CH 13

MQ 8 Ch 13 Page 531 Friday, December 8, 2000 8:02 AM
13
Networks
The river Pregel runs through

the university town of
Knigsberg (now Kaliningrad
in Russia). In the middle of
the river are two islands
connected to each other and
to the rest of the city by 7
bridges. Many years ago, a
tradition developed among
the university students where
they challenged one another
to make a round trip over all
7 bridges, walking over each
bridge once, and only once,
before returning to the
starting point. Can it be
done? Try different trips and
record your results.
In this chapter you will
work with a number of
networks and look at a rule to
determine whether a network
can or cannot be travelled.
532
Maths Quest 8 for Victoria
What is a network?
People, places and events are all connected. Networks help us to understand connections
and in this chapter we will look at the properties and applications of networks. Eulers
formula that has been previously discussed, will be investigated in relation to networks.
The last three sections of
the chapter are devoted to
studies of paths, circuits and
trees. In those sections we
will investigate methods of
finding Euler and Hamiltonian paths and circuits, and
minimal spanning trees for
various networks. We will
also learn how these techniques can be applied in practical situations and for
problem solving.
Note: Some material
covered in this chapter can
be treated as an extension, or
advanced material, which is
beyond the scope of a typical
Year 8 class.
What does the Internet have in common with the roads in a suburb? They both can
be considered as networks. What is a network?
A network is a collection of objects, connected to each other in some specific way.

The objects are called vertices (or nodes) and the connections are called edges.
The Internet is a collection of computers, connected to each other, while the roads in
a suburb connect all the houses, parks and other features of a suburb.
Even the structure of your family (your family tree) can be considered as a network.
A simple network
Consider the case of Adam and Betty who are married. We can rep- A
resent this family as a network, as shown in the figure on the right.
The circles (vertices) represent the people, while the line (the edge)
indicates that there is a connection by marriage.
Later on they decide to have children, and have a boy, Cecil, and a A
girl, Daphne. The network now looks like the figure on the right. The
additional lines joining A to C and D, and B to C and D indicate a
C
connection between parents and children.
Later on, Daphne decides to get married to a man named A
Eric; so now the network would look like the figure on the right.
The line joining D to E indicates their marriage.
C
B
D
B
D
Chapter 13 Networks
533
We could continue this process indefinitely, creating a family tree structure.

Although it does not look like the traditional family tree diagram, (as shown
below), it is equivalent to it.
A
B
C
In this case the objects in our network are the people and the lines indicate some
relationship between them.
WORKED Example 1
Draw the network which represents the family
tree showing Alice, her two parents Bill and
Carla, and her grandparents, David and Eunice
(paternal), and Frank and Gemma (maternal).
THINK
1
List the objects (people) in the network.
Draw them using the vertical direction

to indicate the generations.
WRITE/DRAW
A for Alice, B for Bill, C for Carla, D for David,
E for Eunice, F for Frank, G for Gemma.
D
E
B
C
A
Join the various people with lines,

representing parents and marriage.
D is married to E.
F is married to G.
D and E are the parents of B.
F and G are the parents of C.
B is married to C.
B and C are the parents of A.
E
B
C
A
534
Representing a network
As we have seen, a network is completely determined by the vertices and the edges
which connect the vertices, and can be represented by the diagram. It can also be
described using what is known as the labelling method.
A network can be represented by a list of pairs of vertices. The vertices in every
pair are connected by an edge. This is called the labelling method.
WORKED Example 2
Represent the network shown at right,
using the labelling method.
THINK
WRITE
Start with any vertex, say, A. Vertex A

is connected to B and to C. List each
connection as a pair.
Vertex A: (A, B), (A, C)
Vertex B is connected to A, C, D and E.

List each connection as a pair, but do
not repeat any connection that has
already been listed. Since the
connection between A and B was listed
as (A, B) in step 1, do not list (B, A).
Vertex B: (B, C), (B, D), (B, E)
Continue for each remaining vertex:

Vertex C is connected to A, B, F, G but
do not repeat (C, A), (C, B).
Vertex D is connected to B and E but
do not repeat (D, B).
Vertex E is connected to B and D, but
these were already listed as (B, E) and
(D, E). So do not list any pairs for E.
Vertex F is connected to C and G but do
not repeat (F, C).
Finally, vertex G is connected to F and
C, but these were listed as (C, G) and
(F, G). So do not list any pairs for G.
Vertex C: (C, F), (C, G)
Put all the pairs into a single list.
{(A, B), (A, C), (B, C), (B, D), (B, E), (C, F),
(C, G), (D, E), (F, G)}
Vertex D: (D, E)
Vertex E: has no other connection.
Vertex F: (F, G)
Vertex G: has no other connection.
Chapter 13 Networks
535
There should be exactly one pair for each edge in the network. For worked example 2
there are 9 edges and 9 pairs. How many edges were there in worked example 1? It is
often more practical to go from the labelled network to a network drawing, as shown in
the next worked example.
WORKED Example 3
Draw the network represented by the following set of labels.
{(A, B), (A, C), (B, C), (B, D), (C, D), (C, E), (D, E)}
THINK
1
DRAW
Draw vertex A. By studying the set,

observe that A is contained in the labels
(A, B) and (A, C), which tells us it is
connected to B and C. So draw vertices
B and C and connect them to A.
Cross off the labels that have been
used. (Once we have used the label,
there is no need to go back to it.)
Vertex B is included in (B, C), so add
the connections from B to C. It is also
included in (B, D). So add the vertex D,
and the connections from B to D. Cross
off the labels (B, C) and (B, D).
Vertex C is included in (C, D), so add
the connection from C to D. It is also
included in (C, E). So add vertex E, and
the connection from C to E. Cross off
the labels (C, D) and (C, E).
B
D
C
A
B
D
C
E
Vertex D is included in (D, E) and

hence is connected to E. So add the
appropriate connection.
B
D
C
E
Of course, it is possible to get many different shapes for your drawing, but the
connections (edges) must still be correct.
remember
remember
1. A network is a collection of objects connected to each other in some specific
way. The objects are called vertices (or nodes) and the connections are called
edges.
2. A network can be represented by a list of pairs of connected vertices. This is
called the labelling method.
536
13A
WORKED
Example
WORKED
Example
What is a network?
1 Draw the network, which represents the following family tree.

