Chapter2 (Compatibility Mode)

2 Properties of Fluids
ME2134 Fluid Mechanics I

2
Properties of Fluids
2-1
2
2.1
2.2
2.3
Properties of Fluids
Density, Specific Weight and Specific Gravity

Viscosity
No-Slip Condition
Strain Rate and Velocity Gradient
Newtonian vs Non-Newtonian Fluids
Viscosity of Fluids, Liquids, Gases
Kinematic Viscosity
Flow Between Parallel Plates: Couette Flow
Surface Tension
Surface Tension Coefficient
Droplets and Bubbles
Contact Angle
Capillary Effects
2-2
Learning Objectives
To understand:
The common physical properties of fluids and
their units of measurement, especially viscosity
The common classification of fluids into
Newtonian & non-Newtonian fluids
The derivation of simple shearing flow
The concept of surface tension and its effects
on capillary, meniscus with some simple
derivations
2-3
2.1
KEY IDEA: Density () mass per unit volume (kg/m3)

Liquids variations in pressure and temperature
generally have only small effect on eg., water:
2-4
2.1
Density
Density of some liquids at 1 atm and 20C:
2-5
2.1
Density
Gases strongly influenced by both pressure and
temperature ideal-gas law or equation of state:
P RT
Density of some gases at 1 atm and 20C:
2-6
2.1
Specific weight
KEY IDEA: Specific weight () weight per unit volume:
where g is the local acceleration of gravity

SI Units for : N/m3
Specific Gravity
KEY IDEA: Specific gravity (SG) or relative density
ratio of density of fluid to density of water at 4C:
SG
SG has no units
H O @ 4C
2
2-7
2.2
Viscosity
No-slip condition
No-slip condition For a real, viscous fluid, the velocity
of the fluid at the wall is zero relative to the wall
Fluid in direct contact with solid boundary has same
velocity as boundary
No-Slip Condition.mp4
http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=cUTkqZeiMow
2-8
2.2 Couette Flow

Simple shear flow between two parallel plates
No-slip conditions on bottom and top walls:

u = 0 at y = 0 (bottom stationary wall)
u = V at y = h (top moving wall)
Velocity u varies in y-direction u = u(y)

Velocity distribution also known as velocity profile
du
velocity gradient, or strain rate
dy
2-9
2.2
Objective: To relate strain rate &of fluid particle to
velocity gradient du dy
Consider two layers of fluid, acting on by a shear stress ,
a distance y apart, with the upper layer moving at
velocity u relative to the lower layer:
In time t, fluid element deforms by infinitesimal angle
2-10
2.2
From geometry, for small angle in the limit of small y
u t
tan
y
u
t y
Rate of deformation
or shear strain rate:
& lim
t 0 t
d du
&
dt dy
KEY IDEA: shear or strain rate = velocity gradient
2-11
2.2
Newtonian Fluids
du
KEY IDEA: Newtonian fluid:
dy
The constant (or ) is called the
dynamic viscosity or viscosity of the fluid
Sir Isaac Newton
SI units for : Ns/m2, kg/(ms) or Pas

CGS units for is Poise =1 dyn.s/cm2
1642-1727
Examples of Newtonian fluids: water, oil,

gasoline, glycerin, air, gases
Constant viscosity is a consequence of
Newtonian assumption, but it is not a
sufficient condition
2-12
2.2.3 Newtonian Fluids
oil > water > air

2-13
2.2
Dynamic Viscosity of Fluids
Dynamic viscosities of some fluids at 1 atm and 20C
(unless otherwise stated)
Note 1 kg/(m.s) = 1kg.s m/(m2s2) = 1 N.s/m2= 1 Pa.s

1 Pa.s = 1 N.s/m2 = 1 (kg m/s2).s/m2 = 103.102(g cm/s2).s/(104cm2)
= 10 dyn.s/cm2 = 10 Poise
1 Poise = 102 cP (centi-Poise)
2-14
2.2
Non-Newtonian Fluids
Apparent viscosity app slope of the shear stress vs.
shear rate du/dy graph
KEY IDEA: Newtonian app = = constant
KEY IDEA: Dilatant or shear thickening
app as shear rate
Examples: corn starch solutions
KEY IDEA: Pseudoplastic or shear thinning
app as rate of deformation
Examples: paints, polymer solutions
KEY IDEA:Bingham plastic
shear stress must reach a certain minimum yield
stress before flow commences
Examples: toothpaste, mayonnaise, ketchup
2-15
2.2.4 Non-Newtonian Fluids

Non-Newtonian fluids: fluids not obeying Newtonian law;
for examples:
Non-Newtonian is much more than viscosity behaviour!

