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Nondestructive Testing
Note: The source of the technical material in this volume is the Professional
Engineering Development Program (PEDP) of Engineering Services.
Warning: The material contained in this document was developed for Saudi
Aramco and is intended for the exclusive use of Saudi Aramcos
employees. Any material contained in this document which is not
already in the public domain may not be copied, reproduced, sold, given,
or disclosed to third parties, or otherwise used in whole, or in part,
without the written permission of the Vice President, Engineering
Services, Saudi Aramco.
Chapter : Inspection
File Reference: COE10304
Engineering Encyclopedia
Inspection
Nondestructive Testing
CONTENTS
PAGES
ULTRASONICS ..................................................................................................... 1
Application of Ultrasonics........................................................................... 4
Limitations of Ultrasonics............................................................. 5
Interpretation of Ultrasonic Data ................................................................. 8
RADIOGRAPHY.................................................................................................... 9
Theory of Radiography ............................................................................... 9
Application of Radiography ...................................................................... 12
Limitations of Radiography ........................................................ 13
Interpretation of Radiographic Data............................................ 14
MAGNETIC PARTICLE...................................................................................... 15
Theory of Magnetic Particle Inspection .................................................... 15
Particle Application Techniques................................................................ 15
Field Application ....................................................................................... 16
Magnetizing Field Adequacy .................................................................... 18
MAGNETIC FLUX .............................................................................................. 21
Theory of Magnetic Flux........................................................................... 21
DYE PENETRANT .............................................................................................. 23
Field Application of Dye Penetrants ......................................................... 24
THERMOGRAPHY ............................................................................................. 29
Theory of Thermography .......................................................................... 29
Field Application of Thermography .......................................................... 30
GLOSSARY ......................................................................................................... 31
Engineering Encyclopedia
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ULTRASONICS
Theory of Ultrasonics
Ultrasonic testing is a nondestructive method of determining wall thickness or the location of
flaws within any material capable of conducting sound. The general principles used in
ultrasonic testing are quite similar to sonar and radar echo-ranging techniques developed
during World War II.
Ultrasonic waves are generated by a device called a transducer. Transducers are crystals that
exhibit a phenomenon known as the piezoelectric effect, which transforms electrical pulses
into mechanical vibrations and mechanical vibrations into electrical pulses. A rapidly
fluctuating voltage will cause the transducer to vibrate at the same frequency as that with
which the voltage fluctuates, producing an ultrasonic sound wave. Ultrasonic equipment uses
conventional echo-ranging instrumentation and incorporates electronic circuits for the
generation of signals. Various types of transducers convert the sound echoes into the
mechanical vibrations (sound) and reversibly convert the sound echoes into electrical voltage
pulses. Additional circuitry then amplifies the weak returning signals and displays them on
the data read-out device. This may either be a cathode-ray oscilloscope or a meter or digital
thickness read-out.
For testing, ultrasonic vibrations of the transducer are generally introduced into the material
through a couplant such as oil, grease, glycerine, or water. Within the test material, the
ultrasonic waves produced by the sending transducer are beamed waves that progress
almost as a column, like light from a flashlight. These sound waves will reflect from various
boundaries within the part, similar to the reflection of light rays from reflecting surfaces such
as mirrors. These reflected sound waves return to the transducer, causing it to vibrate and
send an electrical signal to the instrument. The total time elapsed from when the electrical
signal is sent to the transducer until the reflected signal is returned is electronically measured
on a cathode-ray tube (CRT) and empirically converted to either thickness or distance from a
reflecting defect.
Figure 1 illustrates the principle of straight-beam ultrasonic nondestructive testing.
Figure 1(a) represents the propagation of sound within a test specimen that does not contain
any flaws. A typical CRT screen presentation (Figure 1(b)) is illustrated to show the initial
pulse, time base line, and back reflection. Figure 1(c) represents the propagation of sound
within a test specimen containing a known flaw. Note the flaw indication shown on the CRT
screen display (Figure 1(d)).
Engineering Encyclopedia
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Angle-beam or shear-wave ultrasonic testing can be defined as testing in which the sound
beam is sent into the test piece at an angle, using a type of ultrasonic sound wave known as a
shear wave. Angle-beam testing is used to locate flaws or cracks that are not oriented
properly in the test piece to be located by means of straight-beam tests. This method of
testing is most favorable for weld inspection. Figure 2 represents ultrasonic examination of
welded test specimens using the angle-beam (or shear-wave) method of sound propagation.