Henry and Ida marry and have a single child, Jane.
Jane marries Kenneth and they have a single child, Louise.
Louise marries Mark and they have two children, Neil and Otis.
2 Four towns, Joplin, Amarillo, Flagstaff and Bairstow are connected to each other as
follows:
Joplin to Amarillo; Joplin to Flagstaff; Amarillo to Bairstow; Amarillo to Flagstaff;
Flagstaff to Bairstow.
Draw the network represented by these connections.
3 A fifth town, Kingman, is added to the network of question 2, with roads connecting
it to Amarillo, Flagstaff and Bairstow. Modify your drawing, adding the new vertex
and its connections.
4 Represent the network shown,
using the labelling method.
5 Represent the network shown in the following diagrams, using the labelling method.
a E
b A
c R
C
A
B
C
V
D
WORKED
Example
6 Draw the network represented by the following set of labels.

{(A, B), (A, C), (B, D), (C, D), (C, E), (D, E)}
7 Draw the network represented by the following.
{(A, B), (A, C), (A, D), (B, E), (C, E), (C, F), (C, G), (D, G)}.
8 Draw the network represented by the following list.
{(A, B), (A, C), (B, C), (B, E), (C, D), (C, E), (C, F), (D, E), (E, G), (F, G)}.
9 multiple choice
A network consists of vertices and:
A letters
B edges
C nodes
10 multiple choice
Which of the following is not a network?
A The telephone system of Brisbane
B The railway system of Sydney
C The family tree of the Queen
of England
D The history books in a library
E The trails in a national park
leading to tourist attractions
D lists
E none of the above
Chapter 13 Networks
537
Basic properties of networks

Up until now we have seen networks only as a collection of vertices (or nodes) and the
edges connecting them. What are some of the mathematical properties of such networks?
In this section we will build up a set of rules and properties leading to a very special
formula for networks: Eulers rule.
The degree of a vertex

The degree of a vertex is the total number of edges to which the vertex is connected.
The degree of each vertex can be obtained by simple counting.
WORKED Example 4
State the degree of each vertex
in the network shown.
B
D
C
E
THINK
1
WRITE
Starting with any vertex, count its

number of edges (connections). The
number of edges is equal to the degree
of that vertex.
Repeat step 1 for all remaining vertices.
Vertex A is connected to B and C, so the

degree = 2.
Vertex B is connected to A, C and D, so the

degree = 3.
Vertex C is connected to A, B, D and E, so the
degree = 4.
Vertex D is connected to B, C and E, so the
degree = 3.
Vertex E is connected to C and D, so the
degree = 2.
There is another interesting property of the degrees in a network.

The sum of all the degrees in a network is exactly twice the number of edges.
So, for the last worked example there are 7 edges, which is half of 14, the total of all
the degrees in that network.
Planar networks
A special kind of network is called a planar network, or planar graph.
A planar network is a network where the edges do not cross each other.
Most networks can be fixed so that there are no crossing edges.
An example of such a network is shown in the figure on the right.
538
If we realise that the edges do not have to be straight lines but can be curved, we can
redraw the network so that it becomes a planar graph. One possible way this can be
done is shown in the figure below. Can you think of any other way?
A
For the rest of this section we will work with planar graphs.
Edges, faces and vertices

If you look carefully at any planar graph you will see
that the lines (edges) divide the surrounding space
into regions, also known as faces.
Consider the network on the right. There are three
regions (labelled I, II and III). The vertices (A, B, C
and D) are not part of any region. Note: The space
outside the entire network is counted as a region.
(In this case it is the region labelled III.)
Find the number of vertices, edges

and regions in the network shown.
WRITE/DRAW
Label the vertices and count them.
G
F
B
A
2
Count the edges. The easiest way to do

this is to cross off every edge that has
been counted with a small mark. (This
will guarantee that no edge is missed
and no edge is counted twice.)
Count the regions by colouring them
in. Do not forget the region outside the
network.
Number of vertices = 7
Number of edges = 10
G
F
WORKED Example 5
THINK
III
Number of regions = 5
II
Chapter 13 Networks
539
Eulers formula
The famous mathematician Leonhard Euler (pronounced oi-ler or uh-ler) discovered
(among other things) the relationship between the number of faces, edges and vertices
for all planar networks. This relationship is given by the following formula.
For any planar network,
V=EF+2
where E is the number of edges, F is the number of faces (regions) and V is the
number of vertices of the network.
WORKED Example 6
Confirm Eulers formula for the
network shown at right.
THINK
1
Count the number of vertices by labelling

them.
WRITE/DRAW
D
C
B
F
A
2
3
Count the number of edges, crossing out

each edge that has been counted as you go.
Count the number of faces (regions) by
colouring them in.
V=6
E = 10
C
B
F
A
4
5
6
7
Write Eulers formula.

Substitute the values of the pronumerals into
the right-hand side (RHS) of the formula.
Simplify the right-hand side.
Compare the RHS with the LHS and draw
your conclusion.
F=6
V=EF+2
RHS = 10 6 + 2
=4+2
=6
= LHS
Therefore, Eulers formula is confirmed.
540
History of mathematics
L E O N H A R D E U L E R ( 1 5 Ap r i l 1 7 0 7 1 8 S e p t e m b e r 1 7 8 3)
During his life . . .

