Article

pubs.acs.org/acssensors

Triple-State Liquid-Based Microuidic Tactile Sensor with High

Flexibility, Durability, and Sensitivity
Joo Chuan Yeo,,,,# Kenry,,,,# Jiahao Yu, Kian Ping Loh,, Zhiping Wang,
and Chwee Teck Lim*,,,

NUS Graduate School for Integrative Sciences and Engineering, National University of Singapore, Singapore 117456
Department of Biomedical Engineering, National University of Singapore, Singapore 117575

Singapore Institute of Manufacturing Technology (SIMTech), A*Star, Singapore 638075

Center for Advanced 2D Materials and Graphene Research Centre, National University of Singapore, Singapore 117546

Department of Chemistry, National University of Singapore, Singapore 117543

Mechanobiology Institute, National University of Singapore, Singapore 117411

S Supporting Information
*

ABSTRACT: We develop a novel triple-state liquid-based

resistive microuidic tactile sensor with high exibility,
durability, and sensitivity. It comprises a platinum-cured
silicone microuidic assembly lled with 2 L liquid metallic
alloy interfacing two screen-printed conductive electrodes on a
polyethylene terephthalate (PET) lm. This exible tactile
sensor is highly sensitive ((220) 103 kPa1) and capable
of distinguishing compressive loads with an extremely large
range of pressure (2 to 400 kPa) as well as bending loads.
Owing to its unique and durable structure, the sensor can
withstand numerous severe mechanical load, such as foot
stomping and a car wheel rolling over it, without compromising its electrical signal stability and overall integrity. Also, our sensing
device is highly deformable, wearable, and able to dierentiate and quantify pressures exerted by distinct bodily actions, such as a
nger touch or footstep pressure. As a proof-of-concept of the applicability of our tactile sensor, we demonstrate the
measurements of localized dynamic foot pressure by embedding the sensor inside the shoes and high heels. This work highlights
the potential of the liquid-based microuidic tactile sensing platform in a wide range of applications and can facilitate the
realization of functional liquid-state sensing device technology with superior mechanical exibility, durability, and sensitivity.
KEYWORDS: exible microuidics, liquid-state wearable device, tactile sensor, resistive sensing, liquid metallic alloy,
eutectic gallium indium (eGaIn)

various applications.19 This is because liquids represent the

ultimate threshold in mechanical deformability. Consequently,
the liquid-state device technology is capable of undergoing a
high degree of deformation and is poised to overcome the
limitations of conventional solid-state materials, such as plastic
deformation and fracture. In general, conductive uids require
high physicochemical stability to function optimally in tactile
sensors. Numerous studies have reported that the eutectic uid
metal GaIn (eGaIn), an electrically conductive liquid metallic
alloy with low viscosity,20 can be easily patterned as
electrodes,2123 congured as pressure sensors,22 and is capable
of withstanding an extremely high degree of strain without
failure. In fact, the eGaIn alloy has high conductivity similar to
that of copper and is in a liquid phase under room temperature.

ecent years have seen the rapid rise and development of

exible electronic sensors with a high degree of
deformability and conformability.1,2 Among the various types
of sensing devices, tactile sensors are one of the most studied
elements 3,4 as they serve as one of the fundamental
components of a wide range of emerging applications, such
as wearable consumer electronics,5,6 soft robotics,7,8 electronics
skins,9,10 and healthcare monitoring.1113 Generally, tactile
sensors operate based on force-induced variations in piezoelectricity, resistance, or capacitance.1418 Of the many tactile
sensors that have been developed, the resistance-based sensors
are arguably one of the most popular due to the simplicity in
device design and operation as well as the relatively low
operational energy consumption. In principle, resistive tactile
sensors detect and quantify pressure based on the changes in
the electrical resistance under applied mechanical loads.5
To date, sensors utilizing active components in the liquid
state embedded within exible materials, such as soft
elastomeric substrates, have demonstrated great potential for
2016 American Chemical Society

