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UNIT 1: NATURE AND PURPOSE OF BUSINESS RESEARCH

Introduction
The importance of research in social and business research cannot be
under-estimated. Among others, research helps to improve practice,
improve products and provides efficient ways of working. However, the
word research and the processes involved in carrying out such an activity
is often misconceived and misapplied by students including those
pursuing business programmes. The fact is that in the current competitive
market environment it would be difficult for them to operate any business
enterprise effectively without occasionally conducting research to improve
their professional practices and to gain information about the world in
which they operate. This unit focuses on the nature and purposes of
business research. By the end of this unit, you will be able to:
Explain the concept and characteristics of business research;
Identify the characteristics of business research;
Explain the importance and problems of research;
Explain the classification of business research; and
Provide an overview of both proposal and the business research
project.
UNIT 1: SECTION 1: THE CONCEPT AND CHARACTERISTICS OF
BUSINESS RESEARCH
As already noted, the concept of research is given different interpretation
by some students and academics. In this section we shall consider the
meaning of research as well as its characteristics. By the end of the
section, you will be able to:
Explain the concept of research.
Explain the characteristics of scientific research.
What is research?
We often hear the word research on radios, in schools and other public
places but it is given different interpretations. How a lay-person sees it
(the laymans view) and how a professional sees it (professional sense)
differ. To a lay-person, research is a mere gathering of information on a
chosen topic or about an issue. For example, when we read books and
make notes on some topics, we tell colleagues that we went to the library
to do research. This is how a lay-person understands research to be.
Research in professional sense is considered as:
A systematic investigation into the study of materials, sources, etc with
the aim of establishing facts and reaching new conclusions (Oxford
Encyclopedic English Dictionary).
Process of steps used to collect and analyze information to increase our
understanding of a of the topic or issue (Creswell, 2008, p.3).
A systematic and methodical process of inquiry with the view to
increase knowledge or our understanding of a phenomenon.

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We can see that all the definitions above consider research as a

systematic activity. This implies that it consists of some steps: generally
you identify a problem and pose a question; collect data to answer the
question and present an answer to the question. We follow these steps on
regular basis when we attempt to solve problem: we start with a question,
gather information and finds an answer to the question. The definitions
above also suggest that research has diverse aims, including enhancing
understanding about issues, establishing facts and increasing knowledge.
In part fulfilment of your academic degree, you will be required to select a
business problem and investigate it under the guidance of your supervisor
to address the problem or increase readers understanding of it. In the
process, you will identify a problem, review related literature [on the
problem] gather data and analyze and discuss it and come out with your
findings to enhance an understanding or address it. Apart from these
objectives, research has other objectives which are presented below:
To review and synthesize existing knowledge;
To investigate some existing solutions or problems;
To provide solution to a problem;
To explore and analyze more general issues;
To construct or create a new procedure or system;
To explain a new phenomenon [an issue or phenomenon];
To generate a new knowledge; and
A combination of any of the above reasons.
(Collis & Hussey, 2013, p.2)
Thus, when we conduct research we aim at achieving a goal or some
goals. At the final year of your programme, you will be required to write a
report often known as a project work. You have to make sure that you
follow the Universitys style of presenting the report. You can contact the
examination officer at your department or your research methods tutor for
a copy of this document.
Characteristics of Scientific Research
When you use a scientific method to conduct your research, your study
should have the following characteristics:
It begins with a question: The researcher must have a question in mind
that he/she finds answers to. Why, how, when do things happen? What
are the causes of it? and so on. All these questions can generate
research activity.
It requires clarification of a goal. To carry out your research
successfully, you need to have a clear statement of purpose and a
series of objectives derived from the purpose. These will guide your
research endeavour.
It requires a specific programme of work. Research needs to be
carefully-planned in order to achieve its objectives and reach
conclusions.
It aims to increase understanding by interpreting facts or ideas and
arriving at some conclusions about the meaning.

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It requires reasoned arguments to support conclusion. In order to

communicate an ordered sequence of ideas, a clear logical argument is
required.

Your project supervisor will help you ensure that your work has, at least,
most of these qualities of scientific research.
Review Questions
1 Briefly explain the concept of research.
2 State any five (5) characteristics of research.

UNIT 1: SECTION 2: IMPORTANCE OF BUSINESS RESEARCH

You are welcome to this section! Before we start our discussion of the
issues in this section, you might have heard about various research that
have been conducted into business areas such as customer services,
employee welfare and motivation, customer satisfaction and so on. But
have you ever asked yourself why such studies are conducted and the
problems associated with them. In this section, we shall look at the
importance of business research as well as the general problems of
research. By the end of this section, you will be able to:
Explain the importance of business research.
Importance of Business Research
Business research has some importance. Let us now consider some of
them.
Adding to knowledge: This means that business professionals or
organizations undertake research to contribute to existing information.
For example, the various banks in Ghana are always looking for ways
and means to attract or win and maintain as many customers as
possible. Such banking institutions already use some strategies to
achieve this, but, through research, they can identify new and more
effective strategies for winning and maintaining customers research
report might also provide a study that has not been conducted and
thereby fill gaps in existing knowledge. We can also conduct business
research to confirm or disconfirm the way we do things or existing
knowledge.
Improves practice: Business research is very significant because it
can suggest ways of improving practices. Through the findings of such
studies, business practitioners can become more effective. For
example, if a study is conducted into a problem identified with
customer service of a business organization, research can be
conducted into it and the results can help address that problem.
Higher gain and productivity and improved quality of products:
Through research, business enterprises could increase productivity and
profits, and improve the quality of existing products or services and
even develop new ones.

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Development of new theory: The findings of business research can

be applied to situational events. When the findings of such studies are
tested over a reasonable length of time, they become a standard for
addressing those events.
Informs policy debates: The findings of business research
conducted can create conversations about important issues when
policy-makers debate business topics. When policy-makers read the
findings of business research, they will be informed about specific
issue/s when debating about the issue. Business research also provides
the basis of many policies. For example, knowing the needs and desires
of people through research and on the availability of revenues to meet
the needs help government to prepare a budget.

Thus, business research is conducted for various reasons, including to

increase knowledge, improve professional practices, inform current
debates on issues, and develop theory.
Review Question
1 State and explain any five (5) reasons for conducting business research
in Ghana.