Captain Cook lands in Australia.
The sextant is invented by sea captain John
Campbell.
James Watt develops a more efficient steam
engine.
The first real restaurant opens in Paris.
Leonhard Euler was born in Switzerland and
was the son of a Lutheran minister. His father
wanted him to study theology but Euler was far
more interested in mathematics. He attended
the University of Basel from the age of 13 and
received his masters degree at the age of 17.
Three years later he entered the Paris Academy
Prize for the first time. His entry, involving
difficult calculations for the masts of ships in
the Swiss Navy, received an honourable
mention for its excellent mathematical
methods. However, the judges were surprised
that he did not seem to understand that
Switzerland, being surrounded by land, did not
actually have a navy! He went on to win the
prize on 12 other occasions during his life.
Euler moved to Russia in 1727 where he
became professor of physics and of
mathematics at the Academy of Sciences in St

Petersburg. When he was 31, Euler lost the sight
of one eye, possibly due to overwork. He left
Russia in 1741 to become professor of
mathematics at the Berlin Academy of
Sciences. In 1766 he returned to St Petersburg.
Shortly afterwards he lost the sight of his other
eye because of cataracts.
Eulers abilities were exceptional. It was said
that Euler calculated without effort, as men
breathe. He could work in a noisy environment
and often wrote at home while his children
played around him. Euler had thirteen children,
although only five lived to adulthood. He was
able to go on working even after he became
blind because his memory was so good that he
could do complex calculations in his head.
Euler made significant contributions to
almost every area of mathematics including
geometry, calculus, mechanics, and number
theory. He was one of the first to make use of
standard symbols including for Pi, for
summation (adding), f (x) for functions, e x for
the natural logarithms, and i for complex
numbers. He also worked on a proof of Fermats
last theorem and was able to solve it for powers
of 3 and 4. Like most mathematicians, he
worked on finding formulas for the value of .
He probably wrote more books than any other
mathematician in history. In his lifetime he
published more than 500 books and papers, and
another 400 were published after his death.
Apparently, his last words were simply I die.
Questions
1. What did Euler lose when he was 31
years old?
2. What ability did Euler have that
allowed him to go on working when
he became blind?
3. Name four areas of mathematics in
which Euler made significant
contributions.
4. How many books and papers did Euler
publish during his life?
Chapter 13 Networks
541
remember
remember
1. The degree of a vertex is the total number of edges to which that vertex is
connected.
2. The total of all the degrees of a network is exactly twice the total number of
edges.
3. A planar network is a network where edges do not cross each other.
4. A planar network has faces (or regions).
5. In any planar network, if E = the number of edges, F = the number of faces or
regions and V = the number of vertices, then: V = E F + 2.
This is called Eulers formula.
Basic properties of
networks
13B
WORKED
Example
1 State the degree of each vertex in the network shown at right.
B
E
2 State the degree of each vertex for the networks shown below.
a
b A
Q
S
T
E
G
E
F
D
U
C
W
3 Find the number of regions, edges and vertices for each of the networks in question 2.
4 a Find the number of vertices, edges and regions in the
network shown at right.
5
WORKED
Example
WORKED
C
B
b Confirm Eulers formula for the network shown at right.
Math
cad
Example
F
Eulers
rule
A
542
5 Confirm Eulers formula for each of the networks in question 2.

6 Consider the network defined by the following list of edges.
{(A, B), (A, C), (B, E), (B, F), (C, D), (C, E), (D, E), (E, F)}
a Construct a drawing of the network (make sure it is planar).
b Determine the degree of each vertex.
c Confirm Eulers formula for this network.
7 multiple choice
A planar network consists of:
A regions, faces and edges
B regions, vertices and nodes
C faces, edges and vertices
D edges which cross
E none of the above
me
E ti
GAM
8 multiple choice
The sum of the degrees of all the vertices of a network equals:
A an odd number
B half the number of vertices
C twice the number of vertices
D half the number of edges
E twice the number of edges
Networks
001
13.1
QUEST
GE
EN
M AT H
Work
ET
SHE
CH
AL
1 This cube is made of wire. Each edge of the cube is 1 metre long. An ant
starts at corner A and walks along as many edges as possible without
going along the same edge twice. How far does the ant walk?
2 The cube shown in part 1 is made from a length of wire by bending,

cutting and soldering joints only when necessary. There must be no
loose end of wire. What is the least number of joints to be soldered?
543
Chapter 13 Networks
1
1 Draw a network, which represents the following family tree.
Ann and Charlie marry and they have 2 children, Bob and Karen.
Bob marries Delia and they have a single child, Peter.
Peter marries Mary and they have 2 children, Ben and Emily.
2 Four streets are connected to each other as follows. Draw a network represented by
these connections.
Princess StreetBird Avenue
Princess StreetCharlie Street
Charlie StreetDundas Street
Princess StreetDundas Street
3 multiple choice
A network consists of edges and:
A letters
B sides
C pictures
D shapes
E vertices.

{(A, B), (A, C), (A, D), (B, G), (C, D), (C, E), (C, F), (D, E), (E, F), (F, G)}
Use the network shown to answer questions 5 and 6.
5 Represent the network shown at right using
the labelling method.
6 Find the number of vertices, edges and

regions in the network at right.
Use the following network for questions 7 and 8.

7 What is the degree of vertex B?
8 Find the number of vertices (V), edges (E)

and faces (F) in the network shown and
confirm Eulers formula.
C
B
The following list of words are to be used to fill in the missing words for questions 9
and 10.
Planar, vertices, edges, degrees, objects, network, twice
9 A
network consists of faces, edges and
10 The sum of the

the number of
of all the vertices of the network equals

.
544
Application of networks to
problem-solving
The handshake problem
Problems involving contact between people, for example how many handshakes or
greetings are needed to include everyone, can be solved using networks, by following
the steps outlined in the next worked example.
WORKED Example 7
Consider a group of 6 people sitting at a round table. How many handshakes are required
so that each person shakes hands with everyone exactly once?
THINK
1
Draw a circle representing the table and

the 6 vertices, AF, representing the 6
people at the table.
WRITE/DRAW
A
B
F
E
C
D
Start with person A. This person must

shake hands with 5 other people B,
C, D, E and F. Show this by adding the
appropriate connections to the diagram
(red lines).
A
F
C
D
Chapter 13 Networks
THINK
3
545
WRITE/DRAW
Now, consider person B. This person

has already shaken hands with A (see
step 2 ) and still needs to shake hands
with the remaining 4 people C, D, E
and F. Add 4 connections to the
diagram to show the handshakes of
person B (blue lines).
For person C, the three people
remaining to shake hands with are D, E
and F. Add appropriate edges to the
diagram (black lines).
A
F
C
D
A
F
B
C
E
D
Person D still needs to shake hands

with two people E and F.
Show this with edges DE and DF
(green lines).
A
F
C
D
The last handshake is between