Note the angular position of the transducer within the wedge in Figure 2(a). The CRT screen
presentation (Figure 2(b)) illustrates the initial pulse of sound produced by the transducer in a
welded test specimen that does not contain any flaws. The absence of the back reflection,
which indicates material thickness and is usually visible in straight-beam tests, is attributed to
the angle of the sound beam. A welded test specimen containing a known flaw is illustrated
in Figure 2(c). Note the transducer position and the distance between the transducer and the
weld area. The flaw indication as illustrated on the CRT screen display is shown in
Figure 2(d).
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New, improved models are introduced each year by manufacturers, but there are several
instruments now available that perform well. In order to select the proper equipment, the
requirements for each application should be evaluated. Many factors determine the best
choice of an ultrasonic instrument for a specific application.
The use of ultrasonics for inspection, maintenance, corrosion monitoring, and quality
assurance/control work is rapidly expanding. Ultrasonics has proven to be a fast, accurate
method for nondestructively obtaining wall thickness measurements of plant/production
equipment and piping, both during a turnaround and while a plant or production unit is onstream.
Limitations of Ultrasonics
Understanding where to expect corrosion in equipment such as towers, drums, heat
exchangers, and piping is essential to successful ultrasonic corrosion monitoring. Figures 3
through 6 illustrate typical locations where corrosion would be most likely to occur in a
piping system.
The main limitation of ultrasonic inspection is the large number of readings required to
determine the general condition of the material. Other limitations of ultrasonics include:
Readings must be taken over a period of time to determine the corrosion rate.
High temperature measurements may have to be adjusted.
Surfaces must be free of scale or other foreign substance such as liquids (except for the
thin film of couplant required for signal transmission).
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RADIOGRAPHY
Theory of Radiography
Radiography is a technique using differential absorption of a radiation source to inspect
welds or detect corrosion. Radiography can determine the wall thickness of pipe as well as
detect pitting or other localized corrosion damage. A source emits radiation through a test
area. Variations in thickness, composition of the material, and wavelength of the radiation
will cause different amounts of the radiation to be absorbed. The unabsorbed radiation is
collected and correlated to a wall thickness. Photographic film or a fluorescent screen placed
adjacent to a solid body on the side opposite the source of radiation thereby shows an image
of subsurface defects as illustrated in Figure 7. Cracks, voids, inclusions, and other defects
can be detected by radiography as shown in Figure 8. The more radiation penetrating the
object and striking the film, the darker the film appears when developed.
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The developed film, called a radiograph, provides positive visual evidence of defects and
corrosion damage. The amount of radiation that passes through a metal in a given length of
time is inversely proportional to its thickness. This means that more radiation will pass
through a thinned, corroded area than through a thicker, undamaged area. Therefore, pits or
corroded areas show up as dark spots or areas on a radiograph.
X-ray equipment is portable but bulky and requires electrical connections in order to operate.
X-ray equipment is normally used for the inspection of thin material, 0.125- to 0.750-inch
steel. However, gamma ray radiography is the most widely used method for field inspection.
The most widely used gamma radiographic sources are iridium-192 and cobalt-60. Iridium192 is used for material thickness of 0.250 to 3.500 inch for steel. Cobalt-60 is used for
material thickness of 2.50 to 8.00 inch for steel. Gamma sources do not require electrical
connections and are much smaller than X-ray machines.
There are two basic types of radiographic inspection: manual and real-time radiography.
Manual radiography collects the unabsorbed radiation on sensitive film. In real-time
radiography, the image is sent directly to a viewing screen or television monitor and may be
taped for future viewing. With real-time radiography, the test piece can be manipulated
during inspection to achieve the proper orientation for flaw detection.
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Application of Radiography
Radiography allows inspection of selected key areas in a system without shutdown. For
example, selected areas in a flowline might include elbows, restrictions, or other places where
higher corrosion rates are expected. It is usually not economical to inspect 100% of a system
with radiography. Therefore, selection of the test sites is critical. Radiography has been used
for many different types of inspection including:
Measuring pipe and tube wall thicknesses, both on-stream and during shutdowns, with
or without insulation
Evaluating small diameter, threaded pipe nipple fit-ups and measuring internal corrosion
Thus radiography provides a permanent, visible record of the internal condition of a material.
Radiography can be used with all materials and is independent of the magnetic and electrical
properties of the material. Using special X-ray tubes, it is also possible to examine objects
that are moving rapidly, for instance, motors.
