01 Theory Multiphase

Multiphase Flow Theory
The topics in this section include:
Introduction (p. 113 in "ANSYS CFX-Solver, Release 10.0: Theory")
The Homogeneous and Inhomogeneous Models (p. 114 in "ANSYS CFX-Solver, Release
10.0: Theory")
Hydrodynamic Equations (p. 117 in "ANSYS CFX-Solver, Release 10.0: Theory")
Multicomponent Multiphase Flow (p. 120 in "ANSYS CFX-Solver, Release 10.0: Theory")
Interphase Momentum Transfer Models (p. 120 in "ANSYS CFX-Solver, Release 10.0:
Theory")
Solid Particle Collision Models (p. 130 in "ANSYS CFX-Solver, Release 10.0: Theory")
Interphase Heat Transfer (p. 135 in "ANSYS CFX-Solver, Release 10.0: Theory")
Multiple Size Group (MUSIG) Model (p. 140 in "ANSYS CFX-Solver, Release 10.0: Theory")
The Algebraic Slip Model (p. 147 in "ANSYS CFX-Solver, Release 10.0: Theory")
Additional Variables in Multiphase Flow (p. 154 in "ANSYS CFX-Solver, Release 10.0:
Theory")
Sources in Multiphase Flow (p. 157 in "ANSYS CFX-Solver, Release 10.0: Theory")
Interphase Mass Transfer (p. 158 in "ANSYS CFX-Solver, Release 10.0: Theory")
Free Surface Flow (p. 168 in "ANSYS CFX-Solver, Release 10.0: Theory")
Introduction
Two distinct multiphase flow models are available in ANSYS CFX, a EulerianEulerian
multiphase model and a Lagrangian Particle Tracking multiphase model. Additional
information on the Lagrangian Particle Tracking model theory is available. For details, see
Particle Transport Theory (p. 171 in "ANSYS CFX-Solver, Release 10.0: Theory").
This section covers the Eulerian-Eulerian model theory. For details, see Multiphase Flow
Modelling (p. 149 in "ANSYS CFX-Solver, Release 10.0: Modelling").
We recommend that you are familiar with the mathematical implementation of the
single-phase flow, before reading this section. For details, see Basic Solver Capability Theory
(p. 7 in "ANSYS CFX-Solver, Release 10.0: Theory").
ANSYS CFX-Solver, Release 10.0: Theory
Page 113
Multiphase Flow Theory: The Homogeneous and Inhomogeneous Models
Multiphase Notation
In addition to the notation given here, review the list of symbols. For details, see List of
Symbols (p. 8 in "ANSYS CFX-Solver, Release 10.0: Theory").
Different phases of fluids are denoted using lowercase Greek letters , , , etc. In general, a
quantity subscribed with , , , etc., refers to the value of the quantity for that particular
phase. For example, the volume fraction of is denoted r. Thus, the volume V occupied
by phase in a small volume V around a point of volume fraction r is given by:
V = r V
(Eqn. 443)
The total number of phases is NP. The volume fraction of each phase is denoted r, where
= 1 to NP.
It is important to distinguish between the material density and the effective density of a
fluid . The material density, , is the density of the fluid if it is the only phase present, i.e.
the mass of per unit volume of . The effective density is then defined as:
= r
(Eqn. 444)
This is the actual mass per unit volume of phase , given that phase only occupies a
fraction of the volume, i.e. the mass of per unit volume of the bulk fluid.
The mixture density is given by:
m =
Multiphase
Total Pressure
(Eqn. 445)
The total pressure in a multiphase simulation is defined as:
1
p tot = p stat + --r U
2
(Eqn. 446)
This definition is used for both incompressible and compressible flows, whereas single
phase flows treat total pressure differently depending on the simulation. For details, see
Total Pressure (p. 19 in "ANSYS CFX-Solver, Release 10.0: Theory").
The Homogeneous and Inhomogeneous Models

Two different sub-models are available for Eulerian-Eulerian multiphase flow, the
homogeneous model and the inter-fluid transfer (inhomogeneous) model.
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The Inhomogeneous Model

Interfacial Area
Density
Interfacial transfer of momentum, heat and mass is directly dependent on the contact
surface area between the two phases. This is characterised by the interfacial area per unit
volume between phase a and phase b, known as the interfacial area density, A. Note that
it has dimensions of one over length.
Interfacial transfer can be modelled using either the particle or mixture models. These
essentially provide different algebraic prescriptions for the interfacial area density.
The Particle Model
The Particle model for interfacial transfer between two phases assumes that one of the
phases is continuous (phase a) and the other is dispersed (phase b). The surface area per unit
volume is then calculated by assuming that phase b is present as spherical particles of Mean
Diameter d. Using this model, the interphase contact area is:
6r
A = ------d
(Eqn. 447)
Non-dimensional interphase transfer coefficients may be correlated in terms of the particle

Reynolds number and the fluid Prandtl number. These are defined using the particle
mean diameter, and the continuous phase properties, as follows:
U U d
Re = --------------------------------
(Eqn. 448)
CP
Pr = -------------
(Eqn. 449)
where , CP and are the viscosity, specific heat capacity and thermal conductivity of the
continuous phase .
The Mixture Model
This is a very simple model which treats both phases , symmetrically. The surface area per
unit volume is calculated from
r r
A = -------d
(Eqn. 450)
where d is an interfacial length scale, which you must specify.
Page 115
By way of example, suppose we have oil-water flow in which we may have either water
droplets in continuous oil, or oil droplets in continuous water, in the limits r 0 , r 0
respectively. Then, a simple model for interfacial area density which has the correct
behaviour in these two limits is given by:
6r r
A = -------------------------r d + r d
r d + r d
d = -------------------------6
(Eqn. 451)
Non-dimensional interphase transfer coefficients may be correlated in terms of the mixture

Reynolds number and Prandtl number defined as follows:
U U d
Re = -------------------------------------
(Eqn. 452)
C P
Pr = -------------
(Eqn. 453)
where , , CP and are the density, viscosity, specific heat capacity and thermal
conductivity of the mixture respectively, defined by:
= r + r
(Eqn. 454)
= r + r
The Free Surface Model

The free surface model attempts to resolve the interface between the fluids. If there are just
two phases in the simulation, the following equation is used for interfacial area density:
A = r
(Eqn. 455)
When more than two phases are present, this is generalised as follows:
2 r r
A = --------------------------r + r
(Eqn. 456)
The Homogeneous Model

In homogeneous multiphase flow, a common flow field is shared by all fluids, as well as
other relevant fields such as temperature and turbulence. This allows some simplifications
to be made to the multifluid model resulting in the homogeneous model.
Page 116
Multiphase Flow Theory: Hydrodynamic Equations
For a given transport process, the homogeneous model assumes that the transported
quantities (with the exception of volume fraction) for that process are the same for all
phases, i.e.
1 NP
(Eqn. 457)
Since transported quantities are shared in homogeneous multiphase flow, it is sufficient so

solve for the shared fields using bulk transport equations rather than solving individual
phasic transport equations.
The bulk transport equations can be derived by summing the individual phasic transport
equations (Eqn. 630) over all phases to give a single transport equation for :
( ) + ( U ) = S
t
(Eqn. 458)
where:
NP
=1
r ,
1U = -
NP
NP
r U ,
=1
(Eqn. 459)
=1
The homogeneous model does not need to be applied consistently to all equations. For
example, the velocity field may be modelled as inhomogeneous, but coupled with a
homogeneous turbulence model. Alternatively, a homogeneous velocity field may be
coupled with inhomogeneous temperature fields. Homogeneous additional variables are
also available in ANSYS CFX.
Hydrodynamic Equations
The following is a summary of the equations of momentum and mass transfer for
inhomogeneous and homogeneous multiphase flow in ANSYS CFX. The equivalent for
single-phase flow is also available. For details, see Transport Equations (p. 26 in "ANSYS
CFX-Solver, Release 10.0: Theory").
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Inhomogeneous Hydrodynamic Equations

Momentum
Equations
( r U ) + ( r ( U U ) )

t
T
= r p + ( r ( U + ( U ) ) )
Np
(Eqn. 460)
( U U ) + SM + M
+
=1
SM describes momentum sources due to external body forces, and user defined
momentum sources. For details, see Sources (p. 41 in "ANSYS CFX-Solver, Release 10.0:
Theory").
M describes the interfacial forces acting on phase due to the presence of other
phases. Additional information for the models available for interfacial forces is available.
For details, see Interphase Momentum Transfer Models (p. 120 in "ANSYS CFX-Solver,
Release 10.0: Theory").
The term:
+
( U U )
(Eqn. 461)
represents momentum transfer induced by interphase mass transfer. For details, see
Interphase Mass Transfer (p. 158 in "ANSYS CFX-Solver, Release 10.0: Theory").
The above momentum equations are valid for fluid phases only. For dispersed solid
phases, additional terms are present representing additional stresses due to particle
collisions.
Continuity
Equations
- ( r ) + ( r U ) = S
--
MS +
t
Np
(Eqn. 462)
=1
SMS describes user specified mass sources. For details, see Sources (p. 41 in "ANSYS
is the mass flow rate per unit volume from phase to phase . This term only
occurs if interphase mass transfer takes place. For details, see Interphase Mass Transfer
Volume
Conservation
Equation
This is simply the constraint that the volume fractions sum to unity:
NP
r = 1
(Eqn. 463)
=1
Page 118
This equation may also be combined with the phasic continuity equations to obtain a
transported volume conservation equation. Take (Eqn. 462), divide by phasic density, and
sum over all phases. This yields
1 + ( r U ) =
----- ------
t
1
----- SMS +
NP
(Eqn. 464)
=1
Interpreting this equation is simpler if we consider the special case of incompressible phases
with no sources, in which it simplifies to
( r U )
= 0
(Eqn. 465)
which requires the volume flows to have zero divergence. (Eqn. 464) is the volume
continuity equation solved by the ANSYS CFX-Solver.
Pressure
Constraint
The complete set of hydrodynamic equations represent 4NP + 1 equations in the 5NP
unknowns UV, W, r, p. We need NP -1 more equations to close the system. These are
given by constraints on the pressure, namely that all phases share the same pressure field:
p = p
for all = 1,......, N P
(Eqn. 466)
Homogeneous Hydrodynamic Equations

Momentum
Equations
The homogeneous model for momentum transport assumes:
U = U, 1 N P
(Eqn. 467)
and is given by (Eqn. 462) and the momentum equation:
( U ) + ( U U ( U + ( U ) T ) ) = S p
M
t
(Eqn. 468)
where:
NP
NP
r ,
=1
(Eqn. 469)
=1
The following points should be noted:
Continuity
Equations
The inter-phase transfer terms have all cancelled out.
This is essentially a single phase transport equation, with variable density and viscosity.
The homogeneous continuity equation is the same as for full multiphase, (Eqn. 462), except
that U is not phase specific.
Page 119
Multiphase Flow Theory: Multicomponent Multiphase Flow
Volume
Conservation
Equations
The homogeneous volume conservation equation is the same as for full multiphase, (Eqn.
463), except that U is not phase specific.
Pressure
Constraint
The pressure constraint given above for full multiphase flow is also used for homogeneous
multiphase flow.
Multicomponent Multiphase Flow