UNIT 1: SECTION 3: PROBLEMS OF BUSINESS RESEARCH

As already seen in the just-ended discussion, business research services
several important purposes. However, there are many problems
associated with or impeding the quality of research conducted in many
contexts, including that of Ghana. In this section, we shall discuss some of
these problems. By the end of the section, you will be able to:
Identify the problems associated with business research conducted in
Ghanaian and other contexts.
Conducting Business Research: Challenges
Business research projects conducted in the Ghanaian contexts and
elsewhere are confronted with many challenges or problems. Some of
them are identified and discussed below.
Illiteracy: If you conduct a study with people who find it difficult to
read and write, you may encounter some challenges. Because a
reasonable number of people in Ghana are illiterates, they find it
difficult to provide the relevant information when they are involved in
research or when necessary. So many people also feel reluctant to
participate in research because they do not understand the items in
the instrument/s used for data collection. Moreover, illiterates may not
see the value of research and, therefore, may be reluctant to
participate in such activities.
Secrecy and confidentiality: Many people in Ghana like to keep
certain information secret and confidential and are always reluctant to

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release them to researchers. For example, some people find it difficult

to provide information about their personal lives and finances. They
see researchers who ask questions about such issues as intruders and
may feel reluctant to cooperate with them. Asamoah-Gyimah and
Duodo (2007) added that even in government ministries in Ghana,
information that is meant for public consumption is considered a
secret.
Inadequate funds for research: Researchers who carry out both
large and small scale studies need funds for such endeavour. However,
it is difficult to secure such funds and this limits the quantity and
quality of research that can be conducted. Sometimes, because of lack
or inadequacy of funds some major issues or problems that affect the
socio-economic development of Ghana remain uninvestigated.
Questionable data: The author of a particular research report may
not have gathered information from people who are able to understand
and address the problem. The number of participants may also be
dismally low, which can cause problems in drawing appropriate
statistical conclusions. The survey used in a study may contain
questions that are ambiguous and vague. At a technical level, the
researcher may have chosen an inappropriate statistic for analyzing
the data. Just because research is published in a well-known journal
does not automatically make it a good research.
Ethical issues: One of the major problems of research relates to
ethical issues. Ethical problems in research are relationship kinds of
problems that serve as barriers to a successful research study if not
well addressed. For example, a researcher has the responsibility to
treat respondents fairly in a research study. At the same time, a
researcher has a responsibility to the client to gather accurate, reliable
information. Ethical conflict occurs when an individual perceives that
his/her duties and responsibilities toward one group are inconsistent
with his/her duties and responsibilities toward some other group
(including one's self). The individual then must attempt to resolve
these opposing obligations.
Inability to contribute to knowledge: The inability of research
studies to contribution to knowledge is yet another problem of
research. Under normal circumstances, research study, especially those
conducted by postgraduate research students, are expected to
generate new knowledge or ideas in addition to the existing ones.
However, this expectation is hardly achieved by most business
researchers.
Lack of knowledge and skills: To carry out specific types of
research, some special skills are required. However, sometimes,
researchers do not possess these knowledge and skills and these affect
the results of their studies negatively. A typical example of research
dimension which most researchers, especially in the Ghanaian context
lack skills in is qualitative research. Therefore, most people in the
country tend to undermine the importance of such studies.
Political Influence: An incumbent government depending on its
agenda or manifesto may embark on research or an area of research,

34

another or subsequent government may completely halt the research

by withdrawing the allocated funds or they may change the cause of
the research. A military junta or coup dtat may also truncate research
programs. In Africa where wars are common they are also contributing
factors that oppose research.
Thus, in spite of the numerous benefits derived from business research
conducted in Ghana, there are so many problems that are associated with
such activities.
Review Question
1 Discuss any five (5) problems of research conducted in business
institutions in Ghana.

UNIT 1: SECTION 4: CLASSIFICATION OF RESEARCH

Literature on research methods identifies various types of research,
especially in the field of business. In this section we shall look at these
various types of research to enable you classify the one you will conduct
in part fulfillment of your diploma programme. By the end of this section,
you will be able to:
Identify the various types of research in the field of business and
classify them.
Types and Classification of Research
The research that we conduct can be categorized by purpose. If we
classify research by purpose we can describe them as being exploratory,

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descriptive , analytical, or predictive (Collis & Hussey, 2013) added that

most undergraduate project work are exploratory and descriptive while
post graduate research normally are more of analytical or predictive.
1. Exploratory research
We conduct an exploratory research if we investigate a problem that little
or no studies exist on or our aim would be to look or conduct a research
for problem that has not been clearly defined for pattern or ideas rather
than hypothesis testing. An exploratory research can also be defined as an
investigation into a problem or a situation which provides an insight to the
researcher. It is meant to provide details especially where limited
information exists.
2. Descriptive research
This is done with the aim of describing a phenomenon or phenomena as
they exist. The purpose is to identify and obtain information about the
characteristics of a particular phenomenon or problem or population being
studied. For example, we can conduct a study into absentee rate at a
bank or the levels of stress of tutors at an institution.
3. Analytical research
Analytical research goes beyond mere description of characteristics of a
phenomenon to analysis or explaining why that phenomenon is occurring
or happening. This kind of research requires critical thinking skills and
evaluation of facts and information about the phenomenon. Students,
lecturers, medical doctors and even psychologists use analytical research
to discover significant factors or information. For example, there may be
several factors that account for labour turnover in a manufacturing
industry, but by using analytical research it is possible to determine the
most significant or critical of these factors.
4. Predictive research
Whereas analytical research establishes an explanation for what is
happening elsewhere, predictive research, aims to generalize from the
analysis by predicting certain phenomenon on the basis of hypothesized
general relationships. Thus the solution to a problem in a particular study
will be applicable to similar problems elsewhere if the predictive research
can provide a valid robust solution based on a clear understanding of the
relevant causes. Thus predictive research is about forecasting (predicting)
of a likelihood of something happening. The research usually begins with
or leads to finding what will happen given that some baseline is already
known. If we, for example, if we want to find an answer to the question
will increase in allowances of employees at a bank lead to higher
performance? We are doing a predictive research.
Quantitative Versus Qualitative Research
By looking at the approach researchers use in their studies, research can
be classified into quantitative and qualitative research. Traditionally,
research is categorized to two: quantitative and qualitative research.

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Quantitative research is based on the measurement of quantity or

amount. Here a process is expressed or described in terms of one or more
quantities. The result of this research is essentially a number or a set of
numbers. Some of the characteristics of qualitative research/method are:
It is numerical, non-descriptive, applies statistics or mathematics and
uses numbers.
It is an iterative process whereby evidence is evaluated.
The results are often presented in tables and graphs.
It is conclusive
It investigates the what, where and when of decision-making.
Statistics is the most widely used branch of mathematics in quantitative
research. It finds applications not only in physical sciences but also in
economics, social sciences and biology. Quantitative research using
statistical methods often begins with the collection of data based on a
theory or hypothesis or experiment followed by the application of
descriptive or inferential statistical methods.
Unlike quantitative research, qualitative research is difficult to be defined.
However, Creswell (1998) sees qualitative research as:
An inquiry process of understanding based on distinct methodological
traditions of inquiry that explores a social or human problem. The
researcher builds a complex holistic picture, analyses words, reports
detailed views of informants, and conducts the study in a natural setting
(p.15).
Qualitative research takes place in the socio-cultural context of
participants of a study and, therefore, it involves an interaction between
the researcher and the researched. It is designed to enable researchers
understand people and the socio-cultural context within which they live.
Some of the characteristics of qualitative research/method are:
It is non-numerical, descriptive, applies reasoning and uses words.
Its aim is to get the meaning, feelings, and describe the situation.
Qualitative data cannot be graphed.
It is exploratory.
It investigates the why and how of decision-making.
As we have seen, research is basically classified into quantitative and
qualitative research. However, these days some researchers combine
elements of both quantitative and qualitative research in a single study
with the aim of gaining a better understanding of a problem. For example,
they could start gathering either qualitative data or quantitative data
analyze it and based on the initial findings design another instrument to
explore some emerging issues further. Other researchers can gather both
qualitative and quantitative data simultaneously and analyze them. This
type of research is called mixed- methods research. Thus, to classify
research just into qualitative and quantitative could be misleading.

