Professional Documents
Culture Documents
org/
ABSTRACT
EXPERIMENTAL TECHNIQUES
INTRODUCTION
Manuscript received by the Editor March 12, 1984; revised manuscript received October 12, 1984.
*ARCO Oil and Gas Company, Exploration and Production Research, P.O. Box 2819, Dallas, TX.
1985 Society of Exploration Geophysicists. All rights reserved.
571
572
Castagna et al.
OBSERVATIONS IN MUDROCKS
50
60
Downloaded 08/08/16 to 202.28.248.43. Redistribution subject to SEG license or copyright; see Terms of Use at http://library.seg.org/
ow
cq
0.. 70
>
liMESTONE
'" DOLOMITE
o CLEAN SANDS
eo
9O+----.----...---.-----r------,~'---,..._...J
150
110
120
130
140
90
100
llV s ' "SECIFT
We define mudrock as clastic silicate rock composed primarily of clay- or silt-sized particles (Blatt et al., 1972), Lithified
muds are composed primarily of quartz and clay minerals,
Owing to the difficulty associated with handling of most
mudrocks, laboratory measurements on these rocks are not
commonly found in the literature. Measurements that do exist
are generally biased toward highly lithified samples.
Figure 3 is a ~-versus- ~ plot of laboratory measurements
for a variety of water-saturated mudrocks. For reference, lines
are drawn from the clay-point velocities extrapolated from
Tosaya's data (Vp = 3.4 km/s, ~ = 1.6 krn/s) to calcite and
quartz points. The data are scattered about the quartz-clay line,
suggesting that Vp and ~ are principally controlled by mineralogy.
In-situ sonic and field seismic measurements in mudrocks
(Figure 4) form a well-defined line given by
1.l6~
Vp =
8.0 ..,...-------------~-~--,
7.0
6.0
_
5.0
1rl
i'"
40
~
Q.
>
3.0
o CLAY
o QUARTZ
CALCITE
DOLOMITE
2.0
1.0
0.0
+ 1.36,
(I)
---,---,r---,---r-.---,---,r---,---r----l
0.0
0.5
1.0
1.5
2.0
2.5
3.0
V (KM J SEC)
3.5
4.0
4.5
5.0
6.0
~~
~v
o~
5.0
'i"
"""-
o x
3.0
.........
"" , / ~~1-
~~t(.
~'o",t'
,....0"""'...>.'0"'..
(j-.J'.
4.0
0
,x.K." .... 0
5.0
,QUARTZ
)(
CLAY
4.0
0
w
~
:l;
""a
>
3.0
2.0
WATER
1.0
>
2.0
0.0
1.0
0.0
0.5
1.0
1.5
2.0
2.5
3.0
3.5
4.0
VS ' KM I SEC
0.0
+--r--,.---.-----.--,.--,.-.....,----1
0.0
0.5
1.0
1.5
2.0
2.5
3.0
3.5
4.0
VS ' KM I SEC
GREEN RIVER SHALE; PODIO, GREGORY, AND GRAY (19681
.AXIAL LOADING 10,000 PSI Vp=4.39, Vs,=Vs,=2.42
HYDROSTATIC LOADING, 10,000PSI Vp = 4.4, VS, = 2.68,Vs, = 2.64
TOSAYA (1982)
.CLAY POINT Vp=3.4, Vs=1.6
oCOTTON VALLEY SILTSTONE
D
PIERRE SHALE
.ARCO
D"'T'"
'*'
Downloaded 08/08/16 to 202.28.248.43. Redistribution subject to SEG license or copyright; see Terms of Use at http://library.seg.org/
The trend of Pickett's (1963) laboratory data for clean watersaturated sandstones (Figure 7) coincides precisely with equation (I) established for mudrocks, The correspondence of Vp / V,
for sandstones and mudrocks is not entirely expected, Figure 8
is a plot of sonic log Vp and V; data in sandstones exhibiting less
than 20 percent neutron-density clay volume in the Frio formation, Except for some anomalously low "'~/k~ ratios indicative
of a tight gas sandstone (verified by conventional log analysis),
the data again fall along the water-saturated line established for
mudrocks. Also falling along this line are sonic velocities for an
orthoquartzite reported by Eastwood and Castagna (1983),
In-situ measurements for shallow marine sands compiled by
Hamilton (1979) fall above the line, Sonic log velocities reported by Backus et al. (1979) and Leslie and Mons 11982) in clean
porous brine sands tend to fall slightly below the line (Figure 9).
