V/STOL Wind Tunnels

o Require a much larger test section for a given size model owing to large downwash
angles generated by powered lift systems in the transition flight region
o Flight velocities in the transition region are low
o Tunnels with large test sections used for this purpose do not need high velocities, max
being 60-100mph, compared to 200-300mph range for a conventional low-speed wind
tunnel
o LOCKHEED low-speed wind tunnel has tandem test sections with two contractions
First & larger test section is for V/STOL or powered lift models
Cross-sectional area of 780 ft2 with speeds from 23-115 mph
Second test section: cross-sectional area of 378 ft2 with speeds from 58-253mph
This this design avoids the high installed power required to drive the larger test
section at high speeds.
The length of tunnel is increased by this solution increasing the shell cost
o Another approach to a larger test section at low speeds for V/VSTOL and a smaller test
section at higher speeds is to provide multiple interchangeable test sections
o Most economical way to provide V/STOL tunnels is to modify an existing wind tunnel
Use some portion of an existing tunnel return circuit for a V/STOL test section
Speed determined by original tunnel dimensions
Using internal balances & sting support, one can obtain V/STOL capabilities at an
acceptable cost
Add another leg or legs to the tunnel
McDonnell-Douglas low-speed tunnel has 3 legs
o Can operate with an 8X12ft closed test section up to 200mph or
a closed return tunnel with an open throat 15X20ft V/STOL test
section up to 80 mph which can also be operated as an open
return tunnel up to 60 mph
NASA Ames modification to the 40X80 ft. closed throat tunnel AKA
National Full Scale Facility
o New leg forms an open circuit tunnel with a closed throat test
section with dimensions of 80X120 ft.
Modification of an engine cell by British Aerospace Aircraft
o Open circuit tunnel with a closed 18X18 ft. test section
o Problems with large open circuit wind tunnels:
Effect of guest on the test section flow
Effect of weather
Free-Flight Tunnels
o Open return type and arranged so that dimensionally and dynamically scaled models
could be flown under the influence of gravity.
o Tunnels could be tilted to set the angle of air stream to match the glide path of the
model
o Simulations in these tunnel are at very low Reynolds numbers
Spin Tunnels or Vertical Wind Tunnels
o Recovery from a spin is studied in a spin tunnel

By vertical wind tunnel with the air drawn upward by a propeller near the top of
the tunnel
o some use an annular return with turning vanes while other are open circuit with the air
drawn in at the bottom and emitted at the top
o airs speed is adjusted to hold the model at a constant height
o equipped with six component rotary balances so that direct force measurements can be
made for the aircraft over a range of rotation rates at various attitudes
o predictions for transient motion can be obtained by using the date in six degree of
freedom simulation programs
Stability Tunnels
o Two interchangeable test sections about 6 ft. in size
One test section had a set of rotating vanes which created a swirl in the
airstream
Second test section was curved to simulate turning flight
o Similar results are obtained by using oscillating model techniques or free-flight
experiments in conventional tunnels
Propeller Tunnels
o Similar to conventional tunnels except they usually have an open test section and a
round cross section
o One of the earliest propeller tunnels was built at Stanford University in 1917 with a 5.5
ft diameter test section
o Gave insight into the advantageous location of engine nacelles relative to the wind and
the design of cowls for radial engines to reduce drag and increase cooling
Propulsion Tunnels
o Experimental evaluation of aircraft engines, either reciprocating or jet, requires
simulation of both flight velocity and the variation of atmospheric pressure and
temperature
o Since engines must be operated in the tunnel, exhaust gases must be removed from a
closed circuit tunnel or an open circuit tunnel must be used
o Altitude requirements necessitates pumps to provide low density, and the lower
temperature at altitudes requires a refrigeration system
Icing Tunnels
o Low-speed closed return tunnel with a refrigeration system to reduce air temperature
to -40F and atomizers upstream of the test section to produce water droplets that
freeze
o Shell of the tunnel is heavily insulated to keep the tunnel cold
o Fan must run at idle speed during model changes to prevent it from freezing
Low-Turbulence Tunnels
o Have a wide-angle diffuser ahead of the settling chamber to increase the size of the
settling chamber without increasing the overall circuit dimensions
o Large settling chamber has honeycombs and larger than usual number of screen to
damp out turbulence
o Tunnels of the close return type have used 180 curved corners rather than the usual
90 turns

Two Dimensional Tunnels

o Used primarily for evaluation of airfoils sections
o Built both as open circuit and closed return types
o Have narrow test sections with height-to-width ratios of 2 or greater
o Usually low-turbulence type & can be pressurized to increase Reynolds numbers
Automobile Wind Tunnels (2.6)
o Experiments to obtain aerodynamic parameters that affect automobile performance.
Handling, engine cooling, brake cooling, and wind noise are made with either scale
models or at full scale in larger tunnels
o Climatic Wind Tunnels
Provide capability to evaluate the drive systems, air conditioners, door, and
window seals under hot & cold weather environments and under arbitrarily
chosen operating cycles
Capability to heat and cool airstream
Adequate for environmental work is not large enough to do external
aerodynamic work on full-scale vehicles
Flow quality is generally less than is thought proper for external aerodynamic
studies
Water Tunnels (2.8)
o Used the same way and under the same physical principles as low-speed wind tunnels
o Support direct investigation of cavitation phenomena which cant be done by wind
tunnels
o Physically smaller than wind tunnels for achieving the same Reynolds number
o Small water tunnels have been used for flow visualization studies
General- Purpose Wind Tunnels (2.9)
o Experiments on windmills in a wind tunnel require careful attention to wake blocking
corrections
o Large installations seem to suffer from making a disturbing buzzing sound, instabilities,
which lead to a short mechanical lifetime
o Windmills should never be put on a rooftop, even to get a high local velocity
o Solar collectors

CHAPTER 1

Principal Equations of Aerodynamics

o Fundamental principles used to model low-speed aerodynamic flows
Mass is conserved
Force & motion are related by Newtons 2nd Law
Energy exchanges are governed by 1st Law of Thermodynamics
Properties of Air and Water
o Properties of Air
Mixture of nitrogen, oxygen, water vapor, and several other gases present in
small quantities
Froude Number
Important for flows in which there is a free surface such as surface ships
Wont appear if the fluid body forces are neglected
Reynolds number
Primary similarity parameter of interest for Mach number less than 0.3
Mach number is a flow parameter while the Prandtl number is a property of the
fluid that is temperature dependent