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EV303/EV411 Highway Engineering

Jan-May 2016
Review Notes Chapter 1,2 ,3, 4,5 6

Chapter 1
-

Introduction to Highway Engineering & its importance


Characteristics of road transport :
Roads can be used by all sorts of vehicles like bullock carts, carriages,
bicycles, scooters, cars, buses and lorries, etc. They are equally useful for
pedestrians also.
Roads can lead to any remote place.
Investment on road transport by government is comparatively small.
Maintenance of roads is also cheaper than rail-track, docks, harbours and
airports.
There is complete freedom to road users to transfer the vehicles from one lane
to another, or from one road to another according to the requirements.
Local communication among villages, villages and towns is only possible
through roads.
Movements on roads are not time bound, as in case of railways or airways.
Road transport is the only mode of transport that offers itself for the service of
whole community alike.

History of Highway Construction

History of road construction can be divided into three ages;


1. Roman Road Construction
Ancient Times
Age of Ancient Roman
2. The period after the Roman
Tresequet roads construction
Metcalfs roads construction
Telfords roads construction
Macadam roads construction

3. Modern roads

The modern roads by and large follow Macadam's construction


method.
Use of bituminous concrete and cement concrete are the most
important developments.
Various advanced and cost-effective construction technologies are
used.
Development of new equipments help in the faster construction of
roads

Important characteristic of Macadam concept


1. It was he who for the first time recognized the importance of subgrade compaction and drainage. To affect speedy surface drainage
he recommended suitable cross slope for the sub-grade.
2. It was he who realized for the first time that heavy foundation
stones are not at all necessary. If sub-grade is prepared properly
and kept well drained it can be very well bear the traffic load
transmitted to it through foundation layer, having smaller
compacted thickness of small size broken stones. He was of the
opinion that a broken stone layer of few centimeter thickness can
sustain mush heavier load than a thick layer of big size stones.
3. Size of the aggregate to be used in wearing course was decided
according to requirements of stability under the effect of vehicles.
History of Road in Malaysia
Categories/Classification of Road in Malaysia

Macadam

Using entirely new concept of road construction.

Recognized the importance of sub-grade compaction and


drainage

Using a broken stone layer of few 9entimetre thickness


can sustain much heavier load than a thick layer of big size stones

Size of the aggregate to be used in wearing course was


decided according to requirements of stability under the effect of
vehicles.

Pioneers contributions are :


a.

Tresaquet

Developed

an

improvement

method

of

road

construction which feature of his work was that the thickness of


the road was about 30 cm.

The interstices of the foundation stone layer were filled


with stone aggregate of smaller size and compacted thickness of
this layer was about 8 cm.

Top wearing course was laid of walnut sized stones and


compacted to a thickness of about 5 cm.

A cross slope of about 1 in 45 was used to be developed


in the road surfaced by adjusting thickness mainly in top and
intermediate layers.

b.

Metcalf

Experimented road construction with a graded mixture of


earth and gravel.

Method consisted of laying gravel upon a well-drained


and dried sub-grade. It used to be compacted in due course of
time, by the action of the traffic using road.

c.

Telford

Used big sized stones in foundation wearing from 17-22


cm to develop a firm base

Provided cross drains under foundation layer to keep the


sub-grade in dry condition

Level sub-grade on embankment or cutting was prepared


in the required width.

Comparison between Telford roads and Macadams roads are :


1.

Telford roads are costlier than Macadam roads.

2.

In the case of Telford construction, sub-grade was kept


horizontal due to which drainage of sub-grade was not proper. In the
case of Macadam construction sub-grade was given 1 in 36 cross
slope. This aspect helped in better sub-grade drainage.

3.

Large size stones were adopted by Telford for foundation. Size


of stone varied from 17 cm near edges to 22 cm at the centre of the
road. In the case of Macadam roads 5 cm was the maximum size of the
aggregate used for foundation layer.

4.

Cross slope in Telford roads was developed by using smaller size


stones at the edges and large size stones at the centre of the width.
Thicknesses of subsequent intermediate and surfacing layers, is kept
constant for the full width of the road. In Macadam roads, required
camber was given to the sub-grade itself and all the subsequent layers
of aggregate including foundation layer of uniform thickness for the
whole of the width of the road.

5.

Telford construction is carried out in four layers namely


foundation layer, two layers of intermediate coat and 4 cm thick
wearing top layer. Macadam construction is done in three layers. Two
layers each of 13 cm compacted thickness as foundation layers and 5
cm thick surfacing layer.

6.

In Telford roads, camber given was 1 in 45 while in Macadam it


was 1 in 36.

7.

Telfords foundation layer, being of larger sized stones, behaved


like semi flexible road but Macadams base was yielding type and
hence Macadam roads behaved like fully flexible roads.

8.

Total thickness of road structure was about 40 cm in case of


Telford but only about 25 cm in case of Macadam.

Chapter 2
-

Types of highways

Highway Materials
-Soils,
Concrete
AGGREGATES

Road Construction Materials


o a.

Soil

b.

Aggregates

c.

Bituminous materials

d.

Cement

ROAD CONSTRUCTION MATERIALS AND THEIR FUNCTIONS


4.0

INTRODUCTION

Construction materials for roads may be broadly classified into four


categories:
a. Soil
b. Aggregates
c. Bituminous materials
d. Cement

ROAD = SOIL + AGGREGATES + PAVEMENT


MATERIALS
(BITUMENS/CEMENTS)

Aggregate which has been defined as inert mineral fragments and particles
forming the main structure of a mixture such as asphalt, tar-macadam or concrete is
the basic material for road construction. This material which forms the greater part of
the body of the road, bears the main stresses occurring in the road and resists wear
from surface abrasion.

The particles are bound together using bituminous materials and cement
which act as binders and develop a strong structure forming the crust of the road. As
such properties of all these materials are of great importance to the highway
engineers. A knowledge of their characteristics is useful in the design of road
structure.
4.1 SOILS AND ITS CHARACTERISTIC
The term soil has different meanings and connotations to different
professional groups. From an engineering stand-point the term soil refers to all the
unconsolidated mineral material lying above the bed rock with which and upon which
highways and other structures are constructed. It may contain air, water, organic
matter and other substances which may be dispersed throughout the minerals

particles. The mineral matter is formed by the disintegration or decomposition of the


rocks. The engineering properties and behavior are generally influenced by changes
in moisture content and density or compactness of the soil. Wide variation in soil
types is generally found in nature and hence a study of their properties becomes
essential.
4.1.1

CHARACTERISTICS OF SOIL PARTICLES

Certain characteristics of the soil particles are useful in predicting the performance
and behavior of soils ; namely the grain size, shape, surface texture, and chemical
position. These are briefly discussed here.
4.1.1.1

Grain size.

