Gas Turbines PDF

Gas Turbines
Design & Operation
Training Course
Over 100 Question & answer
Over 200 Pictures
**FULL
**FULLY
FULLY ILLUSTURATED**
ILLUSTURATED**
OPERATION ENGINEER: ABDULLAH ZAMAN ALMERZA

20-24/10/2007
Table of Content
Page
Gas turbines general notes .. 10

Gas Turbine air intake system 34
Gas turbine compressor.... 40
Gas turbine combustion chambers.. 69
Gas turbine turbine section 94
Gas turbine blade cooling technique 108
General notes in shaft design.. 121
Gas turbine - start up unit.. 133
Gas turbine operation, control & protections.. 138
Gas turbine efficiency & optimization... 158
Appendix - a 182
References 187
2
"Gas Turbines design & Operation" Eng. Abdullah Zaman Al merza 20/10/2007 Mobile: ++9656492894
List of questions - EFGHI K

NOP QR TU TVR WY
What is the operating principal of gas turbine?
TU TVR P N^ Y WY
Gas turbine history & stages of development?
WFa ^ de g WY
What are the main types of internal combustion engine?
1
2
3
Yl TU VR QVj

P QR
RF TYpq TU VR QVjP QR

How aircraft gas turbines is classified?
TRr
TRRgR Ts gd TYpq TU VR QVjP QR
How can land base gas turbines classified?
WKp ^ Te WFa ^ Te uR Tgv EK Y
How can gas turbine classified?
What is the difference between Internal & external combustion engine?

Tpy VR TU VR uR Tgv EK Y
What is the difference between gas turbines & steam turbines?

WKp ^ z{ Fl TF|YI WY
What are most common examples of external combustion engines?

T ur TU VR uR Tgv EK Y
What is the difference between gas turbines & reciprocating engines?
TRRgR Ts g TYpq TU VR pqP u
10
11
Where are land base gas turbines used?

Rq W TU VR pqg d
12
OH P TU VRP
13
Why gas turbine doesn't used as car engine?

Why gas turbines are more expensive than reciprocating engines?
V OP
g Y TU VR
VY VjP WF O g uY T ur VjP d
( y Na )^ ^ TRO
Why reciprocating engines are not made from same materials that gas turbine is
made although they are suffer from very high temperature just like gas turbines?
TU TVR Nl {Fl P v QR
How could weather conditions affect gas turbines?
14
15
3
Ts g TYpq TU TVR RF TYpq TU TVR uR a WY
TRr

What is the main deference between land base gas turbines & gas turbine used in
aircrafts?
TU VR W
aY g
Explain air intake filter house in details?
16
ER WY Y
18
TVR { uY^ d { Na
U { g
19
Why do we need to compress air before it is enter to the combustion chamber?

TU VR W
g W Y
What are the main types of compressors which are used in gas turbine engines?
20
17
What is the main purpose of a compressor?
TU VR W T pqP d

Why reciprocating compressors are not used in gas turbine engines?
21
Centrifugal Compressor - Y

What are the operating principals of Centrifugal Compressor?
Axial compressor- Y
22
23
What are the operating principals of axial compressor?

NRq TRFl WY
24
NRqU TYpq a WY

What are the alternative methods used for compressor cleaning?
25
uR Tgv EK Y

What is the difference between axial & centrifugal compressors?
Axial Compressor Design - RjP
Explain Axial Compressor in details?
26
PRY WY RV a TR WY

What are the advantages of using blow off lines in axial compressor?
28
Axial Compressor RjP Vl TYpq TRRj | O WY

What are the main design considerations in axial compressor?
29
Axial Compressor { Fl Ug TRFl V

RP WY
30
What is compressor washing process?
27
What are the types of air effects during compression process in axial compressor?
4

Axial Compressor W
W Y
What is the definition of compressor surge?
Axial Compressor W
yH W Y
What are the main reasons of compressor surge?
Axial Compressor W {
Fl TRRj FUg QR
31
32
33
How can compressor surge be avoided by improving compressor design?

Compressor Surge Protection W
Ts W Y
What is compressor surge protection?
34
^ yY WY
35
R ^ yFY WY
36
^ y T
VO WY
What are the important factors for combustion to start?
37
TU TVR W TYpq ^ g WY

What are the main types of combustion chamber which are used in gas turbines?
38
^ T K WY
39
What are the main parts of combustion chamber?

^ TRFl V s
F R a TR WY
What is the importance of good mixing between fuel & air during combustion
40
What are the main principals for combustion?

What is the requirement for a good combustion?
process?
^ TRFl W T
vV O WY
What are the important points to be considered in a combustion process?
{ ^ Fl P WF NYO WY
What are the factors that affect combustion process?
^ V TFOF TFp I WY
What are the different configurations of the flame during combustion process?
diffusion Flame - TO s TFO Premix Flame Fp s TFO uR Y
41
42
43
44
What is the difference between Premix flame & diffusion flame?

Hybrid Burner-uR
F O NY
What is the general configuration of the hybrid burner?
45
ERs Rs V

Flame Humming - TFO W Nj F uRV Y
46
What is flame humming & why it is important to measure it?

^ V
N^ Y WY
What are the stages of the air during combustion?
47
5

NOx emission TVR W ^ uY TPV uRK RV RH Oyg NRFvP WY
48
What are the various methods used to educe NOx emission form gas turbines?
SOx emission- TVR W ^ uY TPV y RH Oyg NRFvP WY
What are the various methods used to reduce SOx emission from gas turbines?
49
Yl VR QVjP QR
50
How can turbines in general are classified?

Radial T Axial T TVR | pHI r VR uY g
51
Which types of turbines is most common radial or axial turbine?

Reaction turbine NO TVRP Impulse turbine a TVRP RHH WY
What are the main principals of impulse &reaction turbines?
TVR RjP Vl TYpq TRRj | O WY
52
53
What are the main considerations that used in turbine design?

Reaction Turbine NO TVRP Impulse turbine a TVRP uR Tgv EK Y
What is the main difference between impulse & reaction turbines?
a TVR TFp I WY
What are the different configurations of impulse turbine?
TU TVR W pq VR uY g
Which type of turbines is used in gas turbines?
54
TU TVR RjP
57
TVRF T |T yP WY
58
What are the methods used to cool turbine fixed & moving blades?
y
TVR yP uR Tgv EK Y
59
55
56
Explain gas turbine design?
What is the main deference between air cooled blades & water cooled blades?
!

How blade cooling effectiveness is measured?
TU TVR W T T| F N T O Q OP Y
What is the definition of Corrosion & Erosion for gas turbine blades?
TVR W
K{ FlI O F O Y
Which part in gas turbine is suffered from the highest thermal stress?
TU TVR W T T| F N T O yH WY
What are the main causes of Erosion & Corrosion on turbine blades?
EVY TVR T^ N NRFv F WY
What are the methods used to reduce Corrosion & protect turbine blades?
60
61
62
63
64
6
TVR W T
OP WF TRRgR
KI g W Y
What are the types of loads that exerted on rotating turbine blades?
TVR{ Fl W r P QR
65
66
How does deposits formation on turbine blade affect turbine efficiency?

TVR{ Fl T W F QR
67
How does the damage to turbine-blades tell upon the efficiency of the unit?
TR P QR Shaft Alignment - O Y TRFl V
P
68
Why shaft alignment process is important & how can we perform this process
correctly?
VR W R Journal Bearings Ov NR WH pqP
69
Tpy TU
Why Journal bearings are used in large turbines?
az Oy
Ypq d VR OF g VR O pqP
70
Why lifting oil is used in some turbines to lift their shafts?

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OY T s
71
Why we use only one axial bearing in turbine shaft instead of multiple bearings?
Tpy TVR TU TVRF O uR TRHHI a W Y
What are the main deference between gas turbine shaft & steam turbine shaft?
p V Tpy TVR ^ uY y TU TVR ^
Why gas turbine is larger than steam turbine for the same power output?
yVP VRFl TVR O TK l q WY

What is critical speed for turbine rotor & why do we have to avoid it?
TVR O Sagging - pP hogging - v TRqRr yHI W Y
72
73
74
75
What are the main reasons for shaft Hogging & Sagging?
TVR l W TRqRr yHI W Y
76
What are the main reasons of shaft vibration in turbine

TU TVR W U{ VVY{ VVY l {VVY QR
77
How is the torque, pressure & temperature distribution on gas turbine

TVR W T uY RaI TF^ W TPV NRFv pq N Y
78
What are the methods used to reduce vibrations at last stage of turbine?
7
TU TVR uY | Tpy TVR N^ Y l
79
Why the number of steam turbine stages is larger than gas turbines stages?
TVR O TGRy TR WY
80
What is the importance of turning gear operation for turbine rotor?
TU VR P
81
Why are gas turbines needs start up unit?

R W TYpq TU VRF
K g
WY
82
What are the most common starters which are used in aircraft gas turbine engines
TRr
Ts g TYpq TU VRF
K g WY
83
What are the most common starters which are used land base gas turbines?
KI TRHHI TR WY
84
What is the main purpose of control system?

Tpy VR W TYpq N/Tl q TRqRr gI WY
85
What are the main types of speed/load controller that used in steam turbines?
Tl q/N TRqRr gI WY
86
What are the main types of speed/load controllers?

Fa
Y ^Ty TFj VR R E
Y Tl q yP Tyqg P N
POH
87
Why it is preferred to make speed droop setting same for all turbines which are
connected to the same network?
TU TVR W TYpq g WY
88
What are the types of governors which are used in gas turbine?
TU TVR W N TRFl P QR
89
Describe the process of increasing gas turbine load?

TyqV Y TVR T
uY { Fl TU ^ N^ Rqg N
%100
Could we increase the gas turbine load even if compressor inlet guide vanes are
fully open?

a uY TU TVR l vP WF vV O WY
90
91
What are some of the factors that may determine the service life of gas turbine
components?
8
TU TVR l q TYpq Tv WY
92
What is the method used to calculate gas turbine service life?

N{ Fl TVR { Na ^
TK RP Y -
93
What is the effect of compressor inlet temperature on gas turbine output power?
TU TVR NRUP a WY
94
What is the start up sequence of land base gas turbine?

TRr
Ts g TYpq TU VR W s WY
95
What are the most important protections used in land base gas turbines?
TU TVR W v WY
96
What are the losses in gas turbine?

TU TVR W WY
97
What are the methods used to improve land base gas turbine efficiency?
Axial Compressor F TO R WF^ y Tv P
98
Why compressor intercooling is not wildly used in axial compressors?

{ Na
y TYpq TFp Rl RY WY
99
What are the main advantages & disadvantages of cooling systems which are used
for compressor inlet cooling?
T r QVjP QR 100
How combined cycles are classified?
T W TYpq K H TU TFp gI WY 101
What are the main Configurations of heat recovery steam generator?
9
GAS TURBINE GENERAL NOTES
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MS6001B-G.E.
10
NOP QR TU TVR WY -1

1-What is the operating principal of gas turbine?
Gas turbine is an internal combustion engine, it is designed to accelerate a stream of gas, which is used
to produce a reactive thrust to propel an object or to produce mechanical power to turn a load, the principal of
operation of the gas turbine can be explained by the following examples:
*-Example (1):
Figure (1)1500AD-Old Style Gas Turbine for BARB-Q not for Power generation!
(The sketch is drawn by Leonardo de Vinci)
Cold air is enter from the hole at bottom of the oven, as its mix with the hot gases that released from the
combustion its temperature will increase & hence its density will drop, then it will move up word & another
cold air will replace hot air with continues action, due to the movement of hot air to the top, it will create a
natural draft that pass through a series of blades that turned the roasting spit so provide power to the attached
mechanism.
*-Example (2):
Figure (2.A) shows a cylinder cross section with a fan on each end, now if the left hand fan is started
via an limited speed electric motor, it will draw air inside the cylinder which will cause the right hand fan to
11
rotate at the same speed of the other fan (if we neglect air pressure losses yet velocity losses inside the
cylinder). If we drill a hole in the cylinder surface between both fans & we ignite a continues flame Figure
(2.B), the temperature of the air that passes through the flame will increase & also its specific volume, this will
cause the right hand fan to rotate even faster than the left hand fan (because the air occupied a larger area than
before after being heated since its specific volume increased & hence its volumetric flow rate will increase).
Now, if we disconnect the electric motor that rotates the left hand fan & we connect the left hand fan with right
hand fan by a shaft & we insure a continuous flam Figure (2.C), the right hand fan will produce a mechanical
power that is sufficient to rotate the left hand fan & another applied load.
Figure (2) Simplified gas turbine

Now the idea of gas turbine is clear:
1- The left hand fan represents the COMPRESSOR
2- The right hand fan represents the TURBINE
3- The flame represents the COMBUSTION CHAMBER
4- The electric motor represents the START UP UNIT of the gas turbine.
12
5- Another applied load could be an electric generator, pump, or thrust propulsion as in aircraft .etc.
6- There is additional part of the gas turbine which is the AIR FILTER to insure clean air entrance.
Now if we look to Figure (3) we can realize real gas turbine configuration.
Figure(3) open cycle gas turbine
TU TVR P N^ Y WY -2

2- Gas turbine history & stages of development?
a- First successful design for a gas turbine is done by a lot of pioneers at the same time, one of them is Sir Frank
Whittle (England); he make painting for first gas turbine on 1930 but similar patent record in Germany & Italy
on the same year. Whittle developed a working gas turbine engine in April 1937 which was used to drive the
first successful turbojet airplane in Britain; His early work on the theory of gas propulsion was based on the
contributions of most of the earlier pioneers of this field.
b-After the Second World War, the jet engine became the most popular
method of powering aero planes and consequently the gas turbine rapidly
developed to generate electric power.
c-The reason why the gas turbine appeared so much later than other types of
internal combustion engines was because of the difficulty of finding materials
for the working parts, especially the turbine blades, as they would have to
with stand extremely high temperatures of the burning gas without melting or
weakening.
Figure(4) Sir Frank Whittle

13
*-The following table summarizes the history of the gas turbines:
Table(1) History of gas turbine development

14
WFa ^ de g WY -3

3-What are the main types of internal combustion engine?
Most popular internal combustion engines:
1-Reiprocating engines
There are two ways in which reciprocating engines classified which are:
a-spark ignition engines (that burn kerosene)
b-compression ignition engines (that burn diesel)
other way of reciprocating engines classification is:
a-Two stroke engines
Figure(5) 4-stroke Reciprocating Engine

15
Figure(6) 2-Stroke Reciprocating Engine

b- Four stroke engines
Figure(7) 4-stroke Reciprocating Engine

2-Rotary Pistons Engine(Wankel Engine)
In wankel engine, the piston has triangular shape & it produce rotating motion rather than reciprocal motion as
in reciprocating engines. Main advantages of Wankel engine are its extremely lower weight compare to its
power output & its low noise & vibration level. Its main disadvantages is higher fuel consumption & higher
pollution level compare to reciprocating engines.
16
Figure(8) Wankel Engine
Typically, it is more difficult (but not impossible) to make a rotary engine meet U.S. emissions
regulations.
The manufacturing costs can be higher, mostly because the number of these engines produced is not as
high as the number of piston engines.
They typically consume more fuel than a piston engine because the thermodynamic efficiency of the
engine is reduced by the long combustion-chamber shape and low compression ratio.
3-Gas turbines
17
Yl TU VR QVjP QR -4

4-How can gas turbine is classified?
Gas turbines can be classified as:
a- Gas turbine that produce mechanical power to drive a load (land base).
b- Gas turbine that produces thrust (propulsion) which is used to move an air planes.
c- Open cycle or closed cycle or combined cycle.
RF TYpq TU VR QVjP QR -5

5-How can aircraft gas turbine is classified?
Figure (9) Turbojet Engine

Most common gas turbines that used in turbojet aero plane are:
1-Turbojet Engine:
The original concept, the turbojet, is the simplest form of gas turbine and relies on the high velocity hot gas
exhaust to provide the thrust. Its disadvantages today are its relatively high noise levels and fuel consumption.
Figure (10) Turbojet Engine
18
2- Turbofan Engine:
A turbo fan engine is based on the principal that for the same power, a larger volume of slower moving air will
produce more thrust than a small volume of fast moving air. Turbofan engine is the most widely used in aircraft
propulsion.
There are two main types of Turbofan engines:
First type: Low bypass turbofan Engines.
Figure(11) Low bypass turbofan Engine
Figure(12) High-bypass turbofan engine
a-In the turbofan or bypass engine the partly compressed airflow is divided, some into a central part - the gas
generator or core - and some into a surrounding casing - the bypass duct.
b-The gas generator acts like a turbojet whilst the larger mass of bypass air is accelerated relatively slowly
down the duct to provide cold stream thrust. The cold and hot streams mix to give better propulsive efficiency,
lower noise levels, and improved fuel consumption.
Second type: High-bypass turbofan engines.
a-In the high bypass ratio turbofan, as much as seven or eight times as much air bypasses the core as passes
through it. It achieves around 75% of its thrust from the bypass air and is ideal for subsonic transport aircraft.
b-A low bypass ratio turbofan, where the air is divided approximately equally between the gas generator and the
bypass duct, is well suited to high-speed military usage.
3- Turboprop Engine:
As its name implies, a turboprop uses a propeller to transmit the power it produces. The propeller is driven
through a reduction gear by a shaft from a power turbine, using the gas energy which would provide the thrust
in a turbojet. Turboprop engines are generally used on small or slow subsonic aircraft.
19
Figure(13) Turboprop Engine
Figure(14) Turboprop & Turbofan Engines comparison

4- Ramjet Engine:
Figure(15) Ramjet Engine

20
A ramjet, is a type of jet engine. It contains no (major) moving parts and can be particularly useful in
applications requiring a small and simple engine for high speed use; such as missiles. In a ramjet, due to the
high flight speed, the ram compression of air is sufficient to provide the compressed air need for thrust.
4- Scramjet Engine:
A scramjet (supersonic combustion ramjet) is a variation of a ramjet where the flow of the air and
combustion of the fuel air mixture through the engine happen at supersonic speeds. This allows the scramjet to
achieve greater speeds than a conventional ramjet which slows the incoming air to subsonic speeds before
entering the combustion chamber.
Figure(16) Scramjet Engine

5-Pulse jet engine:
A pulse jet engine is an engine where its combustion occurs in pulses and the propulsive effort is a jet.
A typical pulsejet comprises an air intake fitted with a one-way valve, a combustion chamber, and an exhaust
pipe.
Figure(17) Pulse jet schematic. First part of the cycle: air intake (1), mixed with fuel (2). Second part: the
valve (3) is closed and the ignited fuel-air mix (4) propels the craft.
21
Fig (18) Mach number for various aircraft engines
TRr
TRRgR Ts gd TYpq TU VR QVjP QR -6
6-How can land base gas turbines classified?
a-Open cycle gas turbines:
1-Single shaft gas turbine
It's the simplest form of land base gas turbines where compressor & turbine are connected via the same shaft yet
they have the same speed of rotation.
Figure(19) Land Base G.E. Gas turbine

22
2-Twin spool gas turbine

More complex configuration of gas turbine, in this engine there are two concentric shafts the first shaft
is low pressure shaft & the other is high pressure shaft & both shafts are rotating with different speeds, the main
advantages of this configuration is that the star up torque required to turn the machine is minimized compare to
single shaft with the same load since only high pressure shaft needed to be turned, also compressor surge is
minimized in this configuration, also its is shorter smaller & lighter than single shaft engine & has less number
of blow off lines ,the main disadvantage of this configuration is additional complexity to the design & added
cost.
Figure(20) Twin spool - Gas turbine
23
b-Gas generator & power turbine:

In this configuration, the gas turbine is used as GAS GENERATOR, the gas turbine provide stream of
hot gases which turns the power turbine on the left & the power turbine turns the load.
Figure(21) Gas generator with power turbine configuration

c-Combined cycle gas turbines:
1- Single shaft combined cycle (Steam & gas turbines are on the same shaft via synchro self shifting clutch.
Figure(22) Single shaft combined cycle

