Conclusion

T h e considerations of this report, although based on certain

limiting assumptions, point the way to explanations of the
wide range of coke displacement ratios obtained in blast furnaces by the use of blast additives. T h e potential improvements
in blast furnace economics can be affected appreciably by the
influence of the chosen furnace operating conditions on the
effect of the additives. I t is hoped that the economic value
of obtaining much more commercial data on the effect of
additives, particularly a t limiting furnace conditions, is
emphasized by this discussion.
literature Cited
(1) AIME Blast Furnace, Coke Oven, and Ra\\ hlaterials Conf.,
panel discussion, Philadelphia, Pa., April 1961, AZ,ME Proc. 20,
540-604 (1961).
(2) Baily, T. F., Iron Age 184, 104-5 (July 16, 1959).
( 3 ) Burnside, H. E. W., Esso Research and Engineering Co., Linden, N. J., unpublished commercial blast furnace data.
(4) Chemical Engineers Handbook, J. H. Perry. Ed., 3rd ed.,
p. 220, McGraw-Hill, hew York, 1950.

(5) Knepper, W. A., Woolf, P. L., Sanders, Am. Iron & Steel
Inst. Meeting, Chicago, Ill., September 1961.
(6) Kobrin, C. L., Iron Age 187, 107-9 (Feb. 9, 1961).
(7) Negomir, J. M., Pearson, E. F., Assoc. Iron & Steel Engrs.
Meeting, Cleveland, Ohio, September 1960.
(8) Ostrowski, E. J., Melcher, N. B., Kesler, G. J., J . Metals
13, 25-30 (January 1961).
(9) Rombough, LV. R., AIME Blast Furnace, Coke Oven, and
Raw Materials Conference, Philadelphia, Pa., 1961.
(10) Rossini, F. D., Pitzer, K. S., .4rnett. R. L., Braun, R. M.,
Pimentel, G. C., Selected Values of Physical and Thermodynamic Properties of Hydrocarbons and Related Compounds,
Comprising the Tables of the American Petroleum Institute
Research Project No. 44 (extant as of Dec. 31, 1952), pp. 464,
557-610, Carnegie Press, Pittsburgh, Pa., 1953.
(11) Taylor. H. C., Rombough, W. R., .4nn. Joint Meeting,
Eastern and [Vestern States Blast Furnace and Coke Oven
Assoc., Pittsburgh, Pa., No\ ember 1961.
RECEIVED
for review April 5, 1962
A C C E P T E D November 9, 1962
Symposium on Process Metallurgy, Division of Industrial and
Engineering Chemistry, 141st Meeting, ACS, Washington, D. C.,
March 1962.

APPLICATION OF HEAT-TRANSFER
PRINCIPLES T O A METALLURGICAL
PROCESS PROBLEM
Relationsh$ of Ladle Preheating t o Temperature Losses
W.

M . D A N V E R , J.

K. M c C A U L E Y , A N D F . C. L A N G E N B E R G

Crucible Steel Co. of America, Pittsburgh 73, Pa.

The chemical engineer plays an important role in process research and development activities in the steel
industry. The use of material and energy balances, the concepts of unit operations, and the principles of
heat and mass transfer are being applied to an increasing number of metallurgical process problems. This
paper presents a simple example of the application of heat-transfer principles to a metallurgical process
problem. The conclusions are applicable to many other high-temperature heat-transfer studies.

all the steel made in the United States is

in open-hearth furnaces, electric furnaces, or
oxygen converters. The metal is removed or tapped from the
furnace into a refractory-lined ladle. When the ladle is filled,
it is transported to the pouring-pit platform and the metal is
poured or teemed into molds. The quality of steel is strongly
influenced by the temperature of the liquid metal entering the
ingot molds. Investigators have shown that the as-cast
qrain size is related to the pouring or teeming temperature;
transverse ingot cracks have been traced to heats poured too
rapidly a t high temperature; and ingots poured cold often
exhibit shell or double skin. Production yields also suffer when
the metal cools excessively in the ladle. I n such cases. part of
the molten metal freezes in the ladle, and the resulting skulls
represent lost production and increased operating cost. Therefore, the temperature losses during tapping. holding the
ladle, and teeming must be carefully controlled. This requires accurate temperature measurements in the metal in the
range of 2600 to 3200 F. and a knowledge of the heat losses
betlreen the furnace and molds.
RACTICALLY

p melted

Heat loss Calculation

The calculation described here \vas undertaken to obtain a
relationship between ladle preheating and steel temperature
drop. Heat is lost from steel during tapping, holding, and
teeming by the three mechanism-radiation, convection, and
conduction. Radiation and convection occur a t the exposed
liquid surface? and conduction takes place at the ladle brickmetal interface. The exact values of these heat losses are
difficult to calculate; holiever, it is possible to show the
relative importance of the individual mechanisms and the
effect of ladle preheating on them.
Radiation and convection losses subtract heat from steel
during tapping, but neither is a function of ladle preheating.
The resulting steel temperature drop from these sources is
comparative1)- small for large quantities of steel. -4fter tapping, the slzg or oxide layer, which is present on liquid steel,
tends to minimize the temperature drop created by radiation
and convection losses. I n fact, most of the heat loss from the
dark slag cover is supplied by the fusion and sensible heat of
this material and not the steel.
VOL. 2

NO.