Received: February 19, 2016

Accepted: March 7, 2016
Published: March 7, 2016
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Figure 1. Design, principle of operation, and unique features of the S-shaped liquid-based microuidic tactile sensor. (a) Perspective and exploded
views of the S-shaped liquid-based microuidic tactile sensor. Liquid-based microuidic tactile sensor consists of a top layer of Ecoex rubber
patterned with an S-shaped microuidic structure and a bottom layer of PET lm screen-printed with silver electrodes. The microchannel is lled
with liquid metallic alloy of eGaIn which serves as the working uid of the resistive tactile sensor. (b) Principle of operation of the S-shaped
microuidic tactile sensor. (c) Actual fabricated liquid-based microuidic tactile sensor with its unique features, i.e., small, thin, exible, and
conformable.

Furthermore, it is nontoxic. Apart from eGaIn, the eutectic

alloy of gallium, indium, and tin (i.e., Galinstan) is another
common metallic liquid typically explored as the active sensing
component of the liquid-state sensing devices.24 Similar to
eGaIn, Galinstan exists in liquid state at room temperature and
exhibits high electrical conductivity.
Here, by making use of the liquid metallic alloy eGaIn for its
excellent electrical conductivity and mechanical deformability,

as well as the soft elastomeric silicone rubber and polyethylene

terephthalate (PET) polymer for their superior exibility and
conformability, we devised a highly adaptable and wearable
liquid-state device technology. Specically, by constructing a
silicone rubber-PET lm microuidic assembly lled with
eGaIn liquid metallic alloy interfacing two screen-printed silver
electrodes, we realized a triple-state liquid-based microuidic
tactile sensor with high exibility, durability, and sensitivity. We
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element comprised a large central circular region with a

diameter of 5 mm and two smaller side circular regions with
diameters of 2.5 mm. The two smaller circular regions were
connected to the central region by two thin arcs with arc radii
of 6 mm, forming a complete S-shaped microuidic structure.
The silicone rubber top layer was prepared based on the
standard soft lithography technique and the assembly of the
two layers of silicone rubber and PET lm was achieved using
the UV ozone bonding. The S-shaped microuidic structure
was then lled with a liquid metallic alloy of eGaIn through
uidic ports, completing the overall tactile sensing device.
In principle, our eGaIn-based microuidic tactile sensor
operates based on the resistive sensing mechanism (Figure 1b).
Mechanical forces or pressures applied on the device were
dierentiated and quantied through variations in the electrical
resistance of the sensor. The resistance of our sensing device
varies following the mechanical deformation experienced by the
microuidic structure due to an applied pressure. Here, we
categorized our sensing device into three dierent states, i.e.,
State 1 under no pressure, State 2 under low pressure, and State
3 under high pressure applications. In general, when an external
load of low pressure is applied on the central circular region of
the device (i.e., State 2), there will be a slight reduction in its
cross-sectional area. Subsequently, this causes a decreased
volume of the conductive eGaIn metallic alloy conned under
the central circular microstructure and a slightly increased
eGaIn volume conned under the side circular regions on
which the two electrodes rest. This corresponds to an increase
in the electrical resistance of the central circular region (i.e., R2)
and a decrease in the side circular regions (i.e., R1). Eventually,
an overall reduction in the eective electrical resistance (i.e.,
RT) of the tactile sensor is achieved. Assuming a uniform
pressure P acting on the circular surface, the relative change in
the electrical resistance, R/R0, of the tactile sensor at the low
pressure regime can be expressed by eq 1

demonstrate the versatility of our sensing device in dierentiating various compressive and bending mechanical loads
through the distinct variations of the electrical resistance of the
device. Furthermore, we report the excellent reliability and
durability of the tactile sensor through its electrical signal
stability, conductive liquid connement, and overall device
integrity after subjecting it to strenuous mechanical loading,
such as foot stomping and a car wheel rolling over it. As a
proof-of-concept of the application of our tactile sensor, we
show that it is able to distinguish and quantify the localized
pressure exerted through distinct actions like barefoot stepping
and walking using dierent footwear (i.e., shoes and high
heels). Overall, this work illustrates the promise of the
microuidic tactile sensing platform in a variety of applications.