In multiphase multicomponent flows, transport equations for the mass fractions of
components YA are assumed to take a similar form those used for single-phase
multicomponent flow:
( r Y ) + ( r ( U Y D ( Y ) ) ) = S
A
A
A
A
t A
(Eqn. 470)
You should note that the molecular diffusion coefficients are given by DA, where DA is
the Kinematic Diffusivity.
Source terms in multicomponent multiphase flow behave the same as multicomponent
mass sources, but on a per fluid basis. For details, see Sources (p. 41 in "ANSYS CFX-Solver,
Interphase Momentum Transfer Models

The theory described in this section only applies to inhomogeneous multiphase flow. When
using the homogeneous model, momentum transfer between phases is assumed to be very
large.
Interphase momentum transfer, M, occurs due to interfacial forces acting on each phase
due to interaction with another phase . The total force on phase due to interaction with
other phases is denoted M, and is given by:
M =
(Eqn. 471)
Note that interfacial forces between two phases are equal and opposite, so the net
interfacial forces sum to to zero:
( M = M )
Page 120
M = 0
(Eqn. 472)
Multiphase Flow Theory: Interphase Momentum Transfer Models
The total interfacial force acting between two phases may arise from several independent
physical effects:
D
LUB
VM
TD
M = M + M + M + M + M + M S + ....
(Eqn. 473)
The forces indicated above respectively represent the interphase drag force, lift force, wall
lubrication force, virtual mass force, turbulence dispersion force and solids pressure force
(for dense solid particle phases only).
ANSYS CFX provides a wide range of physical models for these forces. These models are
described in the following places:
Interphase Drag (p. 121 in "ANSYS CFX-Solver, Release 10.0: Theory")
Lift Force (p. 127 in "ANSYS CFX-Solver, Release 10.0: Theory")
Wall Lubrication Force (p. 128 in "ANSYS CFX-Solver, Release 10.0: Theory")
Virtual Mass Force (p. 128 in "ANSYS CFX-Solver, Release 10.0: Theory")
Interphase Turbulent Dispersion Force (p. 129 in "ANSYS CFX-Solver, Release 10.0:
Theory")
Solid Particle Collision Models (p. 130 in "ANSYS CFX-Solver, Release 10.0: Theory")
Interphase Drag
The following general form is used to model interphase drag force acting on phase due to
phase .
(d)
M = c ( U U )
(Eqn. 474)
Note that c = 0 and c = c. Hence, the sum over all phases of all interphase transfer
terms is zero.
(d)
In this section, we describe how the coefficients c may be computed from a knowledge
of dimensionless drag coefficients. We also describe the range of models available for drag
coefficients.
The total drag force is most conveniently expressed in terms of the dimensionless drag
coefficient,
D
C D = -------------------------------------2
1--
( U U ) A
2
(Eqn. 475)
where is the fluid density, ( U - U ) is the relative speed, D is the magnitude of the drag
force and A is the projected area of the body in the direction of flow. We denote the
continuous phase by and the dispersed phase by .
Page 121
Interphase Drag
for the Particle
Model
(d)
For spherical particles, the coefficients c may be derived analytically. The area of a single
particle projected in the flow direction, Ap, and the volume of a single particle Vp are given
by:
2
d A p = ------4
V p = d
-------6
(Eqn. 476)
where d is the mean diameter. The number of particles per unit volume, np is given by:
r
6r
n p = ----- = -------3
Vp
d
(Eqn. 477)
The drag exerted by a single particle on the continuous phase is,
1
D p = --C D A p U U ( U U )
2
(Eqn. 478)
Hence the total drag per unit volume on the continuous phase is,
C
D = n p D p = 3-- -----D- r U U ( U U )
4d
(Eqn. 479)
Comparing with the Momentum Equations for phase , where the drag force per unit
volume is:
(d)
D = c ( U U )
(Eqn. 480)
we get,
(d)
3C
c = -- -----D- r U U
4d
(Eqn. 481)
which can be written as:
C
(d)
c = -----D- A U U
8
(Eqn. 482)
This is the form implemented in ANSYS CFX.

The following section describes drag correlations specific to dispersed multiphase flow.
Page 122
Sparsely Distributed Solid Particles

At low particle Reynolds numbers (the viscous regime), the drag coefficient for flow past
spherical particles may be computed analytically. The result is Stokes law:
24-,
C D = ---Re
Re 1
(Eqn. 483)
For particle Reynolds numbers (see (Eqn. 448)) which are sufficiently large for inertial effects
to dominate viscous effects (the inertial or Newtons regime), the drag coefficient becomes
independent of Reynolds number:
1000 Re 1 2x10
C D = 0.44,
(Eqn. 484)
In the transitional region between the viscous and inertial regimes, 0.1 < Re < 1000 for
spherical particles, both viscous and inertial effects are important. Hence, the drag
coefficient is a complex function of Reynolds number, which must be determined from
experiment.
This has been done in detail for spherical particles. Several empirical correlations are
available. The one available in ANSYS CFX is due to Schiller and Naumann (1933) [6] It can be
written as follows:
Sparsely Distributed Solid Particles: Schiller Naumann Drag Model
0.687
24
C D = ----- ( 1 + 0.15Re
)
Re
(Eqn. 485)
ANSYS CFX modifies this to ensure the correct limiting behaviour in the inertial regime by
taking:
0.687
24
), 0.44
C D = max ----- ( 1 + 0.15Re
Re
(Eqn. 486)
Densely Distributed Solid Particles

Densely Distributed Solid Particles: Wen Yu Drag Model
1.65
CD = rc
24- ( 1 + 0.15Re' 0.687 ), 0.44

max ----- Re
(Eqn. 487)
Re' = r c Re
Note that this has the same functional form as the Schiller Naumann correlation, with a
modified particle Reynolds number, and a power law correction, both functions of the
continuous phase volume fraction rc.
You may also change the Volume Fraction Correction Exponent from its default value of
-1.65, if you wish.
Page 123
Densely Distributed Solid Particles: Gidaspow Drag Model
C D = C D ( Wen Yu ),
(d)
c
r c > 0.8
( 1 r c ) c 7 ( 1 r c ) c U c U d
- + -- ------------------------------------------,
= 150 ----------------------2
4
dp
rc dp
r c < 0.8
(Eqn. 488)
This uses the Wen Yu correlation for low solid volume fractions rd < 0.2, and switches to
Erguns law for flow in a porous medium for larger solid volume fractions.
Note that this is discontinuous at the cross-over volume fraction. In order to avoid
subsequent numerical difficulties, ANSYS CFX modifies the original Gidaspow model by
linearly interpolating between the Wen Yu and Ergun correlations over the range
0.7 < r c < 0.8 .

You may also change the Volume Fraction Correction Exponent of the Wen Yu part of the
correlation from its default value of -1.65, if you wish.
Sparsely Distributed Fluid Particles (drops and bubbles)
At sufficiently small particle Reynolds numbers (the viscous regime), fluid particles behave
in the same manner as solid spherical particles. Hence the drag coefficient is well
approximated by the Schiller-Naumann correlation described above.
At larger particle Reynolds numbers, the inertial or distorted particle regime, surface
tension effects become important. The fluid particles become, at first, approximately
ellipsoidal in shape, and finally, spherical cap shaped.
In the spherical cap regime, the drag coefficient is well approximated by:
8
C D ( cap ) = -3
(Eqn. 489)
Several correlations are available for the distorted particle regime. ANSYS CFX uses the Ishii
Zuber and Grace and correlations.
Sparsely Distributed Fluid Particles: Ishii-Zuber Drag Model
In the distorted particle regime, the drag coefficient is approximately constant,
independent of Reynolds number, but dependent on particle shape through the
dimensionless group known as the Eotvos number, which measures the ratio between
gravitational and surface tension forces:
2
gd
Eo = --------------p
(Eqn. 490)
Here, is the density difference between the phases, g is the gravitational acceleration,
and is the surface tension coefficient.
Page 124
The Ishii-Zuber correlation gives:
2 12
C D ( ellipse ) = --Eo
3
(Eqn. 491)
In this case, ANSYS CFX automatically takes into account the spherical particle and spherical
cap limits by setting:
C D ( dist ) = min ( C D ( ellipse ), C D ( cap ) )

C D = max ( C D ( sphere ), C D ( dist ) )
(Eqn. 492)
The Ishii Zuber Model also automatically takes into account dense fluid particle effects. For
details, see Densely Distributed Fluid Particles (p. 126 in "ANSYS CFX-Solver, Release 10.0:
Theory").
Sparsely Distributed Fluid Particles: Grace Drag Model
Here the drag coefficient in the distorted particle regime is given by:
C D ( ellipse ) = 4-- gd
------
-----3 U2 c
T
(Eqn. 493)
where the terminal velocity UT is given by:
c 0.149
-M
( J 0.857 )
U T = --------c dp
(Eqn. 494)
where:
4
c g
- = Morton Number
M = --------------2 3

(Eqn. 495)
and:
0.94H 0.751
J =
3.42H 0.441
2 < H 59.3
(Eqn. 496)
H > 59.3
0.149 c 0.14
-------H = 4--EoM

3
ref
(Eqn. 497)
ref = 0.0009 kg m-1 s-1 is the molecular viscosity of water at some reference temperature
and pressure.
Page 125
In this case, ANSYS CFX automatically takes into account the spherical particle and spherical
cap limits by setting:
C D ( dist ) = min ( C D ( ellipse ), C D ( cap ) )
(Eqn. 498)
C D = max ( C D ( sphere ), C D ( dist ) )

Densely Distributed Fluid Particles
Densely Distributed Fluid Particles: Ishii-Zuber Drag Model

The Ishii Zuber drag laws automatically take into account dense particle effects. This is done
in different ways for different flow regimes.
In the viscous regime, where fluid particles may be assumed to be approximately spherical,
the Schiller Naumann correlation is modified using a mixture Reynolds number based on a
mixture viscosity.
Densely Distributed Fluid Particles: Dense Spherical Particle Regime (Ishii Zuber)
0.687
24
)
C D ( sphere ) = --------- ( 1 + 0.15Re m
Re m
c Ud Uc dp
Re m = ------------------------------
(Eqn. 499)
r d 2.5rdm *
------ = 1 -----
c
r dm
d + 0.4 c
* = ----------------------d + c
Here, rdm is the user defined Maximum Packing value. This is defaulted to unity for a
dispersed fluid phase.
In the distorted particle regime, the Ishii Zuber modification takes the form of a multiplying
factor to the single particle drag coefficient.
Densely Distributed Fluid Particles: Dense Distorted Particle Regime (Ishii Zuber)
12
C D = 2--Eo
3
C D ( ellipse ) = E ( r d )C D ,
12
C D = 2--Eo
3
67
( 1 + 17.67f ( r d ) )
-,
E ( r d ) = ------------------------------------------18.67f ( r d )
(Eqn. 500)
12
f ( r d ) = -----c- ( 1 r d )
m
Densely Distributed Fluid Particles: Dense Spherical Cap Regime (Ishii Zuber)
2
C D ( cap ) = ( 1 r d ) C D ,
C D = 8-3
(Eqn. 501)
The Ishii Zuber correlation, as implemented in ANSYS CFX, automatically selects flow regime
as follows:
Page 126
Densely Distributed Fluid Particles: Automatic Regime Selection (Ishii Zuber):
C D = C D ( sphere )
if
C D = min ( C D ( ellipse ), C D ( cap ) )
if
C D ( sphere ) C D ( ellipse )
C D ( sphere ) < C D ( ellipse )
(Eqn. 502)
Densely Distributed Fluid Particles: Grace Drag Model

