Importance of Inspection For Corrosion

Engineering Encyclopedia
Saudi Aramco DeskTop Standards
Importance Of Inspection For Corrosion
Note: The source of the technical material in this volume is the Professional
Engineering Development Program (PEDP) of Engineering Services.
Warning: The material contained in this document was developed for Saudi
Aramco and is intended for the exclusive use of Saudi Aramcos
employees. Any material contained in this document which is not
already in the public domain may not be copied, reproduced, sold, given,
or disclosed to third parties, or otherwise used in whole, or in part,
without the written permission of the Vice President, Engineering
Services, Saudi Aramco.
Chapter : Inspection
File Reference: COE10301
For additional information on this subject, contact

W.P. Lamp on 875-2724
Instrumentation
Importance of Inspection for Corrosion
CONTENTS
PAGES
REASONS FOR INSPECTION............................................................................... 1

Why Inspect?................................................................................................ 1
Safety............................................................................................................ 1
Damage Detection and Control ................................................................................ 2
Time and Money .......................................................................................... 6

COMPONENTS OF A COMPREHENSIVE CORROSION
INSPECTION PROGRAM...................................................................................... 8
Responsible Financial Plan........................................................................... 8
Comprehensive Inspection Plan with Acceptable Inspection
Frequency ..................................................................................................... 8
Accurate Record Keeping/Data Analysis ..................................................... 8
Proper Equipment Selection ......................................................................... 8
COMMON INSPECTION TECHNIQUES ............................................................. 9
Visual Inspection.......................................................................................... 9
Nondestructive Testing............................................................................... 11
Instrumented Scrapers ................................................................................ 13
Downhole Corrosion Survey Tools ............................................................ 14
Underwater NDT ........................................................................................ 15
Other Techniques ....................................................................................... 18
GLOSSARY .......................................................................................................... 20
Instrumentation
REASONS FOR INSPECTION

Why Inspect?
In the world today, national and international pipeline networks cover hundreds of thousands
of kilometers. The revenue-producing capabilities of these pipelines represent a major capital
investment that significantly affects the economic condition of companies, countries, or even
entire regions.
Adherence to accepted construction codes and standards and the selection of quality materials
will help ensure that the pipeline is free of significant defects upon installation.
Unfortunately, despite the use of good materials and the implementation of an effective
prevention program, deterioration of in-service pipelines still occurs. Many factors contribute
to the rate and extent of deterioration. Unfortunately, corrosion damage is unavoidable.
A comprehensive corrosion inspection program, working in conjunction with preventive
techniques, is the recommended method for protecting these valuable assets. The reasons for
implementing this type of program fall into three basic categories.
Safety
Damage detection and control
Time and money
Safety
Control of corrosion plays a major role in maintaining good safety standards. Not only should
equipment be designed properly, it must also be kept in good condition and protected against
the effects of corrosion. As seen by the examples below, an effective inspection program
must identify problems and also ensure that they are rectified.
In 1985, two platforms collapsed during a violent hurricane that hit the coast of the United
States near the state of Louisiana. Five people were washed overboard when a platform on
South Timbalier collapsed. Also, a nearby unmanned header platform and a three-pile,
single-well protector on South Pelto collapsed.
After conducting an inspection, the Minerals Management Service (MMS) reported gross
corrosion-related structural damage in 15 places on the South Timbalier platform. Seven of
the fifteen corrosion sites were above water and eight were below. Several were in or directly
adjacent to leg/joint welds and member intersections. According to the report, crew members
were aware that the structure had deteriorated.
Instrumentation
An analysis of the South Pelto header platform revealed that it had also deteriorated. The
three-pile, single-well protector adjacent to the platform was in very good structural condition,
but its piles were bent and flattened at the mudline from overload. The report went on to say
that using mechanical clamps to repair broken joints and failing to maintain an adequate
cathodic protection system probably contributed to the failure of the header platform.
To avoid future disasters such as this one, the MMS report recommended that Gulf of Mexico
operators submit reports detailing when they last inspected their platforms, the type of
inspection performed, the areas inspected, the condition of the structure, and cathodic
protection readings.
The Annual Report on Pipeline Safety (1988), published by the U.S. Department of
Transportation, revealed the statistics shown in Table 1 on failure-related deaths and injuries
in the oil and gas industry.
TABLE 1. The Annual Report on Pipeline Safety (1988)