24
2-Two shaft combined cycle
Figure(23) Two shaft combined cycle

d-Closed cycle gas turbines:
Closed cycle gas turbines are not so common like open cycles, on these engines the working fluid that is exit
from turbine is goes through heat rejection process & recycled a gain as input for compressor, examples of
working fluid used in this cycles are hydrogen, helium.
Fig (24) Closed gas turbine cycle
WKp ^ Te WFa ^ Te uR Tgv EK Y -7

7-What is the difference between Internal & external combustion engine?
25
WKp ^ Te
WFa ^ Te
External Combustion Engine
Internal Combustion Engine
Heat addition take place outside the engine
Heat addition take place inside the engine
Ability to burn any fuel
Liquid or gaseous fuel are required
Complete combustion is insured
Cannot utilize all of fuel energy
Less pollution since complete combustion
More pollution since incomplete combustion
Mostly closed cycle (better to fix & control
Mostly open cycle
the properties of the working fluid)
Lower heat rate ( more efficient)
Higher heat rate (less efficient)
Tpy VR TU VR uR Tgv EK Y -8

8-What is the difference between gas turbines & steam turbines?
Figure(25) Installation cost of

gas turbine, steam turbine
& combined cycle stations
Figure(26) Requirements for water in

various power station
26
Tpy VR
TU VR
Steam Turbines
Gas Turbines
External combustion engine
Internal combustion engine
More complex & required more auxiliaries
Simple & has much less auxiliaries
Start up time is long
Startup time is much less
Higher efficiency (less heat rate)
Lower efficiency (larger heat rate)
Installation cost is very expensive
Installation cost is cheap in comparison
Required large area (more civil work)
Can be build any where & less civil work
Cannot be portable
Portable gas turbine is available
Strongly depend on water (cannot build far away
Some configurations does not use water
from large water source)
at all
Weather condition has small effect on unit
Strongly affected by weather condition
performance (condenser vacuum in winter)

10
Required long time for installation
Shorter installation time
11
Lower noise level
Higher noise level
12
Steam turbines are not as flexible as gas turbines

(additional cycles cannot be added).
More flexible & has different configurations
13
Long life if good maintenance is applied
Shorter life
14
Smaller in capacity up to 340 MW open cycle
15
Much larger capacity per unit

up to 1800 MW single unit
Lower operating cost since lower heat rate
16
Lower operating temperature
Higher operating temperature
17
Can utilize any fuel
Mostly depend on natural gas or diesel
18
Load changing is slow in comparison
Load changing is very fast
Higher operating cost since higher heat rate
Figure(27)Compare the efficiency of various cycles
WKp ^ z{ Fl TF|YI WY -9

9-What are the examples of external combustion engines?
27
Most famous example of external combustion engine is:

1-steam turbine
2-Stirling engine
T ur TU VR uR Tgv EK Y-10

10-What is the difference between gas turbines & reciprocating engines?
T ur
TU VR
Reciprocating engines
Gas Turbines
Larger size & weight
Much smaller in size & weight
Higher efficiency for medium range
Lower efficiency in medium range but higher
Only (1-10 MW)
efficiency for range of power >10 MW
The engine put in operation very fast
Startup time is longer
Not affected by weather condition
Extremely affected by weather condition
Cheap in comparison
Very expensive
Required reinforced foundation to counter
Lower vibration energy because of its direct
unbalance force produced from reciprocating
rotary motion
motion
7
Produce higher vibration level & noise
More smooth (lower vibration level & noise)
Practical for low speed - high torque
preferred for high speed - low torque
applications (cannot used in high speed)
applications
Lower fuel consumption
Higher fuel consumption
10
Useful in application which need higher
Useful in application which need lower power
power to heat ratio
to heat ratio
11
Supplied fuel pressure is lower
Supplied fuel pressure is higher
12
Ability to burn even heavy fuels
Gas turbines firing heavy fuels is uncommon
13
Fuel consumption is proportional to the power Consume more fuel when they are idling
14
15
output
(compressor work)
Can be operated with variable load but with
Better fuel consumption in a constant load
good fuel consumption
rather than a fluctuating load
Required higher maintenance cost
Required lower maintenance cost
(more moving parts)

16
Limited power output (up to 15 MW)
Much higher power output

(up to 258 MW as land base)
28
17
T ur
TU VR
Reciprocating engines
Gas Turbines
Engine exhaust temperature is relatively low
Higher turbine exhaust temperature can be
& hence additional firing is required to
utilizes to produce higher quality steam
produce higher quality steam

18
In reciprocating engine, all 4-processes
Each process has a separate section
(intake-compression-power-exhaust) are
occur in one section (the piston)
19
Igniters are needed at all time of operation
Igniter used only one time during speed up
Fig(28-a) Compare between internal combustion engines

TRRgR Ts g TYpq TU VR pqP u -11
11-Where are land base gas turbines used?
Gas turbine is used as prime mover in powers stations, marine propulsion, Helicopters & Tanks.
*-Gas turbines are used for electric power generation in several different ways:
1-used during peak load time
2- Provide stand-by power
3-to provide a power source for black starts
4-to act as base load generating units (Recently only due to the improvement on their design which result in
higher efficiency & also when they are used in combined cycles).
29
Rq W TU VR pqg d -12

12-Why gas turbine doesn't used as car engine?
Gas turbine is not used in cars because:
1-They are very expensive.
2-The gas turbine consume a lot of fuel if idling because of added compressor work.
3-Gas turbine are not suitable for variable load application, if the gas turbine is running with 60% of its load, it
will consume around 80% of fuel that used in full load.
4-Start up time for gas turbine is larger that start up time of reciprocating engines.
T ur TgvY OH P TU VRP -13

13-Why gas turbines are more expensive than reciprocating engines?
1- Gas turbine are manufactured by forming process which is much expensive than machining.
2-Gas turbines are subjected to very high temperature, so they are made from nickel & cobalt alloy which are
much expensive than steel.
V OP
g Y TU VR
VY VjP WF O g uY T ur VjP d -14
( y Na )^ ^ TRO
14-Why reciprocating engines are not made from the same materials that gas turbine is made
although they are suffer from very high temperature just like gas turbines
a-Because the way that the reciprocating engine operates provide better cooling, when fuel air mixture is enter
the hot pistons after the exhaust stroke, they will cool down the piston since they have much lower temperature
than the piston & engine block although combustion process is complete & all air drawn into the piston is
completely utilized (yet highest temperature form fuel is achieved).
b-Also, the piston & engine block are subjected to heat at small intervals (pulse heating) due to engine
excursive strokes (Intake ,Compression ,Power ,Exhaust).Furthermore, reciprocating engines are cooled by air ,
water & lubricated by oil (relatively cold) which improve overall cooling process & make the average
temperature of the engine around 440C. While in gas turbines ,the turbine are subjected to very high
temperature through entire period of operation & cooling techniques use to cool down turbine blades are
30
depend on air only since water cooled blades design are much expensive & additional cost must be considered
(convection heat transfer coefficient for liquids is much larger than it for gases).
TU TVR Nl {Fl P v QR -15

15-How could weather conditions affect gas turbines?
Ideal gas equation of state:
P = *R*T
P= Gas pressure in (KPa) ; T= Gas temperature in ( Kelvin = C + 273 ) ; R=Gas constant (KJ/KgK) ;
=Gas density(Kg/m3)
Gas turbine is open cycle, it uses the ambient air as a working fluid, but it is strongly affected by ambient
conditions which are:
1-Ambinet temperature:
*-Ambient temperature is representing compressor inlet temperature for the gas turbine, if the temperature
drops, the air density will increase & hence heaver air will be compressed by the compressor which will
increase mass flow rate, note that compressor work requirements will increase also.
*-As heavy compressed air enter turbine section, it will create extra expansion & more work from turbine will
produced, now to put general statement we can say:
As compressor inlet temperature drop, air density increase, turbine output power will increase but compressor
work will increase, also fuel mass flow to the turbine will increase to handle the increase in air mass flow &
extra turbine work.
Fig(28) Effect of ambient temperature on gas turbine performance
31
2-Ambient pressure:
As ambient pressure increase, air density will increase & the same result in the above point will follows.
3-Relative humidity:
Most people who haven't studied physics or chemistry find it hard to believe that humid air is lighter, or less
dense, than dry air, how can the air become lighter if we add water vapor to it?
*-To see why humid air is less dense than dry air, we need to turn to one of the laws of nature the Italian
physicist Amadeo Avogadro discovered in the early 1800s. He found that a fixed volume of gas, say one cubic
meter, at the same temperature and pressure, would always have the same number of molecules no matter what
gas is in the container.
*-Imagine a cubic meter of perfectly dry air. It contains about 78% nitrogen molecules, which each have a
molecular weight of 28 (2 atoms with atomic weight 14). Another 21% of the air is oxygen, with each molecule
having a molecular weight of 32 (2 atoms with atomic weight 16). The final one percent is a mixture of other
gases, which we would not worry about.
*-Molecules are free to move in and out of our cubic meter of air. What Avogadro discovered leads us to
conclude that if we added water vapor molecules to our cubic meter of air, some of the nitrogen and oxygen
molecules would leave .Remember that the total number of molecules in our cubic meter of air stays the same.
*-The water molecules, which replace nitrogen or oxygen, have a molecular weight of 18.(One oxygen atom
with atomic weight of 16, and two hydrogen atoms each with atomic weight of 1). This is lighter than both
nitrogen and oxygen. In other words, replacing nitrogen and oxygen with water vapor decreases the weight of
the air in the cubic meter; that is, it's density decreases.
* You might say, "I know water's heavier than air." True, liquid water is heavier, or denser, than air. But, the
water that makes the air humid isn't liquid. It's water vapor, which is a gas that is lighter than nitrogen or
oxygen.
4-air density:
*-As air density increases, compressor mass flow will increases & same concept in the first point will follows.
*-The air's density depends on its temperature, its pressure and how much water vapor is in the air.
32
Effect of air density on racing car:

*-More dense, or "heavier" air will slow down objects moving through it more because the object has to, in
effect, move aside more or heavier molecules Such air resistance is called "drag," which increases with air
density.
*- Cool, dense air slows a race car because drag force increases, but some race cars gain from dense air. Cars
designed from the wheels up for racing are really like upside down airplane wings that the air pushes down on
the track, increasing their grip going around curves. Denser air pushes them down harder.
Effect of air density on Aircraft engines:
*- Lower air density effect aircraft engine in three ways: The lifting force on an airplane's wings or helicopter's
rotor decreases(1), the power produced by the engine decreases(2), and the thrust of a propeller, rotor or jet
engine decreases(3).These performance losses more than offset of reduced drag on the aircraft in less dense air.
*- Pilots use charts or calculators to find out how temperature and air pressure at a particular time and place will
affect the air's density and therefore aircraft performance. In general, these calculations don't take humidity into
account since its affects are so much less than the others.
*-When the air's density is low, airplanes need longer runways to take off and land and they don't climb as
quickly as when the air's density is high.
5-Elevation:
Each 100 meter increase in altitude, 1% of gas turbine power will drop since as elevation increase, air density
drops.
TRr
Ts g TYpq TU TVR RF TYpq TU TVR uR a WY -16
16-What is the main deference between land base gas turbines & gas turbine used in aircrafts?
Refer to the table in the next pages.
33
RF T TVRP
TRr
Ts gd T TVRP
GT for Aircraft
GT for power generation
Must have aerodynamic shape to reduce drag
Can have any shape
No air filtration (to avoid blockage)
Air filtration is required
Use only can type combustion chamber
Must be designed to withstand high vibration
Flexible for any type

Casing & frame are will fixed to the ground
level
5
Weight & size is very important in design
Cannot burn any fuel (liquid fuel only)
Turbine is designed to handle fan &

compressor work only where part of energy is
accelerated in nozzle to provide thrust
Weight & size is not important

Can burn natural gas or fuel oil
Turbine is design to handle Compressor work
& extra mechanical power to the load(shaft
power, electric power)
The aim is to produce thrust
The aim is to produce mechanical power
Turbine & compressor size is much smaller
Turbine & compressor size is larger
10
cycle modification cannot be added (weight)
Any cycle modification can be added
34
Rolls Royce Gas turbine used in jet aircraft

35
GAS TURBINE AIR INTAKE SYSTEM
TU TVRF
aY g
M6001B-G.E.
36
TU VR W

aY g -17
17-Explain air intake filter house in details?
Air Intake system in gas turbines:
Gas turbines consume large mass of air (a 125 MW machine has compressor inlet flow of 438 kilograms
of air per second for 50C ambient temperature), thus careful design of the intake system is needed to ensure
that frictional losses are a minimum, and that the noise of the air entering the machine is kept to an acceptable
limit.
Figure (29) Side view of medium side land base gas turbine (SIEMENS-V94.2)
Figure (30) Air intake filter house from inside showing air filter elements before & after installation
& the hole behind each filter is for filtered air exit)
37
Air intake main parts:

a- Air intake filter house
Filter house normally designed to have large shape so to make sure that the pressure drop across it will
minimized (each 10 mbar pressure drop will reduce turbine power by 1%), it contains air filters, air entrance
guide vanes & the implosion doors.
b- Filter element
Air entering compressor must be filtered from any dust or residues that may enter & cause fouling to the which
reduce compressor blades efficiency, the use of series of filters in stead of one big filter is more practical
because design & erection complexity are reduced, also if pressure drop in air intake increases, a set of small
filters can easily be removed in stead of removing the hall big filter.
Figure (31) Air intake filter house
Fig(32) Compressed air lines for filters purging & pulse air outlet can be seen
Pulse air header pressure is 7.5 bar & each pulse has a pressure of 3 bar
38
c- Air intake silencer

Due to the high speed of air entering air intake filter house, a large noise level will produced & silencer must be
used to reduce noise level. The silencer contain sound absorbent baffles & these baffles are covered with
perforated sheets & filled with high quality heat & moisture resistance mineral wool, this mineral wool is
covered by a glass fiber which gives an additional mechanical protection for the absorbent material.
d- Filter element purging system
As air passes through filter elements for a long period, the filters become dirty & thus the pressure drop
across them will increase, to overcome rapid increase in pressure drop either filter elements is replaced with
new elements or air filter must be purged.
*The filter purging system is compressed air that provided from separate air compressor, if the pressure drop
across any one of the filters raw increase to more than normal limit, this compressor will start to provide
compressed air for cleaning these filters.
*-The compressed air will released via small holes on the air lines located behind each filter ,there are solenoid
valves that operate with respect to each raw of filters to release that compressed air.
*-Compressed air releasing process will done by pulsing ,so some time filters cleaning system may named as
pulse air system ,complete purging process may take 84 pulses (30 minutes duration ) & the cleaning process
will start from top of the air intake to the bottom so that we avoid dust to sucked again by upper filter raw.
Activation of pulse air system (Example from SIEMENS V94.2 Gas Turbine):
Pulse air system aim is to clean the dirty filters & to do so there are two ways to activate this system which are:
a- high pressure drop across filters raw signal
b- High ambient air relative humidity signal (humidity > 80% signal)
a- high pressure drop across filters raw signal
During gas turbine on load, the control system will monitor air intake filter house pressure drop via two
pressure sensors:
39
First sensor is to measure air pressure before & after filters raw (this sensor activates pulse air system).
Second sensor is to measure air pressure drop across air intake filter house (this sensor not activates pulse air
system & it is associated with gas turbine protection only).
Figure (33) Schematic diagram of pulse air system

If the second sensor indicate very high pressure drop, a gas turbine trip will initiated by the following steps:
1-As air intake pressure drop increases, the air pressure after silencer decreases, this will create a local vacuum
area,
2-Due to the vacuum inside air intake filter house, the implosion doors (4 to 6 doors) will be sucked in
3-There are limit switch on each door so for any door reach full open position, this mean that the limit switch
will send open signal which will initiate gas turbine trip to protect gas turbine from operating with air intake
filter house is blocked. Implosion doors are designed to make sure that the pressure inside air filter house is
equalized to the atmospheric pressure to avoid air intake damage.
* If the gas turbine on load, normally pulse air system will activated only due to pressure drop signal
40
Figure (34) Pressure sensors used in air intake filter house

b- High ambient air relative humidity signal (humidity > 80% signal)
*There is humidity sensor on air intake filter house entrance to measure ambient humidity, if humidity is raise
to 80%, a signal will go to activate pulse air system, and complete purging process may take 168 pulses (1 hour
duration), this is to insure dry filter & avoid condensation which may block the filters during gas turbine
operation.
*Normally pulse air system activated by humidity sensor only when the unit is off load, pressure drop sensor
will not sense any pressure drop because air is not entering inside filter house at high speed (no pressure
difference).
41
GAS TURBINE -AIR COMPRESSOR
TU TVR
MS6001B-G.E.
42
ER WY Y -18

18-What is the main purpose of a compressor?
The compressor is located at the front behind the air intake. It consists of a spinning fan with a number
of fixed blades arranged in several rows. Air is drawn into the engine from its surroundings by using
compressor fans. These fans are driven from the turbine by a shaft. This air is heated by being compressed and
is led into one of several combustion chambers. The Compressor can reach typical pressures up to 40 times
higher than atmospheric pressure.
TVR { uY^ d { Na
U { g -19
19-Why do we need to compress air before it is enter to the combustion chamber?
Gas turbine efficiency will increase whenever pressure ratio increases. Refer to Fig (29).
Figure (35) Pressure ratio versus gas turbine efficiency
TU VR W TYpq

g W Y -20
20-What are the main types of compressors which are used in gas turbine engines?
In general compressors are classified in two main groups:
1-Positive displacement compressors (in which air pressure is increased by reducing its volume)
43
2-Dynamic compressors (in which air pressure is increased by increasing its speed)
The following table summarizes compressors classification.
Figure (36) Compressors Classification

*Most common compressors used in gas turbine are:
1- Centrifugal Compressor.
2- Axial Compressor.
Note that both of them are of dynamic type.
TU VR W T pqP d -21

21-Why reciprocating compressors are not used in gas turbine engines?
Reciprocating compressors are not used in gas turbine due to:
a- They have higher vibration level due to pulsation (coming from changing rotary motion reciprocal motion to
rotary motion.
b- They produce very high pressure
c- As gas turbine size increase, the size of reciprocating compressor must be increased & due to its heavy parts
it will require larger power.
d- They provide small air flow compare to centrifugal or axial compressors.
e- They have a lot of moving parts (pistons, connecting arms, crank shaft, and intake & discharge valves).
f- Relatively inefficient (20% - 45%).
44
g- High power consumption.

h- High maintenance requirement since more moving parts are involved compared to other types of
compressors.
I -Good for service air application.
Figure (37) Reciprocating Compressor
Centrifugal Compressor - Y - 22

22-What are the operating principals of Centrifugal Compressor?
Figure (38) Centrifugal Compressor

45
Centrifugal Compressor is a dynamic compressor, it increases air pressure by accelerate it, the air enter
centrifugal compressor at the center of compressor impellers & thrown out by centrifugal force to compressor
discharge which is located at compressor casing arc (Direction of air flow discharge is perpendicular to the axis
of rotation). Acceleration of the air is obtained through the action of one or more rotating impellers; the
discharge air is free from pulsation.
Figure (39) Centrifugal Compressor Diffuser
Figure (40) Multistage Centrifugal Compressor
Figure (41) Multistage Centrifugal Compressor
Axial compressor- Y -23

23-What are the operating principals of axial compressor?
All modern high output gas turbines use axial flow compressors, the principles of operation are shown in
46
Figure (43). The air enters at the left and is speeded up by a set of revolving blades. The air leaves the first set
of revolving blades and enters a set of stationary blades, where the air is slowed down and its kinetic energy
converted to pressure energy. This process is repeated by a lot of stages depend on the desired output pressure.
(The direction of flow is parallel to the direction of the rotation).
Figure (42) Axial Compressor, the lower picture showing axial compressor of SEMENS -V94.2 gas turbine
& the first six stages are coated with Aluminum Pigment
47
Figure (43) Axial Compressor pressure & speed curves