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Applied Research Versus Basic Research

This is a standard classification of research. Applied research is a study
which is often conducted with the aim of applying the finding to address
particular problems. In other words, we conduct applied research with the
aim of improving practices and policies in organizations. For example, you
may conduct research to solve Health and Safety issues you have
identified in your organization. Such a study is considered an applied
research. Action research is a typical example of an applied research.
Basic research, on the other hand, is a study that is more general in
nature, and conducted basically to improve our understanding of
phenomena or problem. The aim is not to solve existing problems, as it
happens in applied research. For example, if you conduct a study to
identify the causes of absenteeism among staff in a business organization,
you are conducting a basic research. The findings of such a study could
help to understand the causes of absenteeism among the staff and could
have implications for policies in that organization. Collis and Hussey
(2013) note that the major aim of a basic research is the advancement of
knowledge and to build theories after understanding the relationships that
exist between variables in the study.
Deductive and Inductive Research
With regards to deductive research it is a study in which we develop
concepts or theories and test them by empirical observations. Thus
particular instances are deduced from general inferences. When we
mention deductive methods, we are referring to moving from general to
specific or to the particular. For example, we read about theories of
motivation and test them to see how they affect performance among the
staff in your business organizations, we are conducting a deductive
research.
On the other hand, if we conduct a study to develop a theory from the
observation of empirical reality (Collis & Hussey, 2013), we are conducting
an inductive research. Thus more general inferences are deduced from
particular instances. When we mention deductive methods, we mean
moving from particular to general. For example, you observe that
production levels go down after, say, every four hours of every shift, it is
possible for you to conclude that production levels in your business
organization vary with the length of time worked.
Review Questions
1 Distinguish between the following:
a Quantitative and qualitative research
b Deductive and inductive research
c Applied research and basic research
2 State and explain either any four (4) features of qualitative or
quantitative research.

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UNIT 1: SECTION 5: AN OVERVIEW OF A PROJECT WORK

Introduction
Every institution has it house style when it comes to presentation of
projects or report. At University of Education, Winneba, you will be
expected to categorise your research project into either five or six
chapters depending on the data sets you gather. If for instance you use
only a questionnaire or interview schedule for data collection, you can
present and analyse the data in chapter one- chapter four. However you
using two or more instrument for data collection you can decide to
present the data in one chapter and analysis and discuss them in another
chapter implying your study would have six chapters. However, most
research which are conducted at undergraduate level are often classified
into five chapters. By the end of this section, you will be able to:
Provide an overview of the project work you will conduct in part
fulfillment of your diploma programme.
Explain the main features of the research project you will conduct in
part fulfillment of your research programme.
Overview of Research Project
Let us now look at what goes into each of the chapters of a project work.
Chapter one: introduction
This is the introductory aspects of your research project and it has many
features.
Background to the study: this normally sets the context of the study. It
normally provide general information about the problem under
investigation .one important thing about the background to a study is
that it should generate and sustain the interest of the readers. It should
make them want to continue to lead your research report
Problem statement as we said in Unit 2 Section 2, problem statement is
one of the most important features of any research report. If there is no
problem then there is no need for the study. In this aspect of the report,
you have to justify the need for your research into the problem you
have identified what prompted you to consider the topic for
investigation should be discussed.
Purpose or aim of the study: what you intend to achieve through your
study is its purpose.
Objectives of the study: These are the purpose of your study broken
down into achievable bits. They are a series of statements showing
how the purpose of the study could be achieved.
Research questions and/ or hypotheses: The questions or hypotheses
that you seek to answer through your study.

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Significance of the study: How the findings of your study could be used
should be stated.
Delimitation of the study: The parameter of the investigation has to be
established. Issues that could be covered include the setting of the
study, the participants, and methods for data collection.
Your chapter one ends with the presentation of the overview of the
study. The overview of the study is the summary of what each chapter
contains. It begins with phrases such as chapter one focused on the
background to the study, the statement of the problem and so on.

Chapter Two: Review of Related Literature:

Reviewing related materials is very significant in any research work. The
purpose of reviewing literature and the relevant issues are discussed in
Unit 3, Section 1. In general, you will be expected to do theoretical review
(theories that forms the basis of your work) and empirical review (review
current research findings that are relevant to your study).
Chapter Three: Methodology
This is a very significant aspect of your research project. If the
methodology you use in your study is inappropriate, it could be affect the
validity of your findings negatively. In writing the methodology chapter
you will be required to:
Choose a research design (a case study, action research, a descriptive
survey,etc) and justify its choice.
Indicate where you are conducting the study and justify the choice of
the place for the study.
Indicate the population of the study.
Indicate the sample for the study (the number that would be taken
from the population for the study, where necessary) and discuss the
techniques you used for selecting the sample.
Indicate the instruments you used for data collection, justify its/their
choice, strengths and weaknesses as well as how you designed it/them.
Discuss how you established the validity and reliability of the
instrument (if you used a semi-structured instrument in a quantitative
study) or appropriateness of the instrument (if you used an open-ended
instrument in a qualitative study)
Explain the procedure for data collection and analysis and discussed
the ethical issues relating to your study.
As you can see, the methodology chapter is a detailed and very significant
aspect of you research.
Chapter 4: Data Presentation, Analysis and Discussion
In this chapter, you will present your raw data or findings, and interprete
them. The way you present the findings will depend on the kind of data
you collect. For example, if you gather basic quantitative data, you can
present your findings in simple frequency tables and if you collect data

34

using an interview schedule, you can present the finding in themes. In

analysing and discussing your findings, you will be expected to relate your
them to the relevant literature, especially those you reviewed in chapter
two.
Chapter 5: Summary of Findings, Conclusions and
Recommendations
This is the final chapter of your research project. In this chapter, you will
summarise the key findings of your study, discuss the limitations of the
study, indicate the conclusions drawn the study and make
recommendations for the possible improvement of practices. Your
recommendations will be based on your findings. You will also be expected
to identify areas for further or future research.
Also, as part of your research project report, you will be required to:

List all the references/bibliographies in the text. These are materials

that you use in the text or the report itself, whether cited or not.
Attach appendices to the study. These are materials relating to the
study, but which would make the body of the study bulk. Appendices
include covers letters, the sample of the instruments you used for data
collection, list of companies and even tables.
Write the abstract of the study. The abstract is the overview or
summary of the study, usually not more than one A-4 page. The
abstract highlights:
The purpose of the study;
The research design you used;
The participants and how they were sampled;
The instruments used for the data collection;
How the data collected was analysed; and
Some major findings, conclusions and recommendations.

Your abstract findings must be as brief as possible and should not contain
any paragraph. Also, you will be expected to present the abstract on the
page just before the chapter one of your study.