(For much more info on non-Newtonian fluids, watch
http://modular.mit.edu:8080/ramgen/ifluids/Rheological_Behavior_of_Fluids.rm)
2-16
2.2
Variation of Viscosity with Temperature
Viscosity of Liquids
Resistance to relative motion between adjacent layers of
liquid caused by cohesive forces (intermolecular forces
of attraction) between liquid molecules
As temperature cohesive forces liquid viscosity
liquid molecules possess more energy at higher
temperatures, and they can oppose the large cohesive
intermolecular forces more strongly energized liquid
molecules move more freely
Can be approximated using Andrades equation:
aeb T
where T is the absolute temperature and a and b are
experimentally determined constants (eg. a = 0.0016
kg/(ms), b = 1903 K for water)
2-17
2.2
Viscosity of Gases
Resistance to relative motion between adjacent layers of
gas arises due to exchange of momentum of gas
molecules (negligible intermolecular forces of attraction)
Random motion of gas molecules:
Red molecule from faster layer joins slower layer

loses momentum to slower layer
Blue molecule from slower layer joins faster layer
gains momentum from faster layer
Exchange or transfer of momentum between layers
with different bulk velocities
2-18
2.2
Viscosity of Gases
Gas viscosity as temperature

random motion of gas molecules enhanced at high
temperatures more molecular collisions more
exchange or transfer of momentum greater resistance
to flow
Can be approximated using Sutherlands Law:
AT 1 2
1 B T
where T is the absolute temperature and A and B are
experimentally determined constants (eg. A = 1.458 x 10-6
kg/(msK1/2) and B = 110.4 K for air)
2-19
2.2
Variation of
dynamic
viscosity
with
temperature
2-20
2.2.7 Kinematic Viscosity
KEY IDEA: Kinematic Viscosity is the ratio of the dynamic

viscosity to density :
( : Greek symbol nu)

SI Units for : kg/(s.m) (m3/kg) = m2/s
2-21
2.2
Kinematic Viscosity
Variation of
kinematic
viscosity
with
temperature
Note:
water > air,
but water < air
2-22
2.2
Shear Stress for Newtonian Fluids
For a Newtonian fluid, if the local velocity gradient du/dy
is known, the shear stress can be determined using
du

dy
2-23
2.2
(i)
(ii)
Flow Between Parallel Plates
Fluid acceleration is zero (not necessary to assume this)

Pressure uniform everywhere
Force balance on small fluid element indicates that shear stress
is constant throughout fluid:
du
constant B
dy
u A By
2-24
2.2
No-slip conditions on top and bottom walls:
(i)
u = 0 at y = 0
(ii)
u = V at y = h
A = 0 and B = V/h
y
Linear velocity profile: u V
h
du
V
Shear stress:
h
dy
Top plate experiences shear force to the left (i.e. a
resistance force), since it is doing work trying to drag
the fluid along with it to the right
Fluid at the top experiences equal and opposite shear
force to the right
Bottom plate experiences shear force to the right,
since fluid is trying to pull bottom plate with it to the
right
2-25
2.2
Maurice Couette
1858-1943
Fluid at bottom experiences equal and opposite shear

force to the left
Note: flow is also called a simple shear, or Couette flow
2-26
Example 2.1
Viscosity of Newtonian fluid
to be determined using
viscometer
Two concentric cylinders of
length L = 30 cm separated
by small gap h = 0.1 cm with
fluid in between
Fixed outer cylinder
Inner cylinder of radius R =
8 cm rotating at = 300 rpm
Torque measured = 2.0 Nm
Determine dynamic viscosity
of fluid
2-27
Example 2.1
2-28
Example 2.1
Solution:
If h/R << 1, then cylinders can be modelled as flat plates
and velocity profile across gap can be assumed linear
Tangential velocity on the inner cylinder:
V R
Wall shear stress:
du
V
R
R
&

,
dy
h
h
h
Wetted surface area of inner cylinder:
A 2 RL
Shear force:
F A
Torque:
T FR
AR
2-29
Example 2.1
Torque:
R
T
2 RL R
h
2 R 3 L
T
h
Dynamic viscosity:
Th
2 R 3 L
2.0 0.1 102
3
300 2
2
2
2
8
10
30
10
60
6.6 102 Pa s = 0.66 Poise = 66 cP
2-30
Example 2.2
Newtonian fluid flows between two wide, parallel plates