METHODS

Finite Element Modeling. Finite element modeling of the Sshaped and straight microuidic-based tactile sensors was performed
using SolidWorks Simulation. Flexible silicone rubber substrate
(Ecoex 0050, Smooth-On, Easton, Pennsylvania) with a density of
1070 kg/m3 and a Youngs modulus of 250 kPa was modeled as a
linear elastic material due to the small strains applied.
Device Design and Fabrication. The liquid-state microuidic
tactile sensor comprises a top layer of an S-shaped microstructure in
silicone rubber (Ecoex 0050, Smooth-On, Easton, Pennsylvania) and
a bottom layer of a PET lm screen-printed with two strips of
conductive silver electrodes (Zephyr Silkscreen Pte. Ltd., Singapore).
The design of the S-shaped microstructure consists of a central
circular region with a diameter of 5 mm, two side circular regions with
diameter of 2.5 mm, and two arcs with curvature radius of 6 mm and
channel width of 100 m connecting the side circular regions to the
central circular regions. The microstructure has a height of 80 m. The
master mold for the Ecoex silicone rubber substrate was fabricated
from the SU-8 photoresist on a silicon wafer based on the standard
soft lithography technique. The soft silicone rubber was mixed in 1:1
base-to-hardener (w/w) ratio and poured directly onto the silanized
wafer. It was then baked at 70 C for 1 h before it was carefully peeled
o from the master mold to form the top layer of the sensor. Fluidic
inlet and outlet with diameter of 1 mm were formed through holepunching. Subsequently, the top layer of silicone rubber and the
bottom layer of PET lm were brought together immediately after
subjecting them to a 3 min UV ozone treatment. Next, the liquid
metallic alloy, i.e., eutectic GaIn (eGaIn), was introduced into the
microstructure with a 1 mL needle syringe. Finally, the uidic ports of
the microstructure were sealed using adhesive to produce the nal
working tactile sensor.
Pressure Sensing, Durability, and Mechanical Forces Dierentiation. The liquid-based microuidic tactile sensor was subjected
to compressive rampholdrelease loads starting from 0.05 to 8 N
over a contact diameter of 5 mm (i.e., corresponding to pressure of
approximately 2.55 kPa and up to 407.44 kPa, respectively) using a
universal load machine (5848 MicroTester, Instron, Norwood, MA).
The ramp and release rates were set at 5 mm/min and hold duration
was set at 30 s for static load evaluations. For dynamic load
assessment, the ramp rate, release rate, and hold duration were
randomly set. The electrical response of the tactile sensor upon
dierent load applications was constantly monitored and recorded
using a digital multimeter with data logging function (EX542, Extech
Instruments, Nashua, NH).

R
=
R0

Ew
EP

+ 4d

w + 4d

(1)

where E is the Youngs modulus of the microuidic substrate, w

is the width of the microuidic channel, and d is the curvature
diameter of the microchannel. On the other hand, when an
external load of high pressure is applied on the device (i.e.,
State 3), a signicant reduction in the cross-sectional area of the
central circular region will follow. This leads to a much reduced
volume of the liquid metallic alloy conned under this region
and a signicant increase in the electrical resistance of this
circular region (i.e., R2). At the same time, due to a huge
displacement of the conductive liquid from the central circular
region to the side circular regions, a corresponding increase in
the electrical resistance of the side circular regions (i.e., R1) will
follow, resulting in an increase in the overall eective resistance
(i.e., RT) of the tactile sensor. Mathematically, the relative
electrical resistance change of the tactile sensor, R/R0, at the
high pressure regime can be described by eq 2

RESULTS AND DISCUSSION

The liquid-based microuidic tactile sensor consisted of a top
layer of Ecoex silicone rubber patterned with an S-shaped
microuidic structure, a bottom layer of PET lm decorated
with two strips of screen-printed silver electrodes, and a 2 L
minute volume of liquid metallic alloy which served as the
working uid of the sensor (Figure 1a). The microuidic