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Limitations of Radiography
The limitations imposed upon the use of radiography are set in part by the type of material
through which the radiation must penetrate and in part by the material thickness. The thicker
the material the radiation must pass through, the more scattered (that is, the more noise) is
generated in the object. With a sufficiently thick object, the signal-to-noise ratio becomes too
large for a usable image to be obtained.
Access to both sides of an object is needed so that the film can be placed on one side and the
radiation source on the other.
Certain types of flaws are difficult to detect by radiography. Cracks cannot be detected if they
are essentially parallel to the radiation beam. Tight cracks in thick sections may not be
detected at all, even when properly oriented. Small defects such as inclusions or
microfissures may not be detected unless they are grouped close enough to give a detectable
gross defect.
Another limitation of radiography involves safety. Since these exposures are normally
performed using radioactive isotopes, penetrating radiation is released. Both X-rays and
gamma radiation are health hazards. Personnel who operate X-ray or gamma radiation must
carry exposure film for their personal monitoring and must close off the area when making
exposures to avoid exposing the public to radiation. The distance from the barrier to the
exposure site will typically be about 60 feet for iridium-192 and 150 feet for cobalt-60.
Safe operation is ensured by a combination of the following:
Restrictions on the intensity and direction of radiation emitted from the source during
exposure
The best protection is afforded by distance because radiation intensity decreases in proportion
to the square of the distance from the source. As long as personnel stay far enough away
from the source while an exposure is being made, portable sources can be used with adequate
safety.
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MAGNETIC PARTICLE
Magnetic particle inspection is a nondestructive means for detecting surface and slightly
subsurface discontinuities and cracks. Any part made of a ferromagnetic material pipe,
structural steel, plate, turbine blades, bolts, nuts can be inspected by the magnetic particle
method. There are no restrictions as to the shape and size of the part. Nonferromagnetic
materials that cannot be strongly magnetized cannot be inspected by this method. Austenitic
stainless steels and most nonferrous materials are essentially nonmagnetic and, therefore,
exclude the use of magnetic particle inspection.
Theory of Magnetic Particle Inspection
Magnetic particle inspection consists of four basic procedures:
A suitable magnetic field can be induced into a part by a variety of methods, including bar
magnets, prods, or coils. A crack or other surface discontinuity causes leakage of electrical
flux, which establishes a local magnetic field. Cracks show up more clearly when they are at
right angles to the magnetic lines of force. The magnetic lines of force are in turn at right
angles to the current flow (right hand rule). For crack detection, the crack should be oriented
in the direction of current flow. In practice, a part should be examined in two directions, that
is, the magnetic field should be induced in two directions at 90 to be sure that defects are
adequately surveyed. Normally, this is done by moving the prods 90.
Particle Application Techniques
Magnetic particles applied to the test surface will collect in the local magnetic field at the
discontinuity and reveal its size and shape. The particles can be applied dry, or the part can
be sprayed or dipped using a suspension of particles in water or oil. This test can be made
much more sensitive by using fluorescent particles in a liquid suspension and examining the
part under black (near ultraviolet) light. With fluorescent particles, even very minute
amounts of particles are easily seen in complete or semidarkness. The chance of an inspector
missing an indication is greatly reduced.
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Dry particle inspection is most sensitive for use on very rough surfaces and for detecting
defects beneath the surface. It is normally used with portable equipment. The wet magnetic
particle inspection is used with stationary equipment. It is best suited for the detection of fine
surface discontinuities such as fatigue cracks.
Field Application
Magnetic particle inspection has been used for detecting fatigue cracks in vibrating or rotating
equipment. This type of inspection is normally intended for surface inspection, but it will
frequently detect defects that are slightly below the surface.
Usually satisfactory results are obtained when the surfaces are in the as-welded, as-rolled, ascast, or as-forged conditions. However, surface preparation by grinding or machining may be
necessary in some cases where surface irregularities would otherwise mask the indication or
discontinuity. Prior to magnetic particle inspection, the surface to be examined and any
adjacent area within at least 1 inch (25 mm) of the surface to be examined should be dry and
free of any dirt, grease, scale, welding flux, spatter, or any other matter that would interfere
with the inspection. Small openings and holes that lead to areas from which it would be
difficult to remove magnetic substances should be plugged before the part is inspected.
During magnetic particle inspection, the inspected parts surface should be covered with an
abundant source of suspended particles. Each area of interest should be examined at least
twice so the lines of flux in the first test are approximately perpendicular to the lines of flux in
the other.
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There are many techniques used to apply the magnetic field to the area of interest. The
following table lists some of these techniques along with a few advantages and disadvantages.