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UNIT 1: SECTION 6: THE RESEARCH PROPOSAL

Introduction
You are welcome to this section which focuses on research proposal
writing. Specifically, you will consider the meaning of research proposal,
its relevance as well as its unique features. It is imperative that you spend
an adequate or reasonable amount of time reading this section since it is
the foundation upon which your actual research is built. Once you lay a
strong foundation for your research, you are assured of its stability it can
withstand any storm! By the end of this section, you will be able to:
Explain the meaning of research proposal;
Identify the importance of research proposal; and
Describe the key features of a good proposal.
What is a Research Proposal?
When are you assigned a supervisor, he/she will expect you to write a
proposal for the research you intend conducting. This is absolutely crucial
since it offers you the opportunity to present arguments to convince your
supervisor or funding agencies of the general relevance and feasibility of
your proposed research.
If one wants to build a good or strong house, he/she first designs the
building structure and this helps the builders to know what to do at any
point in time. Likewise, before you start your research endeavour, you are
supposed to plan it. A research proposal is thus a written plan for a study.
It:
Spells out in detail what the researcher intends to do;
Permits others to learn about the intended research;
Offers suggestions for improving the study;
It helps the researcher to clarify what needs to be done, and
Aims to avoid unintentional pitfalls or unknown problems.
(Henn, Weinstein & Foard, 2006:257)

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Generally, a research proposal highlights the justifications for the study,

the purpose/s and objectives, research questions or hypotheses, the
conceptual framework guiding the study, the research approach as well as
the practical organisation of the study. When writing your research
proposal it is important for you to justify all the choices you make with
regard to the study.
Importance of Research Proposal
The research proposal can serve many useful functions, some of which are
presented below:
It helps you to think out the research project you are about to
undertake and predict any difficulties that might arise.
If you are not quite sure what the focus of your research will be, the
research proposal can offer you the opportunity to explore options.
It can be effective starting place to discuss projects with your
supervisor, especially if he/she is initially skeptical about your project.
Once you have begun your research project, a research proposal can
help you to remain on track and can also remind you why you started
the project in the first place!
Rereading the initial research proposal, especially its significance can
reenergize the project or help you to refocus in an effective manner.
Writing the Background of Your Research Proposal
Before you start writing you research proposal you should have a clear
researchable topic. Your research proposal starts with an introduction,
which provides background information on the topic you are investigating.
The introduction discusses broader issues about the topic: these are later
narrowed down to the statement of the research problem. The background
information of your proposal should be captivating and generate readers
interest in the topic under investigation. It should tell the readers why the
topic is interesting and important to be studied.
Statement of the Problem
In this section of your proposal, the broad background discussion is
narrowed down to highlight the problem that calls for the research. Your
research problem should be carefully and clearly stated since supervisors
or examiners often use this section to determine whether there is the
need for the study or not. The reader simply needs to know the issue or
concern that leads to the need for your study (Creswell, 2008: 76). When
writing this section of your proposal, it is important that you:
State the problem either in a sentence or a couple of sentences. This is
followed by the presentation of arguments or reasons to justify the
study.
Present the arguments in several paragraphs.
State clearly why you have chosen to investigate the phenomenon. The
relevance of a study could be justified by citing evidence from:
Other researchers and experts as reported in the literature.
Experiences others have had in the workplace.
Personal experience.

34

(Creswell, 2008:76)
Describe the problem as it pertains in the place you are conducting the
study. For example, if you decide to conduct the study in Company A, it is
importance you tell readers what is happening in that company which is
why you want to conduct your study there.
If you want to justify your study, it is important that you locate studies
that have addressed your research problem and identify the deficiencies
in them. In other words, the gaps identified in such studies can be used to
establish the importance of your study. There have been several instances
where research projects have been rejected because the authors failed to
justify the relevance of their studies. Therefore, it is important that you
spend reasonable amount of time on this section.
In stating and justifying your research problem, you could ask yourself the
following questions:
Have I identified the specific research problem that I wish to
investigate?
Have I indicated what I intend to do about this problem?
Have I put forward an argument as to why this problem is worthy of
investigation?
(Henn, et al., 2006: 261)

Purpose/s, Objectives and Research Questions/Hypotheses

These features of your proposal should be stated separately. The
conclusion of the discussion of the statement of your research problem
often sets the scene for the statement of the purpose of the study. The
purpose of your study should be:
A concise statement providing a framework to which details are added
later; and
Stated in a sentence or a few sentences, but how the purpose will be
achieved should be explained during the actual study.
The purpose statement is the overall objective or intent of your research
After stating the purpose of the study, you need to indicate its
objectives. The objectives are a series of short statements indicating how
the actual intent of your research (the purpose) will be achieved. In other
words, the objectives are the purpose of your study expressed in simple
clear achievable bits or statements.
The formulation of the research questions or hypotheses that you seek to
answer through your study often follows the statement of the objectives.
The research questions or hypotheses are the questions or postulations
that the main findings of your study are expected to answer. You could

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remind yourself of the following questions when formulating research

questions: Have I asked the specific research questions that I wish to
explore through my research? or formulated hypotheses that I intend to
test in my study?
Significance of the Study
You are expected to outline the significance of your study in this section of
your proposal. Your potential supervisor, institutional Board/Committee
members or, sometimes, admission team of your university, will be
interested in the usability of your research. Your research could be useful
in many ways, including improving professional practice, influencing local
policy, contributing to policy debate, and forming the basis for further
studies in the area, especially if it is a ground-breaking one.
Delimitations of the Study
Delimitations define the parameters of the investigation. They describe
the boundaries that you have set for the study, including the companies
you study, where they are located, the participants, instruments will use.
Delimitations highlight the things you are doing and not doing as well as
why you have chosen to do them or not to do them.
Review of related literature
When writing your research proposal, it is important for you to know what
other researchers have done in relation to your research problem and the
gaps in existing knowledge so that you can situate your work. To do this,
you are required to do an initial reading around the research problem.
The literature review section of your proposal begins with an introduction
which sets the scene for the review. It highlights the focus of the review
the various sections as well as the kind of literature you will review. It is
important to remember that the aim of this review exercise is to develop a
conceptual framework to guide your study. Therefore, it is imperative that
the selected studies for the review are related to the key issues in each of
your research questions or hypotheses. In other words, the key issues in
your research questions or hypotheses should inform your choice of
literature for the review and the sub-headings in the review.
Before you conclude the literature review, summarise your findings and
identify the gaps in the existing knowledge to establish the importance of
your present research.
Methodology
This section is very central in any research. How it is presented in a
proposal depends on the programme that the research is being presented
for. As an undergraduate student, you will be required to cover the
following areas:
Research design (Is it a survey, a case study, an action research, etc.?);
The study area (Where will you conduct the study and why such
place?);

34

The population (Which people are you studying or interested in and

how many are they?;
Sample size and the technique/s you will use to select the sample;
The instrument/s you will use for data collection;
The validity and reliability or appropriateness of the instruments;
Data collection procedure/s; and
How you will analyse the data you will gather.

Anticipated Challenges
In conducting your research, you may encounter challenges at one stage
or another. Some of the challenges may be obvious to you before you
start the research journey, while others unravel during the study. Some of
the challenges encountered in research may be related to resources for
the study, access to participants, and lack of skills to handle data. It is not
enough to highlight the anticipated challenges of your study; how they will
be addressed or managed should also be discussed. Ask yourself the
following questions when writing this section of your proposal:
What challenges am I likely to face in conducting this research?
How will I address or manage these anticipated challenges?
Time-scale
The amount of time you need to devote to the study should be set out in
the proposal. It may be that this is a proposal for a full-time commitment
or for only a few hours in a week. But whichever is the case, the research
proposal must specify the amount of time involved
Setting out time-scale for various aspects of your study helps your
supervisor or research committee to judge the feasibility of the study and
for you to review your progress from time to time.
Budget
During your research project, you might travel to and from the research
setting, purchase books, buy materials for printing your instruments and
final report and so on. If your research is funded by a company or an
agency, you will be required to submit an estimate of those resources for
approval.
References
It is important to acknowledge all the sources of information in the text or
proposal and properly reference them before you submit it to your
supervisor or the board that will examine it. This will enable them consult
the sources for clarification of issues you have presented. Failing to
acknowledge the sources of information for your proposal is unethical and
unacceptable.
Things to Note about Your Research Proposal
When writing your research proposal, you have to ensure that:

34

It is not written in chapters as the case of the final report.