Figure 10 is a compilation of our laboratory data for watersaturated sandstones with data from the literature (Domenico,
1976; Gregory, 1976; King, 1966; Tosaya. 191\2; Johnston,
1978; Murphy, 1982; Simmons, 1965; Hamilton 1971) To first
order, the data are consistent with equation II); however. they
are significantly biased toward higher V, for a given ~;,. The
location of some sandstone data on the mudrock watersaturated line, although other data fall below this line. is presumably related to the sandstone texture and or clay content.
Following the lead of Tosaya (1982), we used multiple linear
regression to determine the dependence of sonic waveformderived compressional and shear wave velocity on porosity and
clay content for the Frio formation. We applied conventional
log analysis to determine porosity and volume of clay (~) from
gamma ray, neutron, and density logs, The resulting relationships for the Frio formation are
6.0 -,--------------~auART.:
5.0
40
::;;
3.0
,)'i'-
'"
o",f.
",,,,0'<'
>
2.0
1.0
o,o-t---,--.----r---r---r---r---r---l
0.0
05
1.0
15
2.0
s.
2.5
3.0
3.5
4,0
KMiSEC
FIG, 5, Compressional and shear wave velocities for geopressured shaly rocks of the Frio formation from sonic logs.
OBSERVATIONS IN SANDSTONES
Vp (krn/s]
573
(2a)
60
5.0
4,0
ow
0~<C-
00f.
",,,,0'<'
::;; 30
'>"
20
10
0.0
+---r--,---r---r--,--y---,.--l
0,0
0,5
1.0
1.5
2,0
s,
2.5
3,0
3.5
4,0
KM f SEC
6.0
50
4.0
,~-
()
0'"... "
",,,,0'<'
if)
::;;
'"
>"
30
2.0
10
0.0 -t----r--,--,---r--,--,.--,.---1
0.0
0.5
1.0
1.5
2.0
s,
2.5
3.0
3.5
4.0
KM I SEC
FIG. 7. Trend of sandstone compressional and shear wave velocities from Pickett (1963).
and
V;
(krn/s]
3,89 - 7,07q, -
2,04"'~1'
(2b)
(2c)
(2d)
Vp (krn/s)
and
From Tosaya's equations the sonic properties of zero porosity clay are: P-wave transit time = 89.6 IlS/ft, S-wave transit
time = 190.5 IlS/ft, and Vp/V, = 2.125, The corresponding
values for the Frio formation clay are: P-wave transit
time = 84.7 Ils/f!. S-wave transit time = 165.1 Ils/ft, and
~;,IV, = 1.95.
574
Castagna et al.
----------------::>1
6.0 ....
6.0
5.0
5.0
4.0
4.0
CJ
'" 3.0
">..
Downloaded 08/08/16 to 202.28.248.43. Redistribution subject to SEG license or copyright; see Terms of Use at http://library.seg.org/
">.
2.0
2.0
1.0
1.0
-+-"""T""-......--r--,.---r---r--r-----l
0.0
o
3.0
0.0
0.5
1.0
1.5
2.0
s,
2.5
3.0
3.5
0.0
4.0
+--r---r--,.--,----r--,...-.----I
0.0
0.5
KM/SEC
1.0
1.5
2.0
s,
2.5
3.0
3.5
4.0
KM/SEC
Some algebraic manipulation yields equations which explicitly reveal the dependence of ViI!,. on porosity and volume
of clay. From equations (2a) and (2b) we get
Vp/I!,.
(3a)
(3b)
6.0
ow
~
~
">.
Vp/I!,.