Type of Equipment
Failures
Fatalities
Gas Distribution Lines
170
15
Gas Transmission/Gathering Lines
8
3
Liquid Pipe Lines
196
2
Total
374
20
Injuries
76
11
19
106
Additional support for the establishment of an inspection program is found in a philosophy

known as Suitability-For-Service Evaluation. The purpose of these evaluations is to ensure
that components can continue to operate safely and reliably.
Damage Detection and Control
Corrosion plays a major role in failures and damage to equipment. Establishing an inspection
program that is designed to detect and control corrosion is one way to significantly reduce it
as a factor in these types of incidents. The reports below show that role of corrosion in
pipeline failures.
Instrumentation
The Annual Report of Pipeline Safety listed causes for gas distribution line failures as shown
in Figure 1.
FIGURE 1. Causes of Gas Distribution Line Failures
In the same report, the causes for liquid line failures were documented (see Figure 2).
Instrumentation
FIGURE 2. Causes of Liquid Line Failures
Inspection is also recommended for controlling a similar problem in a wet hydrogen sulfide
environment. Damage to pressure vessels, such as sulfide stress corrosion, hydrogen
blistering, or stress-oriented hydrogen induced cracking, can be caused by hydrogen
generated from corrosion reactions in this type of environment. Similar problems can also be
present in hydrofluoric acid environments.
The following incidents indicate the need for nondestructive examination (NDE) programs to
detect and diagnose corrosion-related damage.
A hydrogen-assisted cracking problem led to the Lemont refinery catastrophe in
Chicago
(USA), which killed 15 and seriously injured 22 people.
In a report published in 1988, cracks deeper than the corrosion allowance were
reported
in 20% of 189 vessels inspected by a major oil company. Extensive cracking
was observed in approximately one-third of the LPG storage vessels examined.
Instrumentation
The classic bathtub failure distribution graph illustrates a principle upon which this
philosophy is built. As shown in Figure 3, equipment will have high failure rate during the
burn-in phase.
These failures are caused by poor material quality and/or poor
workmanship. As these initial problems get fixed, the failure rate decreases. As the operating
life of the equipment increases, the rate of failures will increase due to corrosion, fatigue, or
abrasion. This period is known as the wear-out phase.
FIGURE 3. The Classic Bathtub Failure Distribution
Damage inspection is important in applying this concept. In fact, the detection of an

unacceptable flaw or an operational deficiency is one of the factors used to determine when a
suitability-for-service evaluation should be performed.
Instrumentation
Time and Money

Time and money are the final two reasons for establishing a corrosion inspection program. A
corrosion inspection program can assist a company by reducing downtime and cutting
operating costs.
When planning an inspection program, a company should realize that an inadequate or poorly
implemented program will result in equipment failures. Such failures increase repair time and
costs. They can also lead to unscheduled shutdowns, usually causing a loss in production.
In addition to reducing the chances for unscheduled shutdowns, a good corrosion inspection
program should also decrease the number of scheduled shutdowns. The period between
scheduled shutdowns can be lengthened after the equipment in critical service has passed a
thorough inspection.
Reducing downtime saves time and money, but an inspection also saves money by reducing
operating costs. Before introducing or expanding a program, a company examines the
economic factors. In the area of corrosion inspection, the equation in Figure 4 relates two
important economic factors.
The Economic Factors

Prevention Treatment Cost Vs. Inspection Costs
FIGURE 4. The Economic Factors in Corrosion Inspection
A blanket coverage approach to corrosion prevention can cost millions of dollars for a
single field. For example, according to an article in Offshore Economics magazine entitled
Platform Probes Monitor Corrosion, Phillips Petroleum Co. performed 124 well squeeze
treatments in 1980 for a total cost of $9,000,000. Phillips estimated that 65% of the 120
wells in the field did not require treatment. The question was which 78 out of the 120 wells
were not in immediate danger of corrosion damage.
Instrumentation
The best way to find the answer is to use corrosion monitoring and inspection equipment.
Through analysis of the data from this equipment, an inspector can determine which wells
have corrosive tendencies and which do not. An inspection and prevention program can then
be planned based on current corrosion data. Implementing this type of program saves money
two ways.
Scheduling overhauls or workovers before failures or extensive corrosion damage