The tenses are in future. This is because you are about to conduct the
study.
Some aspects of the proposal could change when writing the final
report.

Review Questions
a What is a research proposal?
b Explain any five (5) reasons why it is important to development a
proposal when carrying out a research project.

UNIT 2: BASICS OF BUSINESS RESEARCH

In order to state your research topic in a researchable manner and
conduct a rigorous research, you have to understand some basic issues,
including statement of research problem and objectives, formulation of
research questions and/or hypotheses, and what constitute a variable.
These are some of the issues discussed in this unit. By the end of the unit,
you will be able to:
Identify variables in business research;
Explain what a research problem is as well as its sources;

34

State appropriate objectives to guide your research project;

Formulate appropriate research questions and/or hypotheses to guide
your research project;
Explain what constitute a research proposal; and
Establish the delimitation or scope of your intended research project.

UNIT 2: SECTION 1: VARIABLES IN BUSINESS RESEARCH

Introduction
A good researchable topic contains the relevant variables that would be
studied. In the next few sections of this reader, we shall look at many
issues in business research and, in the course of that, we will come across
the term a research problem and its characteristics. In discussing these
issues, we will come across the word variable. In this particular section,
we shall acquaint ourselves with variables in business research. By the
end of the section, you will be able to:
Explain the term variable;

34

Give examples of variables in business research; and

Identify and explain the various types of variables in business research.

What is a Variable?
A variable is defined as anything that has a quantity or quality that varies.
In any given study, you may try to measure (or evaluate) certain elements
that change value depending on certain factors. These are called
variables.
Some variables change from person to person. For example, height is a
variable because it changes from person to person; if everyone in the
world was the same exact height, it wouldn't be a variable. Likewise, IQ
varies from person to person, so it is another variable.
Other variables change across time. For example, a person's level of
anxiety might change depending on the situation or the point in their life
or for another reason. A person's age can be a variable, too: if you
measure someone today and then a month from now, their age has
changed.
Types of Variables
There are several types of variables in business research. We will consider
three types in this aspect of your reader and these are:
Dependent and Independent variables
Extraneous and confounding variable
Continuous and categorical variable
Dependent and Independent Variables
Dependent variable: This is a variable a researcher is interested in. The
changes to the dependent variable are what researchers try to measure
with all their techniques. To reiterate, the independent variable is the
thing over which the researcher has control and is manipulating. The
dependent variable is believed to be dependent on the independent
variable it is the outcome of the independent variable. In marketing, the
results desired are tied to sales revenue. Sales as a dependent variable
can be looked at in many ways, such as sales of a specific doll, sales of a
category like toy cars, overall sales at a particular store, or even sales for
the entire company.
Independent (experimental, manipulated, treatment, grouping)
variable: This is the factor which is measured, manipulated, or selected
by the experimenter to determine its relationship to an observed
phenomenon. An independent variable is believed to affect the dependent
variable. In a research study, independent variables are antecedent
conditions that are presumed to affect a dependent variable. They are
either manipulated by the researcher or are observed by the researcher so
that their values can be related to that of the dependent variable. An
independent variable is the variable that you, the researcher, will

34

manipulate to see if it makes the dependent variable change. The

dependent variable is the outcome.
While there can only be one dependent variable in a study, there may be
multiple independent variables. When the dependent variable is sales
revenue in an example above, the elements of the marketing mix -product, price, promotion and place -- will definitely influence the
dependent variable and can therefore be identified as independent
variables.
Confounding and Extraneous Variables
Variables can also be categorised into confounding and extraneous
variable. Let us now look at each of these categories.
Confounding variable: Sometimes, when you are studying a dependent
variable, your results do not make any sense. For instance, what happens
if people in one group are doing amazingly well while the other groups are
doing about the same. This could be caused by a confounding variable,
defined as interference caused by another variable. Confounding variables
are a specific type of extraneous variable. It is a variable that obscures the
effects of another variable.
Extraneous variable: This is defined as any variable other than the
independent and dependent variable. It is a factor which cannot be
controlled.
Extraneous variable is an independent variable that has not been
controlled. It may or may not influence the results. One way to control an
extraneous variable which might influence the results is to make it a
constant (keep everyone in the study alike on that characteristic). A
confounding variable is a variable that could strongly influence your study,
while extraneous variables are weaker and typically influence your
experiment in a lesser way.
Continuous and Categorical Variables
Variables can also be categorised into continuous and categorical and
each of them is discussed below.
Continuous variable: A continuous variable is one that can take any
value between two numbers. For example, between 62 and 82 inches,
there are a lot of possibilities: one participant might be 64.03891 inches
tall, and another person might be 72.67025 inches tall. And there are
literally millions of other possible heights between 62 and 82 inches. In
general, a continuous variable is one that is measured, not counted.
Examples of continuous variables include weight, temperature, time,
distance, age, - all are continuous variables. For example, a weight of a
boxer can be anywhere on a continuum from 130 to 330 pounds.
Categorical Variable: It is variable that can take on one of a limited, and
usually fixed, number of possible values, thus assigning each individual to

34

a particular group or category. Usually, a categorical variable is an

independent or predictor variable that contains values indicating
membership in one of several possible categories. Examples of categorical
variable include gender (male or female), marital status (married, single,
divorced, widowed), the blood type of a person ( A, B, AB or O), and types
of rock ( igneous, sedimentary or metamorphic).
Review Questions
1 What is a variable in research?
2 Distinguish between the following:
a Dependent and independent variables
b Extraneous and confounding variable
c Continuous and categorical variable

34

UNIT 2: SECTION 2: THE RESEARCH PROBLEM

Every research begins with a problem. As we saw earlier on, without a
problem, there will be no need for research. In this section, we shall look
at the meaning of a problem in research, and sources of research problem.
By the end of the section, you will be able to:
Explain the meaning of research problem;
Identify the sources of research problem; and
Identify the factors that influence the choice of a research problem.
What is a research problem?
The word problem may be defined as a difficulty, an issue, a trouble,
worry or a complication. Thus the word has several meanings or
interpretations. Our countries, regions, institutions/ organizations face
problems on regular basis. Researchers investigate some of these
problems so that they can identify the causes, find solutions to them or
explain the problem better. A research problem is any issue or challenge
that is of concern or interest to the researcher, which calls for
investigation. It is a question that the researcher wants to answer or a
problem he/she would like to solve. You might decide to investigate the
causes of low productivity in your company or lateness among your staff.
These are examples of problems in research. Do you have a problem in
mind that you would like to research into for your diploma or degree
programme? If you have, write it in the space below:

Sources of Research Problems

Now that we have finished discussing what a research problem is, let us
look at the sources of research problems. The word source means a place
or thing from which something originates or can be obtained. By sources
of research problem, we mean places where we can get the problem from.
There are several sources of research problems and some of them are
discussed below.