4.0
3.0
00-<-
~,F''?'
2.0
DRY SANDSTONES:
LABORATORY DATA AND IDEAL MODELS
1.0
0.0
+---.---r--,.--,.--,---,---,----I
0.0
0.5
1.0
1.5
2.0
2.5
3.0
3.5
4.0
VB' KMISEC
(a)
6.0 ,---------------~
5.0
4.0
'" 3.0
"..
>
2.0
1.0
0.0
-t--,--,--.---,---,---.---r--l
0.0
0.5 .
1.0
1.5
2.0
2.5
3.0
3.5
4.0
VS' KM ISEC
(b)
(4b)
V~;Vf =
FIG. 9. Sonic log velocities for clean water-saturated sandstones. (a) Backus et al. (1979), (b) Leslie and Mons (1982).
(4a)
J2
(4c)
Downloaded 08/08/16 to 202.28.248.43. Redistribution subject to SEG license or copyright; see Terms of Use at http://library.seg.org/
6.0
()
UJ
;:::
'"
-,
4.0
>f-
a 3.0
.j!D
0
S
UJ
>
-'
~ 2.0
iii
<J)
UJ
1.0
a:
u,
::;;
0
()
0.5
3.0
1.0
2.5
1.5
2.0
SHEAR WAVE VELOCITY KM ISEC
DOMENICO (1976)
WHITE (1965)
LOOSE SANDS
ARGO
GREGORY (19761
KING (1966)
MURPHY (1982)
+
o
1.8
SC
1.7
DRY
ROCK
Vp I V
16
HCP
15
1.4
~==;:::=::::::;===;:==::;::===l
.2
.1
.5
.4
.3
v;
FIG. 13. Calculated Vfl for regular pac kings of spheres versus
Poisson's ratio (v) 0 the sphere material. SC = simple cubic
packing, HCP = hexagonal close packing, FCC = facecentered cubic packing.
6.0
4.0
rr
2.0
-:
I"
1.0
HEAT
2.0
ORIGINAL
"oo
BEREA SANDSTONE
1.0
DAY SAT
O.O+-------.-------r-------,----,--------1
1.0
2.0
3.0
4.0
COMPRESSIONAL VELOCITY (KM I SEC)
50
-:
------------~~~--------~-~----
DRY LINE
3.0
;;
-c
z
4.0
3.5
FIG. 12. Laboratory measurements for ".; and Vp for dry sandstones. Note that one sandstone with calcite cement plots well
above the line.
3.0
>
~
[
CALCAREOUS
::;;
50
5.0
(J)
40.,-------.-------------------,
575
60
FIG. 11. Ultrasonic measurements of V I ~ for a dry and watersaturated Berea sandstone sample. The various points were
obtained at different effective pressures.
00
0.0
05
1.0
1.5
2.0
CYCLED
BEREA S8
6.
BOISE 58
..
TEN 58
CALSS.
3.0
35
I
2.5
4.0
FIG. 14. The results of Aktan and Farouq Ali (1975) for several
dry sandstones before and after heat cycling. Data are plotted
for measurements at high and low confining pressures.
576
Castagna et al.
6.0
5.0
4.0
,,
Downloaded 08/08/16 to 202.28.248.43. Redistribution subject to SEG license or copyright; see Terms of Use at http://library.seg.org/
::Ii
/;'.'<-
3.0
'"
//.;s.
>
/",,<-<:)
2.0
o11-....
/~~
\>~'<-
cP
(Sa)
1.0
0.0 ~--r---r---r--r--r----,.----,--I
0.0
0.5
1.0
1.5
2.0
s.