JANUARY

1963

11

Table 1. Physical Properties of Fire Clay Brick

Thermal
Heat
Conductivity,
Capacity,
Thermal
Temp.,
B.t.u./Hr./
Density,
B.tbu./Lb./
Dz$kivzty,
' F.
Ft./' F.
Lb./Cu. Ft.
F.
Sq. Ft./Hr.
0
0 546
130
0.190
0 0214
400
0 582
126
0 206
fl 0224
800
0 634
124
0 222
0 0231
1200
0 685
121
0 238
0 0237
1600
0 734
119
0 254
0 0242
2000
0 781
117
0 269
0 0248
2400
0.825
115
0.285
0.0252
2800
0.870
113
0,301
0.0256

Ladles are lined with refractory brick, and conduction occurs

a t the metal-brick interface for the duration of contact. The
rate of heat extraction is influenced by ladle preheating.
Extensive theoretical studies have been made in this area.
Samways et al. ( 5 ) , and Henzel and Keverian
Paschkis
(3) have published papers on this subject. Their results came
from general conduction equations such as those shown below.

(4,

0,

kA(T, - T , )

[('G)
+

Figure 1.

Graphical method of Dusinberre

where k = average thermal conductivity between T I and T2

A = area normal to heat flow
Ax = distance as shown
4s = time increment
T = temperature
T' = temperature after 40
~ 2 - 2 ' = average density between Tz and Tz'
C+Z' = average heat capacity between T z and Tz'
After the terms are rearranged and combined, the heat
balance reduces to the equation
=

7-2'

2(&)"']

where
heat flow into a cylindrical surface
Q, = heat flow into a flat surface
k = thermal conductivity of brick
A = brick surface area, normal to heat flow
Ti = brick temperature prior to contact
T , = brick surface temperature after metal contact
e = time of metal-brick contact
CY = thermal diffusivity of brick
R = radius of vessel

Qc =

These equations were developed on the assumption that the

thermal properties of the conducting material (in this case,
ladle brick) are constant or independent of temperature.
This assumption is not true, and in all the references mentioned
a n average value of k was used. Since Q and k are directly
related, this is a source of appreciable error in high temperature problems.
Table I shows the variation in the thermal and physical
properties of fire clay. Adams and Taylor ( 7 ) recognized the
problem of the variable properties. They pointed out that for
sand, the density and specific heat vary only slightly with
temperature, but the effective value for thermal conductivity
to be used in the general equations for heat conduction must be
obtained experimentally.
The same experimental approach could be adapted to the
ladle-brick problem to obtain a n effective k value; however,
the following simpler approach was used to obtain the same
end. The Dusinberre method ( 2 ) , which is valid for temperature-dependent properties, was used to calculate the
temperature profile in ladle brick.
Briefly, the Dusinberre method of obtaining a temperature
profile in a nonhomogeneous conducting body such as ladle
brick involves first dividing the solid into equal slices (Figure 1).
If heat flows, as shown, in the x direction only, a heat balance
on the solid faced by points ABCD provides the following basic
equation :

12

l & E C PROCESS DESIGN AND DEVELOPMENT

7-2

x1- ?

+ x3-

These X's can be looked upon as correction factors that are

added to T2 to find the new temperature, Tz', reached in plane
EF after finite time e.
Actually,

and

For a particular conducting medium, it is convenient to

develop a plot of X a s a function of temperature. The development requires great patience. The method is outlined by
Dusinberre ( 2 ) . The plot derived for ladle brick is shown in
Figure 2. The time increment, Ae, and distance, 4x, for this
plot are 6 minutes and 1 inch, respectively.
From this plot, correction factors were obtained and a temperature profile curve was calculated for ladle brick in contact
with steel for one hour. Table I1 is the work sheet used.
A sample calculation of the temperature after contact time
448 or 0.4 hour and at point 2 inches from interface illustrates
use of the correction chart. The work sheet (Table 11) shows
that a t time 3AO or 0.3 hour temperatures T I , T z , and T3
equal 2700', 1580, and 681' F., respectively. At these
points on the correction chart, or more specifically a t T , =
1580 and T, = 2700. ,x
was found to equal 428; likewise,
= -293.
Hence,
a t T , = 1580 and T , = 681, x,,
Tz'
T?'