The size of the soil particles and the distribution of various


sizes throughout a soil mass are important factors that influence soil
properties and performance. A number of grain size classifications
have been proposed by different highway agencies for convenience in
expressing the size characteristics of various fractions.
The general characteristics of the various particle size groupings are
as follows:
1. Gravel.
It consists of rock fragments more or less rounded by water
action or abrasion. Quartz which is the hardest rock forming mineral is
usually the principal constituent. Well rounded pebbles and boulders
that have undergone long wear are almost entirely quartz. Gravels
which are angular and rough due to their high resistance to wear,
usually contain rocks such as granite, schist, basalt or limestone.
2. Course Sand.
It is frequently rounded like gravel with which it may exist in
combination. It generally contains the same minerals.
3. Fine Sand.
Particles are more angular than coarse sand particles because
the film of water that usually surrounds the finer particles serves as
cushion to protect them from abrasion. Silt grains are usually similar to

fine sand and have the same mineral composition. However, they may
be produced by chemical decay rather than by grinding. Occasionally,
silts contain pumice, loess or other materials foreign to the associated
sand. The presence of silt in fine soil may be detected in the field by
the feeling of roughness that it gives when rubbed between fingers.
4. Clay.
Clay results almost entirely from chemical weathering and are
often plate like in shape. The structure of moist clays is considered
to be very complicated and has not been fully understood yet,
although attempts have been made by many Chemists, Physicists,
Geologists and Engineers to interpret it in the various fields of the
Lambe has given a very good account of the structure of clays in his
paper entitled The Structure of Inorganic Soil, presented to the
ASCE.
5. Colloids.
hese are finer clay particles that remain suspended in water
and do not settle under the force of gravity. When observed under
microscope they are found to be in a state of disorderly motion. For
most of the highway engineering works, coarse grained materials are
preferable. Clayey soils are extremely troublesome and require
specialized treatments and methods of handlings. Brownian
Movement specially silty soils present problems in the areas
susceptible to frost action.

4.1.2

SHAPE OF PARTICLES.
Strength and toughness of the material is indicated to a large extent

by the shape of the particles. For example, gravels found in the river beds
have undergone a large process of wear and are stronger than the flat and
flaky particles.
In the construction of base courses where usually granular material is
recommended, there is little percentage of the clay particles. Here the shape
of the bigger stone particles recommended is angular as they are better resist
the tendercy to deformation. Hence many specifications for base-course

require that the mixture of different materials used must contain a specified
percentage of crushed rock particles.
The effect of the shape of particles on the performance of mass
composed mainly of clay-size fraction is not conclusively known. Here the
presence of the free and absorbed moisture, particle ionization presence of
chemicals and density are some of the more important factors.
4.1.3

SURFACE TEXTURE
The surface texture of the large size soil particles greatly influences

their performance in granular soil mixtures. For example, the friction


developed on the grains of wind-blown and beach sands and of crushed
quartz is relatively low since the particles have slicked surfaces and as a
result thereof the mixture that contains large percentage of such materials
offer small resistance to deformation.
Some authorities assert that a rough surface of a freshly crushed rock is more
important than its angularity in developing greater strength in soil mixture. With small
size particles this effect of surface texture becomes negligible.
4.1.4

CHEMICAL COMPOSITION
Chemical composition indirectly affects the behavior of soils since the

presence of certain chemicals influences the water-film that usually surrounds


the particle and hence the bond holding any two particles mutually together.
complex
reactions
might
soil mass as a result of
The effect of theSome
change
in moisture
content
is develop
reflectedininthe
three
ways : the addition of an additive as a stabilizer in the presence of an appropriate

4.2

chemical, resulting in the improvement of structural behavior of the


a. The effective diameter of the soil particle
compacted soil mass.
changes with change in the moisture content.
EFFECT OF
MOISTURE
ON prominent
THE PERFORMANCE
The
effect is more
in the clay OF SOILS

particles
thanthat
in the
particles.
All soil engineers
agree
thesand
properties
of soils composed largely of
b.
The
soil
particles
have
the
property
clinging
coarse grained materials are primarily controlled by theofcharacteristics
of the
to each
other due
to the
existence
of thin the properties are
particles but for soils
composed
largely
of clays
and colloids,
in water films.
forces
primarily controlledtensile
by theforces
characteristics
of theThese
moisture
filmare
surrounding the
particles.

due to the surface tension. The force exerted


by surface tension decreases as the moisture
content increases.
c. The volume of the soil-mass as a whole
changes with the change in the moisture
content at the particle surface. The changes in
volume are more prominent in clays than in
sands and silts.

The effect of increase


in moisture content is
to decrease the
strength of soil

INFO

4.3

EFFECT OF DENSITY ON THE BEHAVIOUR OF SOILS


Dry density of soil is the dry weight per unit volume of the material. The soil

mass consists of dry soil particles and air when in the dry state, and soil particles, air
and water when in the wet state. If the density of soil changes, say increase, the
quantity of soil solids in unit volume increases so that lesser voids would be left for
air and water.
This increase in density and decrease in moisture content would add to the
strength of the soil. The maximum density is achieved at optimum moisture content
which can be determined by any standard test. In addition to the increase in strength,
the rate of water movement through the soil and volume change due to variation in
moisture, subsequent to compaction, register a measurable decrease. In order to
secure these advantages, it has been accepted as a normal practice to compact the
sub grade soils so as to obtain maximum dry density.
4.4 ROAD AGGREGATE
The raw material which is used as road aggregate can be further classified as
:

a. Naturally occurring aggregate :


-

Crush Rock Aggregate

Gravels

Sand.

b. Artificial Aggregate
-

Blast Furnace Slag

Each of the three types mentioned under (a) above is one or the other form of
natural rock. The crushed road aggregate is prepared by quarrying natural rock from
the quarries having suitable road construction material and crushing it to the required
size. The coarse material which results from the disintegration of natural rocks due to
weathering, is carried away by water into the rivers and is deposited as gravel.
During transit, the particles are worn out by attrition and become more or less
rounded in shape with smooth surfaces. Sand, on the other hand, is the final residue
of resistant mineral grains resulting from rock-weathering and has often been through
many cycles of deposition and weathering.
Blast furnace slag is, perhaps, the only artificially prepared aggregate used in
road construction. It is obtained as a by-product in the manufacture of steel.

4.4.1 Crushed Rock


Crushed rock aggregate is produced from different types of rocks. All
rocks are composed of grains or crystals of minerals held together in a variety
of ways. The properties of rocks, therefore are dependent upon the properties
of minerals forming the rocks and the nature of the bond. Igneous,
Sedimentary and Metamorphic are the three major classifications of these
rocks.
The Igneous rocks are further classified into Plutonic Hypabyssal and
Volcanic, according to their mode of formation, the properties of acid and
basic radicals and the chemical constituents of the mineral present. In the
Plutonic variety, the main types are the Granite and Syenite, though Diorite
and Gabbro are also frequently available. They are mainly coarse-grained
varieties being Porphyry, Porphyrite, Dolorite and Diabase. These rocks very
frequently posses intergrown texture and as such are among the best of the
road stones. Basalts and Andersite fall in the Volcanic category and are fine
grained varieties of ignoeus rocks. They are usually not considered good as
road stones.

All igneous rocks are subject to decomposition and weathering on


exposed surface or along fissures and also internally due to the chemical
instability of their minerals. In fact, these factors require time on geological
scale and so long as the quarried rock is fresh and reasonably sound, it is
unlikely to suffer from decomposition during the life of the road. A rock which
is badly decomposed, discoloured and is friable, should never be used as
road-stone.
The sedimentary rocks are classified as Calcareous, Siliceous and
Agrillaceous. Limestones, Dolomies and Chalk fall under the Calcareous
variety. Only the best varieties of limestones serve as good road-stones, since
they have adequate strength and have excellent adhension to bituminous
binders. Dolomites have the same properties as the lime stones. Chalk is
poor road-stone. Sandstones and quartzite are the main varieties of the
Silsceous sedimentary rocks. Sandstones are used as road-aggregate though
adhension to bitumen is not very good. Quartzite is quite hard but is liable to
be brittle and the adhension to bitumen is rather poor. The Argillaceous
sedimentary rocks have clay-shales and mud-stones as the main varieties.
They are poor roadstones.
Among the third general class of rocks, Hornfels which are formed by
the thermal metamorphism are the best from road-making point of view.
Gneiss and Granulite have the same road-making qualities as the granites of
coarse variety. Slate and Schist are quite unsuitable as road stones.