E and F (orange line).
A
B
E
D
We now count the total number of

handshakes.
The total number of handshakes

=5+4+3+2+1
= 15
A network where every vertex is connected to each other vertex is called a complete
network. The final network in the handshake problem above is an example of a
complete network.
Tournaments
The set of steps used to find the number of handshakes considered in the previous
worked example can also be used to work out games or teams in a round-robin
tournament, where each player or team gets to play all the others exactly once. The
worked example which follows shows a different approach to the problem for 6
teams.
546
WORKED Example 8
Six waterpolo teams (A to F) are playing in
a knockout tournament. Use networks to
organise the games so that each team plays
every other team once.
THINK
1
Begin by making a ring joining each

vertex to its nearest neighbour.
Round 1
Starting at A and, going clockwise,
each team plays the team on its left as
shown with red lines.
Round 2
Starting at A and, going counterclockwise, each team plays the team on
its right as shown with blue lines.
Round 3
Join A to the opposite vertex and then
make connections at right angles to this
connection (blue lines).
WRITE/DRAW
Games played
A
F
C
D
A
Round 1:
A plays B
C plays D
E plays F
Round 2:
A plays F
E plays D
C plays B
D
A
F
Round 3:
A plays D
B plays F
C plays E
D
3
Round 4
Join B to the opposite vertex and then
connection (black lines).
A
F
Round 4:
A plays C
B plays E
D plays F
D
4
Round 5
Join C to the opposite vertex and then
connection (green lines).
A
F
C
D
Round 5:
A plays E
B plays D
C plays F
Chapter 13 Networks
547
By observing the listed games in each round, you can confirm that each team does
indeed play each other team exactly once.
Note: The number of games played by the 6 teams is equal to the total number of handshakes between 6 people.
Odd numbers of teams

A further difficulty arises when an odd number of teams play. One very elegant solution
is to add a dummy team, so that if there are originally 5 teams, then the dummy is the
sixth team. Whoever is scheduled to play the dummy actually gets a bye for that
round. Thus, you could use the method in worked example 8 for a tournament of
5 teams, with F as the dummy and therefore there would be byes for teams E, A, B, D
and C in the 5 rounds.
remember
remember
1. A network where every vertex is connected to each other vertex is called a
complete network.
2. We aim to construct a complete network when solving problems where each
person (or team) needs to contact (or play) every other person (or team).
3. If the number of teams in a tournament problem is odd, add a dummy team
and proceed as you would with an even number of teams.
Application of networks to
problem-solving
Example
Number of
people
Number of
handshakes
15
2 Use networks to determine the

schedule for a tournament in
8
which the following numbers of
soccer teams play.
a 4
b 7
c 8
d 9
e 10
WORKED
Example
10
L Spread
XCE
Handshake
counter
sheet
1 Solve the handshake problem for 5, 7, 8, 9 and

10 people and hence, complete the following
7
table.
WORKED
13C
548
Paths and circuits part I

As we have seen, a network can represent many
physical situations, such as roads and
towns, computers and cables, people
and handshakes or even classrooms
and doorways. There are certainly
situations where each edge and
each vertex is equally important.
With planar graphs we can
define a sequence of edges and
vertices and we can look at
various sequences through the
network.
Sometimes you may wish to
have a sequence that goes
through all vertices only once;
for example a travelling salesperson who wishes to visit each
town or shop once.
Sometimes you may wish to use all
edges only once, such as a road repair gang
repairing all the roads in a shire.
Both these cases are known as traversable networks.
Paths and circuits

A path is a sequence of edges and vertices that begins at one vertex and ends at
another.
A circuit is a sequence which begins and ends at the same vertex.
Consider the network shown on the right. One path, going
E
through each vertex is EDCBA. The vertices might represent 5 different tourist attractions you would like to visit in D
A
one day during your holidays, and the edges might show the
roads connecting those attractions.
C
B
One circuit would be EDCBAE. In this case, E might
represent your starting and ending point (say, your hotel) and the other 4 vertices may
be the 4 tourist attractions you would like to visit.
Euler paths and circuits

An Euler path (and circuit) uses each edge exactly once.
Euler paths and circuits are useful when the edges are the really important objects, such
as a network of roads connecting towns. This would be the case if you were designing
a bus route which travels along each road, picking up and dropping off passengers.
Unfortunately, not all networks have Euler paths or circuits.
What determines whether or not there is an Euler path or circuit? The answer lies in
determining the degree of each vertex and whether each degree is even or odd.
549
Chapter 13 Networks
The following table shows the presence or absence of Euler paths and circuits for
networks with different numbers of odd degree vertices.
Degree of vertices Euler path
How?
Euler circuit
All the vertices

Yes
have even degrees.
Start and finish Yes

at any vertex.
There are exactly Yes

two odd degree
vertices and the
rest are even.
Start and finish No

at the two odd
degree vertices.
No
No
There are any

other number
of odd degree
vertices (1, 3,
5, and so on).
How?
This depends
upon the actual
network.
The following worked example provides more guidance in locating an Euler path.
WORKED Example 9
Determine if there is an Euler path through

the network shown at right and, if so, give an
example.
A
C
THINK
1
Determine the degree of each vertex by

counting the number of edges connected
to it.
Count the number of odd degree vertices

and hence state whether there is an Euler
path through the network.
Since there are exactly 2 vertices with odd
degrees (C and E), an Euler path has to start
and finish with these; say, begin at C and
end at E. Attempt to find a path which uses
each edge.
Note: While each edge must be used exactly
once, vertices may be used more than once.
To ensure that each edge has been used,
label them as you go.
List the sequence of vertices along the path.
WRITE/DRAW
Vertex A has a degree = 2.
Vertex B has a degree = 2.
Vertex C has a degree = 3.
Vertex D has a degree = 2.
Vertex E has a degree = 3.
Number of odd vertices = 2
Therefore, the Euler path exists.
E
6
D
5
C
An Euler path is CBAECDE.
550
Note: The number of vertices in the path is one more than the number of edges in the
network. For instance, in worked example 9 there were 6 edges in the network and the
path contained 7 vertices; that is, one more vertex than the total number of edges.
Can you find a different sequence for the network in the previous worked example,
which is also an Euler path? Does this network have an Euler circuit? Why (or why
not)?
Hamiltonian paths and circuits