The Grace drag model, is formulated for flow past a single bubble. For details, see Sparsely
Distributed Fluid Particles (drops and bubbles) (p. 124 in "ANSYS CFX-Solver, Release 10.0:
Theory").
For high bubble volume fractions, it may be modified using a simple power law correction:
p
C D = r c C D
(Eqn. 503)
Here, C D is the single bubble Grace drag coefficient. Advice on setting the exponent value
for the power law correction is available. For details, see Densely Distributed Fluid Particles:
Grace Drag Model (p. 160 in "ANSYS CFX-Solver, Release 10.0: Modelling").
Interphase Drag
for the Mixture
Model
In the mixture model, we define a non-dimensional drag coefficient CD, as follows:
D = C D A U U ( U U )
(Eqn. 504)
where D is the total drag exerted by phase on phase per unit volume.
The mixture density r is given by:
= r + r
(Eqn. 505)
and the interfacial area per unit volume A is given by:
r r
A = -------d
(Eqn. 506)
where d is a user-specified mixture length scale.
Lift Force
The lift force acts perpendicular to the direction of relative motion of the two phases.
ANSYS CFX contains a model for the shear-induced lift force acting on a dispersed phase in
the presence of a rotational continuous phase. This is given by:
L
Fc = Fd = rd c CL ( Ud Uc ) c ,
c = curl U c
(Eqn. 507)
Page 127
where C L is a non-dimensional lift coefficient. In a rotating frame of reference with rotation

vector , the lift force is given by:
L
F c = F d = r d c C L ( U d U c ) ( c + 2 ) ,
c = curl U c
(Eqn. 508)
The current implementation permits a user-specified lift coefficient only. This may be a
constant, or a CEL expression.
Virtual Mass Force

The virtual mass force is proportional to relative phasic accelerations as follows:
VM
Fc
VM
= Fd
D d U d D c U c
- ----------= r d c C VM ---------- Dt
Dt
(Eqn. 509)
In a rotating frame of reference with rotation vector , the virtual mass force in terms of U
is modified by Coriolis theorem, and is given by:

*
VM
Fc
VM
Fd
Dd Ud Dc Uc
*
*
- ------------ + 2 ( U d U c )
= r d c C VM ----------Dt
Dt
(Eqn. 510)
The non-dimensional virtual mass coefficient C VM = 0.5 for inviscid flow around an
isolated sphere. In general, C VM depends on shape and particle concentration. C VM may be
specified by the user as a constant or a CEL expression.
Wall Lubrication Force

Under certain circumstances, for example, bubbly upflow in a vertical pipe, the dispersed
phase is observed to concentrate in a region close to the wall, but not immediately adjacent
to the wall. This effect may be modelled by the wall lubrication force, which tends to push
the dispersed phase away from the wall. ANSYS CFX contains the model of Antal [88]
2
LUB
Fc
Page 128
LUB
Fd
( ( U r ( U r n w )n w ) )
d
- max C 1 + C 2 ----p-, 0 n w
= r d c -----------------------------------------------
dp
yw
(Eqn. 511)
Here, U r = U c U d is the relative velocity between phases, d p is the disperse phase mean
diameter, y w is the distance to the nearest wall, and n w is the unit normal pointing away
from the wall. Hence the force acts to push the disperse phase away from the wall. The
coefficients were determined by numerical experimentation, C 1 = 0.01 , C 2 = 0.05 for
a sphere. So the force is only active in a thin layer adjacent to the wall:
yw C1
----- ----- 5
dp C2
(Eqn. 512)
Hence, this force will only be activated on a sufficiently fine mesh, and grid convergence can
only be expected on extremely fine meshes.
Note that these default coefficients are rather different from those recommended in the
original paper of Antal et al [88]. More recent numerical experiments by Krepper and Prasser
[89] obtained the values C 1 = 0.0064 , C 2 = 0.016
Interphase Turbulent Dispersion Force

Favre Averaged
Drag Model
ANSYS CFX implements a model for turbulent dispersion force, based on the Favre average
of the interphase drag force [90].
TD
Fc
tc r d r c
TD
-------- ------= F d = C TD C cd ----- tc r d
rc
(Eqn. 513)
Here, Ccd is the momentum transfer coefficient for the interphase drag force. Hence, the
model clearly depends on the details of the drag correlation used. tc is the turbulent
Schmidt number for continuous phase volume fraction, currently taken to be 0.9.
CTD is a user-modifiable CEL multiplier. Its default value is unity.
Lopez de
Bertodano
Model
The model of Lopez de Bertodano (1991) [20] was one of the first models for the turbulent
dispersion force:
TD
Mc
TD
= M d = C TD c k c r c
(Eqn. 514)
Unfortunately, it is not possible to recommend universal values of CTD for this model. CTD
values of 0.1 - 0.5 have been used successfully for bubbly flow with bubble diameters of
order a few millimetres. However, values up to 500 have been required for other situations.
See Lopez de Bertodano [21] and Moraga et al [91]
This model is included in ANSYS CFX for historical back compatibility with ANSYS CFX.
However, the more universal Favre Averaged Drag model is recommended for all situations
where an appropriate value of CTD is unknown.
Page 129
Multiphase Flow Theory: Solid Particle Collision Models
Solid Particle Collision Models

The following topics will be discussed:
Introduction (p. 130 in "ANSYS CFX-Solver, Release 10.0: Theory")
Introduction
This section presents the theoretical background of the solid particle collision models
implemented in ANSYS CFX.
Solids Stress
Tensor
Additional stresses due to inter-particle collisions are modelled using a collisional solids
stress tensor in the solid phase momentum equation only:
U U 2 U
U
sij = P s ij + s -------i + -------j -- --------k ij + s --------k ij
x x 3 x
x
j
(Eqn. 515)
Here, P s denotes solids pressure, s denotes solids shear viscosity, and s denotes solids
bulk viscosity. There are two important classes of models for these quantities:
Empirical Constitutive Equations
There exist wide classes of models where the constitutive elements of the solids stress are
specified using empirical constitutive relations. See, for example, (Enwald et al [[97]]). In
many of these, the solids pressure, shear and bulk viscosities are simple functions of the solid
phase volume fraction.
Kinetic Theory Models
These are a class of models, based on the kinetic theory of gases, generalised to take into
account inelastic particle collisions. In these models, the constitutive elements of the solids
stress are functions of the solid phase granular temperature, defined to be proportional to
the mean square of fluctuating solid phase velocity due to inter-particle collisions:
2
s = 1--u' s
3
(Eqn. 516)
In the most general kinetic theory models, the granular temperature is determined from a
transport equation. However, in many circumstances it is possible to ignore the transport
terms, and determine granular temperature from the resulting algebraic equation.
Solids Pressure
Empirical Constitutive Equations

The most popular constitutive equations for solids pressure are due to (Gidaspow [[18]]).
These actually specify the solids pressure gradient, rather than solids pressure directly:
P s = P s ( r s ) P s = G ( r s )r s
G ( rs ) = G0 e
Page 130
c ( r s r sm )
(Eqn. 517)
(Eqn. 518)
Where G ( r s ) is the Elasticity Modulus, G 0 is the Reference Elasticity Modulus, c is the

Compaction Modulus, and r sm is the Maximum Packing Parameter.
The Gidaspow model is implemented with an option for specifying the Reference Elasticity
Modulus and Compaction Modulus. There is also an option to specify the Elasticity
Modulus G ( r s ) directly. There is also an option to specify the solids pressure directly. This
permits more general constitutive relations than those where the solids pressure is a
function of volume fraction only.
The kinetic theory model for solids pressure is similar to the equation of state for ideal gases,
modified to take account of inelastic collisions, and maximum solid packing.
P s = s r s s ( 1 + 2 ( 1 + e )g 0 r s )
(Eqn. 519)
Here, e denotes the coefficient of restitution for solid-solid collisions, and g 0 ( r s ) denotes
the radial distribution function. Popular models for the radial distribution function are given
by:
Gidaspow (1994) [[18]]:
g 0 ( r s ) = 0.6 ( 1 ( r s r sm )
1 3 1
(Eqn. 520)
Lun and Savage (1986) [[100]]:
g 0 ( r s ) = ( 1 ( r s r sm ) )
2.5r sm
(Eqn. 521)
Note that the radial distribution function tends to infinity as r s r sm . The singularity is
removed in ANSYS CFX by setting:
2
g0 ( rs ) = C0 + C1 ( rs rc ) + C2 ( rs rc ) + C3 ( rs rc )
( r rc )
(Eqn. 522)
where r c = r sm 0.001 and:
C 1 = 1.08 10
C 0 = 1079
C 2 = 1.08 10
Solids Bulk
Viscosity
C 3 = 1.08 10
(Eqn. 523)
12
(Eqn. 524)
Constitutive Equation Models

Most simple constitutive equation models ignore the solids bulk viscosity. However, it is
possible for the user to specify a model for this, using a CEL expression, if required. Note that
any solids volume fraction dependence must be included in the CEL expression.
Page 131

There is general agreement on the correct kinetic theory form for the solids bulk viscosity
(Lun et al 1984 [[99]]).
2
s = 4--r s s d p g 0 ( 1 + e )
---3
Solids Shear
Viscosity
(Eqn. 525)
Constitutive Equation Models