Your own personal experience as a practitioner: You might have

observed your colleagues working or how your boss/manager works
with his or her subordinates and would like to find more about these
issues. If you do this, your source of your research problem is your
personal experience. As a diploma or first degree student, your
personal experience alone can be a source of research problem.
However, at postgraduate level, it is important that you use literature
to support your personal experience. Ask yourself, what does available
literature say about what I have observed in my company, for
example?
Government policies that are being implemented: These could include
Ghana Investment Promotion policy and the Trade and Investment

34

policy that are under implementation in Ghana. There might be some

issues that are emerging from these policies, which could form the
basis of research.
Journal articles: Some academics and other professionals carry out
research and publish their studies in refereed and non-refereed
journals. You can read some reports and use them as the basis of your
research. Past research are excellent sources of research problems.
Published books: There are so many books in that field of business,
which you can consult when looking for a problem/s. When using books
as sources of your research, it is important you ensure the writer is an
authority in the field. Some writers are not highly recognised and
questions can be raised about how they present ideas.
Suggestions and recommendations in published and unpublished
research projects. Most educational institutions require students to
highlight some areas for further research in the research reports they
submit. You can read some of these project reports when identifying a
research problem.

One advantage of consulting the right sources when identifying a research

problem is that you save yourself a lot of time in thinking about a topic.
The above are some relevant sources of research problems. Can you think
of any other sources? List them below:

We hope you are able to identify some of other sources of research

problems. Good! Now let us look at the factors we have to consider when
choosing a problem for research.
How to Choose a Suitable Research Problem
You might have consulted several sources of research problem and
identified a number of issues. Your next task is settling on one of those
problems. This activity would require you to consider a lot of factors
discussed below:
The problem should be of great interest to you: You can ask yourself
the question: Am I interested in the problem I would like to investigate?
It would take you quiet a reasonable length of time to conduct your
study so having an interest in the topic serves as a motivation to
complete the research.
The problem should be significant: It should be significant to you and
others, especially those in the field in which you are conducting the
study. If your chosen problem is of little importance, some academics
may show little or no interest in supervising it.
The problem should be delineated: It is important for you to consider
the time available to you to complete the research when choosing a

34

problem. Also, you have to consider the depth to which the problem
will be addressed. If you consider a broad area, you might not be able
to conduct a detailed research. You also have to ensure you have
enough money to travel to the study setting and purchase the relevant
materials for the research.
You should be able to gather the relevant information for the research
work: It is important that you make sure access to the target
population be granted when choosing a problem. For example, if you
decide to investigate cyber fraud in a business community, it might
take you a longer time for you to gather data because some people
might not willingly provide certain information. It is, therefore,
advisable to avoid choosing a problem if access to your participants will
be difficult or not be granted.
The problem must also fit into your field of study. For example, if you
are studying business, it would sound interesting if you decide to
investigate, say, teenage pregnancy. Such a study would contribute no
knowledge to business field.

Thus choosing a suitable problem for investigating is quiet demanding and

time-consuming, but a worthwhile exercise, especially if you want to
complete your research successfully.
Review Questions

What problem would you like to investigate for your programme?

Indicate it in the space below.
......................................................................................................................
......................................................................................................................
......................................................................
What factors influenced your choice of the problem? Please indicate it.

Briefly explain the source of the problem you have identified.

34

UNIT 2: SECTION 3: STATEMENT OF PROBLEM, PURPOSE AND

OBJECTIVES OF RESEARCH
Introduction
Every research start with a problem as already noted. This identified
problem must be properly stated before your study could be considered
researchable. Also every research must have a purpose and seek to
achieve some specific objectives. In this section, we shall discuss how to
state a research problem as well as the purpose/s and objectives research.
By the end of the section, you will be able to:
State the problem of your intended research
State the purpose of your intended research project; and
State the objectives of your intended research project.
Stating the Problem of Your Research
After settling on a problem you want to investigate, it is importance that
you convince readers as to why the problem is important to be researched
into. How you state the problem is very crucial since there will be no need
for the study if there is no problem. Without adequately defining the
problem researchers may find themselves going off on a goose chase to
tackle a vague phenomenon trying to deal with symptoms rather than
root causes and wasting time. You can define your problem clearly by
considering the following two keys steps:
1. Provide broad general information about the problem. This activity may
require you to do an initial literature review. If you want to study the

34

performance of managers with various academic qualifications in

company X in Ghana, you might start providing information about the
performance of managers with diverse qualifications in Ghana.
2. The second step will require you to narrow the problem down to
company X where the study will be conducted. It is important you
describe the problem as it occurs in that company. You can do this by
asking yourself the question: why am I conducting the study in
company X? Answering this question will help you situate your
research. There are some general questions you can ask yourself in an
attempt to define your problem.
Ask yourself:

Why am I conducting this study?

What is motivating me to conduct this study?

How did I develop an interest in this topic?

Is it worth conducting this research?

(Kusi, 2012, p.
27)
It is important to ensure that the basis of your argument is your personal
experience or loopholes in previous research findings.
Stating the Purpose of Your Study
The statement of the purpose is very important in every study. It is the
most significant statement in your study and points out its intent
(Creswell, 2008). Without this statement it would be difficult for examiners
to find out whether you have achieved what you intended achieving
through your study. Moreover, how you state the purpose of your study
will inform and influence the choice of a research design and methods for
data collection, among other components of your research.
The purpose statement introduces the study, how data would be collected
and the expected results of your study (Creswell, 2008). Creswell indicates
further that in stating the purpose, it is important to highlight the focus of
the study, its participants as well as its setting (where you intend
conducting the study).
There are some key phrases in the purpose statement that send signals to
your readers as to the type of research you are conducting. For a
quantitative research phrases like .to determine the relationship.
.to find out the extent to which.. and so on are used while phrases
such as ..to explore.., .to investigate, ..to discuss., to find
out/look at . .to examine.. ,to assess are often used when
conducting a qualitative oriented studies.
The following statement is an example of a purpose in a quantitative
research:

34

The purpose of the study is to determine the performance of

managers with various academic qualifications in company x.

Also, an example of a purpose in qualitative research is stated below:

The purpose of the study is to explore the performance of managers

with various academic qualifications at company x.

This purpose statements highlight (1) the focus of the study which is the
performance, (2) the participants of the study the managers, (3) the
setting of the study Company X. One or two statements/sentences
indicating the purpose of study will be appropriate when you are
submitting your research for lower qualifications such as diplomas and
first degrees. The purpose of a study is often followed by the statement of
its objectives, which is discussed next.
Stating the Objectives of Your Study
The objectives of your study are often a series of simple clear statements
indicating how the purpose will be achieved. In stating the objectives, it is
important to ask yourself the question How can I achieve the purpose of
my study? The following are examples of objectives that could be derived
from the purpose stated above.
The study seeks to:
Find out the performance of the managers with postgraduate
qualifications;
Find out the performance of the managers with First Degree
qualifications; and
Find out the performance of the managers with Certificate
qualifications.
The findings of your study must indicate how each of the objectives you
state has been achieved. If some aspect/s of your findings contradict/s the
stated objectives, you can review the objectives (modify some or add new
ones). Remember that until you submit your research to its owners any
aspect of it can be modified.