A path which goes though each vertex exactly once is known as Hamiltonian.
If a Hamiltonian path begins and ends at the same vertex, it is then a Hamiltonian
circuit.
Unfortunately, there is no set method of finding these routes, except by inspection or
trial and error. Most networks have both Hamiltonian paths and circuits. Finding a
circuit may require a clever choice of the starting (and ending) vertex.
WORKED Example 10
For the network shown find:
a a Hamiltonian path
b a Hamiltonian circuit.
B
C
F
A
THINK
WRITE
a Choose any starting vertex and attempt

to visit all the other vertices. (Not all the
edges need to be used.)
b Attempt to close the path by returning
to the starting vertex.
a A possible Hamiltonian path is

ABFEDC.
b A possible Hamiltonian circuit is
ABFEDCA.
Hamiltonian paths and circuits are most useful in travelling salesperson types of problems where the vertices might represent places that the salesperson must visit each week.
remember
remember
1. A path is a specific set of edges and connecting vertices.
2. An Euler path is a set of edges connecting all the vertices such that each edge
is used exactly once. For such a path to exist, there must be exactly two vertices
of odd degree (and the rest of even degree) or all the vertices must be of even
degree.
3. An Euler circuit is an Euler path that also has the same starting and ending
vertex. For such a circuit to exist, all the vertices must be of even degree.
4. A Hamiltonian path travels through each vertex exactly once.
5. A Hamiltonian circuit is a Hamiltonian path that also has the same starting and
ending vertex.
551
Chapter 13 Networks
13D
Paths and circuits

part I
1 Determine if there is an Euler path through the network shown at

right and, if so, give an example.
9
2 Determine an Euler path through the networks shown below.
aA
b
c
B
Q
S
Q
S
Example
T
Q
3 Starting at vertex R, determine an Euler path for this planar graph.

(Hint: What vertex should the path end at?)
5 For each of the networks shown, find:

Example
i a Hamiltonian path
10
ii a Hamiltonian circuit.
a
b
A
E
C
C
F
Buford
Hapless
Grunge City
Chesterton
French Twist
Eulersburg
B
G
E
D
Dullsville
Alhambra
WORKED
4 A road inspection crew must travel along each

road, shown on the map at right, exactly once.
a From either of which two cities must the crew
begin its tour?
b Determine a path using each road once.
c Which cities are visited most often and why?
U
R
WORKED
E
D
6 Which of the networks in the four parts of question 5 have Euler paths?
7 multiple choice
An Euler path:
A uses every vertex exactly once
B uses every edge exactly once
C always exists
D is the same as a Hamiltonian path
E always starts on a vertex whose degree is an even number
8 multiple choice
A Hamiltonian path:
A does not exist if there are any vertices B does not exist if there are exactly
of odd degree
2 vertices of odd degree
C does not have to use every vertex in
D does not have to use every edge in the
the network
network
E is the same as a Euler path
552
Paths and circuits part II

As was mentioned in the previous section, finding a path which starts and ends at the
same vertex and uses all the edges exactly once (an Euler circuit) can be difficult. In
this section we will explore techniques to help us find Euler circuits.
Finding an Euler circuit

Remember that an Euler circuit exists only if all the vertices are of even degree.
WORKED Example 11
Starting with vertex A, find, if possible,
an Euler circuit for the network shown.
E
B
THINK
WRITE/DRAW
Confirm that all of the vertices are of

even degree.
Start with vertex A and find the shortest

path back to vertex A. (If there is more
than one such path, select any one of
them.) A possible shortest path is
ACEA.
Complete the circuit by going around
the remaining vertices (along path
ADBA).

All vertices are of even degree, therefore an
Euler circuit is possible.
A
2
E
3
B
D
1
A
6
C
3
4
B
2
E
D
5
Confirm that each edge is used once,

and list the path.
The Euler circuit is ACEADBA.
Which method we use to find an Euler circuit depends upon the starting vertex we
choose. For instance, if the starting vertex in the above example was B, it would be
pointless to select the shortest path (BADB) back to it, as it would be a dead end.
An Euler circuit from B is BACEADB.
Generally, if the starting point has the degree of 2, the first and the last connections
of the circuit must be to that point. This means that the shortest path back to the starting
point is no use, as there are no more edges from it and it would be a dead end. Instead
we can first connect the starting vertex with the vertex of larger degree, as shown in the
following example.
Chapter 13 Networks
553
WORKED Example 12
Find an Euler circuit for the network shown.
A
D
THINK
WRITE/DRAW
Confirm that all of the vertices are of even

degree.
Choose a starting vertex, say D.

Since D is of degree 2, the first and last
connections must be to D. Therefore, we can
not look for the shortest path back to D, as it
would create a dead end. Instead, we need to
first connect D to the vertex of larger degree.
There are 2 such vertices, A and C (both of a
degree 4). So, connect D to one of them,
say, A.
Find a shortest path back to A (select any,
if there is more than one such path).

All vertices are of even degree, therefore
an Euler circuit is possible.
A
B
D
4
2 B 3
1
D
Complete the circuit by moving from A

back to D, using the remaining edges.
2
1
List the path.
4
A
B
7
C
6
The Euler circuit is:

DABCAECD.
Note: We had to have the path CD as the last one, since we chose DA as the first.
remember
remember
1. For an Euler circuit to exist, all the vertices must be of even degree.
2. Complete a circuit by finding the shortest path to the starting vertex, adding
new vertices one at a time until all vertices are part of the circuit.
3. If the starting vertex has the degree of 2, connect it to a vertex of larger degree first.
554
13E
Paths and circuits part II
1 Starting with vertex A, find, if possible,

an Euler circuit for the network shown.
11
WORKED
Example
B
D
2 Starting with vertex D, find an Euler circuit for the network in question 1.
3 Starting with vertex A, find an Euler circuit for the following networks.
a A
b B
B
C
C
D
F
4 Find an Euler circuit for the networks shown.