The simplest constitutive equation model for solids shear viscosity was presented by Miller
and Gidaspow (1992) [[105]]. They successfully modelled gas-solid flow in a riser using a
solids shear viscosity linearly proportional to the solids phase volume fraction.
s = 5.35 [ Poise ] r s
(Eqn. 526)
Note that their constant of proportionality is dimensional, hence is likely to require

modification for different fluid-solid material properties.
More complex models for solids shear stress allow the shear stress to become very large in
the limit of maximum packing. A wide range of such models is discussed in the review article
by Enwald et al [[97]].
It is possible for the user to implement any of these models, using a CEL expression for the
solids shear viscosity. Note that any solids volume fraction dependence must be included in
the CEL expression.
Typically, the shear viscosity is expressed as a sum of at least two contributions: the kinetic
and collisional contributions:
s = s, col + s, kin
(Eqn. 527)
There is wide agreement on the correct form of the collisional contribution. As in the kinetic
theory of gases, it is proportional to the square root of the granular temperature:
4 2
--- s, col = --r s s d p g 0 ( 1 + e )
5
(Eqn. 528)
However, there are many proposals in the literature for the correct form of the kinetic
contribution. For example:
Gidaspow (1994) [[18]]:
2
s dp
- ------------------- s, kin = 5--------- 1 + 4-- ( 1 + e )g 0 r s
48 ( 1 + e )g 0
5
Page 132
(Eqn. 529)
Lun and Savage (1986) [[100]]:
s, kin
8
1 + -- ( 3 2 )r s g 0
5
5
1
8
= ---------- s d p -------- + --r s --------------------------------------------
2
96
g 0 5
(Eqn. 530)
1
2
Here, = -- ( 1 + e ) .
Collisional contributions are omitted from ANSYS CFX.
Granular
Temperature
ANSYS CFX is restricted to models where the granular temperature s is determined

algebraically.
Algebraic Equilibrium Model
s may be specified directly by the user, or from the assumption of local equilibrium in a
transport equation model. The latter is based on:
U
Production = Dissipation sij -------i = s
x j
(Eqn. 531)
where sij denotes the solids shear stress tensor (Eqn. 515), and
4 s
2 2
- ----- divU
s = 3 ( 1 e )r s s g 0 s --
ds
(Eqn. 532)
Expand the production term:
U
U U U
2
sij -------i = P s divU + s -------i + -------j -------i + s 2-- s ( divU )
x j
x j x i x j
3
2
P roduction = P s D + s S + s D
(Eqn. 533)
(Eqn. 534)
where:
s = s 2-- s
3
D = divU
U U 2
2
S = 1-- -------i + -------j
2 x j x i
(Eqn. 535)
In order to determine s from (Eqn. 531), it is useful to take into account the dependence
of solids pressure and shear bulk viscosities on s . We have:
Ps s
12
s , s s
(Eqn. 536)
Page 133
so we may write:
(0)
(0)
Ps = Ps s
(0)
12
s = s s
12
(0)
s = s s
(Eqn. 537)
12
s = s s
(Eqn. 538)
Hence, substituting into (Eqn. 534), we may express the production term in terms of
granular temperature as follows:
(0) 2
(0) 2
12
Production = ( s D + s S ) s
=
12
AP s
(0)
P s D s
(Eqn. 539)
BP s
where:
(0) 2
(0) 2
(0)
AP = s D + s S 0
BP = Ps D
(Eqn. 540)
Similarly, the dissipation term (Eqn. 532) may be simplified as follows:

32
Dissipation = A D s
BD s
(Eqn. 541)
where:
4 - 0
A D = ----------CD
ds
BD = CD D
12
Equating (Eqn. 539) and (Eqn. 541), and dividing by s

12
A D s + ( B P B D ) s
AP = 0
C D = 3 ( 1 e )r s s g 0 0
(Eqn. 542)
gives a quadratic equation for s :
(Eqn. 543)
Note that A D is strictly positive if, and only if, the coefficient of restitution is strictly less than
unity. In this case, in view of the fact that A P 0 , (Eqn. 543) has a unique positive solution:
12
s
B D B P + ( B D B P ) + 4A D A P
= ---------------------------------------------------------------------2A D
(Eqn. 544)
The Algebraic Equilibrium model has the flaw that unphysically large granular temperatures
can be generated in regions of low solid particle volume fraction. To circumvent this, it is
recommended that you specify an upper bound for the granular temperature. The square of
the mean velocity scale is a reasonable estimate for this.
Page 134
Multiphase Flow Theory: Interphase Heat Transfer
Zero Equation Model

The Zero Equation Model implements the simpler algebraic model of Ding and Gidaspow
[[98]].
1 - d 2 S2
s = -------------------15 ( 1 e ) s
(Eqn. 545)
Interphase Heat Transfer

In the multiphase model, there are separate enthalpy and temperature fields for each phase.
Phasic Equations
Heat transfer is governed by the multiphase energy equations, which generalise the single
phase energy equations (Eqn. 4) (p. 20) and (Eqn. 5) (p. 20).
The multiphase version of the Total Energy equation is:
p
(r h
, tot ) r ----- + ( r U h , tot r T )
t
t
T
r U + ( U ) 2-- U U

3
Np
(Eqn. 546)
( h, tot a h, tot ) + Q + S
+
=1
The multiphase version of the thermal energy equation for static enthalpy (incompressible
and low speed compressible flows only) is :
( r h ) + ( r ( U h T ) )

t
Np
(Eqn. 547)
+
( h s
+
a h s )
+ Q + S
=1
Page 135
where:
h, T, , denote the static enthalpy, the temperature, and the thermal conductivity of
phase .
S describes external heat sources. For details, see Sources (p. 41 in "ANSYS CFX-Solver,
Q denotes interphase heat transfer to phase across interfaces with other phases. For
details, see Inhomogeneous Interphase Heat Transfer Models (p. 136 in "ANSYS
The term:
+
( h s a h s )
(Eqn. 548)
represents heat transfer induced by interphase mass transfer. For details, see Interphase
Mass Transfer (p. 158 in "ANSYS CFX-Solver, Release 10.0: Theory").
Inhomogeneous Interphase Heat Transfer Models

Interphase heat transfer occurs due to thermal non-equilibrium across phase interfaces. The
total heat per unit volume transferred to phase due to interaction with other phases is
denoted Q, and is given by:
Q =
(Eqn. 549)
where:
Q = Q
Overall Heat
Transfer
Coefficients
Q = 0
(Eqn. 550)
Heat transfer across a phase boundary is usually described in terms of an overall heat
transfer coefficient h, which is the amount of heat energy crossing a unit area per unit
time per unit temperature difference between the phases. Thus, the rate of heat transfer,
Q, per unit time across a phase boundary of interfacial area per unit volume A, from
phase to phase , is:
Q = h A ( T T )
(Eqn. 551)
This may be written in a form analogous to momentum transfer:

(h)
Q = c ( T T )
(Eqn. 552)
(h)
where the volumetric heat transfer coefficient, c , is modelled using the correlations
described below.
Page 136
Particle Model
Correlations
For particle model the volumetric heat transfer coefficient is modelled as:
(h)
c = h A
(Eqn. 553)
Hence the interfacial area per unit volume and the heat transfer coefficient h are required.
More information on interfacial area density calculation is available.
It is often convenient to express the heat transfer coefficient in terms of a dimensionless
Nusselt number:
Nu--------h =
d
(Eqn. 554)
In the particle model, the thermal conductivity scale is taken to be the thermal
conductivity of the continuous phase, and the length scale d is taken to be the mean
diameter of the dispersed phase:
Nu
h = ----------------d
(Eqn. 555)
For laminar forced convection around a spherical particle, theoretical analysis shows that
Nu = 2. For a particle in a moving incompressible Newtonian fluid, the Nusselt number is a
function of the particle Reynolds number Re and the surrounding fluid Prandtl number
Pr = CP / .
Page 137
Additional information on models in ANSYS CFX is available. For details, see Particle Model
Correlations for Overall Heat Transfer Coefficient (p. 165 in "ANSYS CFX-Solver, Release 10.0:
Modelling"). Some additional details for the Interface Flux model are provided below.
Interface Flux
The heat flux coefficients for both fluids and the interfacial heat flux value, F12, from
Fluid 1 to Fluid 2 (Fluid 1 is the fluid to appear on the left of the Fluid Pairs list) are
specified. F12 is the rate of heat transfer per unit time per unit interfacial area from phase
1 to phase 2. Hence the heat transferred to fluid 2 from fluid 1 per unit volume is given
by:
Q 21 = Q 12 = A 12 F 12
(Eqn. 556)
F12 may be given as a constant or an expression.

Typically, F12 will be a function of the fluid 1 and fluid 2 temperature fields, and possibly
other variables. In this case, the user may accelerate convergence of the coupled solver
by also specifying optional fluid 1 and fluid 2 heat flux coefficients.
F 12
- 0,
h 1 --------T 1
F 21
-0
h 2 --------T 2
(Eqn. 557)
The solver takes the absolute value of these flux coefficients to ensure that they are
positive. This is required for numerical stability. The partial derivatives need not be
computed exactly; it is sufficient for the specified coefficients to simply approximate the
partial derivatives. Specification of heat flux coefficients only affects the convergence
rate to the solution of the coupled heat transfer equations, it does not affect the
accuracy of the converged solution.
For example, the simple model using a heat transfer coefficient multiplied by a bulk
temperature difference my be recovered using:
F 12 = F 21 = h ( T 1 T 2 ),
Mixture Model
Correlations
h1 = h2 = h
When using the mixture model, the Nusselt number is defined in terms of a mixture
conductivity scale and the mixture length scale:
Nu
-,
h = -------------------d
= r + r
(Eqn. 558)
For details, see Mixture Model Correlations for Overall Heat Transfer Coefficient (p. 166 in
"ANSYS CFX-Solver, Release 10.0: Modelling").
The Two
Resistance
Model
Page 138
There are special situations where the use of an overall heat transfer coefficient is not
sufficient to model the interphase heat transfer process. A more general class of models
considers separate heat transfer processes either side of the phase interface. This is achieved
by using two heat transfer coefficients defined on each side of the phase interface.
Defining the sensible heat flux to phase from the interface as:
q = h ( Ts T )
(Eqn. 559)
and the sensible heat flux to phase from the interface as:
q = h ( Ts T )
(Eqn. 560)
where h and h are the phase and phase heat transfer coefficients respectively. Ts is
interfacial temperature, and it is assumed to be the same for both phases.
The fluid-specific Nusselt number is defined as:
h d
Nu = ------------
(Eqn. 561)
where is the thermal conductivity of fluid , and d is the interfacial length scale (the
mean particle diameter for the Particle Model, and the mixture length scale for the Mixture
Model).
In the absence of interphase mass transfer, we must have overall heat balance
q + q = 0 . This condition determines the interfacial temperature:

h T + h T
T s = --------------------------h + h
(Eqn. 562)
It also determines the interphase heat fluxes in terns of an overall heat transfer coefficient:
q = q = h ( T T ),
1 - = ---1- + ---1------h
h h
(Eqn. 563)
Hence, in the absence of interphase mass transfer, the two resistance model is somewhat
superfluous, as it may be implemented using a user-specified overall heat transfer
coefficient.
It is possible to specify a zero resistance condition on one side of the phase interface. This is
equivalent to an infinite fluid specific heat transfer coefficient h . Its effect is to force
the interfacial temperature to be the same as the phase temperature, T s = T .
Modelling advice is available. For details, see Two Resistance Model for Fluid Specific Heat
Transfer Coefficients (p. 166 in "ANSYS CFX-Solver, Release 10.0: Modelling").
Page 139
Multiphase Flow Theory: Multiple Size Group (MUSIG) Model
Homogeneous Heat Transfer in Multiphase Flow

For all transport processes other than heat transfer, the shared field is the same as the
transported quantity in the equation. However, in the case of heat transfer it is temperature
which is shared but enthalpy which is transported. Hence ANSYS CFX does not solve a bulk
enthalpy equation, but rather solves a separate enthalpy equation for each fluid with a large
interphase heat transfer term which forces the temperature fields to be the same.
The equations solved are identical to the phasic equations for full multiphase described
above. For homogeneous heat transfer model, the interphase heat transfer coefficient is not
modelled by any of the correlations used in full multiphase. Instead it is chosen to be large
relative to the other transported processes in the equation, thereby ensuring the phasic
temperatures are the same.
Multiple Size Group (MUSIG) Model