7-2

+ XI-2 +

1580

'Y-2

+ 428 + (-293)

1715OF.

where T 2 is the temperature a t point 2 after time 3AO or 0.3

hour, and T2' is the temperature at point 2 after 448 or 0.4
hour.
The temperature profile obtained from the results of the work
sheet is shown in Figure 3. From such a profile and a knowledge of the physical dimensions of a 165-ton Crucible ladle,
the heat absorbed by the bricks during 1 hour of steel contact was calculated. This heat pickup was then used in the
general conduction equations and an effective value of thermal conductivity \vas calculated to be 0.832 B.t.u/hr./ft./' F

Table II.

e H2.

7 :, F.,
at
x = 0

0.1

2700
2700

02

2700

0.3

2700

0.4

2700

0.5

2700

0.6

2700

0.7

2700

0.8

2700

0.9

2700

T2,
O F., at

T3,
F., at

7-4

Profile Developed from Correction Chart

TK,
F., at

x = 5

x = 6

x = 7

x = 8

x = Y

x =

Inches
150
150

Inches
150
150

Inches
150
150

Inches
150
150

Inchcs
150
150

Inches
150
150

Inches
150
150

150

150

150

150

150

150

150

150

150

150
3
0
153
9

150

150

150

150

150

150

150

150

150
3
0
153
3
0
156
12

150

150

150

150

150

150

150

150
3
0
153
3
0
156
5
-3
158
6
-3
161
12
-3
170

150

150

150

150

150

150

150
3
0
153
3
0
156

150

150

150

150

150

150

150

150

150

150

153

150

150

150

150

156

153

150

150

150

150

156

153

150

150

150

150

x = 3

162
21
-1
182
37
-6
213
56
- 12
257
62
- 25
294
62
- 25
331

This value is 15y0 above the average value for k , and it

approaches the value of k a t the brick-steel interface temperature. I n this case the effective k is '97% of the k a t the
interface temperature. I t would be interesting to see if a
general relationship could be developed for this type of hightemperature problem-Le.
kerf = constant (kIrnterrace

but, unfortunately, no other data are available. T h e experimental data obtained by Adams are not applicable because his

Xmn= -624

Xmn= -312

,-,Xmn= 0

2500
LL
0 -

TB,
F., at

x = 4

x = 2

Ts,
F., at

Inch
Inches
Inches
Inches
150
150
150
150
775n
200a
150a
150
761
197
16
- 143
- 16
0
1393
381
106
150
505
69
6
365
-318
- 65
-6
0
1580
681
229
156
324
150
25
428
- 293
-140
- 25
0
1715
865
354
181
312
56
381
181
-281
-162
-6
- 53
1815
1015
482
231
337
293
181
84
-268
-168
-25
-19
1884
1140
638
296
310
265
175
122
-250
-162
-131
- 37
1944
1243
682
381
287
259
200
103
-234
-197
-97
50
1997
130.5
785
434
265
250
181
119
234
-172
-109
-59
2028
1383
857
454
256
234
187
125
220
-172
-125
62
2064
1445
557
919
b Corrections obtained from correction chart.

x = 7

2700
Ajproximated.

T7 ,
F., at

F., at

1.o

TB,

' F., at

2000

-1
167
19
-6
179
25
-3
201
62
-12
251

'

Table 111.

Initial
Ladle
TzmP.,
F.
50
100
150
1000

10 x =

12 x = 13
Inches
Inches
150
150
150
150

17 x =

Heat Absorbed by Fire Clay Brick

Heat (108 B.t.u.) Absorbed by Brick after

75 min.
30 min.
60 min.
4.55
4.47
4.40
2.92

3.25
3.18
3.14
2.09

6.33
6.20
6.07
4.05

sand casting contained water, an additional problem not

encountered with ladle brick.
By using the effective value of 0.832 B.t.u./hr./ft./' F. in
the general conduction equation, the heat pickup by the
brick shown in Table I11 was calculated. Table I V lists the
temperature drop in 165 tons of steel corresponding to the
heat values in Table 111.

I-

1500
3
L

e
$

1000

b-

500

loolOO 500
Figure 2.

1000
1500
2000
T e m p e r a t u r e , T m , OF:

2500

Figure 3. Temperature profile in ladle

brick

Temperature correction chart for ladle brick

= 0 . 5 4 6 B.t.u./hr./ft./O F.
= 130 Ib./cu. foot
C p = 0.1 95 B.t.u./lb./O F. a t datum temperature of 100' F.
k

0 ' 0

2
4 6
1'0 1l2'
Distance from hlolten Stee! Brick Interface, X , Inches

VOL. 2

NO.