4.4.2 Gravels
Gravel may consist entirely of one type of hard rock such as Flint or
Quartzite (silicious sedimentary variety) or may have a wider variety of rocks
of different types and hardnesses. Gravels of softer variety of rocks are
generally not available, though at places, limestone gravels also occur and
are used for the construction of roads, where other suitable material is not
available.
In general, the properties of the gravels depend upon the properties of
the rocks from which they are formed. Mixed gravels usually contain, in
addition to the hard varieties, soft particles of chalk, clay lumps, shale or soft
sandstone and, therefore, whenever gravels have to be used in road
construction, they must be tested lest any such materials should form a high
proportion and thus act as a source of weakness.

4.4.3 Sands
Natural sands consist largely of the final residue of resistant mineral
grains resulting from rock weathering and have often been through many
cycles of deposition and weathering. Quartz is the most important mineral in
sands, since this substance is hardly affected by ordinary weathering agents.
Sand occurs sometimes in combination are the larger particles of sand in
such a combination are the chips from gravel itself.

4.4.4 Slag
Slag obtained as a by-product from blast furnaces is extensively used
as road aggregate. It is composed of a number of alumino-silicates of calcium
and magnesium, minerals that are found in some basic igneous rocks. Owing
to the rapid cooling of material, slag becomes a much more variable material
than natural rock. There is tremendous difference in the grain-size and
porosity of exterior and interior of the cooling masses, the exterior cooling
rapidly so as to form an amorphous glass. Slag can become a very good
aggregate, if it is manufactured under carefully-controlled conditions.

BITUMINOUS MATERIAL
5.0 INTRODUCTION

Bituminous materials as described hereafter refer to hydrocarbons of variable


colour, hardness and volatility, sometimes associated with the mineral matter. Their
consistencies at normal temperatures range from something slightly thicker than
water to hard and brittle materials that will shatter under a blow from a hammer, but
even the hardest of them will flow if subjected to long continuous loading. The nonmaterials and non-carbonaceous matter is largely soluble in carbon disulphide (CS2).

5.1 FUNCTIONS OF BITUMINOUS MATERIALS

Bituminous materials, usually called binders, when used in combination


with the mineral aggregate have a number of functions to perform. The
various objectives achieved by using a bitumen binder in road construction
may be summed up as follows:

a. It acts as a cushion for the surface material and absorbs the


kneading action of traffic. The abrasive action of the wheels of a
vehicle is also resisted. This enhances the life of the pavement.
b. It seals the surface of the road against ingress of water, provided
the granular material used is dense-graded.
c. It binds the surface particles together and loss of material from the
surface by suction under the body of the moving vehicle, is thus
checked.
d. If a properly selected bituminous material is used, it resists the
action of weathering agencies, like the wind and the sun and
ensures a long life for the pavement.
5.2 DEFINITIONS
The terms bitumen and asphalt are often confused. They actually refer
to the same material and different agencies use either of the two names.
Some standard definitions, almost universally accepted are given below :
5.2.1 Bituminous or Asphalt.
Mixtures of hydrocarbons of natural or pyrogenous origin, or
combinations of both, frequently accompanied by their non-metallic
derivatives, which may be gasesous, liquid, semi-solid or solid and
which are completely soluble in carbon disulphide.
5.2.2 Liquid Bituminous Materials.
Materials having a penetration at 25oC (77oF) under a load of 50
grams applied for one second, of more than 350.
5.2.3 Semi-solid Bituminous Materials.

Materials having penetration at 25oC (77oF) under a load of 100


grams applied for five seconds, of more than 10 and a penetration at
25oC (77oF), under a load of 50 grams applied for one second, of not
more than 350.

5.2.4 Solid Bituminous Materials.


Materials having penetration at 25oC (77oF) under a load of 100
grams applied for five seconds of not more than 10.
Emulsions, cut-backs and road oils are liquids, asphalt cements are
semi-solids and powdered asphalts are solids. Tars are both liquids and semisolids, depending upon the particular grade.
5.3

SOURCES OF BITUMINOUS BINDERS


Bituminous binders (including tars) represent combinations of hydrogen

and carbon. Some of the hydrocarbons used in road construction occur


naturally but most of them are obtained as by products from the manufacture
of gas, liquid fuels, lubricants, coal-gas and coke. Principal sources of
bituminous materials for pavements are given below :
5.3.1 Natural Asphalt.
Crude petroleum sometimes works its way up through cracks in
the earths crust to the surface, where the rays of sun and the wind
drive away the lighter oils, leaving behind a black and plastics material
called asphalt. These materials, which occur naturally, are usually
found in combination with a fairly high percentage of clay or fine sand
which they pick up as they travel up through the cracks. Natural
asphalts are sometimes called native asphalts also.

5.3.2 Rock Asphalt.


Deposits of lime-stone or sand-stone are sometimes found
impregnated with bituminous materials. Such deposits generally form
good road construction materials. Experience in United States of
America, France and other foreign countries has shown that road
surfaces constructed with these materials are extremely durable and
stable. The percentage of bituminous material in these stones varies
from 4.5 to 18 %.
5.3.3 Petroleum Asphalt.
Most widely used asphaltic or bituminous materials are those
which are derived by the distillation process from crude petroleum.
Steam or Air Distillation is employed for the purpose. Steam distillation
produces excellent asphaltic materials, whereas products obtained by
air distillation usually called blown or oxidized asphalts, find very little
use as paving materials. They are however put to other diversified
uses.
5.4 PAVING ASPHALT : CLASSIFICATIONS
The various Paving Asphalt Classifications are:
a. Road oils or Slow-Curing Liquid Asphalts (SC).
b. Cut-Back Asphalt :

Medium Curing Liquid Asphalts (MC)

Rapid-Curing Liquid Asphalts (RC)

c. Asphalt Cements (AC)


d. Emulsified Asphalts.
e. Powdered Asphalts.
5.4.1 Road Oils
Road oils or slow-curing liquid asphalts may be described as the
petroleum distillates from which volatile and light fractions are largely

removed. They may range from liquid road oil having poor binding
characteristics to a very viscous material having excellent binding
characteristics and requiring heat to become workable. These oils set
very slowly and are employed where the same consistency of binder is
desired both at the time of processing and after the curing period has
elapsed. They are designated by the letters SC, and range from light
liquid SC-0 to semisolid SC-5 consistencies. It may be noted here that
higher the number following the letters SC, the higher is the asphalt
content with a corresponding decrease in the quantity of fluxing oil. The
application temperatures may range from 50 0C to 3750F.
5.4.2 Cut-Back Asphalts Medium Curing Type
Medium curing cut-back asphalts are produced by cutting back
asphalt cement with heavier oils like kerosene or light diesel oil. The
addition of these oils increases the fluidity of the asphalt cement. These
oils evaporated slowly when exposed to heat or air. The presence of
these oils makes the asphalt workable at relatively low temperatures,
gives it good wetting properties and ensures a satisfactory coating of
the fine-graded and dusty aggregates. They are designated by the
letters MC and range from light MC-0 to almost semi-solid MC-5. The
higher the number, the higher is the quantity of asphalt in the cut-back.
The application temperature ranges from 50 0C to 2750F.
5.4.3 Cut-back Asphalt Rapid Curing Type
Rapid curing cut-back asphalts are produced by cutting back
asphalt cement with light oils like naphtha or gasoline. These products
are more volatile than kerosene and diesel oil, and since the distillates
evaporate more rapidly than kerosene. The cutbacks are known as
rapid curing. Lower penetration asphalt-cements are usually mixed with
these oils to prepare rapid-curing cut back asphalt. They are
designated by the letters RC and range from RC-0 to RC-5
consistencies. Here also, the higher the number, the higher is the