The MUSIG (Multiple Size Group) model has been developed to handle polydispersed
multiphase flows. By polydispersed, it means that the dispersed phase has a large variation
in size. One of the attributes of polydispersed multiphase flow is that the different sizes of
the dispersed phases interact with each other through the mechanisms of breakup and
coalescence. Population balance is a well-established method for calculating the size
distribution of a polydispersed phase, including breakup and coalescence effects. MUSIG
provides a framework in which the population balance method can be incorporated into
three-dimensional CFD calculations.
Model Derivation
Population
Balance
Equation
The starting point for the MUSIG model is the population balance equation which
represents the continuity of particles of size v . Let n ( v, t ) represent the number density of
particles of size v at time t . Then the population balance equation is
n ( v, t ) + ( U i ( v, t )n ( v, t ) ) = B D + B D
B
B
C
C
i
t
x
Page 140
(Eqn. 564)
where B B , D B , B C , and D C respectively represent the birth rate due to breakup of larger
particles, the death rate due to breakup into smaller particles, the birth rate due to
coalescence of smaller particles, and the death rate due to coalescence with other particles.
These rates may further be expressed as
v g ( ;v )n ( , t ) d
(Eqn. 565)
D B = n ( v, t ) v g ( v ; ) d
(Eqn. 566)
B C = 1-- v Q ( v ; )n ( v , t )n ( v, t ) d
2 0
(Eqn. 567)
D C = n ( v, t ) Q ( v ; )n ( , t ) dt
(Eqn. 568)
BB =
where g ( v ; ) represents the specific breakup rate (the rate at which particles of size v
break into particles of size and v ) and Q ( v ; ) represents the specific coalescence rate
(the rate at which particles of size v coalesce with particles of size to form particles of size
v + .
Size Fraction
Equations
The next step of the MUSIG model is to discretize (Eqn. 564) into size groups, or bins. Let N i
represent the number density of size group i :
Ni ( t ) =
vi + 1 2
i12
n ( v, t ) dv
(Eqn. 569)
Also define the mass and volume fraction of size group i to be m i and r i , respectively, and
recognize that m i N i = i r i . Now integrate (Eqn. 564) over the bin size dimension and
multiply by m i to give
( m i N i ( t ) )
------------------------ +
( U ii ( t )N i ( t ) ) = S i
t
xi
(Eqn. 570)
or
( i r i )
-------------- +
( i r i U ii ) = S i
t
xi
(Eqn. 571)
Page 141
Defining the size fraction f i = r i r d , this equation may also be written as
( r f ) + ( r U if ) = S
i
t i d i xi i d i i
(Eqn. 572)
which is the size fraction equation used by the MUSIG model. A further simplification is to
assume that all size groups share the same density d and velocity u di yielding the
homogeneous MUSIG model:

( r f ) + ( r U i f ) = Si
t d d i xi d d d i
Source Terms
(Eqn. 573)
The contribution of the birth rate due to breakup of larger particles to the source term in
(Eqn. 573) is
B Bi = m i
vi + 1 2
B dv
vi 1 2 B
= m i g ( v j ;v i )N j
(Eqn. 574)
j>i
= d r d g ( v j ;v i )f j
j>i
Similarly, the contribution of the death rate due to breakup into smaller particles is
D Bi = d r d f i g ( v i ;v j )
(Eqn. 575)
j<1
Note that the total source due to breakup is zero when summed over all size groups:
( BBi DBi )
= 0
(Eqn. 576)
For the discretized coalescence sources, we must define the coalescence mass matrix X jki
as the fraction of mass due to coalescence between groups j at t which goes into group i :
X jki
Page 142
( mj + mk ) mi 1
---------------------------------------mi mi 1
= mi + 1 ( mj + mk )
---------------------------------------mi + 1 mi
if
mi 1 < mj + mk < mi
if
mi < mj + mk < mi + 1
(Eqn. 577)
otherwise
The contribution of the birth rate due to coalescence of smaller particles to the source term
in (Eqn. 573) is
B Ci = m i
vi + 1 2
B dv
vi 1 2 C
= m i 1--
2
ji
Q ( vj ;vk )Xjki Nj Nk
(Eqn. 578)
ki
2 1
= ( d r d ) --
2
ji
mj + mk
-
Q ( vj ;vk )Xjki fj fk ----------------mj mk
ki
Similarly, the contribution of the death rate due to coalescence into larger groups is
2
1-
D Ci = ( d r d ) Q ( v i ;v j )f i f j ---
m
j
(Eqn. 579)
Note that this formulation for the coalescence source terms guarantees that the total source
to coalescence is zero when summed over all size groups:
( BCi DCi )
= 0
(Eqn. 580)
This follows from the requirement that Q ( v i ;v j ) = Q ( v d ;v i ) together with the following
property of the mass matrix for all j, k :
Xjki
= 1
(Eqn. 581)
Size Group Discretisation

The size groups may be discretised using one of three recipes. In each case, a minimum and
maximum diameter for the polydispersed fluid must be set along with the number of size
groups. In all cases, the diameter and mass of a particular group are related by
3
--- d
m =
6 d
(Eqn. 582)
If the fluid density is not constant, a constant reference density must be used in this
expression to ensure that the group sizes are independent of local density.
Page 143
Equal Mass
Discretisation
Equal diameter
discretisation
In this case, the minimum and maximum mass are calculated from the minimum and
maximum diameter using (Eqn. 582). The mass of group i is calculated using
m i = m min + m i 1--
2
(Eqn. 583)
m max m min
m = ----------------------------N
(Eqn. 584)
In this case, the diameter of group i is calculated from
1
d i = d min + d i --
2
(Eqn. 585)
d max d min
d = -------------------------N
(Eqn. 586)
and the group mass is calculated from (Eqn. 582).

Geometric Mass
Discretisation
In this case, a geometrical progression for mass as follows:
3 m max m minm i = m min + -- ----------------------------Ni

4
2
Comparison
(Eqn. 587)
The following table compares diameters for the three discretisation options for a
polydispersed fluid having d min = 0mm and . d max = 2mm
The equal mass distribution resolves large bubbles the most, the geometric distribution
resolves the small bubbles well, and the equal diameter distribution weights both equally.
Page 144
Group
Equal Mass
Equal Diameter
Geometric Mass
585
50
22.5
843
150
28.4
1000
250
35.8
1118
350
45.1
1216
450
56.8
1300
550
71.5
1375
650
90.1
1442
750
114
1503
850
143
10
1560
950
180
11
1613
1050
227
12
1663
1150
286
13
1710
1250
360
14
1754
1350
454
15
1796
1450
572

Group
Equal Mass
Equal Diameter
Geometric Mass
16
1837
1550
721
17
1875
1650
908
18
1912
1750
1144
19
1948
1850
1442
20
1983
1950
1817
Breakup Models
Breakup kernels are often expressed as a function of the breakup fraction
m
f BV = -----j
mi
(Eqn. 588)
ANSYS CFX-Solver supports two breakup models.

Luo and
Luo and Svendsen [61] developed a theoretical model for the breakup of drops and bubbles
Svendsen Model in turbulent suspensions. The model is based on the theory of isotropic turbulence and
probability. The breakup kernel is modelled as
1 3 1 ( 1 + )2
g ( vi ;f BV v i ) = 0.923F B ( 1 r d ) ----c- ------------------ e d
min 11 3
d 2i
(Eqn. 589)
where
23
23
12 ( f BV + ( 1 f BV )
1 )
= --------------------------------------------------------------2 3 5 3 11 3
c c d i
(Eqn. 590)
is the dimensionless size of eddies in the inertial subrange of isotropic turbulence. The
lower limit of the integration is given by
min = 11.4 ---di
(Eqn. 591)
where
1- 3 1 4
= -- c
c
(Eqn. 592)
In addition, F B is a calibration coefficient, = 2 , c is the continuous-phase eddy

dissipation rate, c is the continuous-phase kinematic viscosity, and is the surface
tension coefficient.
Page 145
User Defined
Models
A custom model for the breakup kernel g ( v i ;v j ) may also be provided. The model may be
a CEL expression or User Routine and may be a function of the diameter and/or mass of
groups i and j as well as any fluid variable.
Coalescence Models
ANSYS CFX-Solver supports 2 coalescence models.
Prince and
Blanch Model
The model of Prince and Blanch [62] assumes that the coalescence of two bubbles occurs in
three steps. First, the bubbles collide trapping a small amount of liquid between them. This
liquid film then drains until the liquid film separating the bubbles reaches a critical
thickness. The film them ruptures and the bubbles join together.
The coalescence kernel is therefore modelled by a collision rate of two bubbles and a
collision efficiency relating to the time required for coalescence:
T
Q ( vi ;v j ) = ( ij + ij + ij ) ij
(Eqn. 593)
The collision efficiency is modelled by comparing the time required for coalescence t ij with
the actual contact time during the collision : ij
ij = e
t ij ij
(Eqn. 594)
3 12
c r
t ij = --------ij-
16
h
ln ----0-
hf
(Eqn. 595)
23
r ij
ij = ---------13
c
(Eqn. 596)
where h 0 is the initial film thickness, h f is the critical film thickness when rupture occurs,
and r ij is the equivalent radius:
1 + -1 1
r ij = 1-- -2r r
i
j
(Eqn. 597)
The turbulent contributions to collision frequency are modelled as

T
2 12
ij = F CT S ij ( u ti + u tj )
Page 146
(Eqn. 598)
Multiphase Flow Theory: The Algebraic Slip Model
where the cross-sectional area of the colliding particles is defined by

2
S ij = --- ( d i + d j )
4
(Eqn. 599)
the turbulent velocity is given by
u ti =
13 13
2 c d i
(Eqn. 600)
and F CT is a calibration factor. The buoyancy contribution to collision frequency is modelled

as
ijB = F CB S ij U rj U ri
(Eqn. 601)
where
U ri =
2.14
------------- + 0.505gd i
c di
(Eqn. 602)
and F CB is a calibration factor.