R
=
R0

Ew
EP

4dE
EP
ln E
P

w + 4d

) 1

(2)

Finally, when the external load is released from the device, due
to the elasticity of the silicone rubber, the S-shaped
microuidic structure recovers to its original state and the
displaced conductive liquid metallic alloy rells the micro545

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Figure 2. Finite element modeling of the mechanical deformation experienced by the microuidic tactile sensor upon the application of dierent
loads. (a,b) Mechanical deformation of the top layer of the sensor patterned with (a) S-shaped and (b) straight microchannels, upon a 4 N load
application over a contact area of 19.63 mm2 (contact diameter of 5 mm). (c,d) Mechanical deformation proles of: (c) S-shaped and (d) straight
microchannels, upon the application of dierent loads ranging from 0.05 to 8 N over a contact area of 19.63 mm2. (e,f) Comparison of the
mechanical deformation experienced by the S-shaped and straight microchannels upon the application of two distinct loads over a contact area of
19.63 mm2: (e) 0.5 N (i.e., 25.5 kPa) and (f) 8 N (i.e., 407.5 kPa).

structure (i.e., State 1). Structurally, the conduit is designed

such that the working uid approaches the central or side
regions at an angle tangential to the conduit radius in order to
reduce the occurrence of turbulent ow along the conduit as
well as to minimize the generation of air bubbles. In addition,
for a stable and robust function over a substantial period of
time, the smooth and continuous ow of conductive uid
within the microuidic sensor is necessary. For this reason, the
total volume of the conductive uid in the side regions has to
be approximately half of that in the central region. The specic
details on the derivation of the theoretical models dening the
variations in the electrical resistance of the device in relation to
the load applications can be found in the SI, Deformation
Mechanics. The actual fabricated liquid-based microuidic
tactile sensor is illustrated in Figure 1c. In order to execute
its designated functions robustly and eectively, our tactile
sensing device is incorporated with several distinctive features,

such as small physical size, superior thinness, high degree of

exibility, and excellent large area conformability (Figure 1c).
For the liquid-based microuidic tactile sensor to be highly
sensitive, precise localized pressure sensing is of utmost
signicance. This is normally inuenced by the choice of
materials to be utilized as the building blocks of the sensing
device, in particular, the top layer of the device in contact with
the loads, as well as the microuidic structure embedded within
this layer. In our previous work, we had characterized the
localized pressure sensing capability of two soft silicone
elastomeric substrates of polydimethylsiloxane (PDMS) and
silicone rubber embedded with straight microuidic structure.25
We demonstrated that the straight microuidic channel
embedded in a silicone rubber possessed higher sensitivity
toward localized load application. Nevertheless, we aimed to
enhance the localized sensitivity of our tactile sensor toward
mechanical loads through the unique design of microuidic
structure.
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Figure 3. Pressure sensing and reliability performance of the S-shaped liquid-based microuidic tactile sensor. (a) Relative electrical resistance
change (R/R0) prole of the tactile sensor over time upon load application on the dierent parts of the device, illustrating the localized precision of
the sensor. (b) R/R0 prole of the device over time, showing two distinct R/R0 ranges of less than one for low pressure (i.e., 7 to 25 kPa) and
more than one for high pressure (i.e., 38 kPa) load applications. (c,d) R/R0 proles of the S-shaped and straight microchannel-based tactile
sensors as a function of pressure for (c) low pressure and (d) high pressure loads. (e) R/R0 prole of the tactile sensor upon the applications of
random loads of low and high pressures, demonstrating the capability of the triple-state sensor in dierentiating and quantifying random load
applications. (f) Condition of the bending tests: 90, 45, + 45, and +90. (g) R/R0 prole of the tactile sensor being subjected to bending
deformations from 90 to 90, illustrating the capability of the triple-state sensor in dierentiating and quantifying random bending deformations.
(h) R/R0 proles of the S-shaped and straight microchannel-based tactile sensors as a function of bending angle. (i) R/R0 prole of the tactile
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Figure 3. continued

