base material undergoes treatment to
proliferate a stabilized base course. It involves cold recycling process that
expends various types of additives that include emulsified asphalt and
of
four
main
sequences
namely
pulverization,
additive
4) Reconstruction
aforementioned
techniques
are
not
viable
to
be
executed.
along
with
designed
construction
requirement.
This
highway and keeping it in condition for safe, convenient and economical use.
Road maintenance can be divided into 2 work types, namely physical
patching.
Traffic services include works such as erecting traffic barriers, removing litters
and corrective.
Preventive works are done regularly/at intervals to prolong the service life,
while corrective is done to repair/rehabilitate road defects
Eg2
Constructio
n costs
(RM)
Interest
rate
Annual
Maintenanc
e Costs
(RM)
Service
period
(years)
Phase I
Phase II
13,200,000
11,600,00
Alternative
B
20,400,000
4%
75,000
25,000
100,000
1 - 50
26 - 50
1 - 50
PW 1=13200000+75000
PW 1=19,308,805.31
PW B =20400000+ 100000(
P
, 4 , 50)
A
PW B =20400000+ 100000(21.482)
PW B =22,548,200
Based on the above economic analysis, Alternative A, consisting of a twophase construction process should be chosen. Alternative A has a lower
net present worth of costs than does alternative B
Years, n
4%
6%
PW
0.8219
SPW
4.4518
PW
0.7473
SPW
4.2124
10
0.6756
8.1109
0.5584
7.3601
15
0.5553
11.1184
0.4173
9.7122
20
0.4564
13.5903
0.3118
11.4669
25
0.3751
15.6221
0.2330
12.7834
50
0.1407
21.482
0.0543
15.991
55
0.1157
22.109
0.0406
16.161
PW g=
e (r i) n1
ri
PV ( U )
B
=
C PV ( I )+ PV ( M )PV ( R)
P=
F
n
(1+i )
PS =A
(1+i)n1
n
i(1+i)