Review Questions
1 Please indicate the purpose of the study you intend conducting at the
final year of your programme.

..
2 State any three objectives to guide your study.

34

UNIT 2: SECTION 4: RESEARCH QUESTIONS

Introduction
Every research begins with a question or some questions which the
researcher wants to seek answers for. Formulating the relevant
appropriate questions facilitate the research endeavour. On the other
hand, formulating inappropriate questions could make the research
journey, especially data collection very difficult or challenging. In this
section, we shall discuss issues relating to research questions. By the end
of the section, you will be able to:
Explain the meaning of a research question;

34

Identify the characteristics of a good research question.

What is a Research Question?

In chapter one, which is the introductory chapter of your project work you
will be required to formulate some questions that will to guide your study.
Research questions are the questions the researcher seeks to answer
through his or her study. In other words, they are the questions you find
answers to in your research. Developing a good research question is one
of the first critical steps in every research process. The research question,
when appropriately written, will guide the research project and assist in
the construction of a logical argument. Research questions are different
from the items /questions that are contained in the instrument/s you will
use for data collection.
You may formulate more than one research question depending on how
complex your study is or the breadth of your research. If you formulate
good research questions you will have a focus for your research work and
clarify the direction of your investigation no matter the type of research
you are conducting. If you decide to find out the causes of low
productivity in TP company in Accra, for example, you might formulate the
following research questions:

What are the management- related causes of low productivity in the

TP company in Accra?

What are the employee-related causes of low productivity in the

company?
If you have identified a topic for your research, what research questions
do you intend finding answers to. You can note them in the table below:
Research question
one
Research question
two
Research question
three
Note that your research question must be related to the problem you are
investigating.
Characteristics of Good Research
Now that we know what a research question is let us ask ourselves some
basic questions. Are all research questions good or how do we know
whether we have formulated good research questions or not? Good
research questions have the following characteristics:
1. They are specific: a good research question should not be vague. It is
clear or specific. A research question highlights the issues it seeks to
explore and indicate the setting of the study. It helps the researcher to
make decision about the study setting, population and even the
research design to be used.

34

2. They are clear: The question should not be given different

interpretation by the researcher himself /herself and other readers as
well.
3. They should be related to the problem or the phenomenon
being investigated: The basis of the research questions should be
the problem you are investigating. You can ensure this by deriving your
questions from the purpose and objectives of your study.
Appropriate research questions highlight the target group or the
participants of the study: the group you are studying must be highlighted
in the research question. For example, you can formulate the research
question What are the views of the workers of TP bank (Accra) about
customer service? This question points out clearly that data will be
gathered from the staff at the bank.
There are other models for evaluating good research questions, including
the FINER criteria. This criteria is presented in the table below.
F

Feasible:

Adequate number of subject that is

technical expertise affordable time and
money, manageable in scope.
I
Interesting
Getting th answers intrigues investigators,
peers and community
N
Novel
Confirms, refutes or extending previous
findings
E
Ethical
Amenable to a study that institutional
review board would approve
R
Relevant
To scientific knowledge. To future research
and health policy
FINER Criteria for Evaluating Research Questions (Adopted from Surg,
2010, pp. 80)
Review Questions
1 What is a research question?
2 State and explain any four (4) characteristics of a good research
question.

34

UNIT 2: SECTION 5: HYPOTHESES

Introduction
Your research project you will be carrying out could either be guided by a
hypothesis/es or research questions or both. Hypotheses are more often
than not needed in a quantitative research than qualitative studies. In this
section, we shall discuss issues relating to hypotheses in research. By the
end of this section, you will be able to:
Explain the meaning of a hypothesis;
Identify the various kinds of hypothesis;
Identify the characteristics of a good hypothesis; and
Explain the relevance of hypothesis in research.
What is a hypothesis?
Research hypothesis is a tentative and formal predict about the research
problem, two or more variables in the population being studied. The basic
research question should be driven by the hypothesis. In other words,
both research questions and hypotheses have to be developed at the
beginning of the research. A hypotheses id a declarative statement of hoe
you expect the research to turn out. In a way, it is a possible answer to
yurt research question.
Hypotheses are always brief and highlight the variables or suggest
something you can test. They are very common in quantitative research
than qualitative research. When we are testing statistical significance, we
normally state the hypothesis in a null form. The purpose of hypothesis
testing is to make an inference about the population of interest on the
basis of a random sample taken from that population. There are major
classifications of research hypotheses and these are null and alternate
hypothesis. An example of hypothesis:
Ho: There is no significant relationship between customer service staff job
satisfaction and productivity.
A good hypothesis highlights the variables (independent and dependent
variables) that have to be tested, the population and the relationship that
exist between the variables.
Nature of Hypotheses
Hypotheses have different forms. They may be simple or complex. A
simple hypothesis normally makes a prediction about the relationship that
exists between a single independent variable (IV) and a single
independent variable. For example:

34

1. Low employee performance (IV) is associated with low level of

motivation.(DV).
2. Complex hypotheses make prediction between two or more
independent variables and two or more dependent variables. For
example:
3. Technical employees who hold high academic qualification are highly
motivated to take in service training serious are more likely than other
technical staff to maintain standards at work place. Hypotheses can be
stated in diverse ways, let us look at the following examples.
4. Low employee performance is associated with low employee level of
motivation
5. There is a relationship between level of employee performance and low
level of employee motivation.
Directional versus Non directional hypotheses
Directional hypotheses: With directional hypothesis it implies that the
researcher is intellectually committed to a particular outcome or findings.
Researchers who normally use this indicate the expected direction of the
relationship or it nature. For example:
Employees who take continuous professional development seriously do
better in meeting organizational goals.
There is no difference between two groups of variables.
There is no relationship between variable X and variable Y.
Non-directional hypotheses: Researchers normally use or formulate
non-directional hypothesis when little or no theory exist and when the
findings of existing studies are contradictory. Therefore, the researchers
do not take any position or play partiality. In other words, they do not
show the direction of the relationship that exists between variables that
are being tested. For example:
There is no difference in performance between managers with high
academic qualifications and those with low academic qualifications.
Null versus Alternate Hypotheses
When you read research literature, you will come across different types of
hypotheses, but basically, we classify them under null and alternate
hypotheses. A null hypothesis is often represented or denoted by HO ( H
nought or H-null or H-zero) and refers to a general statement or default
position that no relationship exists between two variables that are being
measured.
A null hypothesis is simply a statement saying that you expect no
different in outcomes between groups or that no relationship exist
between them. The given variables are in the hypotheses. Examples of
null hypothesis are as follows:
HO There is no significant relationship between employee performance
and motivational levels.
HO Business managers with lower academic qualification do not
perform differently than those with higher academic qualification.

34

Researchers normally contrast null hypothesis with alternative hypothesis.