occur
Drastically reducing chemical costs by eliminating unnecessary treatments
To illustrate this point, by implementing a limited monitoring system, Phillips was able to
eliminate treatments for 24 wells and save $2 million in chemical costs during the test period
alone. According to Phillips, the total monitoring equipment costs, estimated at $2 million,
have been defrayed completely by the initial savings in chemical costs.
An inspection program also reduces production equipment costs. Studies have shown, for
example, that early detection and diagnosis of a problem reduces the damage to a piece of
equipment, thus prolonging its operating life. Keeping a piece of equipment in operation
longer reduces the need to purchase a replacement.
Instrumentation
COMPONENTS OF A COMPREHENSIVE CORROSION INSPECTION PROGRAM

Responsible Financial Plan
Enough money must be allocated to ensure that the inspection program meets Saudi Aramcos
needs.
Comprehensive Inspection Plan with Acceptable Inspection Frequency
The inspection plan should incorporate enough techniques to give a complete coverage of the
facility being inspected. The plan must also establish an effective inspection frequency which
does not waste manpower/finances on excessive inspection, nor result in an insufficient
amount of inspection.
Accurate Record Keeping/Data Analysis

Accurate record keeping is necessary to evaluate over time both the specific system being
inspected and any corrective measures taken as a result of previous inspections.
Proper Equipment Selection

The right equipment must be selected for the specific inspection. Each particular inspection
technique has its own advantages and limitations.
Instrumentation
COMMON INSPECTION TECHNIQUES

Visual Inspection
In the literal sense, the term visual inspection only includes inspection by eyesight. In a
broader sense, this term can also include using other senses such as touching, listening, and
smelling, along with vision-enhancing tools.
In the oil and gas industry, visual inspection can be defined as nondestructive testing (NDT)
methods involving visual examination, enhanced or assisted by simple inspection tools such
as fiber optics, mirrors, and magnets.
Visual inspection provides a simple and effective means of determining the location and
severity of corrosion-related damage. Common applications for visual inspection include:
General or localized corrosion

Shallow or intense pitting
Ruptures or cracks
Erosion and deformities
Significant changes in deposits on surfaces
Common tools and techniques used for visual inspection include:
Fiber optics
Fiber optics uses an optical instrument to visually inspect the interior surfaces of pipes
or other hard-to-reach places.
Pit gauges
Pit gauges are inspection devices used to measure the depth and width of a depression or
cavity in a metal surface.
Cameras
Downhole cameras provide photographs of the inside surface of a well casing or
production tubing. The photographs confirm any suspected internal casing or tubing
damage or check the wellbore condition.
Instrumentation
Mirrors
Mirrors can be used to inspect the bottomside of pipes or equipment that are difficult to
see because of their inaccessible location.
Magnets
Magnets check the magnetic properties of a material.
Visual inspection is a vital part of a successful inspection program. It is the simplest of

inspection techniques and offers the greatest economic potential. In addition, visual
inspections offer scheduling flexibility. Inspections can be performed while the equipment or
system is on-stream or during planned downtimes or work stoppages. A visual inspection for
damage or corrosion can be performed any time a piece of equipment is out of service.
10
Instrumentation
Nondestructive Testing
Nondestructive testing (NDT) is an inspection technique that detects defects in a test object
without requiring post-inspection repairs. This technique primarily involves looking at (or
through) a piece of equipment or measuring something about the equipment as a means of
locating and evaluating surface or interior irregularities, discontinuities, or flaws.
Nondestructive evaluation (NDE) and nondestructive inspection (NDI) are other terms
associated with this type of inspection.
NDT inspection techniques can be used to
Detect, locate, and evaluate defects