Refer to Fig (43):
a- Moving blades accelerate air.
b- Fixed blades slow down air & hence change kinetic energy of air into pressure energy.
c- Discharge velocity should equal suction velocity.
*-The design of compressor blades are different than turbine blades, compressor blades divergent profile which
works as diffuser to increase air pressure, while turbine blades have convergent profile which is works as nozzle
since turbine is reducing air pressure by changing its pressure energy into kinetic energy. Refer to Fig (44)
Figure (44) Turbine & Compressor blades profile

48
*-Note that compressor blades are suffer from high stress but with lower temperature while combustion
chamber suffer from high temperature but with relatively lower stress.
*-In axial compressor, design of moving blades are significance to provide aerodynamic shape with minimum
losses, also blade tip clearance must be as minimum as possible to improve moving blade efficiency &avoid
blade tip leakage. Normally compressor moving blades have blade clearance of 7 mm to minimize blade tip
losses.
*-During humid weather, high humidity may occur only on the first sex stages of compressor because air is
heated so rapidly & condensate may occur. To overcome pitting damage to compressor blades, the first six
stages are coated with Aluminum pigment.
*-Air enter compressor may contain dust or dirt (even if its passes through air intake system) & such dust or
contaminations will stick into compressor blades which will affect compressor performance because:
a- It will reduce compressor stage efficiency since accumulation of dirt on the moving blade will cause change
in discharge angle of blade by 7 which will result in changing output velocity direction to the next stage &
hence reduce blade efficiency.
b- Dirt or dust when stick on compressor blades will form a hot spots, recall that compressor blades will be
heated during compressor operation due to friction coming from high rotation. Dirt or dust will generate high
temperature spots on the blade because they have different thermal conductivity than steel,(compressor blades
are made from steel),so these hot spots will produce thermal stresses on the blade which will result on blade
failure if the dirt is not removed or washed.
c- Compressor blades fouling may produce turbulence to the flow; produce vibration & increase discharge
temperature which will result in reduce blade efficiency.
*-Most of gas turbine compressors have compressor washing unit in which compressor blades are washed with
a mixture of demineralized water & special agent to remove any dirt or dust on compressor blades, washing
process can be performed either when the gas turbine is running(on-line washing) or when gas turbine is stand
by (off- line washing).
49
Figure (45) Compressor blade fouling
NRq TRFl WY -24

24-What is compressor washing process?
*-The aim of compressor cleaning process is to remove deposits from blades that have caused a decline in
output and efficiency of Gas Turbines.
*-Pollution of the ambient air cannot be completely removed by the air intake filter system.
*-compressor washing are mainly two types online & off line washing.
*-Compressor washing is carried out by using detergent solution and demineralized water for the final flushing.
Both fluids are sprayed onto the compressor blades through two types of nozzles:
a- Jett nozzles which are consisting of two jet nozzles which inject water at high speed
Jet nozzles are used for off load washing only since them inject high speed water jet which will be
harmful to the blades of compressor which are rotating at synchronizing speed-3000 rpm. The effect of
one droplet of water will become like a bullet.
b- Spray nozzles which are uniformly spaced around the circumference of compressor inlet, upstream
of the variable compressor inlet guide vanes, each producing a gentle jet of water.
*-Compressor cleaning skid is consisting from a tank & pumping unit, a centrifugal pump draws the cleaning
solution and demineralized water from portable tank and feeds it through a hose to the jet or spray nozzles. The
cleaning solution / demineralized water are delivered at a pressure of about 10 bars. Isolation valves are used to
change over from the jet nozzles to the spray nozzles and vice versa. Refer to Fig(48).
50
Figure (46) Compressor washing nozzles
Figure (47) Compressor Washing Skid
NRqU TYpq a WY -25

25-What are the alternative methods used for compressor cleaning?
*-Alternative methods for compressor cleaning include:
a- Dissemble the compressor partially to clean the blades of the rotor, this method gives excellent result but
it required long time outage.
b- Injection of crushed walnut shells, Injection of rice & Injection of concentrated carbon.
The second method should not be used in modern gas turbines because:
a- Fire hazard.
51
b- Oil system contamination & blockage.

c- Result in blade cooling system fouling.
d- Early hot component failure.
Figure (48) Types of compressor washing nozzles
uR Tgv EK Y -26

26-What is the difference between axial & centrifugal compressors?

Axial Compressor
Centrifugal Compressor
Higher efficiency (82% - 90%)
Lower efficiency (72%-82%)
Larger in size
Smaller in size
Has higher isentropic efficiency
Has lower isentropic efficiency
Longer in size
Shorter in size
Good for medium pressure/flow application
Good for low pressure / large flow application
Used in higher speed application
Used in high speed application
(aircraft engines)
(land base gas turbines)
Its performance will reduces as dirt is
Not liable to loss its performance due build up
contaminated on its blades surface
of dirt on its blades surface
Multistage configuration is done with no
As number of stages increases pressure losses
pressure losses
will increases
More expensive
Less expensive
7
8
9
52
Figure (49) Compressors operating range
Axial Compressor Design - RjP -27

27-Explain Axial Compressor in details?
Axial compressor consists of:
1-Stator & Guide Blade Carrier
2-Rotor
3-Inlet Guide Vanes
4-Exhaust Diffuser
5-Blow off Lines
Figure (50) SIEMENS-V94.2 Gas Turbine Longitudinal section (Compressor section)

53
1-Stator & Guide Blade Carrier:

*-Compressor stator consists of three guide blade carrier, they are separated from each other to provide good
control in blade tip clearance, guide blade carrier position can be adjusted using eccentric bolt which provide
flexibility to guide blade carrier movement in all direction except axial direction by 3 mm.
*-There are gaps on compressor stator which provide passages to blow off air.
*-Blade tip clearance is measured by six peep holes located on compressor stator.
*-There are carbon rings fitted in segments around the shaft to protect moving blades from rubbing compressor
stator on the event of rotor misalignment.
*-Usually compressor stator is made up from steel alloys.
2-Compressor rotor:
*-The rotor is consisting of a serious of rotor disks which are joined to gather by Hirth Coupling, refer to
Fig(50) & Fig(51) .Rotor disk is holding the moving blades of the compressor.
*-Rotor disks are hollow from inside & there are central tie bolt which insure that they are hold into position,
note that there is a gap between rotor disks ( about 3 mm) & central tie bolts, this gap is to provide passages for
extracted air from compressor to cool down hot components (combustor & turbines).
*-Damper rings are used to reduce vibration of central tie bolt by supporting it with rotor disks.
*-Rotor is supported by radial & axial bearings (journal bearings).
*-Compressor rotor is made up from steel alloys & its blades generally made by machining process.
Figure (51) Compressor Rotor Disk

54
Figure (52) Hirth Coupling

3-Compressor variable inlet guide vanes (I.G.V.):
*-Most of modern gas turbine contain Variable Inlet Guide Vanes, They normally set to be open for 40% when
the unit is stand by, once the gas turbine starts they put under control to being used to provide the air necessary
for the given load & also to control turbine outlet temperature & avoid increase in temperature by increase
I.G.V. opening position to increase compressor flow to cool down turbine.
*- I.G.V. is used to control compressor flow for a given load & to control boiler inlet temperature in combined
cycle, also I.G.V. is set at 40% open during gas turbine start up to reduce compressor inlet flow which will
reduce stresses on first stage moving blade of compressor (longest moving blade in compressor) during start up.
The movement of inlet guide vane is done via electric motor which is attached to guide vane mechanism see
Fig(53).
*-As the gas turbine load increases, IGV opening position will increase until it reach 100% open & at this time
the unit is said to be under base load operation (i.e. compressor flow is maximum) ,note that additional fuel
input to the gas turbine will increase turbine inlet temperature to higher value & extra power can be supplied
but in this case the unit is said to be under Peak load operation since turbine outlet temperature is higher than in
case of base load operation due to I.G.V. cannot open more (100% already) to provide necessary cool down to
the turbine.
55
Figure (53) Compressor variable inlet guide vanes (I.G.V.)

4-Exhaust Diffuser:
*- Exhaust Diffuser is used to provide further increase in air pressure also to remove vortices from air & make it
more laminar since air direction is being changed along the entire compressor stages & hence its turbulence
increased.
*-Number of compressor stages is more than turbine stages since increasing air pressure from axial compressor
(dynamic compressor) required either increasing the size of stages or increase number of stages to produce the
desired pressure.
5-Blow off Lines:
*-Blow-Off Systems are designed to Control the Pressure / Flow Ratio, During Low Speed Running, such as
star up period.
*-Axial flow compressor contain blow off line (or bleed lines) to blow out some of the air entering the
compressors during start up to the exhaust (by pass the combustion chamber & turbine), this help to eliminate
56
compressor surge during low speed operation (start up).On each of this lines there are blow off valve normally
butterfly type & its operates by compressed air from compressor extraction.
*-Blow off lines usually placed at 30% & 60% through the compressor, For axial compressor having 10 stages,
one blow off valves are required & large axial compressor need three lines, not that compressor surge associated
only with dynamic compressors & positive displacement compressor do not need blow off valve.
Figure (54) Compressor Blow off Lines
57

PRY WY RV a TR WY -28
28-What are the advantages of using blow off lines in axial compressor?
*-Advantages of blow off lines:
1- They blow off air is used as anti icing to prevent blockage due icing in air intake filter house in cold
weather, this bleed air (warmer than outside air) is re circulated to compressor inlet again.
2- Bleed air is used as purge air for furnace in combined cycle.
3- Blow off lines Dissipate Energy in Event of Trip, Preventing Over-speed.
4-If the speed is reduced to less than under frequency limit, blow off valves will open to prevent
compressor surge.
*-Refer to Fig(54) There are two blow off lines on 30% of compressor length (stage#5) & one blow off line on
60% of compressor length (stage#10),the reason why there are two blow off line at 30% of compressor length is
because the air pressure at this stage is not high so its volume is bigger, this means that we need to blow a lot of
air out ,but in 60% length of compressor (stage#10) air is pressurized so only little amount of air must be sent
out & hence one blow off line is enough.
*-Note that:
Blow off valves of at stage #5 will closed at 38Hz (2280rpm)
Blow of valve at stage #10 will closed at 49Hz (2940 rpm)
Fig(55) Blow off lines

*-Compressor must supply two types of air:
1- Air that discharge from last stage of compressor & enter combustion chamber to being utilized for
combustion.
2- Air that is extracted from compressor at different location via hidden passages & sent to provide film cooling
for the hot component of gas turbine (combustion chamber & turbine section).
58
*-Each 1% of air extraction from compressor will reduce turbine power by 2% because extracted air is used to
cool down hot component but not as air for combustion.
Axial Compressor RjP Vl TYpq TRRj | O WY -29

29-What are the main design considerations in axial compressor?
1-Back Work Ratio (B.W.R.):
It is the ratio of compressor work (Wc) to turbine work (Wt)
B.W.R.= Wc/Wt
Compressor mechanical power required to compress air is supplied by the turbine, for large gas turbines back
work ratio greater than 0.5 can be found. The gas turbine must provide additional mechanical power to drive its
compressor. Therefore, the turbine used in gas turbine is larger than those used in steam turbine for the same net
power output.
Fig (56) Back Work Ratio

2-Pressure Ratio(rp):
Pressure ratio is the compressor discharge pressure over compressor inlet pressure, for modern gas turbines this
ratio exceeds 20.
Fig (57) for a fixed value of compressor inlet &turbine inlet temperatures, an increase in pressure ratio
will result in increasing turbine work to maximum then it will decrease
59
3-Hub/Tip Ratio:
This is the ratio of the diameter of the hub into which the blades are fitted (Stator) to the diameter over the tips
of the blades (the outside diameter of the whole rotor at that section).
Hub/Tip Ratio= R1/R2
Fig(58) Hub/Tip Ratio

*-Hub/tip ratio has an effect on compressor design. A low value permits a slightly smaller overall compressor
diameter, but increases the blade height.
*- At the intake end the hub/tip ratio is not normally less than about 0.5, while at the exit end of the compressor
its value is 0.9 (i.e. blade length is minimum).
4-Aspect Ratio:
The aspect ratio of the blade is given by
60
Fig(59) Terms Used in Describing Compressor Blade design

A high value of aspect ratio gives a higher efficiency of the compressor. However, the blade height is
fixed by the mass flow of air at the stage being considered, and changes in the aspect ratio can only be made by
changing the chord length, so to increase aspect ratio we have to lower chord width. The disadvantage is that
the blades are thinner and hence blade vibration problems will occur.
5-Mean Blade Diameter:
As the air passes along the length of the compressor, its specific volume decreases, and since the flow
velocity parallel to the longitudinal axis remains approximately constant (land base gas turbine have constant
speed (synchronizing speed at all load intervals), it follows that the cross-sectional area needed to reduce to
compensate decreasing in air volume. Methods to reduce area is tapering down the inside diameter of the outer
casing. Also, increasing the rotor outside diameter while holding the stator inside diameter constant.
Furthermore, these two methods can be combined by increasing the rotor diameter & reducing the diameter of
the casing.
*-Note that axial flow compressor is design to have constant flow speed if its shaft speed is constant from noload to full load. However, this is not the case in gas generator & power turbine configuration.
*-the speed of two spools (HP & LP shafts) are mechanically independent but a strong aerodynamic coupling
exists.
61
Fig(60) Methods of Decreasing Compressor Cross-sectional Area to

Compensate for Decrease in Specific Volume of Air as Pressure Increases Along
Length of Compressor
Hint: The above notes are simplification about compressor design; major compressor design will be determined
by a lot of complex factors.
*-Refer to Fig(60) which shows three types of reducing compressor cross-sectional area. In (a) the mean
diameter decreases as the air moves through the compressor. In (b) the mean diameter increases and in (c) the
mean diameter remains constant. Generally the effects of blades mean diameter are that:
(a) Can generate very high pressure ratios (b) limited to pressure ratios of about 14(c) Offers a useful solution
since it can handle pressure ratios up to about 24.
6-Compresosr blade twist:
Compressor blade must be twisted in order to maintain same blade velocity vector (blade speed is
maximum at tip & minimum at root), the velocity vector will be different at each radius of the blades &
62
hence the angles of the blade necessary to meet the air stream correctly will vary at each radius of the blade
which will represent poor design to the blade, so compressor blades must be twisted to obtain correct angle for
all blade radii. you can see clearly blade twist on Fig(61)
Fig(61)Compressor blade twist
*-Note that compressor blade twist decrease as we move along compressor length since at these stages
compressor blade length is decreasing so blade twisting is reduced.
*-Compressor blade airfoil is vary in shape depend on air speed inside compressor, refer to Fig(63).
Axial Compressor { Fl Ug TRFl V

RP WY -30
30-What are the types of air effects during compression process in axial compressor?
63
Fig (62) Types of air circulation in axial compressor
Fig(63)Compressor blade airfoil Design

Z=Chord thickness/Chord length
(a)-Subsonic Blades (M<0.7; Z=45%)
(b)-Transonic Blades (1.3 >M >0.7; Z=65%)
(c)-Supersonic Blades (M >1; Z=85%)
Air flow effects on axial compressor:

*-We think that air passing in a steady stream through the blades, and not deviating from its path, this is not
correct. Even between the root and tip of a blade considerable differences can occur. One test on a good
performance compressor using special instrumentation show a difference in air temperature between the root
and the tip of 5 C, change in temperature will affect air properties.
*-Fig (62) shows some of the flows which can occur between two blades. Point (a) show the eddies produced
by air leaking between the stator blades and the rotor, point (b) shows vortices arising from the trailing edges of
blades. These are similar in type to the vortices which can sometimes be seen at the wing tips of aircraft in
damp weather (High humidity). Point (c) shows the circulation patterns which arise due to the Coriolis
acceleration acting on the airflow. (Coriolis acceleration arises when a body moves radially outward while
64
rotating circumferentially). All these flow components cause losses which reduce the efficiency of the
compressor.
Axial Compressor W

W Y -31
31-What is the definition of compressor surge?
Compressor Surge/Stall:
*-Compressor surge is a phenomena occur on axial flow compressor, this phenomena occur when compressor
operates at incorrect pressure ratio & mass flow rate (i.e. they are not matching to gather) & the result is
compressor flow instability & reversed air flow which will produce high vibration on the blades (extremely at
the last stages blades) which may result in blade failure.
Refer to Fig(64) which shows compressor flow instability,
Fig(64) Compressor flow instability

(a)Full stall [chocked] (b) Leading edge tip stall (c) Trailing edge root stall
(d) Full flow (e) Trailing edge tip stall
*-Axial compressor is designed to run at a design point at which it will operate most efficiently, with the air
flow in each stage approaching the blades at the correct angle throughout the machine, and the flow velocity
parallel to the axis of the machine will be constant along the length of the machine, and at a maximum value.
*-Most of the compressor running should be at, or near, this point (design point). If at a given speed, the mass
flow or the pressure ratio is changed, the balance of flow will be disturbed.
*-If the pressure ratio increases to more than a certain point, the axial velocity of the air will fall and the blades
will stall because the flow will now approach the blades at an incorrect angle. The compressor will then
probably surge, with flow alternatively building up and breaking down, and with a possible complete of air
delivery. This situation may be notes on the machine by high noise, and in bad cases, by physical damage to the
65
machine. Similarly, if the pressure ratio is reduced too far, the axial velocity will increase and the blades will
again stall.
*-The first condition described is referred to as positive shock stall and the second as negative shock stall.
Operation under both these conditions must be avoided. If pressure ratio is plotted against mass flow a curve
named as "compressor operating curve" will be obtained. Refer to Fig(65).
Fig(65) Compressor operating curve
Axial Compressor W

yH W Y -32
32-What are the main reasons of compressor surge?
*-Reasons of compressor surge could be:
1- Drop on the speed of rotation while compressor is operating at its rated flow.
2- Blow off valves are closed two early (before rated speed is reached).
3- Blockage on compressor discharge lines which increase compressor discharge suddenly.
4- Sudden drop of compressor discharge pressure.
*-Since compressor surge must be avoided, compressor surge protection must be installed.
66
Fig(66) Compressor surge is a result on excessive angle of attack
Axial Compressor W

TFY {Fl TRRj FUg QR -33
33-How can compressor surge be avoided by improving compressor design?
Compressor surge can be avoided by using the following methods:
(a) Install variable inlet guide vane to control the angle of the incoming flow to the required angle so that it
matches the angle of the first row of moving blades.
(b) Make the angle of the first few rows of static guide vanes variable. This can be controlled automatically,
and ensures that the blade angle matches the flow angle so that stalling does not occur.
(c) Provide controlled air bleed off from the compressor so that the stages after the bleed off point receive less
air, and the velocity is relatively reduced.
In many cases all three of the above solutions are being used together.
67
Fig(67) Methods of Controlling Axial Compressor surge
Compressor Surge Protection W

Ts W Y -34
34-What is compressor surge protection?
*-Compressor surge protection provide excellent monitoring for surge phenomena in the compressor, This
protection if activated will trip the gas turbine to avoid compressor blade damage which caused by reverse air
flow due to surging.
*-This protection is consist of differential pressure indicator & two pressure sensors, one of these sensor is
placed at air intake filter house inlet to measure ambient pressure (point#1) & the other pressure sensor is placed
just at compressor entrance before the inlet guide vanes (point#2) refer to Fig(68)
Fig(68) Compressor Surge Protection

68
*-Note that total pressure is summation of static pressure & dynamic pressure, static pressure is the result of the
force exerted by the of air when it is at rest & dynamic pressure is the result of the force exerted by t of air
when it is moving (velocity pressure):
Total Pressure (TP) = Static Pressure (ST) + Dynamic Pressure (DP)
So total pressure at point (1):
TP1= ST1 + DP1
Note that:
Static pressure on point (1) is the ambient pressure.
Dynamic pressure on point (1) is approximately equal zero since air speed is very slow.
and total pressure at point (2)
TP2= ST2 + DP2
Note that:
*-Static pressure on point (2) is less than static pressure on point (1) due to vacuum created by compressor
suction.
*-Dynamic pressure on point (2) is much higher than Dynamic pressure on point (1) due to higher speed of air
because of compressor suction.
*-Now to put it clearly:
Static pressure at point (1) at normal operating condition must be greater than static pressure at point(2),so
Compressor surge protection is set so that:
Differential Static Pressure (Ps)= SP1-SP2 must be at least greater than 40 mbar.
i.e. Static pressure at point(1) must be at least grater than static pressure at point(2) by 40 mbar.
*-Note that if (Ps) less than 40 mbar this means that static pressure at point(2) approach static pressure at
point(1) which mean that compressor is no longer sucks air even if it is operating at its rated speed & flow(i.e.
compressor is surged).
*-Compressor surge differential pressure sensors is normally have three channels to provide redundancy, if two
of these channels an out put signal that tells Ps <40 mbar, then gas turbine trip will be initiated by gas turbine
controller .
*-If for any reason compressor surge protection is not activated during machine prepares to start, gas turbine
start is blocked.
*-Compressor surge protection is active only when the speed is (42 Hz, 2520 rpm) and above.
*-If gas turbine speed is drop during its normal operation, then the following will happen:
a-At turbine speed of (47.5 Hz 2850 rpm), compressor variable inlet guide vanes (I.G.V) will close to
75% to reduce compressor flow & hence avoid compressor surge due speed drop.
b-At turbine speed of (47 Hz 2820 rpm), gas turbine will trip by under frequency protection.
69
Fig(69) Air flow through aircraft engines

70
GAS TURBINETURBINE-COMBUSTION
CHAMBER
W ^
TO TVR
MS6001B-G.E.
71
^ yY WY -35

35-What are the main principals for combustion?
1-Fuel: any material that can be burned (oxidized) to release energy is called fuel; most common fuels are
consisting of hydrocarbon flues. Hydrocarbons exist in all phases (solid, liquid, gaseous) examples are coal,
gasoline & natural gas. Most fuels are consists of mixture of hydrocarbons composites & exists as complex
hydrocarbon nodes ,for simplicity most common fuels are treated as single hydrocarbon, for example:
a-Gasoline is treated as Octane (C8 H18).
b-Gas oil (Diesel) is treated as Dodecane (C12 H26).
c-Kerosene is treated as (C12 H24 )
d-Natural Gas (mixture of 90% Methane CH4 & 10% Ethane C2 H6) is treated as Methane (CH4).
Fig(70) Simplified distillate tower

2-Oxidizer: any material that is rich in oxygen is called oxidizer, most common oxidizer used in combustion
processes is air because it is free oxidizer & located any where, Pure Oxygen however is used in special
72
applications such as cutting & welding were air cannot be used.