sensor over 7 days under an applied load of 2 N. (j) R/R0 prole of the tactile sensor as a function of days shows the negligible variation in the
relative electrical resistance change of the device, demonstrating its excellent stability and reliability over time. (k) R/R0 prole of the tactile sensor
being subjected to 500 loadingunloading cycles over a contact area of 0.95 mm2 (i.e., contact diameter of 1.1 mm). (l) Enlarged view of (k)
showing the last ve loadingunloading cycles. (m) R/R0 prole of the tactile sensor with respect to temperature variation from 19 to 45 C as a
function of time.

Based on the computational nite element modeling, we

characterized the mechanical deformation prole and sensitivity
of the two dierent microuidic structures, i.e., S-shaped and
straight microuidic structures, embedded in silicone rubber
upon the application of localized loads (Figure 2). First, we
simulated a random localized load of 4 N over a contact area of
19.63 mm2 (i.e., contact diameter of 5 mm) on the two
microuidic devices (Figure 2a and b). We observed that the
S-shaped microuidic structure in silicone rubber displayed a
higher and sharper deformation prole as compared to the
straight microuidic structure, indicating a higher localized load
sensitivity of the S-shaped microuidic structure. To verify the
higher localized sensitivity of the S-shaped microstructure,
both the microuidic structures were subjected to force
loadings with a range of magnitudes spanning from 0.05 to 8
N which corresponded to pressures of 2.55 to 407.5 kPa
(Figure 2cf). We noted that the two microuidic structures
displayed distinct deformation proles upon contact with the
mechanical loads (Figure 2c and d). In fact, for every load
application with the same magnitudes, we observed that the Sshaped microuidic structure constantly exhibited higher
mechanical deformations, suggesting a superior strain response
of the S-shaped microchannel (Figure 2e and f). Importantly,
due to the unique design of the S-shaped microuidic
structure, there is a slight variation in the Youngs modulus
between the two thin arcs. As such, this would result in a
minute asymmetry in the deformation prole of the S-shaped
microstructure against the middle position of 0 mm upon load
applications. Eventually, based on all the simulation data, we
inferred that the top layer of the exible tactile sensor
comprising the S-shaped microuidic structure possessed a
better localized sensitivity toward mechanical loads as
compared to the straight microchannel.
Next, we characterized the pressure sensing and reliability
performance of the liquid-state S-shaped microuidic tactile
sensor in response to both static and dynamic mechanical
forces under various loading conditions (Figure 3). To start
with, we assessed the localized precision and sensitivity of our
sensor by evaluating its relative electrical resistance change
prole over time upon a 1 N load application on the dierent
parts of the device (Figure 3a). We observed distinct electrical
responses when the loads were applied on the central (i.e., P2)
and side (i.e., P5) circular regions of the device. At regions 5
mm away from the circular regions (i.e., P1, P3, and P4), load
applications did not generate any electrical response. This
indicated the localized precision and sensitivity of the tactile
sensor.
We then carried out static load evaluation by performing
compressive rampholdrelease load cycles on the device,
starting from a load of 0.05 N up to 8 N (i.e., corresponding to
pressure of approximately 2.55 kPa up to 407.44 kPa,
respectively), using a universal load machine (Figure 3bd).
Evidently, the static load evaluation revealed the capability of
our triple-state device in distinguishing the range of magnitude
of the load applied (Figure 3b). For mechanical loads with low