quantity of asphaltic cement. Rapid curing products are employed


when a quick change from liquid state of application back to original
asphaltic cement is desired.
5.4.5 Asphalt Cements
Asphalt cement is a heavy binder usually used in the hotprocess of preparing asphaltic mixtures. They are the residues left after
the lubricating oils as well as fuel oils have been removed from
petroleum. They are designated by the penetration range or degree of
hardness suitable for the type of construction, climatic conditions
volume and nature of traffic to which the pavement is to be subjected.
The actual degree of penetration is controlled by the amount of fluxing
oils permitted to remain at the end of the process. Steam is used to
refine the materials so that the heavier volatiles can de driven off
without much increasing the temperature. Excessively high
temperatures reduce ductility, lower penetration and cause cracking
which results in a less homogeneous product.
The softest grade commonly employed for paving is of 200-300
penetration and the hardest grade commonly employed for the purpose
is of 30-40 penetration. All asphaltic cements are so viscous that both
the aggregate and the binder must be heated before mixing. Working
temperatures range from 22250F to 3500F.
5.4.6 Emulsified Asphalts
An emulsion is a mixture of two normally immiscible liquids, in
this case, the asphaltic cement and water. They are mixed in the
presence of an emulsifying agent such as resin or soap. The
emulsifying agents helps in the mixing of the two materials, resulting in
a liquid end-product. The process of mixing consists in dispersing
minute globules of asphalt in water in the presence of the emulsifier.

An emulsion makes available the asphalt in the liquid form for


application at normal temperatures. Water separates out after coming
in contact with the aggregates. This process is called the breaking of
emulsion. Asphalt cement is, thus, left behind as a binder. These
products are superior with wet aggregates as the water medium carries
the asphalt into intimate contact with the particle surface.
The asphaltic Institute (U.S.A) classified the emulsions as Rapid
Setting (RS), Medium Setting (MS) and Slow Setting (SS), these
products having fast, medium and slow breaking times respectively.
They are suitable for a variety of purposes. They carry an asphalt
content of about 55 to 65 percent by weight. Asphaltic cement of 150200 penetration is normally employed for preparing these emulsions.
Care is needed to handle these emulsions since due to excessive
pressure, heat or cold, they are liable to break down.
5.4.7 Powdered Asphalt.
Hard solid asphalts with penetration of 10 or less are designated
as powdered asphalts. For use, they are pulverized to a very fine state
of sub-division with 100 % passing No. 10 A.S.T.M. (2mm) sieve and at
least 50 % passing No. 100 A.S.T.M (0.15mm) sieve.
Powdered asphalts are usually employed for low cost road
construction in conjunction with a fluxing medium such as SC-2, SC-3
or SC-4 liquid asphalts. They are also , sometimes, used in the
preparation of patented mixes. The principal advantage in using
powdered asphalts is that it is in effect, using asphalt cement in a cold
mix.
Highway materials, properties and tests aggregate and bitumen

Sieve Analysis to determine gradation limit

CBR tests on Soils aggregate


Bitumen penetration Test

Chapter 3. HIGHWAY CONSTRUCTION

Aspects to be considered
Highway construction process:
(a) Site Survey
(b) Site Clearance
(c) Earthworks & Drainage
(d) Pavement Construction
(e) Road markings/Finishing
Stages, scope and main types of works covered under each process
Highway construction process can be divided into 5 phases.
a. Site survey
Done to obtain various site maps/plans.
To be used in the road/pavement design. Products from this work
are topographical map, site plan, aerial photo, cross-sectional
plan and ground profile, among others.
b. Site clearance
Involves several works that differ based on location, i.e. rural or
urban.
For rural areas the works involved are clearing, grubbing and top
soil stripping.
Clearing involves cutting/taking down everything above ground
level, while grubbing involves removing surface vegetation/tree
stumps/roots. 100 mm of top soil is also removed.
For urban areas some extra works need to be done, viz.
relocating service/utility lines, providing detour/alternative
routes and provide traffic control where necessary.
c. Earthwork & drainage
To prepare a level surface for road construction via excavation,
filling, draining and compaction basically the subgrade.
Unsuitable materials for the subgrade is removed (e.g. peat, silt,
mud, soil with LL>80), or set for treatment.
Excavation and filling is included in this phase, in order to
prepare a level surface/obtain the required elevation.
Where filling and excavation are done together, the soil obtained
from cutting/excavation may be used for filling to save on haul
cost.

Drainage will need to be provided to hasten soil consolidation


during this stage.
Common type of drainage used is the vertical drain, which is
very effective.
The subgrade soil also needs to be compacted to improves its
bearing capacity and reduce risk of settlement.
The soil may be watered, or dried in order to achieve the OMC
(optimum moisture content).
Where embankments are made, turfing can be done to prevent
erosion on the side slope. Vegetation is planted after
compaction.
d. Pavement construction
Flexible pavements can be divided into 5 layers, namely
subgrade, sub-base, base, binder course and wearing course.
Layers are made up of mostly aggregates (about 90%), asphalt
(~6%) and voids.
Sub-base is made up of finer aggregates than the base layer, as
it serves to provide structural support and improves drainage. It
also help interlock the sub-grade and the base layer. If the subgrade is of high quality (e.g. sandy), sub-base may be omitted.
For the base layer, it is usually composed of crushed stones/slag,
though the inclusion of cement and water to make it a cementsoil base and increase its strength is not uncommon. As such,
addition of bitumen to stabilize the aggregate is also done
widely.
For the construction of these 2 layers, the aggregates are spread
using a spreader/grader and then rolled to compact. If a soilcement base is to be used, cement is spread and mix with the
soil (either by hand or mechanically), and water is added for an
increment of 1 to 2% of the soil Optimum Moisture Content.
The prime coat, which serves to increase the bond between the
base and the overlying layer, is applied using a bituminous
pressure distributor. (1 mark)
The bitumen emulsion is sprayed onto the base surface, and
immediately followed by a chip spreader, which spread choke
aggregates to fill in empty voids as well as to prevent roller
wheels from sticking to the coated surface. Normally for prime
coats, bitumen emulsion of grade MC-30 or MC-70 is used.

If the binder and wearing course is to be constructed, the coated


and rolled surface must be swept using a broom drag or a
sweeper. This will remove loose chips or aggregates and prepare
a smooth surface for the next operation. (1 mark)
The binder course is made up of primarily coarse aggregates
between 20 to 28 mm in size, mixed with asphalt, and laid using
a paver to ensure uniform distribution.
Same as the base course, the surface needs to be coated to
prevent water infiltration and improve adhesion with the
overlying layer (wearing course). The coating for the binder
course is called tack coat.
Above this is the final pavement layer, which is the wearing
course. It is laid in the same way as the binder course.
Final coating layer, the seal coat, is sprayed on the surface of the
wearing course to make it waterproof and increases its skid
resistance.
Additives such as styrene-butadiene-styrene (SBS) or synthetic
rubber-styrene-butadiene (SBR) may be added to the bituminous
mix to increase its strength and durability, though these
additives are very costly. A more economical additives or
substitutes are available abundantly, such as rubber crumbs and
waste plastic crumbs.
e. Road markings
Final work scope for the pavement is its marking, for safety and
traffic users ease.
2 materials are commonly used as marking, namely acrylic paint
and thermoplastic.
Plant used for this is the pressure distributor sprayer.

