439

Canadian Metallurgical Quarterly, Vol 42, No 4 pp 439-446, 2003

Canadian Institute of Mining, Metallurgy and Petroleum
Published by Canadian Institute of Mining, Metallurgy and Petroleum
Printed in Canada. All rights reserved

ENERGY AND EXERGY ANALYSIS OF A LADLE FURNACE

. AMDALI1 and M. TUN2
1
Development Bank of Turkey,
Necatibey Cad., No:98, Bakanlklar, 06100 Ankara, Turkey,
2
Yeditepe University, Engineering Faculty,
26 Agustos Yerles imi, Kaysdag Cad., 81120 Kaysdag, Istanbul, Turkey

(Received September, 2002; in revised form June, 2003)

Abstract In this work, the second law of thermodynamics is applied to the industrial ladle furnace
(LF) with a capacity of 55-57 tons of melted steel to evaluate the physical exergy during the steel production process. A computer algorithm is developed to carry out the exergy analysis to the LF. The exergy efficiency of the ladle furnace is determined. As a result, loss exergy, exergies going into and out of
the LF during the steel production process are identified and the ways of minimizing these losses in practice are discussed.
Rsum Dans ce travail, la seconde loi de la thermodynamique est applique au four industriel
poche de coule (LF) ayant une capacit de 55-57 tonnes dacier fondu, pour valuer lexergie physiques
lors du procd de production dacier. On dveloppe un algorithme dordinateur pour effectuer lanalyse
dexergie de la LF. Le rendement dexergie du four poche de coule est dtermin. Comme rsultats,
on identifie perte dexergie, exergies entrant la LF et en sortant lors du procd de production dacier
et lon discute des faons de minimiser ces pertes en pratique.

INTRODUCTION
Conventional energy analysis applies the first law of thermodynamics to evaluate energy efficiencies. The first law
embodies the principle of energy conservation. Energy is
neither created nor destroyed in a physical or chemical
process from the first law; energy is changed merely from
one form to another. However, an approach to energy efficiency based on the first and second laws of thermodynamics indicates the extent to which the capacity of an energy
source to perform useful work has been retained.
In this study an exergy analysis is carried out in the ladle
furnace (LF) which is used as a secondary metallurgical
process in steel production. Loss exergy, exergies going into
and out of the LF are identified and exergy efficiency of the
system is determined.

PROCESS OF STEEL PRODUCTION IN A

LADLE FURNACE
The ladle refiner can be called the second most important step
in steelmaking because arc furnaces can now be operated at
the highest possible power levels from start to tap. In addition

to its steel refining capabilities, the ladle furnace acts as a

buffer between the primary melting vessel and the continuous
caster to get steel at the correct temperature, chemical composition and time to the caster for optimum sequencing [1].
Special steel production requires profound knowledge of
all the processes and phenomena from the steel melting to
the manufacturing and use of the final product. Thus it is
extremely important to keep in mind the close relations of
the process to the final steel properties [2].
The production steps of steel in a LF which are called
secondary metallurgical procedures, are given in the following [3,4]:
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.

deoxidation,
alloying,
removing of impurities,
homogenizing,
removing of sulfur,
adjusting temperature of casting and
casting.

Chemical reactions in the above steps occur between

the components of liquid steel. Some of these reactions are
CANADIAN METALLURGICAL QUARTERLY

440

. AMDALI and M. TUN

listed below as standard reactions. The mass balance of the

LF which is carried out according to the chemical reactions
is given in Table I [5]. This balance is formed based on the
law of conservation of mass in Equations 1 to 1b by using a
computer program [6,7]:
Smin = Smex

(1)

where

Smin = mLiq-st + mFr - man + mMe - man

+ mFr - sil + mLCFr - Cr + mHCFr - Cr + mAl
(1a)

+mFr - bor + msul + mC + mLim + mFls

+ mMgO + mAl2O3 + mElctr + mAr + mOxy
Smex = mLiq-st + mDst + mSlg + mSgas + mAr
2[Fe] + 3[O]
[Fe] + [O]
[C] + [O]
[Si] + 2[O]
[Mn] +[O]
2[P] + 5[O]
2[Cr] + 3[O]
(CaO) + [S]
(CaCO3)

(1b)

[Fe2O3]
[FeO]
CO(g)
[SiO2]
[MnO]
[P2O5]
[Cr2O3]
(CaS) + [O]
(CaO) + CO2(g)