3-Combustion: a chemical reaction during which a fuel is oxidized & a large quantity of energy is released.
4-Combustion reactants: Components that exists before combustion.
5-Combustion products: Components that exists after combustion, any hydrocarbon fuel when it has complete
combustion, it will produce Carbon dioxide, water vapor & Nitrogen.
*-Note that Nitrogen is generally inert gas it is enter & exit from the reaction with out reacting with other
chemical elements .However, as combustion temperature is increased to more than 1300C such as in internal
combustion engines, Nitrogen start to react with other elements, most hazardous product of Nitrogen reactant is
when it is react with Oxygen forming Nitric oxide (NO) &Nitrogen dioxide (NO2) .
*-Note also that Nitrogen is represent 78% of air that is used for combustion ,so it is enter combustion chamber
in large volume at low temperature & exit at a higher temperature & hence it will absorb a large portion of the
chemical energy released during combustion.
Fig(71) Combustion temperature vs. NOx & CO emission

6-NOx: an expression that represent the mixture of Nitrogen oxides (NO & NO2).
7-Sox: an expression that represent the mixture of Sulfur oxides (SO2 & SO3).
73
8-Dry air composition: dray air (on volume basis) consist of 20.9% Oxygen, 78.1% Nitrogen, 0.9% Argon &
0.1% is represent small amount of carbon dioxide, Helium, Neon and Hydrogen.
9-Theoretical air: minimum amount of air that is necessary for complete combustion.
10-Excess air: amount of extra air that is added to the combustion process to insure complete combustion or to
cool down combustion chamber.
11-Complete Combustion: it is a combustion process in which all carbon on the fuel is burned (oxidized) to
carbon dioxide (Co2) & all Hydrogen on the fuel is burned (oxidized) to water (H2O) & all Sulfur on the fuel (if
any) is burned (oxidized) to Sulfur dioxide (SO2) in the product.
12-Incomplete Combustion: It is combustion in which combustion products contain unburned fuel or
component such as carbon(C), Hydrogen (H2), Carbon Monoxide (CO) or Hydroxide (OH).
*-Many reasons are responsible for incomplete combustion, major reasons are:
a- Available air is not enough for complete combustion to take place (Insufficient Oxygen).
b-Insufficient mixing in the combustion chamber burners during the limited time that the fuel & oxygen
are in contact (even if the combustion is take place with excess air!).
c-Dissociation which become important at high temperatures. At high temperatures, the main products
of combustion will decompose or dissociate into other species. For example, complete combustion of
hydrocarbons with air gives CO2, H2O, N2 (as products. But dissociation of these and reactions between
the resultant species from the dissociation may lead to many other species, for example O, H, OH, N,
NO, and others.
*-Oxygen is more strongly attracted to Hydrogen than Carbon. Therefore, the Hydrogen in the fuel is normally
burned completely & yet forming H2O even when these is less Oxygen than needed for complete combustion
Some of the Carbon ends up as Carbon monoxide or just as Carbon particles in the products.
13-Flash Point Temperature:
The flash point of a flammable liquid is the lowest temperature at which it can form an ignitable mixture with
74
oxygen. At this temperature, the vapor may continue to burn when the source of ignition is removed. Fire point
is a slightly higher than flash point temperature.
*-The flash point is used to describe the characteristics of liquid fuel, but it is also used to describe liquids that
are not used intentionally as fuels (like lubrication & insulation oils).
*-Petrol (gasoline) is used in spark ignition engines. The fuel should be premixed with air within its flammable
limits and heated above its flash point, then ignited by the spark plug. The fuel should not pre-ignite in the hot
engine. Therefore, gasoline is required to have a low flash point and a high auto-ignition temperature.
*-Diesel is designed for use in compression ignition engines. Air is compressed until it has been heated above
the auto-ignition temperature of diesel; then the fuel is injected as a high-pressure spray, keeping the fuel-air
mixture within the flammable limits of diesel. There is no ignition source. Therefore, diesel is required to have a
high flash point and a low auto-ignition temperature.
Fuel
Gasoline
Diesel
Jet fuel
Flash Point (C)

> -45 C
> 62 C
> 38 C
Table (1) Flash Point Temperature for common fuels

14-Fire Point Temperature:
The fire point of a fuel is the temperature at which the fuel continues to burn after ignition for at least 5 seconds.
At the flash point, a lower temperature, a substance will ignite, but vapor might not be produced at a rate to hold
the fire. Auto ignition temperature is always higher than flash point.
15-Auto-ignition Temperature:
The lowest temperature at which the fuel will ignite in a normal atmosphere, without an external source of
ignition, such as a flame or spark if mixed with Oxygen, note that in order to ignite a fuel, it must be exposed to
higher temperature than its ignition temperature, note also that to ignite a fuel either we introduce a spark or
flame, or we compress mixture of air & fuel to very high pressure until mixture temperature become above fuel
ignition temperature. Some of famous fuels minimum ignition temperatures at atmospheric air pressure are
shown in table below.
75
Fuel
Gasoline
Carbon
Hydrogen
Carbon monoxide (CO)
Methane (CH4)
Sulfur
Acetylene (C2H2)
Ethane (C2H6)
Diesel
Jet Fuel
Ignition Temperature C
260 C
400 C
580 C
610 C
630 C
243C
482C
538C
210 C
210 C
Table (2) Ignition temperature for common fuels

-Note:
*-To start a combustion not only we have to perform spark or flame in a mixture of fuel & air, the percentage of
the fuel into the air the must be in the proper range of combustion, for example natural gas will burn only if the
ratio of the gas into the air is between 5% to 15% (by volume), for Hydrogen the ratio is 4% to 76% (by
volume).
16-Adiabatic flame temperature:
Maximum temperature that could be achieved in a combustion process if we assume that there is no heat losses
from combustor to the surrounding. The table below shows some common fuels flame temperature.
Fuel
Propane in air
Butane in air
Natural Gas in air
Acetylene in air
Acetylene in Oxygen
Methane in air
Flame Temperature C*
1980 C
1970 C
1950 C
2500 C
3100 C
1950C
*-assuming initial atmospheric conditions (1 bar and 20C)

*-Adiabatic flame temperature is affected by the percentage of air that used in the combustion, for example if
Gasoline (Octane -C8 H18) is burned with:
a-Theoretical amount of air ,then the resultant adiabatic flame temperature is 2122C.
b-400% excess amount of air amount ,then the resultant adiabatic flame temperature is 689C.
76
c-Only 90% of theoretical air(or 10% deficiency air) ,then the resultant adiabatic flame temperature is 1936C.
-Note:
*- Adiabatic flame temperature is always maximized when the fuel is burned with theoretical amount of air.
*-In case (b) adiabatic flame temperature is extremely reduced because of excess air used is four times greater
than the amount of air needed for complete combustion.
*-The following table shows some of common fuels flame temperature (for constant volume basis) & also
compare between using air or oxygen as oxidizer for combustion
Fuel
Oxidizer
Adiabatic flame temperature(C)
Acetylene (C2H2)
air
2,500
Acetylene (C2H2) Oxygen
3,100
Butane (C4H10)
air
1,970
Butane (C4H10)
Oxygen
2,718
Methane (CH4)
air
1,950
air
~1,950
Propane (C3H8)
air
1,980
Propane (C3H8)
Oxygen
2,526
Natural gas
15- Heating Value of the Fuel:

The total amount of heat released when a fuel is burned completely & the products of combustion are returned
to their temperature before being burned.
77
16-Higher Heating Value of the Fuel (HHV):

The total amount of heat released when a fuel is burned completely & the water in the product is in liquid form.
17-Lower Heating Value of the Fuel (LHV):
The total amount of heat released when a fuel is burned completely & the water in the product is in vapor form.
*-Most of power plants analysis is depend on LHV not HHV.
*-The relation between HHV &LHV is :
HHV= LHV + m*hfg
m (Kg) = mass of water from combustion products ; hfg (KJ/Kg) = Latent heat of vaporization of the water at the
temperature of the products.
Table(3) Calorific vales for fuels compared to gasoline
Table(3-a) Atomic weight for some substances
78
Table(4) Calorific vales for common fuels
Table(5) Common fuels compositions
79
18-Air/ Fuel Ratio: It is the ratio of the mass of air to the mass of fuel for a combustion process. It is used to
determine how much Kg of air needed to burn 1 kg of the selected fuel. Larger air fuel ratio reduces flame
temperature (increase flue gas losses) & vise versa .Careful selection for this ratio must be made to over come
incomplete combustion.
EXAMPLE:
CH4 + O2 =CO2 + H2O
Equation after balancing:
CH4 + 2O2 =CO2 + 2H2O
N=m/M ; N= # of Kilo moles, m= mass in Kg, M= Molecular mass in Kg/Kmol

a-Mass of CH4 = N*M=1* [ (4*1) + (12) ] =16 Kg CH4
1 Kmol CH4 = 16 Kg of CH4
b-Mass of O2 needed in combustion = 2*[ (16*2) ]=64 Kg of O2
-Air is consisting of 21% Oxygen so the amount of air we need it is:
64*(100/21)= 305 Kg of theoretical air is needed to burn 16 kg of CH4
-Air Fuel Ratio= mass of air/ mass of fuel= 305/16=19
So for each 1 Kg of CH4 to burn completely we need 19 Kg of air (theoretical air).
19-Excess Air Ratio(): It is the ratio for available air over theoretical air ,it is very important design parameter
For combustion analysis.
*-There is no combustion process so perfect that it is need only theoretical air for complete combustion, all
combustion processes required excess air to insure complete combustion, other reasons to provide excess air for
combustion could be reduce combustible products temperature to the desired temperature.
*-Note that combustion process which use theoretical a mount of air will have excess air ratio =1.
80
*-Gas turbine are known to have very high excess air ratio (SIEMENS V94.2 has average excess air ratio of
=2.1 so the exhaust air from chimney).
Fig(72) Effect of excess air on combustion products
R ^ yFY WY -36

36-What is the requirement for a good combustion?
Good combustion required:
a-Good mixing between fuel & air.
b-Combustion must be carried out with excess amount of air to insure complete combustion.
c-Combustion products must be completely burned to reduce pollution.
d-Carbon deposits on burners must be avoided.
e-Losses of air pressure that is enter the combustion chamber must be minimized.
g-Combustion must be in smallest possible space ( to minimize radiation heat transfer losses).
f-Combustion must be stable with uniform temperature distribution .
^ y T
VO WY -37
37-What are the important factors for combustion to start?
81
For combustion to take place there are three basic conditions need to be satisfied these are:
a-The presence of Oxygen
In the 'chemistry' of burning (combustion) we require the fuel to combine with oxygen. Therefore, if no
oxygen is present combustion will not take place. In a practical situation the oxygen source is air. Air
contains 21% oxygen by volume and is readily available.
b-The correct temperature
A fuel will only ignite if its temperature is raised above its self ignition temperature in the presence of
oxygen.
c-The presence of a source of ignition
The burning process can only occur when the fuel, in the presence of oxygen and at or above the ignition
temperature, is ignited by an ignition source, this source can be a spark, flames, glowing embers or red
hot metal. Other method of fuel ignition could be compress a mixture of air & fuel top very high
pressure until the temperature of the mixture raises above fuel ignition temperature.
d- Percentage of the fuel into the air is in the proper range of combustion
Natural gas will burn only if the ratio of the gas into the air is between 5% to 15% (by volume), for
Hydrogen the ratio is 4% to 76% (by volume).
TU TVR W TYpq ^ g WY -38

38-What are the main types of combustion chamber which are used in gas turbines?
Types of Combustion Chambers are:

1-Can type -combustion chamber
Please refer to the next paper.
82
Fig(73) Can type combustor, the red line represent

Air used for combustion & the blue line represent
Cooling air
*-Flame holder must be used in the combustor to a void extinguishing the flame due to discharge air flow. flame
holder is hollow perforated piece of metal.
Fig(74) Flame Holder

*-Advantages & Disadvantages of Can type Combustors:
Please refer to the next paper.
83
Can type
Advantages
Disadvantages
Combustor
1
Light & small so its used in air craft
High pressure losses
Its surrounding gas turbine which reduce
Malfunction of one can could damage turbine
machine dimension & improve aerodynamic
Since heat distribution will disturbed
shape of the jet engine

3
Easy in maintenance
Uneven heat distribution
Minimum radiation heat transfer losses
More suitable for centrifugal compressor where

the flow is divided into separate streams in the
diffusers.
Fig(75) GE-gas turbine with annular type combustors

2-Annular type -combustion chamber
Fig(76) Annular type-Combustion Chamber, Flame tube is shown (ceramic layer)

84
Fig(77) First stage gas turbine for annular type-Combustion Chamber
*-Advantages & Disadvantages of Annular type Combustors:

Annular
Advantages
Disadvantages
Combustor
1
Completely surrounding the gas turbine
Turbine suffer from heat since turbine blades are

exposed to flame ( heat transfer by radiation)
which reduce turbine life
Pressure losses is reduced
Broken of any ceramic block inside the

combustor will hit directly turbine blades result
in catastrophic failure to turbine parts
Reduce the size of the machine
Possibility of turbine parts burned out
Uniform heat distribution (turbine inlet
Cooling holes in Flame tube wall is more likely
temperature)
to have blockage
Provide best aerodynamic shape therefore it
Difficult in maintenance
is most combustor used in air craft
3-Silo type (Cylindrical) -combustion chamber

Silo type combustors have two main configurations: single combustor & double combustor.
85
*-Advantages & Disadvantages of Silo type Combustors:

Silo
Advantages
Disadvantages
Combustor
1
Minimum pressure losses
Large size result in larger radiation heat transfer

losses
Easy in maintenance
Not suitable for aircraft engines
Higher efficiency &Long life
Higher noise level
Connected to the turbine by single flange to
Occupy much larger size compare to can or annular
reduce heat transfer by conduction
combustors
Burning is carried out at lower temperature (lower
More fuel piping are required
NOx emissions)
Fig(78) Various Silo type-Combustor configurations
86
^ T K WY -39

39-What are the main parts of combustion chamber?
Combustion chamber mainly consists of:
1-Combustor Casing
2-Flame holder
3-Igniters (provide ignition spark)
4-Flame Tube (reduces radiation heat transfer & distributes air flow between the primary & dilution zones)
5-Burners
6-Fuel supply valves & piping 7-Flame detector
^ TRFl V s

F R a TR WY - 40
40-What is the importance of good mixing between fuel & air during combustion process?
*-The importance of good mixing between fuel & air can be described by the flowing example:
Fig(79-a) Bunsen Burner

Refer to Fig(79-a), If the air inlet at the bottom of the burner is closed ,long flame will results, point(a).
If the inlet is opened so that the air and gas are thoroughly mixed before leaving the burner, a short, sharp flame
is produced, point (b). The various zones of the flame are shown in Figure 9(c).
^ TRFl W T
vV O WY -41
41-What are the important points to be considered in a combustion process?
1-Flame Color:
*- The various colors in the flame are due to the difference in the temperature of the particles, the higher the
temperature of the particles, the whiter the flame.
87
Fig(79-b) Temperature distribution of candle flame Table(6) Relation between flame color & temperature
*-For a given amount of high volatile fuel burned, a short flame will generally mean rapid and complete
combustion, a longer flame means delayed combustion and a very long flame means poor combustion.
*-There is a relationship between the color of the flame and its temperature. If the flame length is also
considered, better knowledge about flame can be obtained. Refer to table (4).
2-Flame Speed and Back Firing:
*-Imagine a tube containing a flammable mixture of gas and air. If the mixture is ignited at one end of the tube,
the flame will travel through the mixture initially at a constant velocity, and then, under suitable conditions, at
an increasing velocity. This is particularly so if there is turbulence present.
*-It has been determined experimentally that hydrogen has a flame speed about seven times greater than that of
both carbon monoxide and methane. The importance in practice of these various speeds of flame propagation is
that they determine the tendency of a flame to back fire.
*-If the velocity of the fuel entering a furnace is the same as the velocity of flame propagation, the point of
ignition will remain a set distance from the burner. However, if the speed of backward propagation of the flame
exceeds the velocity of flow of the air/fuel mixture, then back firing will occur. Fuels rich in hydrogen tend to
back fire because their flames have a high speed of flame propagation.
88
*-The air velocity does not normally vary with gas turbine load because the compressor is operating at constant
speed
{ ^ Fl P WF NYO WY -42

42-What are the factors that affect combustion process?
The rate at which fuel is burns and the efficiency of the burning will depend on:
a-Time
b-Temperature
c-Turbulence
^ V TFOF TFp I WY -43