Measure and evaluate dimensions (wall thicknesses)
Determine the chemical composition of alloys
Common NDT tools and techniques include:
Ultrasonics
Ultrasonic testing techniques such as pulse echo use sound waves to penetrate an
object and generate reflections or echoes that are used to detect irregularities within the
object or changes in the objects material properties.
Radiography
Radiography detects material irregularities by using an X-ray machine or radioactive
isotope to produce the X or gamma radiation that penetrates the test object. Possible
irregularities appear on shadowgraphs (the developed film) as dark spots or density
changes in the film.
Magnetic particle
Magnetic particle inspection uses an induced magnetic field to detect and locate surface
irregularities. To detect flaws, iron particles (either dry or suspended in a liquid) are
dusted on the surface of a ferro-magnetic material. Irregularities in the materials
surface create distortions in the magnetic field.
Magnetic flux
Magnetic flux is a special type of magnetic leak field examination used to check loss of
metal.
11
Instrumentation
Dye penetrant
Dye penetrants are probably the most widely used NDT method because they are easy
to use and relatively inexpensive. In this method, the dye solution is placed on the
cleaned surface of the test object or piece of equipment. After the excess dye has been
removed, a developer is added to draw the penetrant out of irregularities that open to the
objects surface. Penetrants can be either dry or liquid, dyed, or fluorescent.
Thermography
Thermography is an infrared inspection technique that is primarily used to check
temperature variations over the surface of an object. Detecting hot spots in heaters is a
typical application of thermography.
The data gathered by using NDT assists inspectors in evaluating the severity of a flaw or
determining the life span of a piece of equipment. Such determinations improve operating
safety and lower maintenance and operating costs.
A primary advantage of NDT inspection is that, in many instances, nondestructive testing can
be performed while the equipment is in use or online, thus avoiding costly shutdowns. NDT
also has the ability, through its recorded data, to direct any required internal inspection to a
specific problem area. Additionally, the NDT method detects and monitors active and
growing defects while ignoring dormant fabrication defects.
12
Instrumentation
Instrumented Scrapers
Instrumented or intelligent scrapers are sophisticated pipeline inspection tools used to detect
and evaluate the deterioration of buried and subsea pipelines.
There are two basic types of instrumented scrapers: fluid propelled and umbilical (crawler).
Fluid propelled
The fluid propelled scraper moves with the flow of the pipelines product (crude, natural
gas, refined products, or water). Most intelligent scrapers are fluid propelled.
Umbilical (crawler)
The umbilical scraper inspects specific parts of a pipeline such as risers with heavy-wall
or varying-wall thickness. The umbilical scraper inspects within a limited distance.
Instrumented scrapers, operationally proven and commercially available, are classified

according to inspection method. Typical instrumented scrapers include:
Ultrasonic scraper
Ultrasonic scrapers are capable of qualifying and quantifying external and internal
corrosion. They provide a direct measurement of the wall thickness and can be used for
checking cracks. The most frequent use of ultrasonic scrapers is to inspect pipes with
heavy or varying wall thickness.
Camera scraper
Camera scrapers check the internal condition of a pipeline. The photographs from this
tool are used to look for corrosion, confirm suspected internal pipeline damage, and
inspect girth welds. Other uses include determining pipe cleaning efficiency and
checking the quality of internal coatings of a rehabilitated old pipeline.
Caliper scraper
Caliper scrapers detect dents or buckles, pipe out of roundness (ovality), and abrupt
changes in wall thickness. A typical use of calipers is to inspect pipelines after
construction and prior to operation to detect any damage resulting from construction.
13
Instrumentation
Magnetic flux leakage scraper

Magnetic flux leakage scrapers detect corrosion pits and general corrosion in pipelines
ranging in diameter from 4 to 48 inches. Although limited in their ability to detect
certain types of irregularities, magnetic flux leakage scrapers are the tools most
frequently used by ipeline operators to detect corrosion.
Eddy current scraper

Eddy current scrapers are very effective in detecting internal defects. They are also used
to detect severe general corrosion, parted or split pipe, weight change, bends, crimped
pipe, and lateral cracks.
In general, data gathered by instrumented scrapers assists in preventing pipeline leaks, which
are dangerous, potentially polluting to the environment, and expensive to clean up and repair.
After buried and subsea pipelines have been in service for several years, inspection of their
condition becomes important. Instrumented scrapers perform this vital function.
Downhole Corrosion Survey Tools
Downhole corrosion survey tools are wireline logging instruments that are used to evaluate
downhole casing and tubing. They predict and detect various types of corrosion, both internal
and external.
Downhole corrosion survey tools have the following categories.
Category
Mechanical
Electromagnetic
Ultrasonic
Tool
Calipers
Pipe Analysis Log (PAL)
Electromagnetic Thickness Tool (ETT)
Corrosion Protection Evaluation Tool
(CPET)
Acoustic Casing Evaluation (ACE)
Borehole Televiewer (BHTV)
Cement Evaluation Tool (CET)
Mechanical tools represent the traditional inspection technology. In fact, the mechanical
multifinger caliper is one of the oldest and simplest tools available for measuring changes in
casing and tubing internal diameter. By using spring-loaded feelers, these tools directly
measure general corrosion, pitting attack, or wear. Unfortunately, even with recent
improvements, the calipers fingers may damage protective scale or internal coating and
possibly score the tubing wall in the process. Corrosion inhibitors are usually used to prevent
corrosion at these locations.
14
Instrumentation
Electromagnetic tools use nondestructive, noncontact methods to evaluate casings, both