a
b
12
F
F
G
WORKED
Example
B
D
C
E
c
C
B
A
C
E
5 In a computer network, the main computer, or file server (F), is

connected to all the other computers as shown at right. Matsuko,
the technician, wishes to test that each connecting cable is functioning properly. She wishes to route a signal, starting at F, so
that it travels down each cable exactly once and then returns to
the file server. Find such a circuit for the network configuration
shown at right.
R
F
P
T
V
Q
S
555
Chapter 13 Networks
6 multiple choice
If a travelling salesman wished to visit each town connected by a network of roads
exactly once and then return home, he would be looking for:
A an Euler path
B an Euler circuit
C a Hamiltonian path
D a Hamiltonian circuit
E none of the above
ET
SHE
Work
7 multiple choice
A group of towns are connected by railroad, as shown in the simplified network at right. The shire wishes to be able to have a path so
that each rail link can be used exactly once. Where should it add a
new link?
A Between J and M
B Between L and N
C Between P and M
D Between K and M
E Between P and L
P
J
N
M
Sprouts
Sprouts is a simple pencil and paper game for two players. Here are the rules:
1 Players take turns at being the first to start play.
2 The first player marks 3 separate dots on a piece of paper.
3 The second player draws a line joining two of the dots and adds a dot
somewhere on the line just drawn.
4 The two players continue to take turns at drawing a line joining two of the dots
and adding a new dot somewhere on this line.
However, there are some conditions!

No dot is allowed to have more than three lines leaving it. (A dot is dead when
three lines are leaving it and can be circled to indicate this.)
No new line may touch or cross any line already drawn.

5 The winner is the last person able to play.
Keep a record of your games and try to develop a winning strategy. You can also
play this game with a different number of starting dots.
13.2
556
The bridges of Knigsberg

Do you remember the problem posed at the start of the chapter (see page 531)?
Can it be done? Can you travel across all 7 bridges of Knigsberg once, and only
once, before returning to the starting point?
1 Try this problem again. (The university students of Knigsberg actually called
in Leonhard Euler in 1735 to help them with this problem.)
2 Explain your answer in terms of networks and odd and even vertices.
3 Draw a diagram and add an eighth bridge so that you could travel over all the
bridges once only if you started and finished at different points.
4 Draw another diagram. Can you add an eighth bridge so that you could travel
over all the bridges once only if you started and finished at the same point?
Hint: Each bridge can be represented by an edge and the islands and riverbanks
represented by vertices, as shown at left.
2
1 Represent the network shown at right by using the labelling
method.
B
{(A, B), (A, C), (A, D), (A, E), (B, C), (C, D), (C, E)}
Use the network shown at right for questions 3 and 4.
3 Find the number of vertices (V), edges (E) and
regions (R) in the network shown.
4 Confirm Eulers formula for the network shown.
D
C
F
E
C
E
D
F
B
A
5 Determine an Euler path through the network shown at right.
B
D
6 multiple choice
For an Euler path to exist there must be exactly 2 vertices of odd degree or:
A all vertices must be of odd degree
B one vertex is of odd degree
C one vertex is of even degree
D there is an equal number of odd and even degree vertices
E all vertices must be of even degree.
Use this network for questions 7 and 8.

A
7 Find a Hamiltonian path.

8 Find a Hamiltonian circuit.
G
B
Answer true or false for questions 9 and 10.

9 An Euler path uses every edge only once.
10 A Hamiltonian circuit is a Hamiltonian path that does not have to have the same
starting and ending vertex.
Chapter 13 Networks
557
Trees and networks

A special kind of network is called a tree. Like woody trees network trees have branches.
In network trees, the branches, called edges, come together at points, called vertices.
A tree consists of a number of vertices and the smallest number of edges

necessary, so that each vertex is connected to at least one other vertex.
This ensures that each vertex can communicate to all the other vertices either directly,
or indirectly.
Identifying trees
The diagrams on the right show trees for 2 and A
3 vertices respectively. For the 3-vertex case,
there are 2 other possible trees. Can you draw
them?
The next two diagrams show trees for 4 and 5 A
vertices respectively. Observe that for 4 vertices
there are 3 edges and for 5 vertices there are 4
edges.
Generally, a tree has one less edge than the
number of vertices.
C
B
The last figure at right is an example of a network, which is not A

a tree. Note that it has one too many edges. Can you identify the
extra edge (that is, the edge that has to be removed in order for the
network to become a tree)?
558
WORKED Example 13
Identify which of the following networks are trees.
a A
b A
F
B
F
B
E
C
D
d A
B
D
D
F
e R
WRITE
a Number of vertices = 6
Number of edges = 5
Count the number of vertices and

edges. There should be one edge less
than the number of vertices.
Check whether each vertex is
connected to at least one other and
state your conclusion.
F
E
THINK
1
c A
A is connected to B.
B is connected to F.
C is connected to D.
D is connected to E.
F is connected to B.
Therefore, the network shown is a tree.
b Count the number of vertices and edges.

The number of edges must be one less
than the number of vertices for the
network to be a tree.
b Number of vertices = 6
Number of edges = 6
Therefore, the network shown is not a tree.
Count the number of vertices and

edges. There should be one edge less
than the number of vertices.
Check whether each vertex is
connected to at least one other and
state your conclusion.
c Number of vertices = 7
Number of edges = 6
Check whether the number of edges

is one less than the number of
vertices.
Ensure that each vertex is connected
to at least one other.
d Number of vertices = 7
Number of edges = 6
Check if the number of vertices

exceeds the number of edges by one.
Ensure that each vertex is connected
to at least one other.
e Number of vertices = 7
Number of edges = 6
Each vertex is connected.
1
2
A is not connected to any vertex.

Therefore, the network shown is not a tree.
Each vertex is connected.