Flow driven by pressure difference
Parabolic velocity profile given by
y 2
u V 1
h
where V is the maximum velocity (velocity along channel

centerline y = 0)
Determine (a) shear stress acting on bottom wall, and (b)
shear stress acting on a plane parallel to the walls and
passing through the centerline (mid-plane, y = 0)
2-31
Solution:
y 2
u V 1
h
Example 2.2
Note:
u = 0 @ y = h no-slip
condition satisfied
Shear stress:
du

dy
y
2V 2
h
2 Vy
2
h
(a) Along bottom wall, y h , shear stress:
2 V
2-32
Example 2.2
(b) Along midplane, y = 0, shear stress:
0
Jean Poiseuille
1799-1869
Note: flow is also called a plane Poiseuille flow

2-33
Review
Concept of a fluid as a continuum physical properties can be

defined right down to a mathematical point, continuously
differentiable in space and time
Concept of deformation: shear
du
&
Concept of rate of deformation: shear rate

dy
Concept of a Newtonian fluid stress is
proportional to shear rate the constant of
proportionality is the viscosity, or
Units of viscosity is Pa.s of Poise (in CGS units)
Concept of Newtonian and non-Newtonian (=viscoelastic) fluids
Shear thinning or pseudoplastic
Shear thickenening or dilatant
Yield stress fluid, eg. Bingham fluid
Defination of kinematic viscosity

Variation of viscosity with temperature
CONSULTATION: Wed 10:30-12 EA 02-01
2-34
2.3
Surface Tension
Introduction to Surface Tension
Examples of surface
tension phenomena:
Some insects can
walk on water
Steel needle (heavier
than water) is able to
float
Water strider floating on water
Steel paper clip floating on water
Trampoline
2-35

Analogy
2-36

Due to surface tension, indentations or dimples are
formed on water surface by the object
Liquid surface behaves like a membrane in tension
With surface tension, the liquid surface behaves like a
trampoline
When a person stands on a trampoline, it stretches
downward a bit and, in so doing, exerts an upward force
on person, due to its elasticity upward force to
balance the persons weight
Liquid surface behaves in a similar way
A water strider can walk on the water surface just as a
person can walk on a trampoline
When a liquid is in contact with a gas or another

immiscible liquid, an interface develops which acts like a
stretched elastic membrane, creating a surface tension
2-37
Origin of Surface Tension
Molecules repel one another when they are close by, attract each other
when far apart, and at equilibrium at some distance apart. This attraction
forces fall off rapidly, over a distance of roughly 10m, the attraction zone
In the interior of a liquid, they slightly repel each other slightly, to

compensate for the pressure from the surrounding environment. Molecules
on the surface tend to be a bit further than the equilibrium distance,
resulting as a slight attraction, or surface tension. This is because for a
liquid molecule whose attraction zone lies totally within a fluid, the molecule
is attracted in all directions statistically equally, resulting in no force on it. On
or near a surface, this attraction zone is partially outside, where the gas
molecules are smaller in number, resulting in a force that pulls the molecule
toward the liquid side, making the surface as small as possible
2-38
Origin of Surface Tension

This attractive force is balanced by repulsive forces from
molecules below the surface
Net effect of this attraction on all the surface molecules
is to make the surface of the liquid contract, thus
minimizing the surface area of the liquid
Small liquid droplets tend to be spherical, which has the
minimum surface area for a given volume
Interface thus behaves like a stretched skin or
membrane each portion of liquid surface exerts
tension on adjacent portions of the surface or on objects
in contact with liquid surface interfacial or surface
tension
2-39
Surface Tension Coefficient

KEY IDEA: Surface tension is force per unit length
Coefficient of surface tension (or simply surface
tension) is the magnitude of the interfacial tension
force F divided by the length L along the interface over
which the force acts:
L
SI units for : N/m in CGS units: dyn/cm
An equivalent measure of surface tension is surface
energy, expressed as J/m2
2-40