internally and externally, and provide a log of corroded areas.
Pipe analysis log (PAL) uses an electromagnetic flux to locate pits and holes and an eddy
current to estimate the size (internal diameter only).
The electromagnetic thickness tool (ETT), using the eddy current method, is best at detecting
areas of generalized thinning, holes larger than 2 inches, and vertical splits. The ETT is also
the only tool available for detecting casing flaws in the outer casing of multiple strings.
The corrosion protection evaluation tool (CPET) records a potential or profile survey by using
a microvolt and resistance measurement to calculate the amount and direction of current
flowing in the casing.
Ultrasonic survey tools use nondestructive methods to measure casing ID, geometry, and
thickness. This type of tool is often used in combination with other downhole inspection
methods.
The acoustic casing evaluation (ACE) tool detects metal loss, casing deformation, internal
roughness, and evaluates cement. This tool is most effective in the detection of large scale
corrosion such as general thinning and holes greater than 1 inch.
The borehole televiewer (BHTV) is an acoustic logging tool that produces a 360 image of the
inner casing wall to locate defects such as holes, pits, splits, and general pipe geometry. This
tool usually evaluates short sections of deformed casing identified by primary corrosion
measurements as being corroded or damaged.
Downhole corrosion survey tools accurately evaluate downhole casing and tubing and
provide a log of corroded areas. By monitoring test procedures and interpreting the results,
inspectors emphasize the preventive aspects of a corrosion inspection program.
Underwater NDT
Underwater inspection is used to investigate the following conditions.
Gross damage
Cracks
Corrosion
Cathodic protection potential levels
15
Instrumentation
Anode condition and percent depletion

Debris
Marine growth
Scour depth and area
Common underwater NDT tools and techniques include:
Visual (diver or ROV)

Visual inspection is always the first underwater inspection method used for conditions
such as general or localized corrosion and shallow or intense pitting. Tape measures and
pit gauges are generally used to measure and monitor corrosion.
Magnetic particle inspection

Magnetic particle inspection is the most common underwater NDT technique for
investigating cracks. Defects in the inspected material disrupt the magnetic flux running
through the material. Small ferromagnetic particles applied to the surface are attracted
to areas of high flux activity. These particles can be dyed or made fluorescent to
provide maximum contrast.
Flooded member detection

Flooded member detection is an ultrasonic technique that determines if a normally dry
platform member has water in it. The presence of water indicates that the member has a
pit or crack in it.
Radiography
Radiography has been used for underwater inspection of welds and detection of pitting
on risers.
Stereo photography
Underwater stereo photography, also a visual method, measures corrosion pit depth.
Ultrasonic wall thickness reading

An application of ultrasonic testing is the measurement of wall thickness of exposed
risers. This testing method also checks for internal scour and pitting.
16
Instrumentation
Cathodic protection potential

Cathodic protection potentials can also be measured underwater.
readings indicate the general level of protection of platform members.
These potential
AC potential drop
One of the newest underwater inspection techniques is the alternating current potential
drop (ACPD). In this technique, a high-frequency, alternating current passes through
the surface of the piece to be tested. The AC electrical field generated follows the
surface of the material, including the sides of any surface-breaking defects. Potential
drops across any of these defects are then used to calculate crack depths.
The advantages of using underwater NDT techniques include the ability to verify actual
integrity of offshore structures. Underwater NDT techniques make it possible to determine if
a repair is needed or if the repairs made underwater are acceptable.
17
Instrumentation
Other Techniques
Other inspection techniques are used to determine the chemical compositions of alloys,
determine the mechanical properties of a metal, or listen to cracks grow in a metal.
Other inspection techniques include:
Eddy current
Eddy current testing uses interruptions in the flow of electrical currents (eddy currents)
to detect irregularities or changes in a materials properties. Using an electronic caliper,
electromagnetic waves are sent through a test object. Eddy currents are logged and
decoded, and the data is sent to a computer for monitoring and analysis. This method is
primarily used to
Measure or identify such conditions as electrical conductivity, magnetic