Chapter 4

JKR Malaysia Design Method is a combination of two methods above using a formula
and figures from the result of the testing. A complete guideline for pavement design
can be found in Arahan Teknik (Jalan) 5/85. The thickness of the pavement
depends on the CBR value and the Total Cumulative of Standard Axle ( JBGP ).

E.g 1
A road with hierarchy of 05 has a surface width of 7.5 m, shoulders width
1.25 m, and two lanes (both ways) are to be built as a main road in a
residential area. It has an initial average daily traffic of 6,800 cv/day in
both directions. The rate of traffic growth is 8%. Percentage of
commercial vehicle is 20%. Design a flexible pavement for the road
which needs a design life of 10 years. The CBR for sub-grade of the road
is 5%. (Employ the JKR Malaysia Design Method).
Analyse the thickness design for the pavement using the JKR
Malaysia Design Method if the requirement for the pavement
layers is:
Wearing course = asphalt concrete.
Road base = Dense bituminous Macadam.
Sub-base = cement stabilized.

Suggested answers

Eg.2

A road with hierarchy of 05 has a surface width of 7.5 m, shoulders width 1.50
m, and two lanes (both ways) are to be built as a trunk road in a urban
residential area. It has an initial average daily traffic of 6,800 cv/day in both
directions. The rate of traffic growth is 6%. Percentage of commercial vehicle
is 25%. Design a flexible pavement for the road which needs a design life of
10 years. The CBR for sub-grade of the road is 6%. (Employ the JKR
Malaysia Design Method).
Analyse the thickness design for the pavement using the JKR Malaysia Design
Method if the requirement for the pavement layers is:

Wearing course and Binder Course = asphalt concrete.


Road base = Crushed aggregate (CBR 80%)
Sub-base = Sand

Suggested answers
V 0=6800 x

V C=

25
( 12 x 365 x 100
)=310,250

310 , 250 ( (1+0.06)101 )


=4,089,341.63
0.06

Percentage of commercial vehicle is 25% for trunk road, so from the table,
value e is 3.0

ESA=4,089,342 x 3.0=12,268,026

= 1.23 x 107

Absolute Traffic Loading per hour - ( Refer


Table 10.8 )

2000/2

1000

Carriageway width is 7.5 m and shoulder width is 1.5 m.


R

Road Decreasing Factor ( Refer


Table 10.9 )

0.97

Traffic Decreasing Factor ( Refer Table


10.10 assuming type of terrain is flat )

100/(100 + 25)

0.8

/ln
hr
c=

2000
x 0.97 x 0.8=776
2

C=10 x 776=7760

V X=

veh
/lane
day

6800
veh
(1+0.06)10=6 ,089
/lane
2
day

C>V X OK

Pavement Thickness Design


Plot point 1, Subgrade CBR =3% on A,
Plot point 2, ESA= 1.23 x 107 on B, Joint Point 1 on A and Point 2 on B to
intersect Point 3 on C, > Point 3 =33(TA, Equivalent Thickness )
Then, Plot point 4, Subgrade CBR = 6% (given) on A,
Joint Point 4 on A and Point 3 on C and produce the straight line to
intersect Point 5 on D,
> Point 5 = approx. 28 cm(TA, Corrected Equivalent Thickness )
D

28 cm

From the nomograph above, for

ESA=1.227 x 10

, the required

Corrected Equivalent Thickness, TA is 28.0 cm.

TA = 28.0 cm.

30.0 cm

From Table Q1E,


a1

1.00

a2

0.32

a3

0.23

From Table Q1F,


Wearing Course

4+5

9 cm

Base Course

10 cm

Sub Base

10 cm

SN
SN

Try and Error


1.

2.

a1D1 + a2D2 + a3D3

1D1 + 0.32D2 + 0.23D3

28 cm

D1

D2

10

D3

15

SN

1(9) + 0.32(10) + 0.23(15)

15.7 cm < 27 cm

D1

15

D2

25

D3

20

SN

1(15) + 0.32(25) + 0.23(20)

28 cm = 28 cm

OK...!

Relevant examples also found in Test 2 & assignment 2 and


Lecture Notes.

Chapter 5
Surface drainage is the system that drains surface water from the
surface of the pavement. This surface water consists of the
precipitation in the form of rain, ice and snow, less that which is
absorbed into the soil. Surface drainage system features are

incorporated into the overall design of the highway with the


objective of ultimately directing all surface runoff to natural
waterways, including
1. Transverse slopes to facilitate the removal of water from the
pavement surface in the shortest possible time.
2. Longitudinal slopes to facilitate the provision of adequate slopes in
the longitudinal channels.
3. Longitudinal channels or ditches to collect the surface water that
runs off from pavement surfaces, subsurface drains, and other areas
of the highway right-of-way.
4. Curbs and gutters.
5. Drainage structures such as bridges and culverts.
Subsurface drainage is the system that drains groundwater from the
highway pavement structure. The groundwater may be in one or more the
following forms:
1. Surface water that has permeated through cracks and joints in the
pavement to underlying strata.
2. Water moving upward through the underlying strata due to capillary
action
3. Water existing in the natural ground below the water table usually
referred to as groundwater.
)
A subsurface drainage system usually consists of:
1. Longitudinal drains usually consisting of pipes laid in trenches within
the pavement structure and parallel to the center line.
2. Transverse drains placed below the pavement and in a direction
perpendicular to the center line.
3. Horizontal drains in cuts and embankments to relieve pore pressure.

The
components
of
construction comprises:

pavement

maintenance

in

highway

1) Resurfacing and patching


Asphalt surfaces possess general design life between 8 to 12 years that is
governed by traffic loadings and the climate conditions. The resurfacing of
asphalt pavement is carried out provided that the surface was deemed
to have attained its service life end and/or restoration methods
are not capable for roadway repair. Resurfacing is conducted
provided that the base course is not damaged. Resurfacing of asphalt
pavement effectuates enhancement in driving experience and improves
the roadway aesthetics. Resurfacing also provides the pavement with
additional strength through the placement of premix. The premix
thicknesses have to be appropriately determined to ensure adequate

amount is laid and the surface can last for a long time (design life).
Resurfacing of roadway comprises of a procedure that is executed by
experts along with appropriate constructions signs and control of traffic for
the impulsion of society welfare and safety. The resurfacing process of
asphalt pavement embodies the ensuing steps:
a) Utilities modification to enable mill machines to pass through
the pavement devoid of destructing the machines
b) Obliteration of old surface with the help of mill machine. Roads
that are curb-free and gutter-free might require trimming before
milling for the sole impulsion of proliferating a more even surface.
c) Utilities modifications for the purpose of flushing with the new
surface
d) Tack coat use in milled surface that functions as a binder or
cement for the application of new surface
e) Pavement surface lying by pavement machines
f) Road marking (thermal plastic) application.