The shear contribution to collision frequency is currently neglected.
User-defined
Models
A custom model for the coalescence rate kernel Q ( v i ;v j ) may also be provided. The model
may be a CEL expression or User Routine involving the diameter and/or mass of groups i
and j as well as any fluid variable. Note that the model must give symmetric coalescence
rates (). Q ( v i ;v j ) = Q ( v j ;v i )
The Algebraic Slip Model

Models for algebraic slip were first introduced by Ishii [59] Manninen and Taivassalo [60],
provide a more general formulation which forms the basis for the implementation in ANSYS
CFX.
Phasic Equations
A starting point is to review the equations for multiphase flow. The continuity equation for
phase is
i
( r ) ( r u )
------------------ + ------------------------ = 0
i
t
x
(Eqn. 603)
Page 147
and the momentum equation is

i
ji
( r u ) ( r u u )
( r )
i
i
p- + --------------------------------------- + ------------------------------ = r ----- + r g + M
j
i
j
t
x
x
x
(Eqn. 604)
where M represents momentum transfer with other phases.
Bulk equations
A bulk continuity equation is derived by summing (Eqn. 603) over all phases:
i
m ( m u m )
--------- + -------------------- = 0
i
t
x
(Eqn. 605)
and a bulk momentum equation by summing (Eqn. 605) over all phases:
i
ji
ji
( m u m ) ( m u m u m )
( m + D )
i
p- + ------------------------------------------ + --------------------------- = ----- + m g
j
i
j
t
x
x
x
(Eqn. 606)
where
m =
r u
m um =
m =
(Eqn. 607)
D = r ( u u m )u
ji
Drift and slip relations

We now define the slip velocity to be the phasic velocity relative to the continuous phase:
i
u S = u u c
(Eqn. 608)
and the drift velocity as

i
u D = u u m
Page 148
(Eqn. 609)
The slip and drift velocities are related by
u D = u S Y u S
i
(Eqn. 610)
With these relationships, the phasic continuity equation may be written in terms of mass
fraction and drift velocity as
( m Y )
i
i
-------------------- +
( m Y ( u m + u D ) ) = 0
i
t
x
(Eqn. 611)
Derivation of the Algebraic Slip Equation

The phasic and bulk momentum equations are first transformed to nonconservative form by
combining with the phasic and bulk continuity equations. The phasic momentum equation
then becomes
i
ji
u
( r )
i
j u
i
p- + ---------------- + r g + M
r -------- + r u -------- = r ----j
i
j
t
x
x
x
(Eqn. 612)
and the bulk momentum equation becomes:

i
ji
ji
u m
( m + D )
i
j u m
p- + ----------------------- + m u m -------- = ----- + m g
m -------j
i
j
t
x
x
x
(Eqn. 613)
(Eqn. 612)and (Eqn. 613) are combined to eliminate the pressure gradient term, yielding
i
i
M
u D
u m
- + ( m ) --------
= r ---------t
t
(Eqn. 614)
j u
j u m
+ r u -------- m u m --------
j
j
x
x
ji
ji
ji
( r )
( m + D )
---------------- + r ----------------------j
j
x
x
r ( m )g
Page 149
Several assumptions are now made:

1. The dispersed phase is assumed to instantaneously reach its terminal velocity, so the
transient term on the drift velocity is neglected.
2. The approximation is made that:
i
j u
u -------j
i
j u m
u m --------j
(Eqn. 615)
3. The viscous stresses and apparent diffusion stresses are neglected.

With these approximations, (Eqn. 614) simplifies to
i
i
M
u m
j u m
i
- g
= r ( m ) -------- + u m -------j
t
(Eqn. 616)
In addition, it is assumed that the interphase momentum transfer is due only to drag and
that the particles are spherical:
i
3 r -c C u u i
M = -- --------4 d p D S S
(Eqn. 617)
which leads to the following closed relationship for the slip velocity:
i
i
u S u S
u m
dp
j u m
i
= 4-- ---------- ( m ) -------- + u m -------- g
j
3 c CD
t
(Eqn. 618)
Note that, for rotating reference frames, the apparent accelerations are automatically
included by taking the derivative of the absolute frame velocity rather than relative frame
velocity on the right-hand-side.
ji
The effect of D :in the bulk momentum equation is neglected in the current
implementation.
Turbulence effects
In Eulerian-Eulerian multiphase, the averaging process used ensures that turbulence effects
do not affect the continuity equation; instead they appear as an apparent turbulent
dispersion force in the momentum equation.
Page 150
Multiphase Flow Theory: Turbulence Modelling in Multiphase Flow
In the ASM formulation outlined here, turbulent dispersion forces are not considered in the
derivation of slip velocity. Instead, turbulent dispersion is modelled using the same
turbulence model as for multicomponent flows:
Y
i
Y u = -----t- -------Pr t x i
(Eqn. 619)
Energy equation
For multicomponent fluids, the energy equation has a additional term corresponding to
enthalpy transport by species velocities. For standard transported components, this velocity
is modelled using Ficks law. For ASM components, this term uses the drift velocity.
The following term is therefore added to the right-hand side of (Eqn. 243):
j
x
Nc
j h
m Y uD
(Eqn. 620)
Wall deposition
If desired, the dispersed phase which accumulates on a boundary may be removed from the
calculation. A sink for the ASM mass fraction is defined accordingly. The implicit
assumption is that this mass is replaced by an equal mass of the ballast (constraint)
component. The energy equation also removes the enthalpy of the ASM species and adds
the enthalpy of the ballast species.
Turbulence Modelling in Multiphase Flow

This section describes the extension of the single-phase turbulence models to multiphase
simulations. Documentation that describes the theory of single-phase turbulence models,
should be read before continuing with this section. For details, see Turbulence Models (p. 67
in "ANSYS CFX-Solver, Release 10.0: Theory").
Phase-Dependent Turbulence Models

Phase dependent turbulence models can be used in conjunction with the inhomogeneous
model (particle and mixture models) only.
The Eddy
Viscosity
Hypothesis
The eddy viscosity hypothesis is assumed to hold for each turbulent phase. Diffusion of
momentum in phase is governed by an effective viscosity:
eff = + t
(Eqn. 621)
Page 151
Algebraic
Models
Zero Equation Model

The default zero-equation model uses a formula based on geometric length scale and the
mean solution velocity. It is correlated for single-phase turbulent pipe flow. The turbulence
viscosity is modelled as the product of a turbulent velocity scale, Ut, and a turbulence
length scale, lt, as proposed by Prandtl and Kolmogorov,
t = f U t l t
(Eqn. 622)
where fm is a proportionality constant. The velocity scale is calculated to be the maximum

velocity in phase . If you specify a value for the velocity scale it will be used for all phases.
The length scale is derived using the formula:
1-3
VD
l t = ----7
(Eqn. 623)
where VD is the fluid domain volume.

Dispersed Phase Zero Equation Model
td
t-c
= -----
td
tc
= ----d- ------
(Eqn. 624)
The parameter is a turbulent Prandtl number relating the dispersed phase kinematic eddy
viscosity td to the continuous phase kinematic eddy viscosity tc.
In situations where the particle relaxation time is short compared to turbulence dissipation
time scales, you may safely use the default value = 1. If the particle relaxation time is long
compared to turbulence dissipation time scales, it may be better to use a value of > 1. This
is highly model dependent. Several models are available in the literature.
Two-Equation
Models
For the k- model the turbulent viscosity is modelled as:
Page 152
2
k
= C -----

(Eqn. 625)
The transport equations for k and in a turbulent phase are assumed to take a similar form
to the single-phase transport equations:
t
r
- k
( k ) + r U k + -----t
k
(Eqn. 626)
(k)
= r ( P ) + T
t
( r ) + r U + ------
()
= r ----- ( C 1 P C 2 ) + T
k
(Eqn. 627)
Definitions of the terms are available. For details, see The k- model in ANSYS CFX (p. 72 in
"ANSYS CFX-Solver, Release 10.0: Theory").
(k)
()
The additional terms T and T represent interphase transfer for k and respectively.
These are omitted in ANSYS CFX, though they may be added as user sources.
Other two equation turbulence models are treated in a similar way.
Reynolds Stress
Models
The multiphase versions of Reynolds stress models are equivalent to the single phase
version, with all flux and volumetric source terms multiplied by volume fractions. Single
phase version information is available. For details, see Reynolds Stress Turbulence Models
By default, no additional exchange terms are added, though they may be added as user
sources.
Turbulence Enhancement
Sato [22] successfully modelled Particle Induced Turbulence this for bubbly flow using an
enhanced continuous phase eddy viscosity:
tc = ts + tp
(Eqn. 628)
where ts is the usual Shear Induced Eddy Viscosity, and tp is an additional Particle
Induced Eddy Viscosity:
tp = C p c r d d p U d U c
(Eqn. 629)
The variable C p has a value of 0.6.
Page 153
Multiphase Flow Theory: Additional Variables in Multiphase Flow
Homogeneous Turbulence for Multiphase Flow

In homogeneous multiphase flow, bulk turbulence equations are solved which are the same
as the single phase equations, except that the mixture density and the mixture viscosity are
used. Single phase turbulence model information is available. For details, see Turbulence
Models (p. 67 in "ANSYS CFX-Solver, Release 10.0: Theory").
For inhomogeneous multiphase flow, it is possible to solve a single turbulence field in a
similar way to homogeneous flow. For details, see Homogeneous Turbulence in
Inhomogeneous Flow (p. 170 in "ANSYS CFX-Solver, Release 10.0: Modelling").
Additional Variables in Multiphase Flow

When exists in phase , the corresponding field variable is denoted . If it obeys a
transport equation, it is given by:
t
( r ) + ( r U ) r D ( ) + --------

t
Sc t
()
(Eqn. 630)
()
= S + T
Note:
is the conserved quantity per unit mass of phase .
is the conserved quantity per unit volume of phase , where =
()
is the Kinematic Diffusivity for the scalar in phase . This may be set for each
Additional Variable and each phase separately.
()
is the external volumetric source term in phase , with units of conserved quantity
per unit volume per unit time.
()
represents the total source to due to inter-phase transfer across interfaces with
other phases.
Although the turbulent Schmidt number, Sct, is shown to apply to phase only, it
currently cannot be specified on a phase-specific basis in ANSYS CFX.
As in single phase (see Additional Variables (p. 39 in "ANSYS CFX-Solver, Release 10.0:
Theory")), Diffusive Transport and Poisson equations are also available for multiphase
additional variables). Diffusive transport equations exclude the advection term, turbulent
diffusion term, and contributions due to interphase mass transfer from (Eqn. 630). Poisson
equations exclude these terms as well as the transient term.
Additional Variable Interphase Transfer Models

It is possible for an additional variable to be coupled to a different additional variable
across a phase interface between fluids and .
Page 154
The total source to per unit volume due to interaction with other phases is given by:
()
()
(Eqn. 631)
where:
()
()
()
T = T T
= 0
(Eqn. 632)
The simplest models for interphase transfer between and take the driving force to be
proportional to the difference in bulk additional variable values across the phase interface:
()
()
()
()
T = c ( )
(Eqn. 633)
T = c ( )
(Eqn. 634)
The first of these is used if the additional variable is defined per unit mass. The latter is used
if the additional variable is defined per unit volume.
()
The coefficients c are defined by analogy with heat transfer. For details, see
Inhomogeneous Interphase Heat Transfer Models (p. 136 in "ANSYS CFX-Solver, Release 10.0:
Theory").
Transfer of an additional variable across a phase boundary is described by an additional
variable transfer coefficient . It is the amount of crossing a unit area per unit time
per unit difference in across the phase boundary. Thus:
()
T = A ( ),
()
T = A ( ),
for specific variables

for volumetric variables
(Eqn. 635)
(Eqn. 636)
So, we have:
()
c = A
(Eqn. 637)
It is often convenient to express the additional variable transfer coefficient in terms of a

dimensionless Sherwood number Sh, analogous to the Nusselt number in heat transfer.
Sh
= --------d
(Eqn. 638)
Page 155
The diffusivity scale is the kinematic diffusivity D for a volumetric variable, and the
dynamic diffusivity D for a specific variable.
Particle Model
Correlations
In the particle model, the diffusivity scale is that of the continuous phase, and the length
scale d is the mean diameter of the dispersed phase:
Sh
= ----------------d
(Eqn. 639)
For laminar forced convection around a spherical particle, theoretical analysis shows that
Sh = 2. For a particle in a moving incompressible Newtonian fluid, the Sherwood number is
a function of the particle Reynolds number Re and the additional variable Prandtl number
Pr = / (D).
Details on the models available in ANSYS CFX for additional variable transfer are available.
For details, see Particle Model Correlations (p. 172 in "ANSYS CFX-Solver, Release 10.0:
Modelling"). Some additional details for the Interface Flux model are provided below.
Interface Flux
The user specifies directly the interfacial flux F12 from additional variable 1 in fluid 1 to
additional variable 2 in fluid 2 of a specified fluid pair. This is the rate of additional
variable transfer per unit time per unit interfacial area from phase 1 to phase 2. Hence
the amount of additional variable transferred to fluid 2 from fluid 1 per unit volume is
given by:
T 21 = T 12 = A 12 F 12
(Eqn. 640)
F12 may be given as a constant or an expression.