permeability, grain size, heat treatment condition, and hardness
Detect cracks, voids, and inclusions
Sort dissimilar metals and detect differences in their composition and

microstructure
Acoustic emission
Acoustic emission (AE) is a nondestructive testing method that detects and locates
defects such as active stepwise hydrogen cracking and blistering in wet hydrogen sulfide
environments.
Using this method, stress waves (acoustic emissions) are produced by sudden movement
in stressed materials. Sudden movement in a metal, such as a crack growing, produces
waves that radiate out into the structure and excite sensitive transducers. These signals
are amplified and measured to produce data for display and interpretation.
AE is most effective when a follow-up method such as automated ultrasonics is used to
size the located defects. The acceptance of AE as a global inspection method is
expanding, due in part to comparison tests in which AE has proven to be more reliable
than traditional methods (MPI, for example) in detecting and locating defects.
Alloy Chem-sorter
18
Instrumentation
Texas Nuclear Metal Analyzer

The Alloy Chem-Sorter and the Texas Nuclear Metal Analyzer are devices used to
determine the chemical composition of alloys. The Chem-Sorter uses an electrographic
extraction of metal ions from a metal surface. Color spots that appear during the test are
specific to the various alloys. The Texas Nuclear Metal Analyzer uses X-ray
fluorescence to determine the chemical composition of alloys. This type of equipment
can be used to prevent incorrect material selection that can lead to premature failures.
With this equipment, the test material is exposed to a gamma-ray beam. An X-ray is
released by the material, and a microprocessor converts the X-ray information into alloy
identification information.
Ultrasonic hardness tester

Ultrasonic hardness testers are compact, lightweight, and easy to use. These testers can
be used for pinpoint positioning and, therefore, are very useful in inaccessible areas.
The hardness values determined by the tester provide information about the mechanical
properties of the tested piece.
19
Instrumentation
GLOSSARY
bathtub failure distribution
Distribution showing failure rate over the operating life of

a system
cathodic protection
A corrosion prevention technique in which electrical

currents are used to prevent corrosion on a structure
defect
A discontinuity whose size, shape, orientation, location,

or properties make it detrimental to the useful service of
the part in which it occurs or which exceeds the
accept/reject criteria for the given design
developer (penetrant)
Chemical used to enhance the visibility of small amounts

of penetrant bleeding from small discontinuities.
Developers draw or absorb penetrant material from a
surface discontinuity to allow the penetrant to be visible
under natural or black light.
discontinuity
Any interruption in the normal physical structure or

configuration of a part, such as crack, laps, seams,
inclusions, or porosity. A discontinuity may or may not
affect the usefulness of a part.
downhole corrosion survey

tools
Wireline logging instruments that are used to evaluate

downhole casing and tubing
downtime
Scheduled or unscheduled work stoppage
echo
Reflection of waves
ferro-magnetic
Iron-containing material that can be magnetized
flaw
Defect or imperfection in a material; hidden fault that

may cause failure of a material under stress
fluorescent
Type of dye that indicates defects when ultraviolet light is

used
girth
Circumference
20
Instrumentation
instrumented scraper
Sophisticated pipeline inspection tool used to detect and

evaluate the deterioration of buried and subsea pipe wall
using built-in system intelligence
nondestructive testing
(NDT)
An inspection technique that detects defects in a test

object without requiring post-inspection repairs
penetrant
Penetrating liquid used to detect flaws
shutdown
Time during which equipment is not operating
squeeze treatment
Treatment that involves forcing a chemical into the

formation with a resulting feedback of the chemical over
a period of time
stress corrosion
Cracking caused by the combination of a specific

environment and stress
suitability-for-service
evaluation
Integrity of equipment
ultrasonic testing
Nondestructive method of determining wall thickness or

the location of flaws within any material capable of
conducting sound
visual inspection
Inspection methods involving visual examination,

enhanced or assisted by simple inspection tools such as
fiber optics, mirrors, and magnets
workovers
Repairs made to equipment in order to place it back in

operation
21

Importance of Inspection For Corrosion

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