Chapter 13 Networks
559
The minimal spanning tree

Consider a network of vertices and edges where the edges represent, say, the distance
between the vertices. We wish to find a tree within the network, so that the total distance along the tree is as small as possible.
This is called the minimal spanning tree and is useful, for example, for a message
system, where the total distance travelled between the vertices should be as small as
possible. The method for finding the minimal spanning tree is particularly simple, and
is demonstrated in the next worked example.
WORKED Example 14
In the network shown,
numbers represent the
distances (in km)
between ten towns. Find
the minimal spanning
tree and determine its
total length.
R 15 S 33 W
24 34
35 27
26
23
Q
T 10 V
X
20 31
25
18
21
38
P
U
Y
THINK
1
Find the edge with the shortest

distance. It is the start of the tree. The
shortest edge is TV.
WRITE/DRAW
R 15 S 33 W
34
24
35 27
Q 23 T 10 V 26 X
20 31 25
P
U 38
21
18
Y
Total distance = 10
2
Find the edge connecting a new vertex

to the existing tree (TV) by the
shortest distance.
Town T is connected to S (distance
27 km), Q (23 km) and U (31 km).
Town V is connected to W (24 km),
X (26 km) and U (25 km).
Choose the smallest distance, TQ
(23 km) and find the total distance so
far.
33
S
W
34
27
24
35
23
10
26
Q
T
V
X
20 31
25
18
21
38
P
U
Y
R
15
Total distance = 10 + 23
= 33
Continued over page
560
THINK
3

to the existing tree (QTV) by the
shortest distance:
Town Q is connected to R (35 km),
P (21 km) and U (20 km).
Town T is connected to S (27 km) and
U (31 km).
Town V is connected to W (24 km),
X (26 km) and U (25 km).
Choose QU (20 km) and find the new
total distance.

to the existing tree (UQTV) by the
shortest distance. Using the same
method as in previous steps, select
QP (21 km).
Calculate the new total.
The edge connecting a new vertex to

the existing tree (UPQTV) by the
shortest distance is VW (24 km).
Add 24 to the previous total.
The edge with the shortest distance

connecting a new vertex to the existing
tree (UPQTVW) is VX (26 km).
Note: If UV was used the figure would
no longer be a tree.
WRITE/DRAW
33
S
W
34
27
24
35
Q 23 T 10 V 26 X
20 31 25
18
21
38
P
U
Y
R
15
= 53
33
S
W
34
27
24
35
Q 23 T 10 V 26 X
20 31 25
18
21
38
P
U
Y
R
15
= 74
33
S
W
34
24
35 27
Q 23 T 10 V 26 X
20 31 25
18
21
38
P
U
Y
R
15
= 98
33
S
W
34
27
24
35
Q 23 T 10 V 26 X
20 31 25
18
21
38
P
U
Y
R
15
= 124
Chapter 13 Networks
THINK
7
WRITE/DRAW
The next edge with the shortest distance

connecting a new vertex to the existing
tree (UPQTVWX) is
XY (18 km).

8
33
S
W
34
27
24
35
Q 23 T 10 V 26 X
20 31 25
18
21
38
P
U
Y
R
Finally, select the edge SR (15 km),

which connects the last remaining
vertex, R, to the existing tree
(UPQTSVWXY) and has
the shortest distance.
The tree is now complete, as all
vertices are connected.
Calculate the total and answer the
question.
15

= 142
Select edge TS (27 km). It connects

a new vertex (S) to the existing tree
(UPQTVWXY) using the
shortest distance.

9
561
33
S
W
34
24
35 27
Q 23 T 10 V 26 X
20 31 25
18
21
38
P
U
Y
R
15

= 169
33
S
W
34
27
24
35
Q 23 T 10 V 26 X
20 31 25
18
21
38
P
U
Y
R
15

= 184
Total length of the minimal spanning tree is 184 km.
It is now possible for each vertex in worked example 14 to communicate with all the
others, with a minimum total distance of 184 km. Suppose there was a major fire in
town T. They would send messages directly to Q, S, and V. These towns would send a
message to towns P, U (from Q), R (from S), W and X (from V) and so on, until every
town had received the message.
Although finding the minimal spanning tree may seem a long process, at each step
the decisions are very simple: just add the shortest edge to a new vertex.
remember
remember
1. A tree uses the smallest number of edges possible, so that each vertex is
connected to at least one other vertex.
2. A tree of n vertices contains (n 1) edges. (That is, the number of edges is one
less than the number of the vertices.)
3. The minimal spanning tree is the tree that has the shortest total overall length.
4. To find the minimal spanning tree, start with the shortest overall edge. Add a
new vertex by finding the shortest edge connecting it to the existing tree, until
all vertices are connected.
562
13F
Trees and networks
1 Identify which of the following networks are trees.

a
b A
c
d
C
13
F
A
C
J
WORKED
Example
E
D
B
E
F
D
B
A
D
K
2 In the network at right, identify one (or more) edges which, A

when removed, result in the remaining network becoming a
tree.
E
B
D
3 Identify one (or more) edges in the figure at right which, when
added, result in the network becoming a tree.
X
T
V
Y
W
Z
4 In the network shown at right, numbers represent the disExample

tances (in km) between seven towns. Find the minimal
14
spanning tree and determine its total length.
WORKED
67
B
44
A
46
45
36
D
5 The diagram on the right represents 8 cities and the roads

connecting them. The distances along each road are also
indicated. If the distances are in km, find the minimal
spanning tree for this network. Determine the total length
of the tree.
41
37
62
Q
45
R
67
51
34
48
F
39
77
68
77
61
70
55
T
52
72
61
Y
I
81
563
Chapter 13 Networks
6 Two new towns (X and Z) and their road connections

are added to the network in question 5, as shown. Find
the new minimal spanning tree and its length.
62
Q
45
40
R
X
44
67
77
68
77
70
55
81
36
49
61
T
52
72
61
7 A group of computers are

connected as shown below.
The numbers on the edges
represent the cost (in cents) of
sending a 1 MB mail message
between the computers. Find
the smallest possible cost to
send a message to all the computers.
26
27
36
40
17
18
16
12
19
14
21
11
24
16
23
32
8 multiple choice
A Hamiltonian circuit is not a tree because:
A not all the vertices are connected in a Hamiltonian circuit
B there are more vertices than edges in a Hamiltonian circuit
C there are the same number of vertices and edges in a Hamiltonian circuit
D there are more edges in a Hamiltonian circuit than are required for a tree
E a Hamiltonian circuit does not necessarily connect all the vertices.
time
Networks
002
B
19
A
ET
SHE
18
11
15
D
20
Work
9 multiple choice
The next edge that should be added to the tree shown
by red lines in the figure at right, to form a minimal
spanning tree, would be:
A AD (length = 15)
B CE (length = 16)
C BC (length = 18)
D AB (length = 19)
E GF (length = 23)
GAME
16
12
13
G
22
23
13.3
564
summary
Copy the sentences below. Fill in the gaps by choosing the correct word or
expression from the word list that follows.
1
A network consists of edges and
When using the labelling method to describe a network, the pair { . . .