Typically, F12 will be a function of the fluid 1 and fluid 2 additional variable fields, and
possibly other variables. In this case, the user may accelerate convergence of the
coupled solver by also specifying optional fluid 1 and fluid 2 additional variable flux
coefficients.
F 12
- 0,
c 1 -------- 1
F 21
- 0,
c 2 -------- 2
if volumetric
F 12
- 0,
c 1 -------- 1
F 21
- 0,
c 2 -------- 2
if specific
(Eqn. 641)
The solver takes the absolute value of these flux coefficients to ensure that they are
positive. This is required for numerical stability. The partial derivatives need not be
computed exactly; it is sufficient for the specified coefficients to simply approximate the
Page 156
Multiphase Flow Theory: Sources in Multiphase Flow
partial derivatives. Specification of additional variable flux coefficients only affects the
convergence rate to the solution of the coupled transfer equations, it does not affect the
accuracy of the converged solution.
For example, the simple model using a transfer coefficient multiplied by bulk specific
additional variable differences my be recovered using:
F 12 = F 21 = c ( 1 2 ),
Mixture Model
Correlations
c1 = c2 = c
(Eqn. 642)
If you are using the mixture model, the Sherwood number is defined in terms of a mixture
diffusivity scale and the mixture length scale:
Sh
-,
= ------------------d
= r + r
(Eqn. 643)
Homogeneous Additional Variables in Multiphase Flow

Homogeneous additional variables are assumed to have the same values for all phases i.e
1 Np
(Eqn. 644)
and are described by the following bulk transport equation:
( ) + ( U ) = S
t
(Eqn. 645)
where:
NP
r ,
=1
1U = -
NP
NP
r U ,
=1
(Eqn. 646)
=1
Homogeneous diffusive transport equations exclude the advection term from (Eqn. 645),
while homogeneous Poisson equations exclude the advection and transient terms.
In most cases the homogeneous assumption is inappropriate for volumetric additional
variables. For this reason, only specific additional variables are permitted to be
homogeneous in ANSYS CFX.
Sources in Multiphase Flow

The following topics will be discussed:
Fluid-specific Sources (p. 158 in "ANSYS CFX-Solver, Release 10.0: Theory")
Bulk Sources (p. 158 in "ANSYS CFX-Solver, Release 10.0: Theory")
Page 157
Multiphase Flow Theory: Interphase Mass Transfer
Fluid-specific Sources
Fluid-specific sources are very similar to those in single phase, except that they are
implemented on a phase basis. For details, see Sources (p. 41 in "ANSYS CFX-Solver, Release
10.0: Theory"). You may need to multiply a multiphase source by the volume fraction. For
details, see Sources in Multiphase Flow (p. 173 in "ANSYS CFX-Solver, Release 10.0:
Modelling").
Bulk Sources
Sources in multiphase flow often have the property that they scale with volume fraction; i.e.,
as the volume fraction source goes to 0, the source also goes to 0. Bulk sources satisfy this
property. They are applied at a fluid-independent level, and are therefore automatically
added to the equations of all fluids for which they are relevant.
Interphase Mass Transfer

Interphase mass transfer occurs when mass is carried from one phase into another. It is
applicable to both the inhomogeneous and homogeneous multiphase models. For details,
see Interphase Mass Transfer (p. 173 in "ANSYS CFX-Solver, Release 10.0: Modelling").
Mass transfer is represented by sources in the phasic continuity equations:
- ( r ) + ( r U ) = S +
--
(Eqn. 647)
S describes user specified mass sources. For details, see Sources (p. 41 in "ANSYS
is the mass source per unit volume into phase due to interphase mass transfer.
This is expressed as follows:
Np
(Eqn. 648)
=1
is the mass flow rate per unit volume from phase to phase . We must have:
Np
= 0
(Eqn. 649)
=1
Page 158
As it is important to keep track of the direction of mass transfer processes, it is convenient to

express as follows:
+
(Eqn. 650)
The term:
+
> 0
represents the positive mass flow rate per unit volume from phase to phase .
For mass transfer processes across a phase interphase, it is useful to express the volumetric
mass sources in terms of mass fluxes:
= m A
(Eqn. 651)
m is the mass flow rate per unit interfacial area from phase to phase , and A is
the interfacial area density between the phases.
As interfacial area is commonly proportional to volume fraction, this permits automatic

linearisation of mass transfer terms relative to volume fraction.
Secondary
Fluxes
The mass source terms affecting the continuity equations, are referred to as primary
mass sources. Clearly, if mass transfer occurs between phases, then this also induces
additional sources and sinks between all other transport equations. These are referred to as
secondary sources, or secondary fluxes, due to mass transfer.
The default form of the secondary source terms for a transported variable is:
Np
S M =
( )
+
(Eqn. 652)
=1
That is, mass transfer from a phase into a phase carries the bulk conserved quantity
into phase . This is referred to as an upwind formulation, as the upwinded value is carried
out ot the outgoing phase, and into the incoming phase.
This default formulation is modified in certain circumstances, in order to take account of
discontinuities in the transported variable at the phase interface, for example, enthalpy in
the case of phase change. For details, see The Thermal Phase Change Model (p. 164 in "ANSYS
User Defined Interphase Mass Transfer

For advanced applications, it is possible to specify directly the interphase mass transfer
sources.
Page 159
If the interphase mass flux m

between any pair of phases is specified, the volumetric
mass source is computed internally by multiplying by interfacial area density:
= m A
(Eqn. 653)
Alternatively, you may directly specify the volumetric mass source, or interphase mass
flow, .
In both cases, all transport equations are automatically assigned default secondary sources
of the upwinded form:
+
S M = ( )
(Eqn. 654)
This default form of secondary sources may be overridden in CCL.
General Species Mass Transfer

Consider the interphase mass transfer of a component A which is present in two phases
and . There are several different but related variables for measuring the concentration of
component A in a mixture that contains it.
c A = Molar Concentration of Component A in phase

A = Mass Concentration of Component A in phase
X A = Mole Fraction of Component A in phase
(Eqn. 655)
Y A = Mass Fraction of Component A in phase

These are related at follows:
A = M A c A ,
Equilibrium
Models
A
Y A = ------
(Eqn. 656)
Consider two phases , , which contain a component A, and consider the situation where
the component A is in dynamic equilibrium between the phases. Typically the
concentrations of A in each phase are not the same. However, there is a well defined
equilibrium curve relating the two concentrations at equilibrium. This is often, though not
always, expressed in terms of mole fractions:
X A = f ( X A )
Page 160
c A
X A = -------,
c
(Eqn. 657)
For binary mixtures, the equilibrium curve depends on temperature and pressure. For
multicomponent mixtures, it also depends on mixture composition. The equilibrium curve
is in general monotonic and non-linear. Nevertheless, it is convenient to quasi-linearise the
equilibrium relationship as follows:
x
X A = K A X A
K A = mole fraction equilibrium ratio

(Eqn. 658)
Other useful forms of the equilibrium relationship are:
Y A = K A Y A
c
c A = K A c A
A = K A A
K A = mass fraction equilibrium ratio

c
K A = molar concentration equilibrium ratio
K A = mass concentration equilibrium ratio

(Eqn. 659)
The various equilibrium ratios are related as follows:
c x
y
c
K A = K A = ----- K A = -----K
c
A
(Eqn. 660)
Raoults Law
In gas-liquid systems, equilibrium relationships are most conveniently expressed in terms of
the partial pressure of the solute in the gas phase.
It is well known that, for a pure liquid A in contact with a gas containing its vapour, dynamic
equilibrium occurs when the partial pressure of the vapour A is equal to its saturated vapour
pressure at the same temperature.
Raoults law generalises this statement for the case of an ideal liquid mixture in contact with
a gas. It states that the partial pressure PAg of solute gas A is equal to the product of its
saturated vapour pressure PAsat at the same temperature, and its mole fraction in the liquid
solution XA.
P Ag = P Asat X Al
(Eqn. 661)
If the gas phase is ideal, then Daltons law of partial pressures gives:
P Ag = X Ag P g
(Eqn. 662)
and Raoults law in terms of a mole fraction equilibrium ratio:
P Ag = P Asat X Al
(Eqn. 663)
Page 161
Henrys Law
In the case of a gaseous material A dissolved in a non-ideal liquid phase, Raoults law needs
to be generalised. Henrys law states that a linear relationship exists between the mole
fraction of A dissolved in the liquid and the partial pressure of A in the gas phase. This is:
x
P Ag = H X Al
(Eqn. 664)
H is Henrys constant for the component A in the liquid l. It has units of pressure, and is
known empirically for a wide range of material pairs, especially for common gases dissolved
in water. It is strongly dependent on temperature.
Henrys law may also be combined with Daltons law in order to express it in terms of a mole
fraction equilibrium ratio:
x
X Ag = K X Al ,
H Al
K = -----Pg
x
(Eqn. 665)
Unfortunately, there is no common convention on the definition of Henrys constant.