43-What are the different configurations of the flame during combustion process?
The actual burning happens in two main forms:
1. Laminar diffusion flame, where a sheet of flame is formed between the fuel and the air. This is the type of
combustion seen in a candle flame, and occurs around a fuel droplet. (DIFFUSION FLAME)
Fig(80) Diffusion Flame
Fig(81) Premix Flame
2. The second type is the pre-mixed laminar flame, which occurs when the fuel and air are already mixed
together before the fuel burned.(PREMIX FLAME),note that premix flame include tertiary air which help to
reduce flame peak temperature yet reducing NOx emission.
Diffusion Flame - TO s TFO Premix Flame - vyqY Fp s TFO uR Y - 44
44-What is the difference between Premix flame & diffusion flame?
89
*-Modern Gas turbine have hybrid burners in their combustors, these hybrid burners have two different flame in
one burner, the diffusion flame & the premix flame, each flame is supplied with fuel by individual pipes.
*-When the gas turbine firing use diffusion flame, then the gas turbine is said to be under Diffusion Mode, &
when the gas turbine is using premix flame, the, then the gas turbine is said to be under Premix Mode.
*-Both flames are consuming the same amount of fuel for a given load, but the difference between them is on
the way of mixing air &fuel.
*- Designers choose premix flame as the main flame for gas turbine base load operation because of lower NOx
level in this flame. The main characteristics of these flames are shown on the following table.
Fig(82-a)Compare between Diffusion flame & Premix flame)
90
Fig(82-b)Compare between Diffusion flame & Premix flame)
1
2
Diffusion Flame
Premix Flame
Strong & stable flame, used during gas turbine
Weak & instable flame since it does not have (peak
start up until 60% of the load
temperature)
Temperature profile is not linear
Linear temperature profile provide excellent heat

distribution
Non visible flame
Visible short flame
Much higher NOx emission
Much lower NOx emission
Bad air fuel mixing
Excellent air fuel mixing
Flame is far from burner metal
Flame is closed to burner metal so burner

temperature monitoring is required
Used during fuel change over
Cannot be used during fuel changeover
Since diffusion flame is strong flame ,it will not
Fast change over to diffusion mode is required when
be affected by flame humming
the premix flame suffer from fuel gas pressure

fluctuating while flame humming monitoring is
response
No pilot flame is required
Pilot flame to stable premix flame is required
Hybrid Burner -uR

F O NY 45
45-What is the main configuration of the hybrid burner?
91
*-A hybrid burner is a burner that design to have two different flames which are diffusion & premix flames,
each flame has its own air & fuel supply passages within the burner, also each flame has its own swirler. Most
of modern Gas turbines (Europe) is using this burner in their gas turbines, the main advantage of this burner is
the lower NOx level if the gas turbine is operated under Premix Mode. Other designers (U.S.A) tend to use
water injection on the burners to reduce flame temperature & yet reduce NOx emission.
Fig(83)Hybrid Burner on Silo type combustor
92
Fig(84) Hybrid Burner Assembly (Diffusion-Premix Burner)
93
ERs Rs V

Flame Humming - TFO W Nj F uRV Y 46
46-What is flame humming & why it is important to measure it?
*-Flame humming can be defined as pressure fluctuations of the flame in the combustion chamber. During
load changes, the fuel flow will be changed which will case fluctuating in flame position & temperature jump, a
flame with temperature jump will produce pulsation pressure. The variation of the flame pressure will have a
certain frequency
*-Flame frequency range must be within the safe operating limits, if flame humming increases, then the
vibration level in combustion chamber will increase, and hence flame tube which consist of combination of
blocks may collapse by time & the broken brick pieces fall down & mix with the flow stream that enter the
turbine which is rotating at high speed, the resultant is catastrophic failure to the gas turbine. Monitoring of
flame humming is so important to avoid such cases.
Fig(85)Flame tube for Silo type combustion chamber, the picture on the left is showing maintenance
procedure for each brick by using transparent paper with a black X painted on it, good brick condition is
checked in a way that any crack must not be inside the black X and if the cracks elongated & reach the
black x, the corresponding brick must be replaced to avoid its failure during gas turbine in operation
94
*-Flame humming is measured by vibration sensor that works on the principal of piezoelectric concept. The
output signal is a pressure signal (mbar), Piezoelectricity concept can be shown on the following figure.
Fig(86) Piezoelectricity is voltage produced by squeezing crystals of certain substances (pressure)

*-If flame humming is increased to more than 30 mbar, Gas turbine load increasing is blocked until Humming
sensor is rested (removed).
^ V
N^ Y WY 47
47-What are the stages of the air during combustion?
Combustion occurs in three zones:
(1) Primary zone, where most of the fuel is burnt in a vortex movement in which the fuel re-circulates a
number of times, allowing time along the spiral paths for the burning to become complete.
(2) Secondary zone, where further air is added to provide a condition of excess oxygen in which all the other
combustion components can be fully burned.
(3) Tertiary zone, where still more of the air from the compressor is added to reduce the temperature of the
products of combustion to a temperature which the turbine can withstand. A major function of this tertiary zone
is to ensure that the mixing is complete so that a uniform flow is passes to the turbine, with no hot areas.
Fig(87) Dividing of air into combustion air & cooling air

95
*-In gas turbines, air enters the combustion chamber traveling at about 150 meters per second. The velocity at
which a flame is propagated in a typical fuel/air mixture is about 7 meters per second. Comparing these figures,
we can see that, we have to reduce air velocity to avoid flame immediately blown out.
Fig(88) Addition of flame tube distribute air flow between the primary & dilution zones
*-In order to provide the necessary conditions for stable burning, two main
Measures are taken:
1-Air flow is slowed down by increasing the cross-section of the combustion chamber just after air entry
2-Air flow is divided into three zones (primary, secondary and tertiary), to provide controlled air to help in
different purposes (part for combustion & part for cooling).
NOx emission - TU TVR W ^ uY TPV uRK RV RH Oyg NRFvP WY - 48
48-What are the various methods used to educe NOx emission form gas turbines?
*-Method of reducing NOx generation includes:
1-Reduce flame peak temperature to less than 1300C & this can be achieved by introducing tertiary air
on the flame (Premix flame) - Preferred by Europe Gas turbine Manufacturer -.
96
2-Modify Combustion chamber design so that a small portion of the burning is occur under theoretical
amount of air where the flame temperature is highest.
3- Dilute the flame using water or steam injection on the burners , this will prevent 80% of uncontrolled
NOx formation-Preferred by U.S.A. Gas turbine Manufacturer-, note that add steam injection will raise
gas turbine power output by 6%.
4-Inject ammonia (NH3) in the exhaust of the gas turbine to react with NO in present of catalyst. Since
solid catalysts have a short life, a more stable wet de-nitration process using liquid ammonia is generally
employed. By mixing exhaust gases with ammonia, NOx is converted to harmless nitrogen and water.
The reaction is expressed as follows:
NOx + NH3 + (catalyst) --> N2 + H2O
*-The running cost of a liquid ammonia process is high, so NOx measurements before and after the
operation of NOx removal is important to control (minimize) the amount of ammonia that is injected.
*-NOx generation in fuel-rich flame is quit low, then as air approaches theoretical air NOx generation increases
& reach maximum at excess air, then as excess air is added to cool down the flame, NOx generation is reduced.
*-Note that permissible NOx generation worldwide recent standard is varying from 28 to 60 ppm.
SOx emission - TU TVR W ^ uY TPV y RH Oyg NRFvP WY - 49
49-What are the various methods used to reduce SOx emission from gas turbines?
*-Sulfur oxides result from the burning of the sulfur in the fuel with oxygen from the combustion air, and are
generally referred to as 'SOx'.
*-These substances are very undesirable since they are major components of acid rain, which causes
environmental damage, and they can also cause severe corrosion of equipment.
*- Method
of reducing SOx generation includes:
1-Reduce the amount of Sulfur on the fuel is most famous solution.
97
2-Operating at low excess air ratio is the best solution to minimize Sox emission ,note that this solution
is not practical in combined cycle gas turbines since the excess air is needed to burn any extra fuel added
to the heat recovery steam generator(supplementary firing).
*-Note that Sulfur can be removed from the fuel by some treatment but Nitrogen cannot be removed from air!
Fig(89) Siemens hybrid burner

(Diffusion-Premix burner)
Axial & diagonal swirlers are clearly shown
Fig(90) G.E. burner -water injection
98
GAS TURBINE TURBINE SECTION
TVR
MS6001B-G.E.
99
Yl VR QVjP QR -50

50-How can turbines in general are classified?
Turbines can be classified by:
*- the action of flow on the turbine blades:
1-Impulse.
2-Reaction.
3-Impulse and reaction combined.
*-The number of step reductions involved:

1-Single stage.
2-Multi-stage.
*-The direction of flow:

1-Axial.
2-Radial.
*-Reheat or non reheat.

*-Tandem compound or cross compound (this configuration is for steam turbine only)
Fig(91) Radial & Axial flow gas turbine
Fig(92) Tandem & cross compound configuration

100
Fig(93) Gas Turbine with reheat
Radial T Axial T TVR | pHI r VR uY g -51

51-Which types of turbines are most common radial or axial turbine?
*-Most gas turbines engines use axial flow turbines. However, Radial flow turbines can handle small mass flow
applications more efficiently than axial flow turbines & they are used widely in turbocharger for reciprocating
engines.
Fig(94) Conventional Super Charger used in reciprocating engine

101
Reaction turbine NO TVRP Impulse turbine a TVRP RHH WY - 52

52-What are the main principals of impulse & reaction turbines?
*-Principals of Impulse & reaction Turbine:
102
103
104
Fig(95) Impulse & Reaction turbines comparison
Fig(96) Velocity ratio for various turbines
TVR RjP Vl TYpq TRRj | O WY -53

53-What are the main design considerations that used in turbine design?
1-Degree of Reaction (D.O.R):
It is a ratio = (the enthalpy drop across the moving blade) / (enthalpy drop across stage)
*-If D.O.R= 0 %, its pure impulse
*-If D.O.R= 10 %, its impulse stage with small reaction
*-If D.O.R= > 10 %, its reaction stage
105
Note that pure impulse is occur at the root of the blade & as we go further along the blade, degree of
reaction will increase.
2-Velocity Ratio (VR):
It is = (blade speed /Flow speed)
Impulse turbine has highest efficiency at 0.5 VR & Reaction Turbine at 0.9 VR. Note that VR will increase
as blade wheel become larger that's why reaction blades are used in low pressure turbines (such as steam
turbines) because it develops its highest efficiency at higher velocity ratio.
Reaction Turbine NO TVRP Impulse turbine a TVRP uR Tgv EK Y -54
54-What is the main difference between impulse & reaction turbines?
MOPQ STUVKL
XYZQ STUVKL
Impulse Turbine
Reaction Turbine
Has much higher speed since pressure drop per stage
Lower speed since pressure drop per stage is small
is high
2
Power output is higher (for same no. of stages)
Lower power output (for same number of stages)
Less efficiency since work is done only on the fixed
Higher efficiency since work is done in both fixed &
blade
moving blades
Blade tip leakage is far less since its moving blade
Suffer from blade tip leakage since its moving blade
does not reduce flow pressure (lower moving blade
produce pressure drop (higher moving blade leakage
leakage factor)
factor) so careful design must be made to keep pressure
drop per stage to minimum

5
6
Its moving blade produce lower axial thrust since it
Its moving produce high axial thrust since it reduces flow
does not reduces flow pressure
pressure
Used as first stage in HP steam turbine to:
Depend on impulse turbine as first stage to enhance
produce larger pressure drop to reduce leakage losses
overall turbine design
at first stage, also to reduce thrust & minimize

number of reaction stages needed on HP turbine
7
Less number of stages is needed for given load
Higher number of stages are needed for a given load
Small labyrinth gland sealing (high pressure)
Larger labyrinth gland sealing (Low pressure)
Has higher flow velocity, friction losses is high
Lower flow velocity, friction losses is minimized
10
Less pressure drop in moving blades minimize
Higher pressure drop in moving blades maximize &
leakage & sealing devices around moving buckets of
sealing devices around moving buckets of the turbine
the turbine
106
Fig(97) Impulse & Reaction turbines blade geometry & profiles
a TVR TFp I WY -55

55-What are the different configurations of impulse turbine?
Impulse turbine has three main configurations which are:
a- Pressure Compound.
b- Velocity compound.
c- Velocity & pressure compound.
The various configuration of impulse turbine is shown in the figures below.
107
Fig(98) Pressure Compound impulse stages
Fig(99) Velocity Compound
Fig(100) Combined Velocity & Pressure Compound
TU TVR W pq VR uY g -56

56-Which type of turbines is used in gas turbines?
*-The selection of turbines is never clear, but in general most designers used combined impulse & reaction
configuration, most gas turbine uses reaction turbines with the first fixed stage is impulse.
108
TU TVR RjP -57

57-Explain gas turbine design?
Fig(101) SIEMENS- V94.2 gas turbine

*-Turbine stator is surrounded with shroud & there is a gap between them to minimize conduction heat transfer.
*-Turbine rotor disks has small gaps for cooling air that extracted from compressor at various stages in such
way that each turbine stage receive suitable cooling air temperature. This cooling air is used to cool moving
blades. Turbine stator blades are also cooled from compressor extractions.
*-There are no peep holes on turbine section since blade tip clearance can be measured from combustor side or
exhaust side (for gas turbine using silo type combustor only).
*-Thrust direction of turbine is opposes compressor thrust direction & has higher value.
109
*-Gas turbine bearing is placed down of the hot stream to reduce heat level (refer to the figure below), turbine
bearing also is sealed from hot stream by seal air from compressor extraction, that air also provide cooling for
gas turbine bearing & it is either exist from bearing bores to mixed with the exhaust or it mixed with lube oil
that is back to oil tank.
*-Lubricating oil is enter with higher flow than other bearing to provide cooling to turbine bearing & to avoid
high temperature from hot steam that passes through the bearing.
Fig(102) Hot gases leaves turbine through diffuser& gas turbine bearing is placed down to the hot stream
*-Turbine stator is made from a mixture of alloys & globolitic cast iron. Turbine inner casing is made of
mixture of alloys mainly nickel & chromium.
*-Turbine blades is made from expensive alloys to with stand high temperature, Air craft Boeing -757 is made
from the following compositions :
Titanium (38%), Nickel (37%), Chromium (12%), Cobalt (6%), Aluminum (5%), other alloys (2%)
*-Note that air craft must be as light as possible to reduce its weight, this is tell you way titanium content on
aircraft turbine blade is so high. Modern land base gas turbine blades are made mainly from Nickel, Chromium
110
& Cobalt along with other alloys.

*- Both moving & fixed blades of turbine are cooled by air-cooling, air is enter inside moving blade & at the
root also there are extracted air that provide sealing & avoid hot gases to enter the hollow section of the rotor
(inter stage seals).the sealing air also provide cooling for turbine rotor disks.
*-First & second fix blade of gas turbine normally coated with ceramic to reduce thermal stresses.
*-Each increase in turbine inlet temperature will increase turbine power by 1.7% & thermal efficiency by 0.5%.
Fig(103) Gas turbine blades &bearing carbon rings fitted in stator are clearly shown
Fig(104) Turbine Rotor Disk & hirth coupling also shown
111
Fig(105) First stage of silo type combustor
Fig(106) Gas turbine first stage moving blade
Fig(107) GE- Gas turbine rotor & moving blade which have first two stages coated with ceramic
112
GAS TURBINE BLADE COOLING

TECHNIQUES
TU TVR yP TRVvP
MS6001B-G.E.
113
TVRF T |T yP WY -58

58-What are the methods used to cool turbine fixed & moving blades?
*-Turbine inlet temperature will depend on:
a- Material of the blades
b-Fuel
c-Cooling technique
*-Most component that suffer from high temperatures, high stresses and chemical attack is turbine first fix
stage, (normally it is coat with ceramic to provide extra protection).
*-Main reasons of high thermal stress on turbine moving blades are:
a-High rotational speed
b-Uneven temperature distributions on different blade cross sections
c-Static & pulsating gas forces that may give raise to dangerous vibration stresses
d-Temperature changes which occur during start up & shutdown
e-Normal & up normal load changes which affect turbine inlet temperature (unlike steam turbine which
have constant inlet conditions for various load profile.
*-Turbine blades are hollow so that coolant can be circulating through.
*-Blade root is called (leading edge) & blade tip is called (trailing edge).
*-Turbine blades must be cooled to protect them from melting due to high turbine inlet temperature, highest
turbine inlet temperature raised to 1370 C in new designs. There are two main techniques used to cool down
turbine blades which are air cooling & water cooling (steam).
*-The range for air cooling technique is up to turbine inlet temperature of 1150 C & for water cooling
technique is up to turbine inlet temperature of 1315 C . In some hybrid designs both technique are used where
water cooling is used for turbine first fixed stage & air cooling is used for the other blades.
114
Fig(108-a) Cooling passages of turbine rotor blade
Fig(108-b) Methods of turbine blades cooling
115
Fig(109) Cooling air flows at turbine section & cooling air to gas turbine bearing is clearly shown
Fig(110) Air extraction temperature must be suitable with gas temperature along turbine
*-Note that turbine inlet temperature must be identified as per ISO condition since first stage fixed blade is
cooled from inside by air & hence there will be a temperature drop for hot gases at entrance.
116
Fig(111) Definition of Turbine Inlet Temperature as per ISO- 2314

Blade Cooling methods:
Fig(112) Types of blade cooling

There are four main typed of cooling methods, some blades may have two method or three involved, these
methods are:
1-Convectin Cooling
Most common technique used in gas turbine where the air flow is entreat the root of the blade & travel
through multiple passages before leaving blade at the tip (air always flow in parallel with the axis of the
blade cross section.
117
2-Impingment Cooling
It is a form of convection cooling but here air is blasted on a blade surface at high velocity (air is flow
parallel & perpendicular to the axis of the blade cross section. This technique can be limited to desired
sections of the blade, for example the root of blade required more cooling than the middle or the tip of
the blade. Cooling air is impinged at the root of the blade to improve the cooling in this section.
3-Film Cooling
It is a very effective cooling method in which cooling air flow from the root & exit at the tip and at
holes around the blade surface, this air will surround the blade with a thin layer which insure maximum
blade cooling efficiency.
4-Transpiriation Cooling
Transpiration Cooling is some how similar to film cooling, in this method blade cooling is done by
passing the cooling air through the porous wall that formed over the blade. The air flows on these pores
& exit from the blade after cool it being down. The disadvantages of this methods is that it required
large cooling airflow, also the porous blades are easily damaged.
Fig(113) Cooling air move around series of passages before exit

*-The amount of cooling air needed may represent to 5% of the total compressor output for small units to 16%
for large units to cool the gas turbine blades. This air is not, of course, available for combustion, and hence
118
represents a power loss. The pressure of the cooling air may need to be varied to match the pressure in the
various zones of the turbine.
Fig(114) Cooling efficiency (k ) versus cooling effectiveness for

Various blade cooling methods
Fig(115) Types of blade Cooling

5-Water Cooling
*-water cooling technique is used for higher turbine inlet temperature, as gas temperature exceeds 1150
C, the percentage of extracted air (air that is by pass the combustion chamber) to cool turbine parts
119
is increase to unacceptable value& the use of water cooling is more preferred (Each 1% of air extraction
from compressor will reduce turbine power by 2%), the air extraction in water cooling is eliminated.
*-Test have been made in both techniques shows that for air cooling the blade temperature is below
900C while in water cooling the blade temperature is well below 450C.
*- Cooling water must be heated enough before entering turbine blades to avoid thermal shock. The
fixed blades are normally having closed cooling water loop while the moving blade have open cooling
water loop. In this case the water enters from blade root & allows to be boiled then it will thrown out
form blade tip by centrifugal force as steam.
*-Water has much higher heat capacity & heat transfer capability than air but it is not used so common
because of the added complexity to the design. This technique is suitable only for large land base
turbines which have high turbine inlet temperature & in these machines water is used to cool down first
fixed stage while other stages are cooled by air extraction, the main aim of this hybrid designs to reduce
air extraction from compressor flow which may be up to 16% of total flow (Each 1% of air extraction
from compressor will reduce turbine power by 2%).
*-Unvaporized water moves radialy by centrifugal force & may be collected by water collectors which
are installed on the outer inner casing of the turbine, refer to the figure below.
Fig (116) Water cooled gas turbine moving blade with water collector at the circumferential
120
y
TVR yP uR Tgv EK Y -59
59-What are the main deference between air cooled blades & water cooled blades?
K^Q_V `abc\Q
_dQ_V `abc\Q
Turbine cooling by air extraction
Turbine cooling by water
Extracted air that bypass combustor reduce total
No need for air extraction from compressor
flow that enter turbine which represent a loss in

turbine efficiency (5-6% of compressor discharge
for medium range units & up to 16% for large units)
2
Easy design & lower cost
More complex design & higher cost
For open type air cooling system, mixing of air with
For open type water cooling system, mixing of
hot stream will reduce hot gases temperature at each
water with hot stream will reduce hot gases
stage which will reduce the work done by each stage
temperature at each stage but since water will

evaporates to steam which have larger expansion
than air, there will be extra power out put on the
turbine which will offset the reduction of hot gas
temperature
Air extraction temperature must be suitable with the
Water must be heated before entering blade to
desired cooled stage temperature to avoid thermal
avoid thermal shock
shock
5
Common technique for gas turbine blades cooling
Un common technique
*-Note that a hybrid technique which includes both water & air cooling is done by GE-gas turbines.
!