(C, F) . . . } means that
C is
to F.
The degree of a vertex is the total number of

nected to it.
In a planar graph there are no
Eulers rule connects the number of edges, vertices and

a formula V = E F + 2.
If there are 4 people in a room, the smallest number of handshakes, so that

each person shakes hands with everyone else exactly once is
.
A
is a sequence of edges and vertices that begins at one
vertex and ends at another, while a
is a sequence which
begins and ends at the same vertex.
An Euler path uses each
An Euler path is possible, if either

vertices in the network are
of even degree, or
vertices are of odd degree.
it has con-
edges.
with
exactly once.
10
11
A Hamiltonian circuit does not necessarily use
12
A network with two vertices of degree equal to 3 cannot have an

.
13
A tree consists of a number of vertices and

so that each vertex is connected to at least one other.
14
A tree for a network with 12 vertices would have
15
A minimal spanning tree has
WORD
uses each vertex exactly once.

in the network.
edges necessary,
edges.
possible.
LIST
Euler circuit
11
vertices
the smallest total
length
edges
regions
every edge
2
circuit
edge
all
Hamiltonian path
vertex
the smallest
number of
connected
crossing
6
path
Chapter 13 Networks
565
CHAPTER
review
1 Draw the following network.
{(A, B), (A, C), (A, D), (B, E), (C, E), (C, F), (D, F), (E, G), (F, G)}
13A
2 Represent the network shown, using the labelling method.
13A
Q
R
S
T U
V
A
W
Y
3 State the degree of each vertex in the network in question 2.

4
13B
13B
D
C
For the network shown above:

a Count the number of
vertices (V).
b Count the number of
edges (E).
c Count the number of
faces (F).
d Confirm Eulers formula.
5 Eight beach volleyball teams
(A to H) are playing in a
knockout tournament. Use
networks to organise the
games so that each team
plays every other team once.
13C
566
13C
6 How many handshakes will it take if there are 8 people and everyone shakes hands with
everyone else exactly once?
13D
7 For each of the following networks, state whether an Euler path and/or an Euler circuit
are/is possible.
a a network with 2 vertices with the degree = 2 and 2 vertices with the degree = 3
b a network with 3 vertices with the degree = 2 and 2 vertices with the degree = 3
c a network with 3 vertices with the degree = 2 and 3 vertices with the degree = 3
d a network with 2 vertices with the degree = 2 and 3 vertices with the degree = 3
e a network with 5 vertices with even degrees
f a network with 4 vertices with odd degrees
g a network with 1 vertex with the degree = 2, 2 vertices with the degree = 3 and 2 vertices
with the degree = 4
13D
D
C
a For the network shown above, find:

i an Euler path
ii a Hamiltonian path
b Explain why is there no Euler circuit.
13E
13E
9 Modify the network in question 8 so that there is a possible Euler circuit. Draw a circuit,
starting with vertex A.
10 a For the network shown at right, state two possible Euler paths,
starting with different vertices.
b Modify the network by adding a new vertex, F, so that an Euler
circuit is possible.
c For the modified version of the network, state an Euler circuit,
beginning with:
i vertex B
ii vertex C.
13F
11 How many edges are required for a tree, connecting:

a 4 vertices?
b 8 vertices?
13F
12
30
26 23
20 25
32
CHAPTER
13
T
34
11
C
B
100 vertices?
29
R
8
18
27
test
yourself
iii a Hamiltonian circuit.
X
31
15
S
17
W
20
10
33
Q
21
36
Find the minimal spanning tree for the network shown and determine its total length.

CH 13

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CH 13

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MQ 8 Ch 13 Page 531 Friday, December 8, 2000 8:02 AM

The river Pregel runs through

MQ 8 Ch 13 Page 532 Friday, December 8, 2000 8:02 AM

Maths Quest 8 for Victoria

A network is a collection of objects, connected to each other in some specific way.

MQ 8 Ch 13 Page 533 Friday, December 8, 2000 8:02 AM

We could continue this process indefinitely, creating a family tree structure.

List the objects (people) in the network.

Draw them using the vertical direction

Join the various people with lines,

MQ 8 Ch 13 Page 534 Friday, December 8, 2000 8:02 AM

Maths Quest 8 for Victoria

Start with any vertex, say, A. Vertex A

Vertex A: (A, B), (A, C)

Vertex B is connected to A, C, D and E.

Vertex B: (B, C), (B, D), (B, E)

Continue for each remaining vertex:

Vertex C: (C, F), (C, G)

Put all the pairs into a single list.

MQ 8 Ch 13 Page 535 Friday, December 8, 2000 8:02 AM

Draw vertex A. By studying the set,

Vertex D is included in (D, E) and

MQ 8 Ch 13 Page 536 Friday, December 8, 2000 8:02 AM

Maths Quest 8 for Victoria

1 Draw the network, which represents the following family tree.

6 Draw the network represented by the following set of labels.

E none of the above

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Basic properties of networks

The degree of a vertex

Starting with any vertex, count its

Vertex A is connected to B and C, so the

Vertex B is connected to A, C and D, so the

There is another interesting property of the degrees in a network.

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Maths Quest 8 for Victoria

Edges, faces and vertices

Find the number of vertices, edges

Label the vertices and count them.

Count the edges. The easiest way to do

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Count the number of vertices by labelling

Count the number of edges, crossing out

Write Eulers formula.

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Maths Quest 8 for Victoria

During his life . . .

mathematics at the Academy of Sciences in St

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1 State the degree of each vertex in the network shown at right.

b Confirm Eulers formula for the network shown at right.

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Maths Quest 8 for Victoria

5 Confirm Eulers formula for each of the networks in question 2.

2 The cube shown in part 1 is made from a length of wire by bending,

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4 Draw the network represented by the following list.

6 Find the number of vertices, edges and

Use the following network for questions 7 and 8.

8 Find the number of vertices (V), edges (E)

network consists of faces, edges and

10 The sum of the

of all the vertices of the network equals