Liquid Droplets
Consider a spherical liquid droplet of radius R in air:
2-41
Liquid Droplets
Sectioning the droplet through its center:
External pressure Patm acts on droplet surface

horizontal force acting on droplet surface due to external
2
P
R
pressure = atm
Pressure within droplet is Pint horizontal force due to

internal pressure = Pint R 2
2-42
Liquid Droplets
On the sectioned surface, surface tension acts along the
interface horizontal force due to surface tension =
2 R
Equilibrium of forces in the horizontal direction:
Patm R 2 2 R Pint R 2
KEY IDEA: Pressure difference:
P Pint Patm
(2.3.2)
Pressure inside droplet is greater than pressure outside

droplet
2-43

Bubbles
Consider a soap bubble of radius R in air:
Bubble consists of a liquid film of thickness h with 2

surfaces or interfaces (inner and outer)
Assume h << R
2-44
Bubbles
Sectioning the bubble through its center:
External pressure Patm acts on bubble surface

horizontal force acting on bubble surface due to external
2
pressure = Patm R
Pressure within bubble is Pint horizontal force due to

internal pressure = Pint R 2
2-45
Bubbles
On the sectioned surface, surface tension acts along the
2 interfaces horizontal force due to surface tension =
2 2 R
Equilibrium of forces in the horizontal direction:
Patm R 2 2 2 R Pint R 2
Pressure difference (do not apply equations blindly try

to derive them for the situation at hand):
P Pint Patm
(2.3.3)
Pressure inside bubble is greater than pressure outside

bubble
2-46
Surface Tension of Fluids

Surface tension of some fluids in air at 1 atm and 20C
(unless otherwise stated)
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Surface_tension_values
http://www.surface-tension.de/
2-47

Water has a higher surface tension than most other
liquids (with the exception of liquid metals)
The very high surface tension of mercury explains why
mercury droplets form spherical balls that can be rolled
like a solid ball on a surface without wetting the surface
Surface tension varies with temperature for a given
substance, in general, surface tension of a liquid
decreases with temperature - it becomes easier to pull
molecules up into the surface
Surface tension becomes zero at the critical point (and
thus there is no distinct liquidvapor interface at
temperatures above the critical point)
2-48

Surface tension of clean air-water interface:
2-49
Effect of pressure on surface tension is usually negligible

Surface tension of a substance can be changed
considerably by impurities certain chemicals, called
surfactants, can be added to a liquid to decrease its
surface tension e.g., soaps and detergents lower the
surface tension of water and enable it to penetrate
through the small openings between fibers for more
effective washing
2-50
Contact Angle
A second important surface effect is the contact angle
which appears when a liquid/vapor (gas) interface
intersects with a solid surface:
Example: water on glass
Example: mercury on
glass
2-51
Contact Angle
KEY IDEA: Contact angle is defined as the angle
measured from the solid surface through the liquid (or
the denser medium) to the interface
< 90 liquid wets the solid surface (or liquid is
wetting)
> 90 liquid does not wet the solid surface (or liquid
is nonwetting)
Examples:
Water wets soap but does not wet wax
Water on a clean glass surface 0
Clean mercury-air-glass interface 130
Like , is sensitive to the actual conditions of the solidliquid interface
2-52
Capillary Effect
KEY IDEA: Capillary effect rise or fall of a liquid in a
small-diameter tube inserted into the liquid
Examples:
rise of kerosene through a cotton wick inserted into
the reservoir of a kerosene lamp
rise of water to the top of tall trees
KEY IDEA: Meniscus curved free surface of a liquid in
a capillary tube
H2O Hg
2-53
Capillary Effect
< 90 (wetting) capillary rise h > 0
> 90 (nonwetting) capillary depression h < 0
2-54
Capillary Effect
Capillary rise h of wetting liquid in a tube:
Force balance on cylindrical liquid column of height h in
tube:
Free-body diagram:
2-55
Capillary Effect
Weight of liquid column:
W mg Vg R 2 h g
Vertical (upward) component of surface tension force:
FS 2 R cos
Equating vertical forces acting on liquid column:
W FS
R 2 h g 2 R cos
2
h
cos
gR
(2.3.4)
2-56
Capillary Effect
Rh
2
h
cos
gR
2-57
Example 2.3
Determine absolute value of

capillary depression H for
mercury in a 1.0 mm diameter
glass tube
Solution:
A is a point just above the meniscus:
PA Patm
B is a point just below the meniscus:

D is a point just below the flat mercury surface:
PD Patm
2-58
Example 2.3
Hydrostatic relation:
PC PD gH Patm gH
B and C are at same horizontal level in the same liquid:
PB PC Patm gH
Pressure difference across interface or meniscus:
PB PA Patm gH Patm gH
Vertical upward force due to pressure difference across
meniscus:
FP PB PA R 2 gH R 2
(R2 is the projected area)