-60
60-How blade cooling effectiveness is measured?
*-Blade cooling efficiency is given by the ratio of the actual drop in temperature achieved to the maximum
theoretical temperature drop achieved.
*-Cooling effectiveness (b) = (Tg - Tb) / (Tg Ta )
Where, Tg= Hot gas temperature
121
Tb = Mean blade surface temperature
Ta = Cooling air inlet temperature
TU TVR W T T| F N T O Q OP Y -61

61-What is the definition of Corrosion & Erosion for gas turbine blades?
*-Turbine blades suffer from high temperature corrosion & erosion.
Erosion: Loss of material of the blades due to abrasion of a moving fluid.
Corrosion: Material removal due to chemical reaction.
Normally first three stages are coated with special material to avoid corrosion.
TVR W
K{ FlI O F O Y -62
62-What is the component in gas turbine which is suffered from the highest thermal stress?
The part on turbine that greatly suffers from stresses & high temperature is turbine first stage fixed blade, these
blades are coated with ceramic to reduce thermal stresses. Refer to the figure below.
Fig (117) Gas turbine first fixed blades suffer from corrosion & erosion
122
Fig (118) Overheated gas turbine blades
TU TVR W T T| F N T O yH WY -63

63-What are the main causes of Erosion & Corrosion on turbine blades?
*-The main reason of turbine hot corrosion is associated with the contents of the fuels & more clearly the
contaminations present in the fuel. Also, pollution from the air that enter compressor.
*- The main agent in this type of corrosive attack is sodium sulphate, arising from the combination of sulphur
and sodium present in the fuel.
*- Normally the melting point of sodium sulphate is sufficiently high that it is not deposited on the blade
surfaces. However, the presence of small amounts of secondary substances, such as vanadium pentoxide, lowers
the melting point of the sodium sulphate below the blade surface temperature with resultant deposits on the
blade. Once deposited the sulphates combine with the blade materials, attacking the surface of the blades and
forming metallic sulphides.
*-
Because the air/fuel ratio is very high in gas turbines, there is extra oxygen available in the blade zone to
oxidize these sulphides(air contain 21% air by volume & at turbine exhaust air represent 15 % of hot gases by
volume). The sulphur is then released to attack the next layer of blade surface.
*-Other sulphates, such as lithium and potassium sulphate which are present on the fuels, will have the same
effect on turbine blade & above process will be repeated.
123
EVY TVR T^ N NRFv F WY -64

64-What are the methods used to reduce Corrosion & protect turbine blades?
There are various methods of controlling corrosion that Resulting from Fuel contaminations, these methods
include:
1-Eliminating the substances causing corrosion from the fuel and air:
*-Some of the harmful substances in fuels, such as sodium sulphate, are water soluble and can be washed out by
water. The wash water, with the dissolved out impurities, is then removed by centrifuging. Impurities such as
vanadium and heavy metal compounds are not water soluble compared with oil and cannot be eliminated in this
way. Combustion air can be filtered to remove solid particles.
*-Air also contain some of the harmful substances, even if the air is passes trough air intake filter house, the
harmful gases cannot be removed by filters.
2-Protecting the blades themselves from corrosion attack:
By forming the blades from mixture of strong alloys or by coating.
Fig (119) Corrosion effect on turbine blades

124
3-by using corrosion inhibitors in the fuel:

Fuel additives are available which assist in preventing hot corrosion via sulphates. One such additive is
magnesium. In the presence of this metal, magnesium sulphate is formed instead of sodium sulphate.
Magnesium sulphate remains solid at the temperatures found in the hottest parts of the gas turbine, and hence
liquid deposition and corrosive attack do not occur.
4-by using ceramic blades (or a complete ceramic turbine rotor):
This method is still experimental in both gas turbine (to reduce blade temperature) & reciprocating engines (to
reduce heat loss to surrounding).
TVR W T
OP WF TRRgR
KI g W Y -65
65-What are the types of loads that exert on rotating turbine blades?
*-Type of loads in a turbine blade:
a-Flow load which try to bend the blade.
b-Centrifugal force which try to pull out the blade in tension.
c-Vibration loads because the blade is subjected to steam pressure at blade intervals ( since there is a
difference in pressure in the blade, maximum pressure occur at root and minimum at tip & hence
result in blade vibration).
deposits formation on turbine blade TVR{ Fl W r P QR -66

66-How does deposits formation on turbine blade affect turbine efficiency?
*-About 500 grams of deposits distributed on the blade can bring down turbine efficiency by 1%.
TVR{ Fl T W F QR -67

67- How does the damage to turbine-blades tell upon the efficiency of the unit?
*-The damage to blade profiles changes the geometry of flow path and hence reducing the efficiency of the unit.
125
GENERAL NOTES ON
TURBINE SHAFT DESIGN
RjP RHH ul TYl YFOY

O
MS6001B-G.E.
126
TR P QR Shaft Alignment - O Y TRFl V

P -68
68-Why shaft alignment process is important? & how can we perform this process correctly?
Alignment of shaft bearings:
*-The rotors of a modern turbine are bolted up with solid couplings, so that they form a single long shaft, and
this is supported in a number of bearings. However, we must not think of this shaft as rigid, since it will bend
under its own weight.
*-If we put all the bearings at the same height, then the shaft will be forced into a deflected shape as shown in
the figure below part (a), and this alignment is incorrect because in this case the faces of the rigid coupling
(unbolted) would not lie parallel to each other.
*-The bearings must be set as shown in part (b) with the centre pair lower than the two outer bearings, in order
that the shaft shall be able to lie in a continuous curve . This setting permits the two faces of the rigid coupling
to lie parallel to each other. The basic goal of this arrangement is to have zero shear force and zero bending
moment at the coupling bolts.
Fig (120) Shaft Alignment

*-On large turbines the centre bearings may require to be set 12 mm lower than the outer bearings in order for
the shaft to be able to deflect and to form this continuous curve.
127
Fig (121) Typical Shaft Alignment for large turbo generator
Tpy TU VR W R Journal Bearings Ov NR WH pqP -69
69-Why Journal bearings are used in large turbines?
*-Plain white metal journal bearings are widely used because of their high loading capacity, their long life and
the low rate of wear.
*-The long life of these bearings is due to the fact that, when the shaft is rotating at speed, a continuous high
pressure film of oil is automatically formed between the white metal and the shaft.
*-The oil film ensures that no metallic contact takes place and consequently no wear occurs. Oil is supplied to
the bearings from the lubrication system.
*-Journal bearings are designs to carry rotor radial forces but there are also axial forces that generates from
thrust. To keep the shaft in correct axial position, axial bearing is used.
az Oy
Ypq d VR OF g VR O pqP -70
70-Why lifting oil is used in some turbines to lift their shafts?
128
*-Lifting oil is used to lift the shaft during start up to reduce wear on bearings metal since the oil film is no yet
established, This system is used to reduce the cost of using strong bearing material which withstands wear
during low speed by replacing these bearings with less cost bearings materials.
OY T s Qjg NRP WH pqg VR v ^ Y NRP WH VR O W pq -71
71-Why we use only one axial bearing in turbine shaft instead of multiple bearings?
*-Because turbines shafts are joined to gather by bolted joints (rigid coupling) & hence the axial thrust of single
shaft will push the hall turbine shaft, but if there is a reduction gear between the shafts, then each shaft will have
its own axial movement & hence each one must has axial bearing.
Tpy TVR TU TVRF O uR TRHHI a W Y -72

72-What are the main deference between gas turbine shaft & steam turbine shaft?
TU TVRF O
Tpy TVRF O
Gas turbine shaft
Steam turbine shaft
Due to high operating temperature, the shaft must be
Most of steam turbines shafts are solid
hollow from inside to provide passages for cooling air

Since the shaft size is small & short so it expand &
shell expansion & differential expansion monitoring
shrink less so their is no shell expansion & differential
is required since the shaft & its shell is large & heavy
expansion monitoring
yet they expand & shrink more relative to each other
Most gas turbines depend on temperature sensors that
Thrust wear power failure is required in some
embedded on bearing metal to detect wear instead of
designs due to slower rate of heating ( Slow thermal
thrust wear detector.
expansion in steam turbine in comparison).
Manufactured from complex materials, alloys &
Manufactured mainly from steel (steel base alloy)
surface coating is required in some parts
with 11-13% of chromium for large units
Blade is manufactured by forming & casting (very expensive)
Its blades are manufactured by machining
Gas turbine processes simulate internal combustion
Steam turbine simulate a wind mill
engine
Temperature is lowest at the beginning of the rotor
Temperature is highest at the beginning of the rotor
Much higher operating temperature
Lower operating temperature
129
p V Tpy TVR ^ uY y TU TVR ^ -73

73-Whay gas turbine is larger than steam turbine for the same power output?
*-Because gas turbine compressor extract mechanical power from turbine the valve of this mechanical power
around 50% to 67%.
*-Note that steam turbines required 2% of rated steam flow when they are idling (full speed no load condition)
& this flow is only to resist bearing friction & windage losses, while gas turbines required 60% - 67% of full
load flow when they are idling, this flow is to resist bearing friction , windage losses & compressor work.
yVP VRFl TVR O TK l q WY -74

74-What is critical speed for turbine rotor & why do we have to avoid it?
In order to understand shaft critical speeds, the following definitions must be recognized.
A-Types of vibration:
*-Vibration, in general, reduces equipment life and, in extreme cases, can result in equipment damage or even
catastrophic failures. Thus vibration must be observed to avoid damage to the turbine. There are three types of
vibrations in terms of the direction of motion and deformations experienced by the vibrating object which are:
1- Lateral
Lateral vibration is the most common. It occurs when the object deflects/bends laterally to its
longitudinal axis. Most turbines vibration sensors sense lateral vibration.
2-Axial
Axial vibration occurs when the object is subjected to pulsating axial forces. This type of vibration is
difficult to notice & special sensors must be involved in order to monitor this type of vibration.
3- Torsional
Torsional vibration occurs when the object goes through a pulsating angular motion around an axis of
reference, usually its own longitudinal axis.
B-Critical Speed:
*-Critical speed is the speed of a rotating shaft at which one of the natural frequencies of the rotor-bearingfoundation system equals the forced frequency that corresponds to the rotational speed. The term rotor-bearingfoundation system reflects the fact that the rotor natural frequencies are affected by the stiffness of its support.
*-Critical speed is the speed at which resonance occur.
130
C-Natural frequency:
*-Natural frequency is a frequency at which the object would vibrate after the initiating force is removed and
the object is left on its own. This type of vibration is referred to as free or natural vibration. In practice, due to
friction and energy transmission to surrounding objects, the amplitude of free vibration decreases until the
object comes to rest.
*-What causes natural vibration to continue after the initial disturbance has been removed? It is a combination
of the object's inertia (an object with higher inertia will have lower natural frequency) and stiffness or rigidity
(the stiffer the object the higher natural frequency will result).
*-The concept of natural frequencies is important for prevention of excessive vibration. To avoid resonance, we
should avoid situations where a forced frequency (shaft speed) equals a natural frequency. We must therefore
know the factors affecting the values of natural frequencies.
D-Damping:
Vibration damping is dissipation of the mechanical energy of a vibrating object. In free vibrations, damping
reduces the amplitude of vibration to zero.
The main sources of damping are:
1- Internal friction in the material of the vibrating object.
2- Friction between sliding surfaces of the vibrating object and some other object.
3- Friction between the object's surface and the surrounding fluid (fluid damping).
Although fluids, in general, provide some damping, sometimes they cause vibration.
E-Resonance:
Very high vibration occurs when rotor speed is synchronies with natural frequency the rotor. Resonance is
potentially dangerous because it can produce excessive vibration.
131
Fig(122) Resonance can raise vibration amplitude dramatically when damping is low.
*-When the machine is running at a critical speed, the resonance will increase vibration, particularly if damping
is small. From the above figure, you can see that vibration will increase not only at the single value of a critical
speed but also at a speed range around it.
*-Operation at or near critical speed should be avoided because vibration will increase and may become
unacceptable. This condition means that normal operating speed must be sufficiently far from the nearest critical
speeds (minimum 20%).
*-In some machines like turbine generators and high-speed pumps and compressors, the normal operating speed
is above the lowest critical speeds. These machines pass through the critical speeds during run-up and rundown.
This is perfectly safe as long as sufficient damping exists (In rotating machinery, damping is usually provided
by the oil film in the bearings, by the cast iron casing and by the concrete foundation).
*-Normally any rotor has one or more critical speeds which may be below or above its operating speed.
*-During rolling up turbine rotor care must be taken when passing near rotor critical speed & in many control
system the rate of speed will increased more than normal when passing near critical speed to minimize
resonance & protect rotor from excessive vibration.
*-Each rotor on the turbine has its own critical speeds; they are mainly lateral critical speeds & tensional critical
speeds.
*- Critical speed decreases as rotor shaft length increase or rotor diameter decrease.
132
*-Factors that affecting critical speed:

1-Length of the shaft
2-Diameter of the rotor
3- distance between rotor bearings
4-rigidity of the rotor support
TVR O Sagging - pP hogging - v TRqRr yHI W Y - 75

75-What are the main reasons for shaft Hogging & Sagging?
F-Shaft Hogging: Hog is an upward bending of the rotor and it is s happen when the top of the shaft is hotter
then the bottom.
*-This temperature differential is produced by the fluid around the rotor. That is, the colder and therefore
heavier fluid collects at the bottom, while the warmer and hence lighter fluid is pushed to the top. This process
takes place when the turbine rotor is left stationary (with out put it under turning gear operation) for cooling
down or when start the turbine without being warmed up.
*-Hogging is a fast process; it may take only several minutes to bow the shaft enough to close some radial
clearances in the machine. An attempt to turn the rotor in this condition could damage the machines internals
(i.e. turbine blades) and bearings through rubbing.
*- Note that hogging also affects turbine casing. However, the rotor is our primary concern, because its bowing
introduces a mass unbalance, which does not affect the casing and secondly, because rotor hogging is faster and
larger than casing hogging. The reason for this is that the rotor changes its temperature faster than the casing
which is heavier and therefore needs more heat transfer to change its temperature. (also because rotor it is
smaller yet expand &shrink faster).
G-Shaft Sagging: Down word bending of the shaft under its own weight
*-Note that very small, sag is present during normal shaft rolling operation because the rotor is not infinitely
rigid. But when the rotor is stationary, sag increases because the same part of the rotor is subjected to a constant
stress for an extended period, the top half is in compression, while the bottom half is in tension.
*-Unlike hogging, sagging is a slow process and it takes days rather than minutes to develop to a troublesome
level. Another term that is closely associated with hogging.
133
*-Note that shaft sagging is slow process (several days to affect the shaft & can be removed by put the shaft
under turning gear operation to adjust shaft eccentricity.
Fig(123) Shaft hogging & sagging

H-Shaft Eccentricity: Eccentricity is a measure of the rotor deflection from the perfectly straight line; this
measurement is unavailable when the rotor is stationary.
*-Reasons of shaft eccentricity:
1-Shaft hogging
2-Shaft sagging
3-Rubbing of rotating parts with stationary parts in the rotor
4-Rapid heating or cooling for the rotor
TVR l W TRqRr yHI W Y -76

76-What are the main reasons of shaft vibration in turbine?
*-Main reasons of turbine vibration:
1-unbalanced parts
2-poor alignment of parts
3-loose parts
4-rubbing parts
5-lubrication troubles
6-Flow instability
7-foundation troubles
8-cracked or excessively worn parts
9-vibration result from blades
10- Running the rotor near its critical speed.

*-Note that regard case#10 we have to make sure that the vibration of the rotor is caused by critical speed & not
by some other trouble.
134
TU TVR W U{ VVY{ VVY l {VVY QR -77

77-How is the torque, pressure & temperature distribution on gas turbine?
*-The highest torque occurs between compressor last stage & turbine first stage.
Fig (124) Torque distribution & output power in V94.2-SIEMENS gas turbine
(125) Temperature & pressure distribution on twin spool gas turbine with power turbine configuration which
was in shuwaik power station (Rolls Royce& Curtiss wright)
135
Fig(126) Single spool axial flow turbo jet aircraft engine
TVR W T uY RaI TF^ W TPV NRFv pq N Y -78
78-What are the methods used to reduce vibrations at last stage of turbine?
One modification is to join the blade segments together at the shroud band.
Fig (127) SIEMENS- gas turbines last stage (lift side steam turbine & right side gas turbine)
136
Fig(128) Toshiba- steam turbine last stage on left & GE-gas turbine turbines last stage on the right
TU TVR uY | Tpy TVR N^ Y l -79

79-Why is the number of steam turbine stages is larger than gas turbines stages?
Steam turbine has more stages than gas turbine because Steam turbine inlet pressure is much higher than gas
turbine inlet pressure hence more stages are required in steam turbine for added flow expansion.
TVR O TGRy TR WY -80

80-What is the importance of turning gear operation for turbine rotor?
*-Turning gear operation is very important after the turbine is shut down to prevent uneven temperature
distribution for the shaft which may cause shaft, a motor-driven turning gear is engaged to the turbine to rotate
the spindle and allow uniform cooling. If shaft hogging stay for large time period, a catastrophic failure for the
shaft may result & at that time the shaft cannot be recovered & hence must be replaced.
137
GAS TURBINE START UP UNIT
TU TVRF ^
MS6001B-G.E.
138

TU VR P -81
81-Why are gas turbines need start up unit?
*-Most of internal combustion engine required start up system, in reciprocating engine there is a starter which is
mish with the fly wheel that is connected to crank shaft, also gas turbine need start up unit but the point here is
that gas turbine required longer time before reaching its stable operating speed.
*-Care must be taken when designing the start up system, for example a land base gas turbine (SIEMENS
V94.2) will start ignition at 600 rpm & the start up device will stop at 2200 rpm & the gas turbine will by its
own power will accelerate to nominal speed (3000 rpm), this process take at least 4 minutes hopefully if there is
no operating troubles during shaft acceleration.
*-There are various method of starting gas turbine, the choice of the start up system will depend on the
condition of the engine, for example a military air craft requires the engine to be started in the minimum time &
when possible to be completely independent of external equipment. A commercial aircraft however requires the
engine to be started with the minimum disturbance to the passengers & by the most economical means.
R W TYpq TU VRF

K g
WY -82
82-What are the most common starters which are used in aircraft gas turbine engines?
*-Most common methods that used to start aircraft engine:
1-Electric started (DC-motor)
Used in some turbo-prop & turbojet engine, the electric power for the motor is supplied from aircraft onboard.
2-Cartridge starter
*-Cartridge starting is sometimes used in military engines & provide a quick independent method of starting,
the started consist of impulse turbine that driven from hot gases which generates from electrically fired
detonator called cordite (detonator that burn without smoke resulting).
3-Compressed air starter
Used in most modern commercial and some military jet engines. It has many advantages over other starting
system as it is light, simple & economical to operate. Air is supplied from an external ground supply to rotate
139
the air turbine.