Technique
Permanent magnets
Advantage
Relatively low cost for the
unit
No power requirements
Can be configured to gain
access in tight spaces
AC yokes
DC/AC probes
Disadvantage
Limited field strength that
tends to deteriorate with time
and use
Field penetrates deep into
heavy walls (if more than
1/2-inch thick) leaving an
unacceptably weak field
strength at testing surface
Area to be cleaned of
coating
Power supply and cable
required
Inspection area to be cleaned
Field strength will vary with
probe spacing
Heavy cable and high
current required
Placement of coils difficult
at complex geometries
Uniform distance wire-tosurface required
Heavy cable and high
current required
A linear indication is one in which the length is equal to or greater than three times its width.
A rounded indication is one that is circular with its length less than three times its width.
Usually, if the indication is relevant (worth another look), alternate inspection methods such
as dye penetrant can be used to establish if it is critical and needs to be removed by grinding
or if it needs to be repaired.
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(35,000)
(L/D + 2)
For example, a part 10 inches long and 2 inches in diameter has a L/D ratio of 5.
Therefore,
(35,000)
= 5000 ampere-turns
(5 + 2)
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Parts with L/D ratio less than 4 but not less than 2
The magnetizing ampere-turns should be within 10 percent of the ampere-turns value
determined as follows:
Ampere-turns =
(45,000)
L/D
The current required to obtain the necessary magnetizing field strength can be
determined by dividing the required ampere-turns by the number of turns in the coil as
follows:
Ampere =
ampere-turns
turns
For example, if a 5-turn coil is used and the ampere-turns required are 5000, then
5000
= 1000 amperes.
5
If, at any time, the operator suspects that the magnetizing field is insufficient, the field can be
checked with a magnetic particle field indicator such as the pie gauge as shown in
Figure 10.
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MAGNETIC FLUX
Magnetic flux leakage is a technique used to detect metal loss in pipelines.
Theory of Magnetic Flux
Powerful permanent magnets, coupled to the pipe wall by steel brushes, induce a magnetic
field in the pipeline as shown in Figure 11. When the magnetic field encounters a defect such
as a metal loss area, a change takes place in the leakage field (Figure 12). This change in the
leakage field is monitored by sensors.
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Rows of sensors, covering the complete circumference of the pipe wall, are set between the
poles of the magnets. These sensors detect changes in the magnetic flux in the leakage field
as the tool moves through the pipeline.
Two arrays of sensors are situated at different positions on the tool. The sensors A, as shown
in Figure 13, are positioned between the brushes where the pipe wall material is magnetically
saturated. These sensors receive full strength signals from both inside and outside metal loss.
Sensors B measure the flux leakage at a remote position. As the pipe wall is no longer
saturated at this position, the signals are generally weaker. As a rule, internal metal loss can
be seen much better here than external defects. In most cases, sensors A record both internal
and external defects, and sensors B record only internal defects. Therefore, by comparing the
two readings, it is possible to distinguish between internal and external metal loss.
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DYE PENETRANT
The dye penetrant inspection method is used to reveal defects that reach the surface of
nonporous materials. Defects such as cracks, porosity, and small holes can be detected in a
very simple process on both ferrous and nonferrous alloys. This method is quick and
inexpensive to perform.
Theory of Dye Penetrant Inspection
During this inspection, a liquid penetrant is applied to the surface of the part to be inspected.
This penetrating liquid (penetrant), which is dyed (usually red) or fluorescent, is applied to a
clean and smooth surface as shown in Figure 14.
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The penetrating liquid is allowed to remain on the surface for a specified time, during which it
penetrates into any defects open at the surface. This period of time depends upon the
temperature of the part to be inspected. Dye penetrants are typically used at temperatures
ranging from 15 to 40 C (59 to 104 F), but some have been used with temperatures as low
as 2 C (35.6 F). At low temperatures, the penetration time must be increased by a factor
two to three times the normal rate. At higher temperatures [above 50 C (122 F)], the
penetration time is reduced to just a few minutes.
After excess penetrant is carefully removed from the surface of the part, a developing liquid is
applied and allowed to dry. The developer is usually an absorbent, light-colored, powdered
material. This developer acts as a blotter and draws the penetrant out of the defect by
capillary action. With visible dyes, the color contrast between the penetrant and the
developer makes the bleedout easy to see. With fluorescent dyes, an ultraviolet or black
light lamp is used to make the bleedout fluoresce brightly and allows the defect to be seen
readily.
Dye penetrant inspection can detect cracks as small as about 2 m wide.