pressure (e.g., 7, 12, and 25 kPa), the device exhibited a

negative pressure coecient (NPC) (i.e., R/R0 < 0) with a
sensitivity of 2 103 kPa1. On the other hand, for high
pressure loads (e.g., 28 kPa), a positive pressure coecient
(PPC) (i.e., R/R0 > 0) was displayed by the device. It is worth
mentioning that the S-shaped microuidic structure displayed
an NPC or PPC correlation in response to positive or negative
bending because of the specic mechanical deformations (i.e.,
squeezing or stretching) experienced by the central circular
region of the microuidic structure. In fact, dierences in
stiness between the substrate (i.e., PET) and microuidic
structure (i.e., Ecoex) also contributed to the NPC or PPC
correlation.
We also compared the static loadings on the S-shaped
microstructure against those on a straight microchannel (Figure
3c and d). At the low pressure regime up to 25 kPa, we noted
that the straight microstructure displayed PPC correlation while
that of the S-shaped microchannel was NPC (Figure 3c).
Interestingly, for pressure above 25 kPa, the pressure
correlation state of the S-shaped microchannel switched to
positive while that of straight microchannel remained positive.
In fact, we observed constant PPC positive pressure coecient
regardless of the magnitude of the loads applied on the straight
microstructure design. Here, it is interesting to highlight that,
instead of a gradual transition, the S-shaped microstructure
exhibited an almost instantaneous and discrete jump from NPC
to PPC. This unique NPC-PPC transition further emphasized
the low pressure dierentiating capability of our S-shaped
microuidic-based sensor. At higher pressure range above 70
kPa, we noted that the normalized resistance of the S-shaped
microstructure was higher than that of straight microchannel
(Figure 3d), achieving a high device sensitivity of 20 103
kPa1. Together, all these demonstrated the versatility of the
S-shaped microstructure in distinguishing low and high
pressure loads as well as its higher sensitivity at the high
pressure regime. Additionally, the S-shaped microstructure
exhibited negligible variations in the relative electrical resistance
at the high pressure regime while that of straight microchannel
signicantly varied.
Subsequent to static load measurement, we performed
dynamic load assessment on the S-shaped tactile sensor by
subjecting it to continuous cyclical load switching. We then
examined its electrical responses to validate the sensing
capability and stability of our device over a range of dynamic
forces (Figure 3e). More clearly, we probed the pressure
dierentiation capability and the cyclical stability of the
electrical output of the device over time in response to the
applications of random low and high pressure loads. As shown,
our tactile sensor was capable of load dierentiation based on
its distinct pressure correlation states. As such, with the unique
pressure correlation states, our device was capable of
distinguishing the gentle stroking and nger pressing. Here, it
is worth noting that, due to the triple-state characteristic of the
sensor, the electrical sensor output R/R0 would yield the
same value in the rare case of the static application of two
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Figure 4. Durable and wearable liquid-based microuidic tactile sensor for pressure dierentiation and measurement. (a) Durability and stability of
the microuidic tactile sensor as assessed by the device integrity and test signals before and after experiencing the severe mechanical load applications
of foot stomping, chair rolling, and car wheel rolling over it. (b,c) Electrical resistance proles of the device when it was subjected to dierent actions
of: (b) foot stomping and chair rolling and (c) car wheel rolling over it. (df) Relative electrical resistance change (R/R0) proles of the tactile
sensor when subjected to dynamic loading and unloading cycles of (d) barefoot stepping, (e) walking in shoes, and (f) walking in high heels. Insets
show the characteristic electrical responses of the tactile sensor corresponding to the distinct movements of heel strike, foot at, and heel o for
dierent actions of (d) barefoot stepping and walking in (e) shoes and (f) high heels.

In addition to compressive loads, our tactile sensor could be

utilized to detect and distinguish other types of mechanical
loading such as bending due to the high degree of exibility of
the device. We subjected our S-shaped microuidic tactile
sensor to four loads with bending angles of 90 o, 45, +45,
and +90 (Figure 3f and g) and compared its relative electrical
resistance change as a function of bending angles against that of
a straight microchannel design (Figure 3h). Again the Sshaped microuidic tactile sensor exhibited its capability as a