4-Small Gas Turbine as starter
In this method small gas turbine is used as starter for the main engine. It has its own fuel and ignition system,
starting system, usually electric motor or hydraulic pump with hydraulic turbine).
5-Hydraulic starter
Hydraulic turbine receives high pressure oil from electric pump to rotate the main engine.
Fig(129) Start up sequence of typical turbojet engine
TRr
Ts g TYpq TU VRF
K g WY -83
83-What are the most common starters which are used land base gas turbines?
1-Reciprocating engine:
*-Many old gas turbine use Reciprocating engine to provide starting torque to accelerate the gas turbine until
disengage speed, a reduction gear must be installed between reciprocating engine output shaft & gas turbine
shaft normally called (accessory gear).
*-The old gas turbines in Doha East PowerStation (manufactured by HITACHI) & in Zour South power station
(manufactured by MITSUBISHI) have this method of starting.
140
2-Compressed air starter:

*-In this method, compressed air is used to rotate air turbine & the output torque is used to turn the main engine.
*-The old gas turbine which were in Showaik power station (manufactured by Rolls Royce & Curtiss Wright)
was using this method, compressed air was supplied to the air turbine by auxiliary compressor at 500 to 1000
psi (34 bar to 68 bar).
3-Hydraulic oil starter:
In this method high pressure oil is injected to turn start up turbine to rotate the main engine.
4-Electric motor starter:
*-In this method electric motor was used to supply the required start up torque to the main engine.
5-Start-up Frequency Converter -S.F.C.:
*-In this method the generator of the gas turbine is used as starting motor, note that synchronous generator has
the same operating principal of synchronous motor, after gas turbine reach its stable operation speed, the S.F.C.
will shut down & gas turbine will accelerate until nominal speed. The new gas turbines (manufactured by
SIEMENS) in Zour gas turbine power station is using this method.
Fig(130) ABB-Gas turbine using eclectic motor as starter

141
Fig(131) Start up Frequency Converter
142
GAS TURBINE
OPERATION, CONTROL
& PROTECTIONS
TU TVR W Tg
MS6001B-G.E.
143

KI TRHHI TR WY -84
84-What is the main purpose of control system?
The main function of governing system is:
1-Limit the speed raise to an acceptable limit during load rejection
2-Control the output power
3-Control the speed during start up, synchronizing & loading
4-Match the power generated to the power that is required by the load
Tpy VR W TYpq N/Tl q TRqRr gI WY -85

85-What are the main types of speed/load controller that used in steam turbines?
Min type of turbine governors:
1-Mechanical Hydraulic governor (refer to Appendix-A)
2-Electrical Hydraulic governor (refer to Appendix-A)
Fig(132) Basic fly ball governor

144
Fig(133) Mechanical Hydraulic Governor
Fig(134) Electro hydraulic governor

*-Note that gas turbine need to control the fuel flow & Compressor inlet guide vanes position in order to
increase or decrease its load, while steam turbines need to control the position of the steam control valves only.
145
Tl q/N TRqRr gI WY -86

86-What are the main types of speed/load controllers?
There are two types of prime mover speed governor:
1- Isochronous Governor (Constant speed governor)
2-Droop Governor
*-First we have to define speed droop:
Fig(135) Isochronous Governor curve
Fig(136) Droop Governor curve
1- Isochronous Governor (Constant speed governor)

*-the operation of the isochronous governor (0% speed droop) can be explained by comparing speed versus load. As
shown in figure above. If the governor were set to maintain the speed represented by line- A and connected to an
increasing isolated load, the speed would remain constant. The isochronous governor will maintain the desired
output frequency, regardless of load changes if the capacity of the engine is not exceeded.
*-Paralleling turbine with isochronous governor to an infinite bus would be impractical because any difference
in speed setting would cause the generator load to change constantly. A speed setting slightly higher than
146
the bus frequency would cause the engine to go to full-load position. Similarly, if the speed setting were slightly
below synchronous speed, the engine would go to no load Position.
*-If more than one generator is connected on the same network, they cannot have droops with zero slopes.
because the system would be unstable. A very small frequency disturbance would cause one of the machines to
grab the whole load. The result would cause hunting of the governors and rapid load swings between the
generators.
*-Note that prime movers having isochronous governor is not desiarable since they will not automatically increase
their loads when system frequency & vise versa.
*- With isochronous governor, in order to provide load in response to a drop in frequency, the operator must
increase the load set point manually to the desired load.
2-Droop Governor
*-The speed-droop governor has a similar set of curves, but they are slanted as shown in the figure above. If a speeddroop governor was connected to an increasing isolated load, the speed would drop (until the maximum engine
capacity is reached.
*-Now let us imagine that we connect the speed droop governor (slave machine) to a utility bus so large that our
engine cannot change the bus frequency (an infinite bus),remember that the speed of the engine is no longer
determined by the speed setting but by the frequency of the infinite bus. In this case, if we change the speed setting,
we would cause a change in load, not in speed. To parallel the generator set, we are required to have a speed setting
on line A (figure above) at which the no-load speed is equal to the bus frequency.
*-Once the set is paralleled, if we increase the speed setting to line B. we do not change the speed, but we pick up
approximately a half-load. Another increase in speed setting to line C will fully loaded prime mover. If the generator
set is fully loaded and the main breaker is opened, the no-load speed would be 4% above synchronous speed. This
governor would be defined as having 4 % speed droop.

*-Note that normal range for turbine governor droop settings is between 2% to 5% , to low droop setting means
very sensitive & unstable governor to a load change & to high droop setting means less sensitive governor to a
load change.
*-good governor is that which have lower droop settings (4% droop governor is more sensible than 6% droop
governor).
*-Note that droop setting is some thing associated with prime mover (turbine) NOT generator set.
147

POH Fa
Y ^Ty TFj VR R E
Y Tl q yP Tyqg P N -87
87-Why it is preferred to make speed droop setting same for all turbines which are connected to
the same network?
Turbines which are connected to the same network must have the same droop settings for their governors to
provide equal share of load for each unit with respect to its size during system disturbance, the following
example.
Fig(137) Two generator have different droop settings

*-In the figure above, first generator (G1) has less of a droop than second generator (G2). It will react to load
changes more than G2, which has the lower droop. Both generators have capacity of 600 MW & they are loaded
with 350 MW for each. The frequency of the network is 60 Hz.
*- Some disturbance happen on the network due to unit's trip & system frequency therefore drop to 59.5 Hz & a
system load increase of 350MW is needed to restore normal operating frequency.
*-In this case the amount of load increase for system stability will be shared between both generators, G1 will
handle 250MW extra load (because its droop setting is less yet it will sense frequency drop faster than G2) and
G2 will handle extra 100MW.
148
*-Note that In actual practice with many generators feeding the large system, it would take a major load
disturbance to drop the system frequency that much (59.5 Hz) but we take it here only as for demonstration of
the effect of different droop setting. However, all large generators connected to the grid should have the same
droop setting. With the same setting, they will equally share the load according to their capabilities and equally
share in stabilizing the load during system disturbances.
*-Now imagine that G1 have a capacity of say 400 MW only & it was running with 350 MW & G2 have
capacity of say 800 MW & it was running with 350 MW. With same droop settings & with same load increase
to restore system frequency, G1 will go to full load & it will increase its load from 350 to 400 MW(full load
operation) while G2 which is much larger capacity will increase its load from 350 MW t0 450 MW( only in
56% of its full load) .
*-Both generators will recover 50+100 =150 Mw only from the required load increase & other 200 MW shall
be taken from other generators on the network, you can see that large generator such as G2 operates with only
56% of its full load while much smaller G1 operates with its full load in response to load demand to restore
system frequency. This is because larger generator has poor droop setting while small generator have higher
setting & hence, all generators must have same droop setting so that they equally share load.
*-Note that constant speed governors will never increase their load to restorer system frequency. They will only
stay at the desired load set point which is set by the operator.
TU TVR W TYpq g WY -88

88-What are the types of governors which are used in gas turbine?
The gas turbine controller is designed on the master/slave principal to provide redundancy in case the master
controller has unrecoverable fault during gas turbine in operation. The gas turbine controller is responsible for
controlling all of the following controllers:
1-Run up Ramp Function
Its aim is to control the startup of the gas & the start up unit. This controller is active when we push start
up button of the gas turbine until the gas turbine become self standing (the starter device is disengaged
& the gas turbine depend on its own power).
149
2-Speed /Load Controller:

Speed /load controller is a two variable controller; it controls the speed and the electric power under the
following conditions:
1-No-load speed to rated speed
2-synchronizing with the electric grid
3-Loading of the turbine
4-Load rejection
5-Shutdown of the gas turbine
*-Speed controller (first variable) is active from start up until generator synchronizes. Then the speed
load controller is shift to the second variable (electric load),The range of operation of the load controller
is from synchronizing until compressor inlet guide vane (I.G.V) position is 100%
3-OTC Controller (Turbine Outlet Temperature Controller)
*-Its aim is to maintain turbine outlet temperature to the designed value, if we have high turbine outlet
temperature, this means that turbine inlet temperature is exceeded, to avoid this, the OTC- controller is
monitoring turbine outlet temperature by means of temperature called OTC (outlet turbine calculated
temperature).This temperature is theoretical temperature (i.e. it is a result from equation).
*- the OTC temperature depends on turbine average outlet temperatures, constant taken for the weather
& compressor inlet temperature, the equation used by OTC-controller is:
OTC=OT-(K1+K3*TC1)*TC1
Where, OT= average turbine outlet temperature
K1&K2 are constants for weather condition
K1=0.37
TC1=compressor inlet temperature
K2=0.007
Putting all together the equation will be:

OTC= OT-(0.37+0.007*TC1)*TC1
150
*-The OTC-controller is try to maintain this temperature to the designed value.

*-example: for SIEMENS gas turbine V94.3 this value is:
OTC=534
for Natural Gas firing
OTC=520
for Gas Oil firing
*-The OTC controller range of operation is when ever I.G.V reaches 100% position, if I.G.V. for
example 99%, then the control system turns to load controller.
*-Note that all gas turbines install temperature monitoring systems in the exhaust of the gas turbine not
on its inlet, this is because:
1- Turbine inlet temperature is very high & hence the thermo couple to withstand this high temperature
has short life & also costly.
2-If one of the temperature sensor that is installed in turbine inlet is broken, then it will fall down &
taken by the flow stream into turbine blades which result in catastrophic failure to them while if these
sensors install in the exhaust, then there is no danger.
4-Load Limit Controller
To protect turbine section from over load, load limit controller will activate when gas turbine load is
more than a certain value (example: SIEMENS V94.2 gas turbine maximum permissible load is 173
MW). Its aim is to abort any increase in gas turbine by increase load set point by the operator .This is
done to protect turbine section from over load.
5-Generator Load Limit Controller
To protect generator from over load limit controller will activate whenever generator is load to more
than a certain value (example: SIEMENS V94.2 gas turbine generator maximum permissible load is 204
MW).
6-Compressor Pressure Ratio limit controller
The aim of this controller is to insure that compressor outlet pressure is not exceeding the maximum
151
design value to avoid compressor overload &compressor surge (since high pressure is required with the
same speed).
7-I.G.V. Temperature Controller
Its aim is to reduce exhaust temperature by opening the I.G.V. to increase air flow.
8-Compressr I.G.V. Position Controller
Its aim to provide control to the I.G.V. position.
9-Valve Lift Controller
Its aim is to control the control valve of the selected fuel system for various gas turbine loads.
152
Fig(138) Operating screen for modern gas turbine

153
TU TVR W N TRFl P QR -89

89-Describe the process of increasing gas turbine load?
Gas turbine load increase process:
1-Load set point is manually increased by the operator.
2-Load controller sends a signal to the selected fuel control valve to increase its open position.
3-Due to the increased fuel flow, turbine inlet temperature will increase & hence the gas flow will
expand more & additional mechanical power is added.
4-As turbine inlet temperature is start to increase, the exhaust temperature will increase & the controller
will open the inlet guide vane of the compressor to increase its air flow to match the requirement of load
increasing & to decrease down turbine exhaust temperature.
5-As I.G.V. position increase, compressor output flow will increase & hence addition mechanical power
(in the form of additional torque) must be supplied to compressor from turbine, so fuel control valve will
open more than what the added load required to satisfied compressor requirement.
This process is describing the load increase in the gas turbine, but what happens in generator is another
story:
1-As the mechanical torque from the turbine increasing, it will counter act the electric torque in generator stator
which is opposes turbine torque direction.
2-As generator counter torque is shifted by turbine torque, the load angle increases & the line of magnetic filed
produced by the rotor now is being cut at large angle than before & hence a higher current flow on the stator
will result (Induction low).Note that turbine mechanical torque must be greater than generator stator electric
torque for load increase process & vise versa.
3-Due to the higher current in the stator, the terminal current of generator stator will increase.
4-As higher terminal current generated in the stator, the electric power will increase (P=V*I) while generator
terminal voltage will drop (due to armature reaction & self inductance of generator coils effect.
5-If the Automatic Voltage Regulator is put into auto mode ,it ill increase generator rotor excitation current to
154
restore the magnetic field of the rotor & to increase the voltage of the generator to its original value.
Fig(139) How electric power generated
%100 TyqV Y TVR T

uY { Fl TU ^ N^ Rqg N -90
90- Could we increase the gas turbine load even if compressor inlet guide vanes are fully open?
*-Gas turbine can be loaded to more than its base load operation (base load operation means than the
compressor inlet guide vanes is fully open supplying full compressor flow).
*-This mode of operation is called "peak load operation", in this mode the turbine inlet temperature is increased
by increasing fuel flow, the result is extra megawatts generated to the power system even if I.G.V. is 100%.
*- This method can be done by increasing OTC-controller temperature setting to higher value (example
Siemens V94.2 OTC setting for peak load operation is 560C).
155

a uY TU TVR l vP WF vV O WY -91
91- What are some of the factors that may determine the service life of gas turbine components?
*-Factors to be considered for estimate gas turbine life are:
1-Number of starts and stops
2-load and temperature swings (load rejection)
3-running hours (Base load operation or peak load operation).
4-whether components have protective coatings
5-material creep strength
6-endurance limit for fatigue strength evaluation
7-method of blade cooling
8-effect of steam injection
9-erosion wear noted during inspections
TU TVR l q TYpq Tv WY -92

92-What is the method used to calculate gas turbine service life?
*-The method is calculating the equivalent operating hours of the gas turbine by equation contain many
variables.Equavalent operating hours that result from this equation is not true hours, instead these hours are
theoretical hours, They are a function of many variables & they are related to the condition of the gas turbine,
fuel type, fuel deposits, number of starts & so many other variables. The equation is described in the following
paper (used for SIEMENS V94.2 gas turbines).It is good to mention that:
1-each start up will add 10 hours to the age of the gas turbine.
2-Each load rejection happen will increase the equivalent operating hours up 50.
3-Each base load trip will add 125 hours.
4-Each peak load hour will add 4 hours.
156
N{ Fl TVR { Na ^

TK RP Y -93
93-What is the effect of compressor inlet temperature on gas turbine output power?
*-As we know from the earlier discussion that as compressor inlet temperature decrease, the air density will
increase & hence compressor output flow increases & additional flow will enter the turbine which result in
increase in output power (note than compressed air velocity is almost constant no matter the dense the air, this is
because the shaft speed is constant at various loads-Synchronous generator operates at constant speed-).
*- The GT performance is a function of The ambient temperature (compressor inlet temperature) & as a result
any drop in the ambient temperature will lead to increase the available load for the GT (each 1 degree drop will
result in increase GT available load by 1.24 MW).However, it is good to mention that the GT load is not fixed
at the rated capacity all the time (unlike steam turbines).
157
Fig(140) Gas turbine load variation with ambient temperature

*-The following diagram & table is for V94.2 -SIEMENS gas turbine located at Azzour Power Station , there
are important assumptions to introduce this table & reading which are:
1-The maximum load that could be exported in this table is calculated under the assumption of unity
power factor
2-Since there are 8 GT's in the station which definitely have different performance & also they have
different OTC-settings, do not expect that all the GT's will produce same maximum load for the given
ambient temperature.
3- Since load limit controller is restrict GT load to maximum 173MW,even if the ambient temperature is
5C degree for example, GT load could not increased to the corresponding maximum load (175MW in
this case) due this reason.
4-If National Control Center (N.C.C) request from Azzour GT staff to increase GT load to maximum
expected load, this is definitely means that the corresponding GT will auto changed to OTC-Controller
when the IGV open to100%.
158
5- The assumption for this table is made for dry weather (i.e. low relative humidity <35%)
6-The assumption for this table is made for Natural Gas firing; the situation with Gas Oil fuel is different
since the OTC- settings are less in case we run the Gas Turbine with Gas Oil.
180
160
Expected max. load (MW)
140
120
100
80
60
40
20
0
0
10
15
20
25
30
35
40
45
50
55
60
Am bient Tem perature
Fig(141-a) Gas turbine electric power output versus compressor inlet temperature
Fig (141-b) Effect of ambient temperature on gas turbine output power

159
ambient
Max.
ambient
Max.
temp.
expected
temp.
expected
(C)
load (MW)
(C)
load (MW)
173
33
141.08
171.8
34
139.84
170.6
35
138.6
10
169.4
36
137.36
11
168.2
37
136.12
12
167
38
134.88
13
165.8
39
133.64
14
164.6
40
132.4
15
163.4
41
131.16
16
162.16
42
129.92
17
160.92
43
128.68
18
159.68
44
127.44
19
158.44
45
126.2
20
157.2
46
124.96
21
155.96
47
123.72
22
154.72
48
122.48
23
153.48
49
121.24
24
152.24
50
120
25
151
51
118.76
26
149.76
52
117.52
27
148.52
53
116.28
28
147.28
54
115.04
29
146.04
55
113.8
30
144.8
56
112.56
31
143.56
57
111.32
32
142.32
58
110.08
Table(7) Variation of gas turbine electric power with ambient temperature(compressor inlet)
TU TVR NRUP a WY -94

94-What is the start up sequence of land base gas turbine?
*-Please refer to the following table which describe gas turbine start up, loading & shut down.
160
Table(8) Gas turbine start up, loading & shutdown:

STEP
NUM.
ST(01)
ST(02)
ST(03)
ST(04)
ST(07)
ST(08)
ST(09)
ST(10)
ST(11)
ST(12)
SGC-GAS TURBINE STEP FUNCTION

SFC-Unit Start Selected
Hydraulic Oil Pumps ON
Compressor Blow Off Valves OPEN
Generator Cooling System ON
Prepare SFC
Start Up Of Selected Fuel System
Acceleration GT until SFC-OFF if Speed > 38.6 Hz
GT Acceleration To Nominal Speed
GT At Full Speed No Load (FSNL)
Excitation Switched ON
ST(13)
Generator Synchronizing To Grid
ST(14)
ST(16)
ST(51)
Waiting for generator on load signal 3

Normal Gas Turbine Operation
Unloading GT to < 8 MW
ST(52)
Unit Auxiliaries Has Transferred (Not Applicable)4
SGC-GAS TURBINE
MBY01EC001
From ST(01)
Preparation for Gas
Turbine Start Up
To ST(07)
From ST(09) To ST(11)
Monitoring Run Up
Behavior of GT
From ST(12)
Synchronizing
Generator
to Grid & Load Increase
To ST(16)
From ST(51)
Unloading the Gas
Turbine
& Disconnecting
Generator
from Grid
To ST(55)
Unloading GT to < 1.5 MW