Vertical (downward) component of surface tension force:
FS 2 R cos 180 2 R cos

2-59
Example 2.3
Equating vertical forces acting on meniscus:
FP FS
gH R 2 2 R cos
2
H
cos
gR
2 0.485
cos 130
H
13550 9.81 0.0005
H 9.38 mm
2-60
Example 2.4
2-61
Example 2.4
Steel needle floats on water model needle using
circular cylinder
Length of needle L = 5 cm
Radius of needle R = 1 mm
O: contact point of water-air interface with cylinder
Contact angle = 150
Assume = 0.073 N/m
Determine weight of needle
Solution:
Surface tension force FS makes an angle of (150-20) =
130 with downward vertical direction
Vertical component of surface tension force (upward):
FS L cos 180 130 2
(factor of 2 arises because the air-water interface is in

contact with 2 sides of cylinder parallel to length of
cylinder) Neglect the ends of the cylinder
2-62
Example 2.4
Equating vertical forces acting on meniscus:
W FS 2 L cos 50 2 0.073 0.05 cos(50)

W 4.69 103 N
(For much more info on surface tension, watch http://modular.mit.edu:8080/ramgen/ifluids/Surface_Tension_in_Fluid_Mechanic.rm)
2-63
Example 2.4
2-64
The following is a classic fluid film

illustrating many surface tension
phenomena:
Surface Tension in Fluid Mechanics,
National Science Foundation
Lloyd Trefethen
http://web.mit.edu/hml/ncfmf.html
2-65

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2 Properties of Fluids

ME2134 Fluid Mechanics I

ME2134 Fluid Mechanics I

Density, Specific Weight and Specific Gravity

ME2134 Fluid Mechanics I

Density, Specific Weight and Specific Gravity

KEY IDEA: Density () mass per unit volume (kg/m3)

ME2134 Fluid Mechanics I

Density of some liquids at 1 atm and 20C:

ME2134 Fluid Mechanics I

ME2134 Fluid Mechanics I

Density, Specific Weight and Specific Gravity

where g is the local acceleration of gravity

2.2 Couette Flow

No-slip conditions on bottom and top walls:

Velocity u varies in y-direction u = u(y)

ME2134 Fluid Mechanics I

In time t, fluid element deforms by infinitesimal angle

ME2134 Fluid Mechanics I

Sir Isaac Newton

SI units for : Ns/m2, kg/(ms) or Pas

Examples of Newtonian fluids: water, oil,

2.2.3 Newtonian Fluids

oil > water > air

Note 1 kg/(m.s) = 1kg.s m/(m2s2) = 1 N.s/m2= 1 Pa.s

ME2134 Fluid Mechanics I

2.2.4 Non-Newtonian Fluids

Non-Newtonian is much more than viscosity behaviour!

Red molecule from faster layer joins slower layer

Gas viscosity as temperature

Variation of Viscosity with Temperature

ME2134 Fluid Mechanics I

2.2.7 Kinematic Viscosity

KEY IDEA: Kinematic Viscosity is the ratio of the dynamic

( : Greek symbol nu)

ME2134 Fluid Mechanics I

ME2134 Fluid Mechanics I

Flow Between Parallel Plates

Fluid acceleration is zero (not necessary to assume this)

ME2134 Fluid Mechanics I

Flow Between Parallel Plates

Fluid at bottom experiences equal and opposite shear

ME2134 Fluid Mechanics I

Wall shear stress:

Wetted surface area of inner cylinder:

6.6 102 Pa s = 0.66 Poise = 66 cP

ME2134 Fluid Mechanics I

Newtonian fluid flows between two wide, parallel plates

where V is the maximum velocity (velocity along channel

ME2134 Fluid Mechanics I

ME2134 Fluid Mechanics I

Note: flow is also called a plane Poiseuille flow

Concept of a fluid as a continuum physical properties can be

Concept of rate of deformation: shear rate

Defination of kinematic viscosity

ME2134 Fluid Mechanics I

Steel paper clip floating on water

ME2134 Fluid Mechanics I

Introduction to Surface Tension

ME2134 Fluid Mechanics I

Introduction to Surface Tension

When a liquid is in contact with a gas or another

Origin of Surface Tension