dierent loads of 0 and approximately 40 kPa. Nevertheless, as

continuous real-time measurements of forces were performed,
these two loads could be easily distinguished since the sensor
output will always cross the zero baseline as the applied load
increases (Figure 3e). The device also exhibited stable electrical
responses after undergoing multiple loadingunloading cycles.
Moreover, we noticed the high signal-to-noise ratios throughout the measurements, further conrming the force sensing and
dierentiating capability of the device.
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To demonstrate the applicability of our liquid-based exible

microuidic tactile sensor, we embedded our device to the
insole parts of the footwear in contact with heel and probed its
capability in detecting and distinguishing numerous gait
movements. Specically, the dynamic responses of the device
were monitored while the gait movements were executed under
dierent conditions (i.e., with bare foot and footwear) (Figure
4df). We rst investigated the electrical output of the device
subjected to barefoot gait study over time (Figure 4d). The gait
was divided into three segments of heel strike, foot at, and
heel o. As the heel landed on the sensor, we observed a
gradual increase in the electrical output signal reaching a peak
as the heel strike stance shifted to foot at. A sharp decrease
in the electrical output signal back to baseline was noted as the
heel was released from the sensor with the heel o stance.
Next, the tactile sensor was attached to the insole of a shoe and
the electrical signal from the same walking gait was recorded
over time (Figure 4e). At heel strike, we observed a sudden
increase in the electrical output of the device and it slightly
increased further as the gesture shifted to foot at. The
electrical resistance of the sensor gradually returned to its
baseline with the heel o stance. Notably, the electrical signals
produced from the two foot stepping motions were characteristically dierent from each other. Interestingly, distinct signal
patterns were noted from the barefoot and shoe-encapsulated
conditions. In particular, we observed that the heel sustained a
higher localized pressure with a bare foot as compared to in
cushioned shoes.
To further investigate the force recognition and dierentiation capability of our liquid-state tactile sensor, we
attached it to the insole of a high heel and assessed the
dynamic electrical response produced from the walking gait
(Figure 4f). Again, we observed that the electrical signal
generated from foot stepping with high heel was uniquely
dierent and distinguishable from that generated under the
other two conditions. The individual characteristic electrical
responses from foot stepping under bare feet and other
conditions as detected by our tactile sensor are illustrated in the
insets of Figure 4df. In fact, a localized high pressure was
sustained for a longer period on the heel of a user walking in
high heels. By repeating the same foot stepping cycles several
times, we further showed the signal stability of our device over
time. Overall, these results demonstrated that subtle dierences
in foot stepping as well as the condition and manner in which
the motion was executed could be identied with our liquidbased microuidic tactile sensor. Importantly, this highlights
the potential of our device as a wearable sensor for a wide range
of applications and we believe that the development of such
devices is of signicant importance.