2[Al] + 3[O]
[Ca] + [O]
2[B] + 3[O]

[Al2O3]
(CaO)
[B2O3]

[ ] Solid, ( ) Liquid, (g) Gas

EXERGY CONCEPTS FOR CONTROL VOLUME

ANALYSIS
The various kinds of energy display different qualities; these
differences are manifest in their ability to feed drive energy
process and to be converted into other kinds of energy [8].
The standard of energy quality is called exergy. Exergy
analysis is a powerful concept for physical and chemical
processes. It provides an alternative view on the correct efficiency of process and is very useful to find operations where
efficiency improvements are the most suitable or useful [9].
There are three types of exergy transfer across the control surface of a system, exergy of work, exergy of heat and
exergy associated with a steady stream of matter.
Exergy of Work
The useful work equivalent of a given form of energy is a
measure of its exergy; it can be written that useful work is
equivalent to exergy in every respect. So, exergy of work is
defined as
BW = Wu = Wmax - T0(V0-V)

(2)

Table I Mass balance of the ladle furnace [7]

Materials going into the LF
Material

Mass (kg)

Liquid steel
Ferro manganese
Metallic manganese
Ferro silica
Low carbon ferro chrome
High carbon ferro chrome
Aluminum
Ferro boron
Sulfur

55750
250
50
100
700
100
80
10
10

Carbon
Lime
Fluspat
MgO
Al2O3
Electrode
Argon
Oxygen
Total
CANADIAN METALLURGICAL QUARTERLY

120
250
20
60
100
30
7080
617
65327

Materials going out of the LF

Material

Mass (kg)

Liquid steel
Dust
Slag
Stack gases
Argon

56000
25
1874
348
7080

Total

65327

ENERGY AND EXERGY ANALYSIS OF A LADLE FURNACE

Exergy of Heat
Heat has a lower exergy compared with work since heat
cannot be totally converted into work. Exergy of heat at the
control surface can be defined as.
B = Qcv (1 - T0 T )
Q

(3)

be defined as follows (the kinetic and potential exergies are

neglected):

The kinetic and potential energies of a stream of substance are ordered forms of energy. So, these are fully convertible to work. Due to the disordered and entropy dependent nature of the physical and chemical exergies, components can only be determined by considering a composite,
two-part system, the stream under consideration and the
environment [10]. Total specific exergy for the stream flow
can be written as
btot = bphy + bche + bkin + bpot

(4)

bphy = (hi - T0 si) - (hi0 - T0 si0)

(5)

bche = (mi0 - mi00)

(6)

mi0 and mi00 can be written for ideal gases as Equations 6a

and 6b.

Exergy Associated with a Steady Stream of Matter

(Flow Exergy)
Exergy of a stream of matter is equal to the maximum
amount of work obtainable when the stream is brought
from its initial state to the dead state by reversible processes. The specific exergy of a stream of matter b (specific
form) can be divided into distinct components. These components are written in four forms: 1) physical exergy (bphy),
2) chemical exergy (bche), 3) kinetic exergy (bkin) and 4)
potential exergy (bpot)

441

mi 0 = gi 0 + R T0 ln( Pi 0 P0 )

(6a)

mi 00 = gi 0 + R T0 ln( Pi 00 P0 )

(6b)

g i 0 = hi 0 - T0 sio

(6c)

where

EXERGY ANALYSIS IN THE LADLE FURNACE

Before the exergy analysis the first law of thermodynamics
is applied to the LF. Energy balance is carried out using
Equation 7 [11]. Results are given in Table II.

E + nin h0o + Dh
in

] = n [h
in

ex

o
0

+ Dh

ex

] + Q
ex

(7)

loss

The exergy balance for the LF control region (Figure 1)

undergoing a steady state process is obtained according to
Equation 8.

Belect + Bche + BinLiq-st = BexLiq-st

Physical and chemical exergies evaluated relative to the

temperature and the pressure of the environment T0, P0 can

(8)

+ mex bex + BQloss + I

Table II The energy balance of the ladle furnace [11].