2.5
3.0
3.5
(5b)
4.0
KM I SEC
(5c)
and
(5d)
6.0
-r-----------------.....".,
~ 5.0
::Ii
'
~ 4.0
o
s
w
> 3.0
..J
~ 2.0
w
a:
c,
1.0
0.0
HAMILTON (1971)
GREGORY (1976)
" "DOMENICO (1976)
::Ii
ARCO DATA
(SHALE) o JONES & WANG (1981)
/
0.0
0.5
1.0
1.5
2.0
2.5
3.0
3.5
4.0
Figure 16 shows VP/v. relationships for dry and watersaturated sandstones. Lines join measurements made on single
dry and water-saturated samples under the same effective pres-
(6)
(7)
Ilw
(8)
Thus, the saturated shear velocity can be obtained from the dry
bulk modulus by
577
KD
6.0
Vs~-
(9)
Pw
5.0
Downloaded 08/08/16 to 202.28.248.43. Redistribution subject to SEG license or copyright; see Terms of Use at http://library.seg.org/
s.; =
Pw(V;
4.0
-1 V ; ).
(10)
v:
()
::0 3.0
'"
>
2.0
1.0
0.0 +--.---.--~-r_-r_-.__-._____l
0.0
0.5
v:
I/Vp
<I>
I/V~
~ I/V' - I/V~'
1.0
1.5
2.0
2.5
3.0
3.5
4.0
VS' KM J SEC
v:
5.0
4.0
3.0
'"
>
2.0
1.0
0.0 +---,--..,.--~-r_-r_-r___,--i
0.0
0.5
1.0
15
2.0
2.5
3.0
3.5
4.0
s, KM / SEC
v:
(11)
v:
60 - , - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - . . . . " . ,
6.0...,....---------------.,.,
50
~ 5.0
40
::0
~
>- 4.0
::2:
I-
'"
3.0
c,
>
~ 3.0
2.0
-'
Q 2.0
1.0
~a:
o LAB DATA
::0 1.0
COMPUTED
0..
00 +---.--.--~-r_-.__-r___,,_-i
00
0.0 +---,--..,.--~-r_-r_-r___,r__1
0.0
05
1.0
1.5
2.0
2.5
3.0
3.5
4.0
v:
0.5
1.0
1.5
2.0
2.5
Vs , KM / SEC
3.0
35
4.0
v:
578
Castagna et al.
Downloaded 08/08/16 to 202.28.248.43. Redistribution subject to SEG license or copyright; see Terms of Use at http://library.seg.org/
Table t. Holt sand: Comparison of observed water-saturated shear velocities with those calculated using the measured water-saturated compressional velocities and porosities. The calculations were based on Gassmann's equations and the assumption that Ko "" 110'
Rock
Reference
Berea
Berea
Navajo
Navajo
Gulf Coast sand
Gulf Coast sand
Boise
Boise
Travis peak
Travis peak
Travis peak
Travis peak
Bandera
Bandera
Ottawa
Sample no. MAR
Sample no. MAR
Sample no. MDP
Sample no. MDP
Berea
Berea
Berea
Berea
St. Peter
St. Peter
St. Peter
St. Peter
St. Peter
St. Peter
St. Peter
St. Peter
Holt sand
Johnston (1978)
Johnston (1978)
Johnston (1978)
Johnston (1978)
Gregory (1976)
Gregory (1976)
Gregory (1976)
Gregory (1976)
Gregory (1976)
Gregory (1976)
Gregory (1976)
Gregory (1976)
Gregory (1976)
Gregory (1976)
Domenico (1976)
ARCO data
ARCO data
ARCO data
ARCO data
ARCO data
ARCO data
ARCO data
ARCO data
Tosaya (1982)
Tosaya (1982)
Tosaya (1982)
Tosaya (1982)
Tosaya (1982)
Tosaya (1982)
Tosaya (1982)
Tosaya (1982)
ARCO data
Predicted
Observed
Porosity
V,
V,
Percent
Error
3.888
4.335
4.141
4.584
3.927
3.185
3.402
3.533
4.732
4.990
4.342
5.001
3.492
3.809
2.072
5.029
5.438
3.377
3.862
3.642
3.864
3.510
3.740
5.100
4.880
4.500
4.400
4.400
3.950
3.600
3.170
3.546
18.4
18.4
16.4
16.4
21.7
21.7
26.8
26.8
4.45
4.45
8.02
8.02
17.9
17.9
37.74
1.0
1.0
21.0
21.0
19.0
19.0
19.0
19.0
6.6
7.2
4.2
7.5
5.0
18.8
19.6
14.5
16.3
2.330
2.700
2.520
2.890
2.380
1.730
1.970
2.080
2.860
3.110
2.590
3.180
1.970
2.250
.740
3.200
3.420
1.900