Patching is a ubiquitous technique of treating a portion of pavement or


pavement with restricted distress. It can also be defined as the process
whereby potholes and cut areas that are formed in the wearing course are
filled with certain materials. Patches exists in two types namely; Full-depth
patches that broaden and lengthen from the wearing course right until the
sub-grade and Partial patches that doesnt deviate via the pavement
overall depth. Full depth patches are in need in case the overall pavement
depth is disturbed heavily. The main cause of the distress is ubiquitously
the materials that form the base and sub-base course as well as the subgrade. Partial patches are caused by raveling, rutting, delamination as well
as cracking but the extent is not severe compared to that of full-depth
patching. Partial patches occur more frequent compared to full-depth
patching and therefore maintenance is required whenever necessary in
fast manner to elude subsequent worsening that result in expensive
pavement repair and to ensure safety and serviceability of the road
pavement. The patching treatment of the pavement can be done
expending various types of slurries, hot asphalt mixes, emulsified asphalt
mixes and stockpile patching mixes. Patches need to be properly overfilled

for the sole reason of expecting compaction from the traffic loads. The
surface evenness of the patch was ensured expending a straightedge or
string-line. Later, adequate compaction is then applied to the patch.
Usually,

small

patches

are

compacted

expending

vibratory-plate

compactor. Sometimes, for road with extensive and multiple patching, a


patcher truck is expended. It is equipped with vibratory compactors and
has liquid bitumen and aggregate storage for mixing and dispensing into
the patchments.

2. Shoulder Maintenance and Grass Cutting


Highway shoulder is an imperative part of the wearing course that needs
proper maintenance.

Shoulder design must be grounded on the highway traffic volume as well


as the width of the pavement and the necessity of the drainage system.
The surface of the shoulder should be made of treated graded material
that

enables

pavement

foundation

transverse

drainage.

Shoulder

maintenance is of utmost importance. Due to the shoulder loss of bond


with the base course as well as weak alignment and insufficient edge
support, it results in edge defect especially edge breaks and cracks and
edge drop-offs. Due to repeated loadings from the traffic volume, the
breaks and cracks as well as drop-offs will spread throughout the surface
pavement. This results in reduction in width of the pavement as well as
probable loss of control that can cause fatal accidents. The oxidation
process from the sunlight causes the road tar or asphalt oil to undergo
oxidation process resulting in pavement that is brittle and has cracks. This
allows the introduction of water into the base course and the pavement
overall. Rain water can enter through the crack and shoulder drop-offs into
the base course. The seepage of water into the base course and
eventually throughout the whole pavement results in the reduction of the
strength and soil bearing capacity of the base course and the whole
pavement. The water that accumulates over time results in excessive
weight acting on the pavement that leads to excessive structural damage
and eventually structural failure that needs reconstruction. Henceforth,

appropriate drainage system of shoulder and surface pavement is


imperative. The failure of the highway pavement is due to failure of the
foundation as a result of erosive water seepage. Therefore, proper drain
along the shoulder is to be made present with depth of at least four feet
underneath the wearing course. During rain, water are not completely
channeled out from a shoulder due to capillary action of soil subjected to
traffic actions that absorbs water towards and into foundation structure of
the pavement as well as the shoulder. The soil capillary actions are usually
recorded to be at least four feet high and can reach up to twelve feet.

Grass cutting is also a major maintenance effort. Vegetation especially


grass are expended to protect shoulders from the effect of erosion. This
occurs provided that the grasses are not high enough. Grass can results in
problems in highway as it is capable to prevent water from channeling out
from the pavement. The grasses are also capable of forming water puddle
at the shoulder that results in higher chance of water seepage into the
shoulder and eventually the base course and the pavement all throughout.
The formation of puddle can also reduce friction between wheels of
vehicles resulting in vehicle skids that may lead to accidents. Grass
cutting is also performed to enhance the aesthetics of the highway.
3) Repair and Stabilize Slope
Slope repair and stabilization is a major maintenance effort in highway
construction. Slope instability at highway construction can exist due to
natural reasons or as a result of construction. Slope stabilization is a
process to where necessary corrective measures are implemented to form
a stable slope. Slope unsteadiness due to natural impulsions include
natural extreme angle of slope, high water table and poor slope soil or
material. Slopes that are naturally occurring with extreme angle of slope
can collapse in the event of heavy rain provided that the slope is made of
coarse aggregate or materials and due to repeated vibrations from the
traffic volume. Slope with natural extreme angle of slope can be cut and
necessary and suitable retaining walls or reinforcement wall construction
can be applied. Type of retaining walls and reinforcement to be chosen
here depends on the height of the slope such as concrete gravity walls
(retained heights up to 3m) and counterfort/buttressed reinforced wall (up

to 12m). Slopes are sometimes stable in terms of slope angle however,


due to the material of the slope and position of water table, the slope is
classified as unsteady/unstable. Some of the slopes adjoining highway are
composed of fine grained material such as sand. The problem proliferated
by this material is that during rain, water that is absorbed by the fine grain
material mostly remains behind the slope due to small space between the
grains that prohibits water to flow out from the slope and this water are
termed as groundwater. Groundwater increases active pressure on the
back of the wall and downturns the shear strength of the soil leading to
reduced bearing capacity of the slope. The resistance due to friction at the
slope base will also be downturned and if this pressure is too great, the
slope can fail and collapse. Hence, slope can be maintained through the
expend of subsoil drainage behind the slope. Drain openings termed as
weep holes can be inserted via the stem thickness to allow the
groundwater to be channeled out from the slope. The slope can also be cut
and proper retaining wall such as gabions, that consists of free-draining
wall produced by large baskets with broken stones in it or crib wall
composed of interlocked boxes filled with coarse-grained material that
proliferate a free-draining system.

Slope instability due to construction includes the obliteration of vegetation


that support soil, and improper cut and fill. The removal of vegetation that
support slope soil can result in erosion during rain that can cause landfall
that is can result in fatal accidents in the highway. The slope can be
strengthened by process called as turfing where vegetations such as
Lalang are planted to the slope to establish support. Slopes instability due
to improper cut and fill can be resolved either by correcting the cut and fill
volume or through the application and construction of necessary retaining
wall and reinforcements. The most imperative notion in slope repair and
stabilization embody the construction of necessary support through
retaining wall and reinforcements, obliteration of groundwater through the
installation of drainage pipes such as weep holes as well as corrective
measures during construction especially via cut and fill method.

4) Clean, repair, reconstruct bridge, culvert, drains

Drain is one of the essential components of flexible pavement. There are


many type of drains expended in surface and subsurface drainage system
of pavements with their positions varying throughout the pavement
respectively. In general, drains functions as follows:

a) To channel water out from the surface pavement


b) Elude the flow of water from higher level to the lower level of
road according to gradient
c) Elude diffusion of water into the sub-grade and base courses
and eventually throughout the whole pavement
Water poses the greatest problem in highway construction. The seeping of
water through any surface cracks, shoulder break and drop-off and via
potholes into the base-course and sub-grade can result in foundation
failure due to additional weight on the pavement and reduced soil veering
capacity of the sub-base and sub-grade. Culvert is a type of drain
whereby it is placed under the pavement to channel water out from the
sub-base across the road. Water is considered as the enemy in highway
construction due to its capability to fail a pavement structure. Hence,
proper drainage on surface and subsurface of pavement is deemed
essential.
Bridge is a structure that is chosen as an alternative to the construction
of highway pavement. Sometimes, the position of water table is high and
corrective measures such as drainage installation seems not helpful that
makes it unviable to build a road pavement due to hydrostatic pressure of
water that can seep into the foundations resulting in pavements failure.
This structure is part of a road that functions the same of that with road
pavement that is mulled as the final options in road construction to elude
structural failure due to water seepage.
5) Maintenance of Road furnitures and markings.
Road furniture and markings are important components of the pavement
maintenance in highway construction. Both carries out the following
functions:

a) Control traffic flow to ensure effective system


b) Ensure user convenience and serviceability
c) To elude traffic congestions and confusion in integrated and
dense locations
d) Prevent accidents in accidents prone-areas.