Energy or heat going into the LF
Energy or heat

Energy or heat going out of the LF

MJ

Energy of liquid steel going in the LF

Electrical energy
Exothermic reactions

60511
19427
9839

67
22
11

Total

89777 100

Energy or heat

(MJ)

Energy consumed for liquid steel

Endothermic reactions
Heat loss by conduction from the LF
Heat loss by radiation and convection
from the LF
Energy transferred by argon gas
Energy absorbed by electrodes
Heat loss from electrodes by
radiation and convection
Energy transferred by dust
Energy transferred by slug
Energy transferred by stack gases

77511
89
1049

86.4
0.1
1.2

195
5836
1089

0.2
6.5
1.2

1248
2
2722
36

1.4
0.0
3
0.0

Total

89777

100

CANADIAN METALLURGICAL QUARTERLY

442

. AMDALI and M. TUN

electrode
argon

Start

I
Belect+Bche

BLiq-st+S mexbex

liquid steel

Carrying out of mass analysis

control region

Entering temperatures (T0) and

production times of the materials
(t) given to the system and
temperatures of the materials
coming out of the LF

argon
S BQloss
Fig. 1. Schematic of the ladle furnace.

Assumptions in Equation 8 are that stack gases are supposed as ideal gases and the effect of pressure on enthalpies
and entropies of solids is neglected.
BQloss = Qloss . (1 - T0 / T)

(9)

b = (h - h0) - T0 (s - s0)

(10)

S nin[Dh -T0.D s ]in

S nex[Dh -T0.D s ]ex

h - h0 =

dT

(11)

298
T

s - s0 =

S Qloss=Qcond+Qconv+Qrad+Qabs
cp

T dT

(12)

298

BQ=S Qloss.(1-T0/T)

cp = a + bT + cT-2

(13)

a, b and c in Equation 13 are given for materials in the

literature [12].

BPhy=Sni[Dh -T0.D s ]i

EXERGY EFFICIENCY
Exergy is a measure of how effectively the input is converted into the products. Exergy efficiency is defined as

y = m Liq-st bLiq-st / minbin

Printing of calculations of the

exergy values on a chemical basis

(14)
End

THE SOLUTION OF EXERGY ANALYSIS WITH A

COMPUTER PROGRAM
Exergy equations were used for the computer program
developed for the LF. The summary of the program flow
chart is given in Figure 2. The results are presented in
Tables III-VI.

CANADIAN METALLURGICAL QUARTERLY

Fig. 2. Flow chart of the computer program.

443

ENERGY AND EXERGY ANALYSIS OF A LADLE FURNACE

Table III Exergies of liquid steel going into and out of the ladle furnace on a chemical components basis
Exergy of liquid steel going into the LF
(1803 K)
Chemical
components

Exergy
(MJ)

Fe
C
Si
Mn
P
S
Cr
Ni
Mo
Cu

40067
95
67
196
9
34
55
57
13
71

Total

40664

Exergy of liquid steel going out of the LF

(1873 K)
Chemical
components

Exergy
(MJ)

Fe
C
Si
Mn
P
S
Cr
Ni
Mo
Cu
B

53293
255
274
402
10
27
398
60
14
75
2803

Total

57611

Table IV Exergies of chemical reactions occurring in the ladle furnace

Chemical reactions in dust

Chemical reactions in slag

Chemical
components

Exergy
(MJ)

Chemical
components

Exergy
(MJ)

Fe2O3
CaO
MnO
Al2O3
Cr2O3
ZnO

86
0.004
7
0
5.6
6.6

Total

105

CaO
SiO2
FeO
MnO
Fe2O3
P2O5
Al2O3
Cr2O3
B2O3

0.7
391
2840
436
1787
33
2482
220
12

Total

8202

Chemical reactions in stack gases

Chemical
components

Exergy
(MJ)

CO
CO2

1429
1135

Total

2564

Endothermic Reactions
Chemical
components

Exergy
(MJ)

CaCO3
CaS

2
103

Total

105

CANADIAN METALLURGICAL QUARTERLY

444

. AMDALI and M. TUN

Exergy Efficiency of System

than that (55 %) of an electric arc furnace (EAF) [14]. Exergy

losses due to chemical reactions and heat losses are lower in the
LF because the production time of the LF is lower than that of
the EAF.

y = m Liq-st bLiq-st / minbin

= 57611/70964 = 0.81

2. Since the exergy of liquid steel going out of the LF is significant (57611 MJ, Table VI), the temperature control of liquid
steel is essential.

y = 81 %
CONCLUSIONS
Exergy analysis of a control volume helps to identify the
sources of losses [13]. The results obtained from the LF are presented in the following:
1. Although energy efficiency of LF is 86.4 % (Table II), exergy efficiency of the LF is found as 81 %. This value is higher

3. Working with scrap which is both clean and with its chemical components close to produced steel would reduce the exergy given to the system.
4. By optimizing the working conditions, slug exergy output
can be minimized.
5. The overall exergy loss in the LF is around 13 % (Table VI).