The alternate hypothesis suggests that there is a difference between
variables and state or indicate the nature of the difference. Researchers
often formulate alternate hypothesis stating the nature of the differences
should that occur. If after testing the null hypothesis and it is discovered
that the findings are not statistically significant, the null hypothesis can be
rejected and accept the alternative hypothesis notwithstanding the errors
in testing. The following are examples of alternate hypothesis:
H1: There is a significant relationship between employee performance
and motivational levels.
H1: Business managers with lower academic qualifications do perform
differently from those with higher academic qualifications.

Characteristics of good/testable hypotheses

Like research questions, problems and objectives, any good hypothesis
has some characteristics: A hypothesis:
1. Should be simple and to the point. In other words, it should be stated in
simple adequate form.
2. Should be clear and concise; it should be operationally clear.
3. Should be clearly defined. The situation studied should be commonly
accepted and easily communicable among scholars
4. Should be testable. The researcher should be able to gather
information to test them
5. Should be feasible. The researcher should be able to reject it on the
basis of the data collected.
6. Should be based on existing research findings or theory.
7. Should be realistic. The variables should be testable in a reasonable
amount of time.
8. The relationship that exists between variables should be clear.
You can read other research literature for other qualities of a good
hypothesis.
Importance of Research Hypothesis
In research, a hypothesis serves several important functions, some of
which are discussed below. A hypothesis:
1. Guides the direction of the study: Quite frequently one comes
across a situation when the researcher tries to collect all possible
information on which he/she could lay his/her hands on. Later on
he/she may find that only part of could be utilize. Hence, there was an
unnecessary use of resources on trivial concerns. In such a situation,
hypothesis limits what shall be studied and what shall not be studied.
2. Identifies facts that are relevant and those that are not: Who
shall be studied (married couples), in what context they shall be

34

studied (their consumer decision making), and what shall be studied

(their individual perceptions of their roles).
3. Suggests which form of research design is likely to be the most
appropriate: Depending upon the type of hypothesis a decision is
made about the relative appropriateness of different research designs
for the study under consideration. The design could be a survey design,
experimental design, content analysis, and participant observation
study.
4. Provides a framework for reporting the conclusions of the
study: Hypothesis tells the researcher how the data collected in the
study should be analyzed and conclusions presented. In other words,
the data analytical technique/s is/are always clear to the research. Data
analytical techniques for various hypotheses will be discussed in this
book later on.
5. A hypothesis provides tentative explanation of phenomenon and
facilitates the extension of knowledge in a specific research area.
Review Questions
1. What is a hypothesis?
2. With the relevant examples, distinguish between the following:
Directional versus non directional hypothesis
Null versus alternate hypothesis
3. Explain any five (5) importance of hypothesis in research.
UNIT 2 SECTION 6: ESTABLISHING THE SCOPE OR DELIMITATION
OF RESEARCH
Introduction
As a student, you will be required to conduct a research project in part
fulfilment of your diploma or degree programme. You will be expected to
conduct the study alone in with a stipulated period and therefore it is
important that you define the boundaries of your research clearly, looking
at what you can do and cannot do within the period. This section focuses
on how to delimit a research. By the end of this section, you will be able
to:
Explain what constitutes the delimitation or scope of research projects.
Identify the central issues in writing the scope of quantitative research
Identify the central issues in writing the scope of qualitative research.
Scope or Delimitation of a Study: The Meaning
More often than not, students and even researchers are confused over the
difference between scope and delimitation. If you begin to read samples
of research project reports, you will notice that some students sometimes
use the scope of the study, while other use delimitations of the study.
Still, other students use the scope and delimitations of the study.
Whereas the first two headings look appropriate, the last one - the scope
and delimitation of the study- suggest that the words scope and
delimitations are different. However, the two terms are used to mean
one and the same thing. By definition, delimitation is any factor within the
researchers control that may affect external validity. External validity is

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the extent to which the findings of a study can be applied to individuals

and settings beyond those that were studied (Gall et al.,
1996).Delimitations are factors that affect the study over which the
researcher generally does have some degree of control. They describe the
scope of the study or establish parameters or limits for the study.
As we have seen, the terms scope and delimitations are used
interchangeably and applied to both quantitative and qualitative studies.
However, they are presented differently in such studies. Let us now look at
how the terms are applied in both quantitative and qualitative studies.
Establishing the Scope or Delimitation of Quantitative Study
In most cases, when students write the scope of their study, they highlight
two key areas: the geographical boundaries and knowledge aspects. Let
us consider each of these aspects:
1. Geographical boundaries: Every study is delimited in terms of
geographical coverage. The boundaries are the parameters of your
research. For example, if you decide to conduct research into factors
that influence customer satisfaction in business companies in the
Effutu municipality, you will have to:
Indicate the location of Effutu municipality.
The companies that are covered in the study;
The people who will participate in the study.
2. The geographical aspect of your study may look like this:
The study covered only one private businesses in the Effutu
municipality. Management and staff of the companies were considered.
Also, customers who patronize the goods and services of the
companies participated in the study.
Please, write the geographical boundaries of your research in the space
below:

Knowledge aspect: Every study covers a given area of knowledge. The

objectives and research questions or hypotheses are used to direct the
knowledge scope of the study. No single study covers all areas of
knowledge. Similarly, this is no single study that does not open new areas
of quest.
In the knowledge scope of you study, you would have to indicate the
issues you would explore and those you would not explore. In our example
of research into customer satisfaction of goods and services of companies
in the Effutu municipality, you might be able to identify a number of
factors that influence customer satisfaction after reading initial literature.
But, you might not be able to consider all of them in your research
because of some constraints. You would, therefore, have to highlight those

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you want to consider. In your study, the knowledge scope may look like
the following:
There are many factors that influence customer satisfaction of goods and
services of companies. These include A, B, C, D and F. However, in in this
particular research, factors A, B and D will be considered.
You choose to consider, factors A, B and D for some reasons and these
reasons must be stated. You can indicate the knowledge component of
your intended research in the space below:

It is also important for you to note that a research study is delimited in

terms of time. Time constraint may influence the outcome of a study if not
well managed.
We have just looked at the central issues that are often highlighted by
students when writing the scope of their studies. Apart from those issues,
generally, the scope of a study covers issues to be studied, sets limits on
the sample size, indicates the extent of the geographic region from which
data are collected, presents response formats included in data-collecting
instruments, or the time frame for the study, which makes the study
feasible for the researcher.
The Scope or Delimitations in Qualitative Research
The scope and delimitations are terms that are also applicable to
qualitative studies. In qualitative studies, the geographical and knowledge
aspects are highlighted just like quantitative studies. However, in
qualitative studies, researchers tend to provide a detailed information on
the setting or the socio-cultural context of the participants.
The context in which qualitative studies take place must be described
either in chapter one (before literature review) or under the case
selection section in the methodology chapter. Describing the setting of
your study will enable readers form mental pictures of the place as they
read the study they will feel as if they are there! Creswell (2008)
indicates that in providing detailed information, description can transport
the reader to a research site or help the reader visualize a person (p.225).
The description covers many issues including:
The nature of political administration of the area;
The ethnic group/s or people living in the area as well as their
languages and occupations;
The structure of educational system (including the number and kinds of
schools and institutions in the area), and;
The geographical locations and landmarks.

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You may attach a map highlighting the setting of the study to the
appendices to enable readers see where the study was conducted.
Review Question
1 What is the meaning of delimitation in research?
2 Discuss any four (4) issues that you would consider in an attempt to
delimit your research project.