2.320
2.120
2.310
2.000
2.200
3.250
3.060
2.610
2.630
2.540
2.380
2.090
1.580
1.990
2.302
2.590
2.430
2.710
2.367
1.975
1.960
2.073
2.581
3.284
2.667
3.391
2.032
2.240
.801
3.315
3.496
2.047
2.350
1.992
2.267
1.680
2.130
3.420
3.060
2.680
2.600
2.600
2.420
2.070
1.560
1.539
1.2
4.2
3.7
6.6
0.5
-12.4
.5
.3
10.8
-5.3
-2.9
-6.2
-3.1
.4
-7.6
-3.5
-2.2
-7.2
-1.3
6.4
4.3
19.0
3.8
-5.0
0.0
-2.6
1.2
-2.3
-1.6
1.0
1.3
29.3
Holt Sand
Porosity
Water-saturated V (laboratory)
Water-saturated
(laboratory)
Water-saturated V, (predicted from porosity
and water-saturated Vp )
Percent error
Dry V (laboratory)
Dry
(laboratory)
Dry Vp/V, (laboratory)
Water-saturated Vp (predicted from dry data)
Percent error
Water-saturated V, (predicted from dry data)
Percent error
V,
V,
16.3%
3.546 krn/s
1.539 krn/s
1.990 km/s
29.3%
3.466 krn/s
1.599 km/s
2.17 krn/s
3.519 krn/s
-.8%
1.540 krn/s
.1%
equations (5), (9), (10), and (11). This "time-average" line describes the laboratory data from water-saturated conditions
presented in Figure 10 extremely well. Recalling the results of
crack modeling shown in Figure 19, one explanation for the
validity of this empirical formula would be the dominance of
pores of high aspect ratio.
DISCUSSION OF RESULTS:
DYNAMIC ELASTIC MODULI RELATIONSHIPS
Compressional and shear velocities, along with the density,
provide sufficient information to determine the elastic parameters of isotropic media (Simmons and Brace, 1965). These parameters proved useful in estimating the physical properties of
soils and characteristics of formations (see, for example, Richart, 1977). However, the relationships given by equation (1)
for mudrocks or Gassmann's equations and equation (6) for
sandstones fix V, in terms of Vp ' Hence, the elastic parameters
can be determined for clastic silicate rocks from conventional
sonic and density logs. This explains in part why Stein (1976)
was successful in empirically determining the properties of
sands from conventional logs.
In this discussion we assumed that equation (1) holds to first
order for all clastic silicate rocks, with the understanding that
Gassmann's equations might be used to obtain more precise
results in clean porous sandstones if necessary. For many rocks,
particularly those with high clay content, the addition of water
softens the frame, thereby reducing the bulk elastic moduli. The
following empirical relationships are, therefore, not entirely
general but are useful for describing the wide variety of data
presented here. As shown in Figure 22, bulk and shear moduli
are about equal for dry sandstones. Adding water causes the
bulk modulus to increase. This effect is most pronounced at
higher porosities (lower moduli). Water-saturated bulk modulus normalized by density is linearly related to compressional
velocity (Figure 23):
579
18.0
M~ I E 150
:;;
,/
.c
Downloaded 08/08/16 to 202.28.248.43. Redistribution subject to SEG license or copyright; see Terms of Use at http://library.seg.org/
K w ::::; 2bV: _ b2 ,
Pw
(12)
1.36 krn/s.
'">-
,/
,/
,/
(V: - bjZ.