Table V Exergy of materials going out of the ladle furnace

Stack gases
Chemical
components
CO
CO2
H2O

Slag
Exergy
(MJ)

Chemical
components

Exergy
(MJ)

3.5
1.5
0.054

0.2
31
619
0.06
75
6
322
31
19
25
5.5
25
1159

Ar

2654

CaO
SiO2
FeO
MnO
Fe2O3
P2O5
Al2O3
CaS
MgO
Cr2O3
B2O3
CaF2

Total

2654

Total

Total

5
Argon

Chemical
components

Exergy
(MJ)

Dust
Chemical
components

Exergy
(MJ)

Fe2O3
CaO
MnO
Al2O3
Cr2O3
SiO2
ZnO

0.176
0.017
0.013
0.025
0.008
0.017
0.013

Total

0.269

CANADIAN METALLURGICAL QUARTERLY

445

ENERGY AND EXERGY ANALYSIS OF A LADLE FURNACE

Table VI Exergy Balance of the ladle furnace

Exergy going into the LF
the LF
Liquid steel
Ferro manganese
Metallic manganese
Ferro silica manganese
Ferro silica
High carbon ferro chrome
Low carbon ferro chrome
Ferro molybdenum
Nickel
Aluminum
Ferro boron
Sulfur
Carbon
Lime
Fluspat
Magnesium oxide
Al2O3
Electrode
Argon
Oxygen
Exothermic reactions
Electrical energy
Total

Exergy
(MJ)
40664
(57%)
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
10871
(16%)
19429
(27%)

E
EAF
G
g
h
ho0
I
LF
m
Pi0
Pi00

Exergy
(MJ)

Liquid steel
Dust
Slag
Stack gases
Endothermic reactions
Argon
Loss exergy
Total

57611
(81.2%)
0.269
(0.0004%)
1159
(1.63%)
5
(0.01%)
105
(0.15%)
2654
(3.7%)
9430
(13.3%)
70964
(100%)

70964
(100%)
NOMENCLATURE

B
b
Bche
Belect
BLiq-st
Bphy
BQ
BW
cp

Exergy going out of

the LF

Exergy (MJ)
Specific exergy (MJ/kg)
Exergy of chemical reaction (MJ)
Exergy of electric (MJ)
Exergy of liquid steel (MJ)
Physical exergy (MJ)
Exergy of heat (MJ)
Exergy of work (MJ)
Specific heat capacity at constant pressure
(kJ/kg.K)
Electrical energy (MJ)
Electric arc furnace
Gibbs function (kJ)
Specific Gibbs function (kJ/kg)
Specific enthalpy (kJ/kg)
Enthalpy of formation (kJ/kg)
Irreversibility (MJ)
Ladle furnace
Mass (kg)
Partial pressure of ith component in a mixture
at the restricted state(N/m2)
Partial pressure of ith component in the
enviroment (N/m2)

Q
R
T
V
W
y
m

Heat (kJ)
Ideal gas constant (kJ/kg K)
Temperature (K)
Volume (m3)
Work (kJ)
Exergy efficiency (%)
Specific chemical exergy potential (kJ/kg)
SUBSCRIPTS

abs
Al
Ar
C
che
cond
conv
cv
Dst
Elctr
ex
Fls
Fr-bor
Fr-man
Fr-sil

Absorption
Aluminum
Argon
Carbon
Chemical
Conduction
Convection
Control volume
Dust
Electrode
Exit
Fluspat
Ferro boron
Ferro manganese
Ferro silica
CANADIAN METALLURGICAL QUARTERLY

446

. AMDALI and M. TUN

HCFr-Cr
i
in
kin
LCFr-Cr
Lim
Liq-st
Me-man
Oxy
phy
pot
rad
Sgas
Slg
Sul
tot
u
0
00

High carbon ferrochrome

ith component
Inlet
Kinetic
Low carbon ferrochrome
Lime
Liquid steel
Metallic manganese
Oxygen
Physical
Potential
Radiation
Stack gases
Slag
Sulfur
Total
Useful
Property on a molar basis
Environmental state (at PO, TO)
Dead state in the environment
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CANADIAN METALLURGICAL QUARTERLY

14. . amdali and M. Tun, Exergy Analysis and Efficiency in

an Industrial AC Electric Arc Furnace, 2003, Applied
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