ST(53)
Disconnecting Generator From Grid
ST(54)
Excitation Switched OFF
ST(55)
SHUT DOWN of Selected Fuel System
ST(56)
Shaft Running Down
From ST(57)
Gas Turbine
ST(57)
Set Release Memory For Restart
To ST(58)
Running Down
ST(58)
Turning Gear Operation START if GT Speed < 3 Hz
From ST(59)
ST(59)
Generator Cooling system SHUT DOWN
Start Turning Operation
ST(60)
Hydraulic Oil Pumps OFF & active turn Program
ST(61)
Ready to Start Up the Gas Turbine (Restart)
To ST(62)
ST(62)
SGC-GAS TURBINE in Manual Mode
ST(0)
(1)-During GT running with natural gas premix mode, there are some situations that required either fast or normal
change over to diffusion mode. however, fast change over to diffusion mode is required when: a-natural gas
pressure drop to minimum or fluctuating, b- rapid change in natural gas pressure & Humming Monitoring is
response , c-pilot gas valve has a fault, d- load fluctuating during premix natural gas firing. Note that there is
a fast change over to diffusion while running with fuel oil premix mode put with out additional steps on the SGCF.O.
(2)-In case Fuel change over, there are additional steps that the corresponding SGC should do.
(3)-If generator on load signal received, then the automatic paralleling device will switched OFF.
(4)-This step is not available for az-zour GT & its applied only for units having their generator CB before Unit
Service transformer Branch & hence the unit auxiliaries need to feed power from neighboring units in case their
unit shut down.
161
TRr
Ts g TYpq TU VR W s WY -95
95-What are the most important protections used in land base gas turbines?
Most Important gas turbine protections when it is on load & in which will trip the gas turbine if activated are:
1-Compressor surge protection
2-Exhaust temperature high
3- Air intake filter house differential pressure high
4-Fuel supply pressure high/low
5-Gas detection system inside turbine hall activated (during firing with fuel gas)
6-Gas turbine fire protection system activated
7-Turbine over speed protection system #1 or #2 activated
8-Bearing vibration high
9-Beraring temperature high
10-Gas turbine controller fault
11-Flame detector has fault
12-Any protection from generator required gas turbine trip
13-Any protection from generator transformer required gas turbine trip
14-Luberecation oil pressure low
162
GAS TURBINE EFFICIENCY

& OPTIMIZATION
TU TVR uRqP
MS6001B-G.E.
163
TU TVR W v WY -96

96-What are the losses in gas turbine?
Gas turbine losses include:
1-Bearing friction losses
2-Mechanical losses
3-Bleed air for cooling turbine blade losses (5% to 6% of compressor flow for mid range gas turbines & 16%
for large gas turbines)
4-Exhaust losses (Most larger- 67%)
5-Auxiliaries power losses (0.5% only unlike steam turbine)
*-Over the past years, gas turbine efficiency is well improved due to the moderate techniques &improvement of
high temperature alloys to withstands higher turbine inlet temperature.
*-Gas turbine efficiency is lower than steam turbine since gas turbine connected to compressor which use large
part of the generated load(two third).Also, the exhaust temperature of steam turbine is much lower than it in gas
turbine, so large amount of energy in the form of heat is lost in the chimney. Furthermore, the percentage of
extracted air to cool down hot parts (by pass air) is another reason for lowering gas turbine efficiency.
*-During full speed no load condition (idling), steam turbine need 2-3% of full load flow while gas turbine
required 67% of full load fuel during idling.
Fig(142-a) Snakey diagram for SIEMENS-V94.3A gas turbine

164
Fig(142-b) Thermodynamic diagrams for open cycle gas turbine (Ideal Bryton Cycle diagrams in the top)&
(actual Bryton cycle diagram at the bottom)
Fig(143) Gas turbine compressor work

165
TU TVR W WY -97

97-What are the methods used to improve land base gas turbine efficiency?
The following points describe the methods used to improve gas turbine efficiency:
1-Increase turbine inlet temperature
2-IncreaseThe efficiency of turbo machinery components
3-Gas turbine with regenerator
4-Compressor Inter cooling
5-Turbine Reheat
6-Evaporative cooling for compressor inlet
7-Fogging system (high pressure water spray)
8-Chilling water system for cooling compressor inlet air (Mechanical Chilling)
9-Water or steam injection
10-Increase the pressure ratio (rp)
11-Supercharging
12-Combined cycle gas turbine
13-Humid air Turbine cycle
14-Fuel consideration in gas turbine
These methods are described in details in the next pages.
166
Fig(143-a) Bryton cycle for gas turbine (T-s thermodynamic diagram)

1-Increase turbine inlet temperature:
Turbine inlet temperature has been improved from 540C (1049s) to 1425C today, as turbine inlet temperature
increases, the output power & the efficiency of the gas turbine will increase. The main factors that limit this
choice are that the development of super alloys to withstand such high temperatures & the extra NOx as turbine
inlet temperature increases. As turbine inlet temperature increased by 56C will increase turbine power by 10%
& thermal efficiency by 1.5%.
167
*-Using steam as coolant for turbine blades allow lower average turbine blade (steam has better heat removing
capability than air-almost wise).
*-To increase turbine inlet temperature, we have to consider blade material, fuel type & cooling technique.
*-The disadvantages of increasing turbine inlet temperature are the shorter life to turbine parts which will
require more frequent maintenance.
2-IncreaseThe efficiency of turbo machinery components:
Old gas turbine has poor blade aerodynamic but to day with computer aided design, these blades has optimum
efficiency with minimum losses.
3-Gas turbine with regenerator:
*-In this method the hot gases from turbine exhaust is recovered to increase compressor outlet temperatures, the
effects of this method is reduce heat input by the fuel & increase the efficiency of the cycle, note that this
modification is applicable only for gas turbines with low pressure ratio so that the difference between
compressor outlet & turbine outlet temperatures are large to get benefits.
*-For gas turbines with large pressure ratio, the additional of regenerator may reduce cycle efficiency (since
compressor outlet will be higher than turbine exhaust).
Fig(144) Gas turbine with regenerator

*-The disadvantages of this method is the decrease in turbine specific power output(KJ/Kg) as a result of added
pressure losses on the regenerator, also regenerator will produce back pressure losses on the turbine(just like car
engine exhaust with super charge).
168
Fig(145) Efficiency versus compressor pressure ratio

Of gas turbine showing effects of turbine inlet
Fig(146) Specific power versus pressure ratio

for a gas turbine showing effects of turbine inlet
Temperature & regeneration
temperature & regeneration
*-Addition of regenerator to the gas turbine cycle will increase the back pressure of the turbine (each 2.5
increase in back pressure will reduce gas turbine load by 0.3%, the same result will be obtained when using gas
turbine combined cycle, the hate recovery stream generator tubes will be just like barrier to the hot gases flow &
the result is increase the back pressure on the gas turbine & reduce its load by 1% to 2%.
4-Compressor Inter cooling:
*Compressor work can be reduced if the compression process takes place at constant flow temperature with
same pressure ratio across each stage of compression.
*-To minimize compression work during two stage compression, the pressure ratio across each stage of
compression must be the same, when this condition is satisfied, compression work across each stage will
become identical (i.e. Compressor stage #1 work=compressor stage#2 work).
*-The temperature of the compressed flow will increase across each stage of compression & to reduce this
temperature inter cooling process is used between stages (by cooling water).
*-This method is effective in reciprocating engines (positive displacement compressor) & used also in
centrifugal compressor but it is impractical in axial compressor.
169
Axial Compressor F TO R WF^ y Tv P -98

98-Why compressor intercooling is not wildly used in axial compressors?
Because in axial compressor, the direction of the flow is always parallel to the axis of rotation, introduce an
intercoolers between its stages require change in the flow directions by improving compressor casing design,
the additional pressure & velocity losses will limit the benefit of interfolding (unlike centrifugal compressors
which already have to redirect the flow from each stage too the new stage since they are radial flow
compressors.
*-Note that velocity losses is important in axial compressor since it is increases flow pressure by accelerate it
(dynamic compressors).
Fig (147) Centrifugal compressor must change its flow direction
Fig (148) Axial Compressor intercooling

*-Note that compressor intercooling will reduce compressor work & hence increase turbine output power &
thermal efficiency, but it will increase heat input by the fuel slightly but the offset is increase in thermal
efficiency.
*- Compressor intercooling will optimize cycle efficiency if it is used combined with turbine .
170
Fig(149) Gas turbine with compressor inter-cooling, turbine reheat& regeneration

5-Turbine Reheat:
*-Reheat configuration will increase gas turbine power, note that flue gases exhaust from first turbine will have
high % of air so a second combustion system will be added to inject more fuel & allow the hot gases to expand
again in the second turbine resulting in maximizing gas turbine power output.
Fig (150) Turbine Reheat

*-Note that in air craft gas turbines ,the same method is used to increase engine thrust but it is not called reheat
process, in stead this method is commonly named as afterburning or after burner.
*-After burning is used only for military fighter in order to increase fighter climb rate while striking on the sky
& also during short take off, the additional thrust from after burner will allow the fighter to take off in shorter
distance.
171
Fig (151) Principal of after burner
Fig (152-a) Effect of increasing number of reheats & compression intercooling on gas turbine cycle
performance
6-Evaporative cooling for compressor inlet:
*-Recall that gas turbine power can be increased by lowering compressor inlet temperature, in evaporative
cooling system, water is sprayed into tilted surfaces that design to absorb the water (made of cartoon or wool),
air is pass through these surfaces & vaporize some of this water, the air lost some of its heat (latent heat of
vaporization of the water) yet it cools down almost to the wet-bulb temperature of the air.
172
Fig (152-b) Evaporative cooling concept as it shown in psychometric Chart
Fig (152-C) Effect of ambient temperature on gas turbine output power
173
Fig (153) Evaporative cooler section for gas turbine compressor inlet
*-The advantages of this system is simplicity & lower cost compare to chilling water system, the main
disadvantages is that this system it suitable only for hot & dray regions (as ambient relative humidity increases,
the efficiency of evaporative cooling concept will drop since air wet bulb temperature will approach dry bulb
temperature & hence, no further drop in air temperature by this concept).
Fig (154) Effect of relative humidity on increasing

Gas turbine load when using evaporative cooling or fogging systems
174
7-Fogging system (high pressure water spray):

In this system, a series of water spray nozzles are installed in the air intake filter house (of course after the filter
elements to avoid blocking them by condensate), by spraying water in the flow stream, the temperature of the
air reduced to the wet bulb temperature of the air(evaporative cooling concept).
Fig (155) Fogging system

The main advantaged of this system is:
1-Increased Output by to 20 %
2-Reduces NOx Emissions up to 30 %
8-Chilling water system for cooling compressor inlet air (Mechanical Chilling):
*-This system is some how independent of weather condition effect (humidity effect).
Fig (156) Fogging system arrangement with nozzles

175
*- compressor inlet air is enter through cooling coils installed in their intake house with Chilled water flow
inside the pipes from chiller output .Condensers of these chillers is either air cooled or water cooled.
*-Centrifugal chiller used for gas turbine intake air cooling has capacity between 1500 to 4500 Ton (required
very large electric power), example:
-for 185 MW gas turbine with ambient conditions of 40C dray bulb temperature / 26 wet bulb
temperature & the cooled air is leaving at 13C is approximately need water chiller of 5700 Tons
capacity. The electric power required to run this chiller is about 8.6 MW!
Fig(157) Mechanical chilling system for gas turbine compressor inlet cooling application
*-The main disadvantages of this system is very high installation & operation cost compare to other methods.
{ Na
y TYpq TFp Rl RY WY -99
99-What are the main advantages & disadvantages of cooling systems for compressor inlet?
*- Cooling compressor inlet flow will result in increasing turbine output power, increasing heat input by the fuel
& increasing compressor work requirement but the offset is increasing gas turbine power & efficiency.
*-The following table summarizes the main advantages & disadvantages of compressor inlet cooling
techniques.
176
Table (9) Comparison between all methods used to reduce gas turbine compressor inlet temperature
9-Water injection:
*-water is either injected in compressor stages or compressor discharge or directly into the burner.
*-In this method, water is injected into the compressor & evaporates as the air temperature raises during
compression process, the latent heat of vaporization gained from the air will reduce its temperature resulting in
decrease compressor work (just like intercooling processes which described before).
*-Water injection is used in some aircraft engines to improve engine efficiency. At high altitude, the air density
drop & hence engine thrust will drop. This methods is affective if used at high altitudes and/or high ambient
temperature. To improve the thrust, a mixture of water & methanol or water only is sprayed either at
compressor inlet or injected into combustion chambers, addition of methanol is due to its anti freezing
177
properties. The resultant boost in thrust can be used to increase the speed of the aircraft or to boost take off
thrust.
*-When water injection in used along with regeneration, more improvement to the cycle efficiency can be
achieved.
*-Water flow is inert the injector in a value that make compressed air to be saturated, (i.e. Relative
Humidity=100%),more injection for water will result in liquid flow with compressed air, although this liquid
water will increase turbine work but it will affect the turbine more than the saturated air because of local service
temperature difference & associated thermal stresses.
*-The increase in turbine work due to water injection is due to the increase in the total mass flow that enters the
turbine (hot gases + water vapor), with out corresponding increase in compressor work. Note that water mass
flow does not enter the compressor in this case,(steam has higher specific heat (Cp) than air, almost twice) .
Fig(158-a) Gas turbine cycle with regeneration & water injection at compressor discharge
*-The main advantages of this method are increasing turbine metallurgical efficiency & its output power.
*-For each 1% in weight of steam added to the air (assume 100% in terms of weight in the axial compressor
flow), turbine power will increase by 3.5% with only 1.6% increases in fuel flow. Note that 1% of steam
injected contains higher energy level than air. Also, specific heat of steam is almost twice that of air.
*-It has been found that the injection of water will reduce NOx formation in the gas turbine to half.
*-The amount of steam or water injected is limited to about 12%, this amount will increase the power output by
25%.
178
Fig(158-b) Gas turbine with steam injection

10-Increase the pressure ratio (rp):
As pressure ratio is increase, gas turbine efficiency will increases
Fig (159) Effect of pressure ratio in gas turbine work & cycle efficiency
179
*-Increasing pressure ratio(compressor size-stages) while fixing turbine inlet (firing rate) will cause turbine
power to increase, reach a maximum & after that it will drop, refer to the above figure.
11-Supercharging:
*-In this system large fan is installed up stream of gas turbine compressor intake to increase intake pressure.
The output power will increase by 20% but the fan required 1/4 of the gas turbine power, so the net increase in
power is 15%.
*-Due to the heat generated from the fan, supercharging method is more effective if it is used combined with
evaporative cooling system.
Fig(160) Super charging combined with evaporative cooling
12-Combined cycle gas turbine:

*-One of the most successful & widely used method in power plant engineering is to recover the exhaust gases
of the gas turbine in a heat recovery steam generator (HRSG), the generated steam will used either for steam
turbines or for heat process or combined.
180
100-How Combined cycle is classified?

T r QVjP QR -100
*-Combined cycle has so many configuration, there are two main ways of classification which are are:
A-Classification depend on the cycle parameters:
1-Single shaft or two shafts
2-Single pressure or dual pressure or triple pressure
3-With Supplementary firing or without
4-With auxiliary boiler or with out
B-Classification depend on the process involved on the cycle:
1-Combined cycle (HRSG steam output is fed to steam turbine)
1-Cogeneration cycle (HRSG steam output is fed to a heat process)
2-Combi-cogeneration (HRSG steam output is fed to a steam turbines & heat process)
3-Combined cycle with supplementary firing (Fuel input after turbine exhaust- no fans are required)
4-Combined cycle with auxiliary burners (HRSG steam is superheated in auxiliary boiler)
101-What are the main Configurations of heat recovery steam generator?

T W TYpq K H TU TFp gI WY -101
181
Fig(161) Principal of heat recovery steam generator
Fig(162) Types of heat recovery steam generator

182
Fig(163) Heat recovery boiler with supplementary firing
Fig(164-a) Main parts of heat recovery steam generator(Horizontal Configuration-single pressure)

183
Fig(164-b) Main parts of heat recovery steam generator(Horizontal-triple pressure type)
*-The following pictures summarize some of combined cycle configurations:
Fig(165) Cogeneration cycle
Fig(166) Combined cycle

184
Fig(167) Combined cycle single pressure with Supplementary firing
Fig(168) Combi-cogeneration cycle
185
Fig(169) Combined cycle dual pressure with
Fig(170) Cogeneration cycle with auxiliary boiler
Supplementary firing
Fig(171) Sankey diagram for combined cycle
186
Fig (172) in combined cycle each gas turbine will have its own heat recovery unit
Fig (173) Triple pressure combined cycle with reheat

187
13-Humid air Turbine cycle:
Fig (174) Humid air gas turbine cycle

*-In this cycle air & steam both are representing the working fluid, an intercooler and after cooler recover the
heat from compressor (reducing compressor work requirement) and transfer it to fee water. The heated feed
water and compressor discharge air are combined in the saturator (like steam drum in boiler) which produce a
mixture of steam & air (humid air), this mixture is heated into waste heat recovery unit before enter combustion
chamber.
*-Tests on this cycle shows that it has 4% higher efficiency than equivalent combined cycle.
14- Fuel selection considerations in gas turbines:
*-The products of combustion come in direct contact with turbine blading. This requires using fuels which has a
combustion products does not cause high-temperature corrosion or oxidation, erosion, and deposition of ash on
blades.
*-Preferred fuels are natural gas, and distillate oils. Most other liquid fuels require external treatment to remove
harmful vanadium and sodium. Vanadium pentoxide and sodium sulfate are the principal ash components
formed at higher temperatures. This ash adheres to blades and causes corrosion on the blades.
188
Fig (175): Economic comparison of various power generation technologies
189
APPENDIXAPPENDIX-A
- F
MS6001B-G.E.
190
191
192
*-SIEMENS V94.3A land Base Gas Turbine
193
*-The World Largest Land Base Gas Turbine Build by SIEMENS:

SGT5-8000H
194
*-Combined Axial &Centrifugal Compressor
195
*-Rover-Jet1 gas turbine Vehicle
196
*-Motorcycle power by gas turbine
197
198
References
1- Power plant technology -M.M. ELWakil
2- Power Generation hand book -Philip Kiameh
3- Standard hand book of power plant engineering -Robert C. Elliott
4- Power plant engineering -Jeffrey M. Smith
5- The jet engine -Rolls Royce Limited
6- Gas turbine theory H. Cohen
7- Gas turbine Nuvo Pignone
8- thermodynamics Yunus A. Cengel
9- Reactor fundamental -CANDU reactor
10-Combined cycle training National Power
11-Combined cycle training Innogy
12- Modern Power Plant Practice P. Hampling
13- Wikipedia- the free encyclopedia
199

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OPERATION ENGINEER: ABDULLAH ZAMAN ALMERZA

Gas turbines general notes .. 10

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How can gas turbine classified?

What is the difference between Internal & external combustion engine?

What is the difference between gas turbines & steam turbines?

What are most common examples of external combustion engines?

Where are land base gas turbines used?

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Why gas turbine doesn't used as car engine?

Why do we need to compress air before it is enter to the combustion chamber?

What is the main purpose of a compressor?

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How can compressor surge be avoided by improving compressor design?

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What are the main parts of combustion chamber?

What are the main principals for combustion?

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What is flame humming & why it is important to measure it?

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Which types of turbines is most common radial or axial turbine?

What are the main considerations that used in turbine design?

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How does deposits formation on turbine blade affect turbine efficiency?

Why lifting oil is used in some turbines to lift their shafts?

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What are the main reasons of shaft vibration in turbine

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What is the main purpose of control system?

What are the main types of speed/load controllers?

Describe the process of increasing gas turbine load?

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What is the method used to calculate gas turbine service life?

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What is the start up sequence of land base gas turbine?

What are the losses in gas turbine?

Why compressor intercooling is not wildly used in axial compressors?

GAS TURBINE GENERAL NOTES

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