;;;
3
::>
9.0
0
::;
60
,/
fO~././
./
./
:/
./
0:
,/
"
(13)
./
,/
12.0
f-
iii
z
w
,/
./
30
./
<f)
./
./
00
00
~~,r ..cm
1~
1~
gm
(14)
Poisson's ratio for water-saturated rock is approximately
linearly related to compressional velocity (Figure 24). Poisson's
ratio of air-saturated rock is constant.
DISCUSSION OF RESULTS:
SEISMOLOGY AND FORMATION EVALUATION
14.0
"/
ME
~
E 12.0
21
"" >-
10.0
f-
iii
ai0
80
::>
'"
---'
6.0
::>
/
./
./
/I'~
./ o
0
0
::;
40
::>
CD
20
----
0.0
'-0
.-----
.-/
.-/
./
./
50 - - - . - - " ' - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - ,
60
40
50
of-
4.0
w
~
::;
30
<f)
3.0
'"
'"
6 .20
>
c,
TIMEAVERAGE LINE
2.0
10
DRY
1.0
00
+-,----,--.,--.,--,---,---.-----i
0.0
0.5
1.0
1.5
2.0
2.5
3.0
3.5
4.0
V KM ISEC
S'
FIG. 21. Calculated ~ and Vp based on the time-average equation and Gassmann's equations.
00-+----,------,----,---------.------1
10
20
3.0
4.0
5.0
60
580
Castagna et al.
5.0 - . - . - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - ,
Downloaded 08/08/16 to 202.28.248.43. Redistribution subject to SEG license or copyright; see Terms of Use at http://library.seg.org/
4.0
3.0
U)
>
2.0
1.0
0.0 - + - - - - r - - . , - - - , - - - - r - - - - f
4,000
8,000
12,000
16,000
20,000
DEPTH, FEET
1/V, <P
IjV~
1.12 s/km -
l/V~
(15)
REFERENCES
Aktan, T., and Farouq Ali, C. M., 1975, Effect of cyclic and in situ
heating on the absolute permeabilities, elastic constants, and electrical resistivities of rocks: Soc. Petr. Eng., 5633.
Backus, M. M., Castagna, 1. P., and Gregory, A. R., 1979, Sonic log
waveforms from geothermal well, Brazoria Co., Texas: Presented at
49th Annual International SEG Meeting, New Orleans.
Birch, F., 1966, Compressibility; elastic constants, in Handbook of
physical constants, Clark, S. P., Jr., Ed., Geol. Soc. Am., Memoir 97,
97-174.
Blatt, H., Middleton, G. Y., and Murray, R. C; 1972, Origin of sedimentary rocks: Prentice-Hall, Inc.
Cheng, C. H., and Toksoz, M. N., 1976, Inversion of seismic velocities
for the pore aspect ratio spectrum of a rock: J. Geophys. Res., 84,
7533-7543.
Christensen, N. 1., 1982, Seismic velocities, in Carmichael, R. S., Ed.,
Handbook of physical properties of rocks, II: 2-227, CRC Press, Inc.
Domenico, S. N., 1976, Effect of brine-gas mixture on velocity in an
unconsolidated sand reservoir: Geophysics, 41, 887-894.
Eastwood, R. L., and Castagna, 1. P., 1983, Basis for interpretation of
v,,;v, ratios in complex lithologies: Soc. Prof. Well Log Analysts
24th Annual Logging Symp.
Ebeniro, 1., Wilson, C. R., and Dorman, 1., 1983, Propagation of
dispersed compressional and Rayleigh waves on the Texas coastal
plain: Geophysics, 48, 27-35.
Gassmann, F., 1951, Elastic waves through a packing of spheres:
Geophysics, 16,673-685.
Gregory, A. R., 1977, Fluid saturation effects on dynamic elastic
properties of sedimentary rocks: Geophysics, 41, 895-921.
- - 1977,Aspects of rock physics from laboratory and log data that
are important to seismic interpretation, in Seismic stratigraphyapplication to hydrocarbon exploration: Am. Assn. Petr. Geol.,
Memoir 26.
Downloaded 08/08/16 to 202.28.248.43. Redistribution subject to SEG license or copyright; see Terms of Use at http://library.seg.org/
581