triple-state device in dierentiating the range of bending angles

of the applied loads. Specically, the S-shaped microuidic
sensor exhibited an NPC or PPC correlation in response to
positive or negative bending, respectively. In contrast, the
straight microchannel-based device constantly displayed an
NPC correlation regardless of the bending angles.
Following a series of static and dynamic compressive and
bending load sensing performance evaluations, we probed the
stability and reliability of our tactile sensor over a signicant
period of time (Figure 3i and j). Static compressive loads were
applied on the tactile sensor over a period of 7 days and its
electrical resistance variations were recorded. Based on the
obtained results, we observed that the tactile sensor showed
consistent and steady responses with respect to all applied
loads. In fact, the relative change in the electrical resistance of
the tactile sensor under each load condition was relatively
constant. Nonetheless, it is important to highlight that the
signal patterns might vary across dierent days but similar in a
single day (Figure 3i). This was due to the fact that the
localized position upon load application on the sensor might
vary slightly across dierent days but remained similar the same
day. Subsequent to this, the tactile sensor was subjected to 500
loadingunloading cycles over a contact area of 0.95 mm2 (i.e.,
contact diameter of 1.1 mm) (Figure 3k and l). Again, we noted
that the device displayed a consistent resistance change prole
over time with negligible drift. Lastly, we examined the device
output reliability against variations in temperature ranging from
19 to 45 C (Figure 3m). Based on the obtained results, it was
evident that the device normalized resistance was highly stable
with respect to temperature variations over time. Importantly,
this signied the independence of the electrical resistance of
our tactile sensor in response to changes in temperature.
Overall, in light of all the experimental data, we demonstrated
the high reliability and robustness of our resistive sensing
device as well as its exceptional electrical response stability with
negligible time- and temperature-dependent variations.
Further to the characterization of the pressure sensing and
reliability performance of the liquid-state microuidic tactile
sensor, we evaluated the durability of our device by subjecting it
to numerous severe mechanical loadings, such as foot stomping,
chair rolling over the sensor, and even with a car wheel rolling
over it (Figure 4a). Here, the overall integrity and electrical
signal stability of a particular device before and after the
application of the mechanical loads were observed and
compared. First, the device was subjected to intensive foot
stomping followed by chair rolling. We observed that the device
still maintained its integrity as the liquid metal eGaIn was well
conned within the microuidic structure (i.e., there was no
leakage of conductive liquid) and the test signals maintained its
overall shape and relative variations in its electrical resistance,
R/R0. Furthermore, we subjected the same tactile sensor with a
car wheel rolling over it to further gauge its overall robustness.
Once again, the conductive liquid connement, device integrity,
and electrical output signal were similar to those before the
device was mechanically acted on. Importantly, we noted that
the tactile sensor exhibited excellent mechanical deformability
with superior working uid connement and maintained its
excellent working state even after experiencing extreme
mechanical loadings. Notably, our device was capable of
quantifying the magnitude of the pressure of the dierent
user-applied deformations it received based on the distinct
changes in its electrical resistance (Figure 4b and c).

CONCLUSIONS
We developed a simple and robust triple-state liquid-based
resistive microuidic tactile sensor with high exibility,
durability, and sensitivity. The device consists of a top layer
of elastomeric silicone rubber patterned with an S-shaped
microuidic structure and a bottom layer of PET lm deposited
with two silver electrode strips. The top and bottom layers were
UV ozone-bonded and the conductive eGaIn liquid metal
serving as the working uid of the device is introduced into the
microuidic assembly, completing the makeup of the tactile
sensor. This exible tactile sensor is highly sensitive and able to
distinguish dierent compressive and bending loads based on
the changes in the electrical resistance of the device when
550

DOI: 10.1021/acssensors.6b00115
ACS Sens. 2016, 1, 543551

Article

ACS Sensors

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subjected to mechanical loads. Simultaneously, our sensor is

very durable and capable of withstanding numerous extreme
mechanical load applications without compromising its
electrical output stability, conductive liquid connement, and
overall integrity. Furthermore, this sensing device is highly
deformable, wearable, and capable of dierentiating forces
exerted by distinct body movements. We anticipate that this
work will signicantly facilitate the realization of functional
liquid-state device technology with outstanding mechanical
exibility, durability, and sensitivity.

ASSOCIATED CONTENT

* Supporting Information
S

The Supporting Information is available free of charge on the

ACS Publications website at DOI: 10.1021/acssensors.6b00115.
Deformation mechanicsdetailed derivation of the
theoretical models dening the variations in the electrical
resistance of the tactile sensor in relation to the
applications of low and high pressure loads (PDF)

AUTHOR INFORMATION

Corresponding Author

*E-mail: ctlim@nus.edu.sg.
Author Contributions
#

These authors contributed equally to the work.

Notes

The authors declare no competing nancial interest.

ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
This research was supported by the National Research
Foundation, Prime Ministers Oce, Singapore under its
medium-sized centre programme, Centre for Advanced 2D
Materials and its Research Centre of Excellence, Mechanobiology Institute, as well as the MechanoBioEngineering
Laboratory at the Department of Biomedical Engineering of
the National University of Singapore. The authors would also
like to thank Ms. Trifanny Yeo for her assistance in the car and
high heel signal measurements and acquisitions experiments.

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DOI: 10.1021/acssensors.6b00115
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