Road furniture includes guardrail, speed signs, informatory signs, warning


signs, landscape, and many others. They are generally provided in places
where there is a response that user need to make when using the road
such as maneuvering, changing lanes and likewise such as intersections,
congested area, area with people of special needs and so on/ They are
intended for the main purpose of providing clear and lucid information and
instruction to road users. They also hold the following functions:
a) Fulfill needs
b) Attracts attentions
c) Promote understandings and courtesy on road
d) Provides the user with the hint and time to prepare and
execute a response.
e) Enhance the surrounding of highway

Road markings are marks in the form of lines, symbols, alphabets, words
and numbers that are generally painted or pasted or fixed to the road
surface. Road markings differ from road furniture whereby it provides
interminable to the guides of the vehicle but they cant be seen easily
during rainy periods and night time. Generally, marks comprises of paints,
stickers on pavement, curb and sometimes materials that provides road
users warnings and express road regulations. Road markers can be put
into function together with road furnitures. Road markers are divided into
pavement marking, curb marking, object marking, delineators and colored
pavement. Generally, color, width as well as orientations of markers
conveys specific meanings. The type of road nark include middle, passage,

double line, arrow, desist line, pedestrian crossing line, yellow line. The
commonest materials include thermoplastic, paint and road stud/cats eye.
They guide road user and are helpful to reduce accidents.

There are Four (4) types of pavement rehabilitation method.


Discuss briefly each method.
1) Restoration
Restoration is a rehabilitation method that is expended when the
pavement surface experiences or records maladies that embodies surface
cracks and wearing. Restoration is a method of rehabilitation that
functions to:
a) Amends the current maladies
b) Downturn the friction factor of road surface
c) Downturn the pavement worsening

Restoration techniques embody:


a) Rejuvenation
Rejuvenation is a precautionary maintenance method introduced to new
paved roads to recover lighter road tars and reignite the roadway for the
impulsion of extending its design life. The cost of rejuvenation technique is
smaller compared to resurfacing. The process embodies the ensuing steps:
a) Cleaning of the pavement expending a power broom.
b) Distributor truck applies the treatment
c) Manual spray by workers into corners
d) Covering the road with sand layer for about 24 hours
simultaneous with treatment

e) Sweeping of sand by contractor


Rejuvenators

are

products

proliferated

to

refurbish

the

original

characteristics of old bitumen by reinstating the original ratio of


asphaltenes to maltenes. Rejuvenators generally embody maltenes due to
the fact that its volume is lessened by oxidation processes. Rejuvenators
function to slow down the loss of fines from surface and lessen the
proliferation of subsequent crackings as well as resistance to skid.
Rejuvenators

are

usually

expended

on

pavements

of

airports.

Rejuvenators are not to be expended to a road surface embodying


unnecessary bitumen including slurry seal and others. If expended, the
bitumen will be softened by the rejuvenator and effectuates tackiness of
the surface. In general, the scope of rejuvenation covers the following:
a) Treatment of pavement or wearing surfaces with permanent
distress
b) Rejuvenators are chemicals sealant that refill the lost bitumen
and road oil/tars due to chemical process especially oxidation
c) Cheap and durable method of rehabilitation
d) Ensure the pavement surface to be in dry black state
e) Downturn chemical processes such as oxidation, aging
f) Prolongs the pavement surface design life
g) Opted when the pavement is still in good condition and wearing
course index of friction is small (<50)
b) Crack Sealing
Crack sealing is a preventive maintenance method with the main purpose
of eluding the diffusion of water via the crack into the sub-base and subgrade and elude foreign material 9sand, dirt, rocks, etc) from diffusion via
the crack and effectuating worsening as the pavements expand and
contracts with respect to change in temperature (heat). The oxidation
process from the sunlight causes the road tar or asphalt oil to undergo
oxidation process resulting in pavement that is brittle and has cracks.
Crack sealing deals with cracks that are affected by expansion and
contraction expending hot-poured sealant and slurry. Crack sealants are

products expended to fill road surface cracks to elude the introduction of


water and other foreign material. Crack seal products deals with
horizontal, transverse, reflection crack and block cracks. Crack sealant
embodies sand slurry and rubberized asphalt. The sealant average life
span is between 3 to 8 years dependent on pavement wellbeing,
surrounding weathers, composition of material and techniques expended.

The crack sealing technique steps embodies:


a) Cut of the crack to certain depth
b) Open roadway clean and dry expending high pressure air and
heat
c) Application of hot-pour crack
d) Placement of sand on top of sealant to downturn stickiness

Sometimes, the cracks on the pavements can be widespread and it is


known as Fatigue cracks. This type of cracks is too widespread for the
introduction of crack sealers and the corrective measure taken here
thereby is patching and reconstruction (if severe). In general, crack sealers
of fillers take the form of sand slurry or rubberized asphalt and can either
be hot or cold application
Crack sealing covers the following scope:
a) Extend the pavement design life
b) Cheaper than other method of rehabilitation
c) Provides the indication for the exigency of excavation or
reconstruction of the sub-grade if the cracks are widespread
d) Eludes moisture from diffusing into the sub-base and sub-grade
e) Crack sealers exist either in hot or cold application in the form
of sand slurry or rubberized asphalt.

c) Cut and Patch.

There are two types of cut and patch of highway pavement namely hot
patch mix or cold patch mix. Patching is a ubiquitous technique of
treating a portion of pavement or pavement with restricted distress. It can
also be defined as the process whereby potholes and cut areas that are
formed in the wearing course are filled with certain materials. The
patching treatment of the pavement can be done expending various types
of slurries, hot asphalt mixes, emulsified asphalt mixes and stockpile
patching mixes. Patches need to be properly overfilled for the sole reason
of expecting compaction from the traffic loads. The surface evenness of
the patch was ensured expending a straightedge or string-line. Later,
adequate compaction is then applied to the patch. The reason behind
patching is to enhance and maintain high riding quality besides eluding
the introduction of water into the base course and the pavement overall.
Water introduction causes water or moisture to enter through the crack
into the base course. The seepage of water into the base course and
eventually throughout the whole pavement results in the reduction of the
strength and soil bearing capacity of the base course and sub-grade and
the whole pavement. The water that accumulates over time results in
excessive weight acting on the pavement that leads to excessive
structural

damage

and

eventually

structural

failure

that

needs

reconstruction due to foundation failure.

d) Thin bituminous overlay.