JANUARY

1 9 6 3

13

The values in Table IV represent the temperature drop of

330,000 pounds of steel if that quantity were instantaneously

placed in a ladle and then permitted to remain there for 15, 30,
or 60 minutes. Such is not the case in actual practice. Actually, it requires approximately 60 minutes total time to tap,
hold, and completely teem 330,000 pounds of steel; and during
this time, two variables, the weight of steel in the ladle and the
exposed brick area, are constantly changing. These variables
were treated as constant for this computation. Consequently,
Table I V is presented not as the expected temperature drop
of the steel during tapping and teeming, but as a qualitative
illustration of the relationship between steel-temperature drop
and ladle preheating. For example, preheating a ladle to
150 F. does not retard steel heat loss; preheating to over
1000 F. retards it significantly. Table IV also shows that
the rate of temperature drop is greatest during the first minutes
of holding time.
Conclusions

Preheating large ladles does not affect steel temperature

drop during teeming unless the preheating is of considerable
magnitude (over 1000 O F.).
The rate of conductive heat loss from steel is greatest during
the first minutes of steel-brick contact.
General conduction equations and relationships can be
applied to the ladle problem, even though the physical and
thermal properties of the brick change with temperature, if the
proper k value is used.
The thermal conductivity value, k , which gave the best
heat-loss estimation, was not estimated a t a n average temperatcold faee)//2. Instead it w-as evaluated
ture-i.e., (that
near the hot-face temperature.

Table IV.

Relationship between Steel Tempercrture Drop and

ladle Preheating

Initial
Ladle
Tcmp.,
F .
50
100
150
1000

Temp. Drop, F., in Steel after

75 min.
30 min.
60 min.

55
54

53
35

77
75
74
49

107
104
102
68

Acknowledgment

The authors express appreciation to the Crucible Steel Co.

of America for permission to publish this paper.
literature Cited
(1) Adams, C. M., Jr., Taylor, H. F., Trans. Am. Foundrymens
Sod. 65, 170-6 (1957).
( 2 ) Dusinberre, G. M., Numerical Analysis of Heat Flow,
pp. 186-97, McGraw-Hill, New York, 1949.
( 3 ) Henzel, J. G.. Jr.. Keverian. J., Ladle Temperature Loss.
Electric Furnace Conference, Pittsburgh, Pa.?Dec. 6-8, 1961.
(4) Paschkis, V., Tranr. Am. Foundrymens SOP,64, 565-76 (1956).
(5) Samways, N. L., Dancy, T. E., Li, K., Halapatz. J., .4nalysis
of Factors Affecting Temperature Drop between Tapping and
Teeming in Steelmaking, International Symposium on the
Physical Chemistry of Process Metallurgy, Pittsburgh, Pa..
April 27 to May 1, 1959.
\

RECEIVED
for review May 22, 1961
ACCEPTED
May 14, 1962
Division of Industrial and Engineering Chemistry, 141st Meeting,
ACS, Washington, D. C., March 1962.

THE SIGNIFICANCE OF FLUID DYNAMICS

IN THE BLAST FURNACE STACK
J. C. A G A R W A L A N D W . L. D A V I S , J R .
Applied Research Laboratory, United States Steel Gorp., Monroeuille, Pa.

To improve the productivity and thermal and chemical efficiency of the blast furnace process, it is important
to establish favorable fluid-flow characteristics in the blast furnace stack. These characteristics are related
to the permeability of the burden m a t e r i a l s q r e , coke, and limestone-within
the stack, the particle size
and distribution of solids, and gas velocity, density, viscosity, pressure, and temperature. The application
of chemical engineering techniques and process engineering analysis indicated that considerable improvement in blast furnace operation would result from various procedures for beneficiating the burden materials.
The chemical engineering aspects of beneficiation processes such as sintering, pelletizing, and briquetting are
discussed, together with the resulting improvements in fluid-flow characteristics and blast furnace performance.

HE BLAST FURNACE

is a countercurrent, packed-bed reactor

Tin which the burden materials are heated, dried, calcined,

reduced, smelted, and partly refined by the hot ascending gases
generated by the combustion of coke with preheated air.
There has recently been a great leap forward in blast-furnace
technology, which is evidenced by a n approximately twofold
increase in production rate for some furnaces and a one-third
decrease in coke consumption per ton of molten pig iron or
hot metal. These spectacular improvements could not have
14

I & E C PROCESS D E S I G N AND D E V E L O P M E N T

been achieved without more uniform gas flow and gas-solids

contact in the stack. The efficient utilization of the reducing
gases and heat generated in the furnace depends upon the
intimacy and uniformity of gas-solid contact. The amount of
reducing gases and heat depends upon the moles of oxygen
(contained in the air blast) blown into the furnace in a unit
of time, usually referred to as the wind rate. The two factors,
gas-solid contact and wind rate, determine the productivity
and efficiency of the furnace. .4ccordingly. attempts to apply