Field Application of Dye Penetrants
Special cleaning liquids, dye penetrants, and developers are available in aerosol cans. These
aerosol cans can be taken anywhere in the field or be used where work space is limited. Dye
penetrant inspection can be done both indoors and outdoors.
Both the dye penetrant and the fluorescent penetrant are available in three types. Each type
has a different method for removal of excess penetrant.
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Water washable penetrants contain an emulsifier that allows excess surface penetrant to be
removed using water. They are the least sensitive penetrants but are used where large surface
areas have to be inspected. The washing operation must be carefully controlled to prevent
overwashing. Figure 15 illustrates this technique.
NOTE:
Solvent removable penetrants can only be fully removed from the surface by means of an
appropriate organic solvent. These penetrants are used when it is necessary only to inspect a
localized area. The solvent removable penetrant is the most commonly used in the petroleum
industry.
Post-emulsifiable penetrants must have an emulsifier applied to the excess surface penetrant
in order to make it water soluble. The danger of overwashing the penetrant out of the flaws is
greatly reduced. The emulsification time must be carefully controlled so that the surface
penetrant becomes water soluble but the penetrant in the flaws does not. Figure 16 illustrates
this technique. An overview of all three dye penetrant inspection processes is shown in
Figure 17.
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FIGURE 17. Overview Flow Chart for the Dye Penetrant Examination Process
Saudi Aramco DeskTop Standards
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Advantages of Dye Penetrants. This inspection method is simple, quick, and very
inexpensive to perform. Dye penetrants can be used on all sizes and shapes provided they do
not have too many odd angles and depressions that are so large that they are difficult to clean.
In addition, this method can be used in all orientations because the liquid can be drawn up as
well as down into a crack.
Limitations of Dye Penetrants. The cracks or defects must reach the surface to be detected.
The dye penetrant inspection method is very slow if large surfaces are to be examined. In
addition, rough surfaces, such as cast iron, reduce the possibility of an effective examination
because a rough surface is more difficult to clean.
Surface coating, oil, grease, and hammered or sandblasted surfaces exclude the use of dye
penetrant methods.
Precautions. When doing dye penetrant inspection, you should avoid using penetrants,
emulsifiers, cleaning liquids, and developers produced by different manufacturers. It is
extremely important to make sure that all of the materials will work well together.
Instructions provided by the manufacturer should be closely followed. When repeating an
inspection, it is necessary to repeat every step in the process and to be especially careful about
cleaning before a new developer is applied. If a different type of penetrant is used for the
reinspection, then you must be very careful that the original penetrant has been completely
removed from the defects. Remnants of a dye penetrant can react with a fluorescent penetrant
and may negate the fluorescent effect.
When dye penetrants are used, the inspection for defect indications must be carried out in
sufficiently bright daylight or artificial illumination. On the other hand, if fluorescent
penetrants are used, the area in which the inspection is to be made should be darkened. The
inspector must allow at least five minutes for his eyes to adjust to the darkness before the
inspection begins. In addition, the ultraviolet lamp reaches its full intensity after about
15 minutes.
The ultraviolet radiation from the lamp is normally within the wavelength range of 320 to
400 m. Ultraviolet radiation at these wavelengths is not harmful to human skin or eyes.
However, ultraviolet lamps with cracks in the filter glass should not be used because
damaging radiation may be present.
Finally safety requirements must be observed. Highly volatile organic solvents and additives
can be poisonous and very flammable. Typically, their flash points are low, so good
ventilation should be provided during the inspection.
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THERMOGRAPHY
Thermography is an inspection technique that makes use of the infrared spectral region to
identify hot spots on process equipment. It is a relatively fast technique and the results are
easy to interpret.
Theory of Thermography
Any object with a temperature above absolute zero will emit infrared radiation (IR) in
proportion to its temperature. Infrared meaning below the red or outside the visible
spectrum at its red end is electromagnetic radiation with a wavelength ranging between 0.75
and 1000 micrometers.
The electromagnetic spectrum is shown in Figure 18.
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GLOSSARY
black light
blotting
capillary action
couplant
defect
developer
discontinuity
drums
emulsifier
ferrous
Containing iron
flash point
fluorescent
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flaw
indication
infrared
Device typically made of low-carbon steel pie sections, furnacebrazed together, used to determine the strength of magnetizing
fields
oscilloscope
penetrant
post-emulsification
penetrant
piezoelectric effect
radiograph
radiographic coverage
radiography
thermography
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turnaround
ultrasonics
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