This method of rehabilitation involves the introduction of slurry seal and
thin hot mixes as well as the use of surface dressing. The main impulsion
behind the introduction of thin bituminous overlay is to enhance the riding
quality of road users by increasing the smoothness of the wearing course.
This method is a fast rectification technique of rectifying any defects that
occurs on the wearing course such as cracks, wearing course not level and
provides additional strength to the wearing course. Apart from facade
enhancement, this overlay also improves the surface friction and
pavement skid resistance that helps to provide extra grip to wheels of road
users.
2) Resurfacing

Asphalt surfaces possess general design life between 8 to 12 years that is


governed by traffic loadings and the climate conditions. The resurfacing of
asphalt pavement is carried out provided that the surface was deemed
to have attained its service life end and/or restoration methods
are not capable for roadway repair. Resurfacing is conducted
provided that the base course is not damaged. Resurfacing of
asphalt pavement effectuates enhancement in driving experience and
improves the roadway aesthetics. Resurfacing also provides the pavement
with additional strength through the placement of premix. The premix
thicknesses have to be appropriately determined to ensure adequate
amount is laid and the surface can last for a long time (design life).
Resurfacing of roadway comprises of a procedure that is executed by
experts along with appropriate constructions signs and control of traffic for
the impulsion of society welfare and safety
The deterioration of the wearing course or the surface of the pavement is
caused by various factors and occurs mainly at the imperative component
of the pavement; the asphalt (bitumen). The factors that deteriorate the
wearing course include surrounding heat and humidity due to hot weather
and rain. The oxidation process from the sunlight causes the road tar or
asphalt oil to undergo oxidation process resulting in pavement that is
brittle and has cracks. The repeated cycle of hot and cold due to climate
and rain causes cracks and this defect is further enhanced into potholes
when rain water seeps. The cracks prepare a room or channel for moisture
to diffuse into the pavement base and effectuate widespread worsening.
This also reduces the abrasion of the wearing course. The asphalt
(bitumen) in other turn is affected by the repeated traffic loadings
whereby it sticks to the vehicles wheel due to friction as well as the
radiation from the sun.

3) Recycling

Recycling of pavement is a technique whereby old pavement materials are


expended to rectify rutting, delamination and enhance the pavement
friction factor. There are three types of recycling of pavement namely:

a) Hot Recycling
This technique is expended to rectify cracks on the wearing course
provided that the base course is still in good conditions. This technique
comprises the procedure of expending the existing pavements whereby
the pavement is heated and then softened and milled to a predetermined
depth. The use of heat in this method causes it to be known as Hot
Recycling.

This

method

include

three

processes

namely

heater

scarification, repaving remixing

b) Cold recycling
This method is executed for normal and not serious defects on the
pavement surface and its application goes along with the introduction of
stabilizers, rejuvenator and/or bitumen. This method involves processing
and treating together with the use of bituminous/chemical stabilizers of
current/old pavement without being subjected to heat for the impulsion of
proliferating a rectified layer of wearing course or pavement. This
technique involves seven (7) processes namely
1) Milling
2) Control of gradation
3) Introduction of additives
4) Placement of new mix
5) Compaction
6) Laying of fog seal
7) Addition of tack coat

c) Base recycling
This method involves the recycling of all section of the asphaltic pavement
and a known quantity of underlying base material undergoes treatment to
proliferate a stabilized base course. It involves cold recycling process that
expends various types of additives that include emulsified asphalt and

Portland cement to generate and proliferates an enhanced base course. It


comprises

of

four

main

sequences

namely

pulverization,

additive

introduction, compaction and wearing course placement. The advantages


of this method include treatment of distressed pavements, minimal cost,
imperative structural enhancement and strength and improved riding
quality.

4) Reconstruction

This method of rehabilitation of pavement is the final option provided all of


three

aforementioned

techniques

are

not

viable

to

be

executed.

Reconstruction of pavement is defined as the obliteration and the


reconstruction of the complete of portion of the pavement expending new
ingredients

along

with

designed

construction

requirement.

This

technique is executed provided that the pavement was deemed as not


viable and when serious worsening of the pavement has been enabled to
take place without correction measures taken as well as inefficient
subsurface drainage network.
Reconstruction embodies several types namely:
a) Hot recycling with overlay.
The execution of the construction takes place at the construction site and
it embodies current bituminous pavement:
1) Heating
2) Scarifying
3) Mixing
4) Replacing
5) Recompaction

b) Cold recycling with overlay.

Cold base mixtures are proliferated by mixing recovered bitumen


pavement materials together with new bitumen and recycling agents. The
execution entails no heat and is conducted in a plant
c) Construction or enhancement of subsurface drainage.

AASHTO ( American Association of State Highway and Transportation. Officials).

Road maintenance is a function of preserving, repairing, and restoring a

highway and keeping it in condition for safe, convenient and economical use.
Road maintenance can be divided into 2 work types, namely physical

maintenance and traffic services.


Physical maintenance includes works such as crack sealing, chip sealing and

patching.
Traffic services include works such as erecting traffic barriers, removing litters

and repainting road markings.


Road maintenance can also be divided into 2 categories, namely preventive

and corrective.
Preventive works are done regularly/at intervals to prolong the service life,
while corrective is done to repair/rehabilitate road defects

Chapter 6 Economic Analysis


Eg.1

Eg2

Two alternative short span bridge designs for highway (A and B)


are being considered as improvement to the current interchange
between Kajang town and Subang Jaya town in Selangor. The first
alternative is to construct the bridge in two phases (Phase I now
and Phase II in 25 years). The second alternative is to construct it
in one phase. The information are given in Table Eg.2 below.

Table Eg.2: The projects cost.


Alternative A

Constructio
n costs
(RM)
Interest
rate
Annual
Maintenanc
e Costs
(RM)
Service
period
(years)

Phase I

Phase II

13,200,000

11,600,00

Alternative
B

20,400,000

4%

75,000

25,000

100,000

1 - 50

26 - 50

1 - 50

(a) Based on the information given in Table Eg.2, analyze both


alternatives using Present Worth analysis
(b) Determine which of the two is more economically desirable.
Calculate the present worth of alternative A. Note that the phase II has
additional annual maintenance cost to that of Phase I. This will require
that this annualized costs be brought back to the present condition at year
25, and then this value needs to be brought back to year 0.

PW 1=13200000+75000

( PA , 4 , 50)+11600000( PF , 4 , 25)+(( 25000( PA , 4 , 25))( PF , 4 ,25))

PW 1=13200000+75000 ( 21.482 )+11600000 ( 0.3751 )+ ( (25000 ( 15.622 ))(0.3751) )


PW 1=13200000+++

PW 1=19,308,805.31

Therefore, the present worth of alternative A is RM 19,308,805.31


Alternative B

The present worth of alternative B:

PW B =20400000+ 100000(

P
, 4 , 50)
A

PW B =20400000+ 100000(21.482)

PW B =22,548,200

Therefore, the present worth of alternative B is RM22,548,200

Based on the above economic analysis, Alternative A, consisting of a twophase construction process should be chosen. Alternative A has a lower
net present worth of costs than does alternative B

Years, n

4%

6%

PW
0.8219

SPW
4.4518

PW
0.7473

SPW
4.2124

10

0.6756

8.1109

0.5584

7.3601

15

0.5553

11.1184

0.4173

9.7122

20

0.4564

13.5903

0.3118

11.4669

25

0.3751

15.6221

0.2330

12.7834

50

0.1407

21.482

0.0543

15.991

55

0.1157

22.109

0.0406

16.161

PW g=

e (r i) n1
ri

NPV =PV ( U ) + PV ( R )PV ( I )PV ( M )

PV ( U )
B
=
C PV ( I )+ PV ( M )PV ( R)

P=

F
n
(1+i )

PS =A

(1+i)n1
n
i(1+i)

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