Another definition in common use, relates the partial pressure in the gas to the molar
concentration in the liquid:
c
P Ag = H c Al
(Eqn. 666)
The two definitions of Henrys constant are related by:

c
P Ag = H c Al
Two Resistance
Model with
Negligible Mass
Transfer
(Eqn. 667)
Due to the presence of discontinuities in concentration at phase equilibrium, it is in general

not possible to model multicomponent mass transfer using a single overall mass transfer
coefficient. Instead, it is necessary to consider a generalisation of the Two Resistance Model
previously discussed for heat transfer. For details, see The Two Resistance Model (p. 138 in
Consider a species A dissolved in two immiscible phases and . The basic assumption is
that there is no resistance to mass transfer at the phase interface, and hence that equilibrium
conditions prevail at the phase interface.
Page 162
Also, it is assumed in this section that the total mass transfer due to species transfer is
sufficiently small that primary mass sources to the phasic continuity equations are
neglected. Hence, secondary mass fluxes to the species mass transfer equations are also
ignored.
Molar Concentration of A
cA
cAs
cAs
Phase
Interface
cA
Phase
c
We model the component mass transfer using mass transfer coefficients k , k , defined
either side of the phase interface. These are usually defined so that driving forces are defined
in terms of molar concentration differences. Thus the molar flux of A to phase from the
interface is:
c
n A = k ( c As c A )
(Eqn. 668)
and the molar flux of A to phase from the interface is:

c
n A = k ( c As c A )
(Eqn. 669)
Multiplying through by the molar mass of A, this determines the mass fluxes as follows:
Mass flux of A to phase from the interface:
c
m A = k ( As A )
Mass flux of A to phase from the interface:
c
m A = k ( As A )
(Eqn. 670)
In order to eliminate the unknown interface values, and (Eqn. 670) must be supplemented
by the equilibrium relation between s and s. This is most conveniently expressed using
the molar concentration equilibrium ratio:
c
c As = K c As
As = K As
(Eqn. 671)
Page 163
The mass balance condition:
m A + m A = 0
(Eqn. 672)
may now be combined with the quasi-linearised equilibrium relationship (Eqn. 671) to
determine the interface mass concentrations:
c
As
k A + k A
---------- = As = --------------------------------c
c
c c
K
K k + k
(Eqn. 673)
These may be used to eliminate the interface values in and (Eqn. 670) in order to express the
interfacial mass fluxes in terms of the phasic mass concentrations:
m A = m A = k ( K A A ),
1- + ---K1 = ---------c
c
c
k k
k
(Eqn. 674)
The Thermal Phase Change Model

This model describes phase change induced by interphase heat transfer in the interior of the
flow. Hence, it may be used to simulate evaporation and condensation, or melting and
solidification. For example, it may be used to model condensation of saturated vapour
bubbles in sub-cooled liquid, or evaporation of saturated bubbles in super-heated liquid.
Modelling advice and consideration information is available. For details, see Thermal Phase
Change Model (p. 174 in "ANSYS CFX-Solver, Release 10.0: Modelling").
It is essential to consider the heat transfer processes on each side of the phase interface.
Hence, the Two Resistance Model for interphase heat transfer must be used in conjunction
with the Thermal Phase Change model. For details, see The Two Resistance Model (p. 138 in
Recall that, in this case the sensible heat flux to phase from the interface is:
q = h ( Ts T )
(Eqn. 675)
and the sensible heat flux to phase from the interface is:
q = h ( Ts T )
(Eqn. 676)
h and h are the phase and phase heat transfer coefficients respectively.
The interfacial temperature is determined from considerations of thermodynamic

equilibrium. Ignoring effects of surface tension on pressure, we assume Ts = Tsat., the
saturation temperature.
Note that this is in contrast to the case where there is no mass transfer. In that case, the
interfacial temperature is determined from the sensible heat balance . q + q = 0 .
Page 164
In the case of interphase mass transfer, the interphase mass transfer is determined from the
total heat balance, as follows.
Total heat flux to phase from the interface:
Q = q + m H s
(Eqn. 677)
Total heat flux to phase from the interface:
Q = q m H s
(Eqn. 678)
m denotes mass flux into phase from phase .
H s and H s represent interfacial values of enthalpy carried into and out of the phases
due to phase change, see below for details.
The total heat balance Q + Q = 0 now determines the interphase mass flux:
q + q
m = --------------------H s H s
(Eqn. 679)
The secondary heat flux term must be modified in order to take account of the discontinuity
in static enthalpy due to latent heat between the two phases. This is achieved using a
modification of the upwind formulation (Eqn. 654), due to Prakash [53] In this formulation,
the bulk fluid enthalpy is carried out of the outgoing phase, as in the default upwind
formulation. However, the saturation enthalpy is carried into the incoming phase. Thus:
m > 0
H s = H sat , H s = H
m < 0
H s = H , H s = H sat
(Eqn. 680)
This leads to a formulation which is stable both physically and numerically. It implies that the
denominator of (Eqn. 679) is non-zero, being greater than or equal to the latent heat
. L = H sat H sat
The Cavitation Model

The tendency for a flow to cavitate is characterised by the cavitation number, defined as:
pp
Ca = -------------v
1--U 2
2
(Eqn. 681)
where p is a reference pressure for the flow (eg, inlet pressure), pv is the vapour pressure for
the liquid, and the denominator represents the dynamic pressure. Clearly, the tendency for
a flow to cavitate increases as the cavitation number is decreased.
Page 165
Cavitation is treated separately from Thermal Phase Change, as the cavitation process is
typically too rapid for the assumption of thermal equilibrium at the interface to be correct.
In the simplest cavitation models, mass transfer is driven by purely mechanical effects,
namely liquid-vapour pressure differences, rather than thermal effects. Current research is
directed towards models which take both effects into account.
In ANSYS CFX, the Rayleigh Plesset model is implemented in the multiphase framework as
an interphase mass transfer model. User defined models can also be implemented.
For cavitating flow the homogeneous multiphase model is typically used.
The Rayleigh
Plesset Model
The Rayleigh-Plesset equation provides the basis for the rate equation controlling vapour
generation and condensation. The Rayleigh-Plesset equation describing the growth of a gas
bubble in a liquid is given by:
2
d R
dR 2
pv p
R B ----------B + 3-- -------B- + 2
------ = -----------2
f
2 dt
RB
dt
(Eqn. 682)
where RB represents the bubble diameter, pv is the pressure in the bubble (assumed to be
the vapour pressure at the liquid temperature), p is the pressure in the liquid surrounding
the bubble and is the surface tension coefficient between the liquid and vapour. Note that
this is derived from a mechanical balance, assuming no thermal barriers to bubble growth.
Neglecting the second order terms (which is appropriate for low oscillation frequencies) and
the surface tension, this equation reduces to:
dR
-------B- =
dt
2-- p
vp
-----------3 f
(Eqn. 683)
The rate of change of bubble volume follows as:
dV B
2 2 pv p
d- 4--R 3
-------- = ---=
4R
B -- ------------3 f
dt
dt 3 B
(Eqn. 684)
and the rate of change of bubble mass is:
pv p
dm B
dV
2
---------- = g -------B- = 4R B g 2-- -----------3 f
dt
dt
(Eqn. 685)
If there are NB bubbles per unit volume, the volume fraction rg may be expressed as:
3
r g = V B N B = 4--R B N B
3
Page 166
(Eqn. 686)
and the total interphase mass transfer rate per unit volume is:
3r g g 2 p v p
dm
- -- ------------m fg = N B ---------B- = -------------dt
RB
3 f
(Eqn. 687)
This expression has been derived assuming bubble growth (vaporisation). It can be
generalised to include condensation as follows:
3r g g 2 p v p
- -- ----------------- sgn ( p v p )
m fg = F -----------3 f
RB
(Eqn. 688)
where F is an empirical factor which may differ for condensation and vaporisation, designed
to account for the fact that they may occur at different rates (condensation is usually much
slower than vaporisation).
Despite the fact that (Eqn. 688) has been generalised for vaporisation and condensation, it
requires further modification in the case of vaporisation.
Vaporisation is initiated at nucleation sites (most commonly non-condensible gases). As the
vapour volume fraction increases, the nucleation site density must decrease accordingly,
since there is less liquid. For vaporisation, rg in (Eqn. 688) is replaced by rnuc(1 - rg) to give:
3r nuc ( 1 r g ) g 2 p v p
- -- ----------------- sgn ( p v p )
m fg = F ---------------------------------RB
3 f
(Eqn. 689)
where rnuc is the volume fraction of the nucleation sites. (Eqn. 688) is maintained in the case
of condensation. Note that in this model RB represents the diameter of the nucleation sites.
To obtain an interphase mass transfer rate, further assumptions regarding the bubble
concentration and radius are required. The Rayleigh Plesset cavitation model implemented
in ANSYS CFX uses the following defaults for the model parameters:
User Defined
Cavitation
Models
RB = 1 m
rnuc = 5E-4
Fvap = 50
Fcond = 0.01
Additional information on creating a user defined model is available. For details, see User
Defined Cavitation Models (p. 178 in "ANSYS CFX-Solver, Release 10.0: Modelling").
When using a user defined cavitation model, the ANSYS CFX-Solver will perform generic
linearisations for the volume fraction and volume continuity equations to help stability and
convergence. The saturation pressure is used by the ANSYS CFX-Solver in linearising the
cavitation rate against pressure.
Page 167
Multiphase Flow Theory: Free Surface Flow
Free Surface Flow

This section describes free surface flow theory, which is the most common application of
homogeneous multiphase flow.
Implementation
The implementation of free surface flow in ANSYS CFX is essentially the same as multiphase
(homogeneous or inhomogeneous) along with some special discretisation options to keep
the interface sharp. These include:
A compressive differencing scheme for the advection of volume fractions in the volume
fraction equations.
A compressive transient scheme for the volume fraction equations (if the problem is
transient).
Special treatment of the pressure gradient and gravity terms to ensure that the flow
remain well behaved at the interface.
Surface Tension
The surface tension model used in ANSYS CFX is based on the Continuum Surface Force
model of Brackbill et al [27] This models the surface tension force as a volume force
concentrated at the interface, rather than a surface force. Consider the free surface interface
shown in the figure below:
Figure 1
Free surface interface

Secondary Fluid,
n
Primary Fluid,
We define a Primary Fluid (the liquid phase) and a Secondary Fluid (usually a gas phase).
The surface tension force given by the Continuum Surface Force model is:
F = f
(Eqn. 690)
where:
f = n + s
=
Page 168
(Eqn. 691)
(Eqn. 692)
where is the surface tension coefficient, n is the interface normal vector pointing from
the primary fluid to the secondary fluid (calculated from the gradient of a smoothed volume
fraction), S is the gradient operator on the interface and is the surface curvature defined
by:
= n
(Eqn. 693)
The two terms summed on the right hand side of (Eqn. 691) reflect the normal and
tangential components of the surface tension force respectively. The normal component
arises from the interface curvature and the tangential component from variations in the
surface tension coefficient (the Marangoni effect).
The term is often called the interface delta function; it is zero away from the interface,
thereby ensuring that the surface tension force is active only near to the interface.
When the interface between the two fluids intersects a wall, it is possible to account for wall
adhesion by specifying the contact angle which the interface makes with the wall through
the primary fluid. The interface normal vector used for the calculations of both curvature
and the surface tension force must satisfy the wall contact angle.
Page 169
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01 Theory Multiphase

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01 Theory Multiphase

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Multiphase Flow Theory

The topics in this section include:

Introduction (p. 113 in "ANSYS CFX-Solver, Release 10.0: Theory")

Hydrodynamic Equations (p. 117 in "ANSYS CFX-Solver, Release 10.0: Theory")

ANSYS CFX-Solver, Release 10.0: Theory

Multiphase Flow Theory: The Homogeneous and Inhomogeneous Models

The total pressure in a multiphase simulation is defined as:

The Homogeneous and Inhomogeneous Models

ANSYS CFX-Solver, Release 10.0: Theory

Multiphase Flow Theory: The Homogeneous and Inhomogeneous Models

The Inhomogeneous Model

Non-dimensional interphase transfer coefficients may be correlated in terms of the particle

where d is an interfacial length scale, which you must specify.

ANSYS CFX-Solver, Release 10.0: Theory

Multiphase Flow Theory: The Homogeneous and Inhomogeneous Models

Non-dimensional interphase transfer coefficients may be correlated in terms of the mixture

The Free Surface Model

The Homogeneous Model

ANSYS CFX-Solver, Release 10.0: Theory

Multiphase Flow Theory: Hydrodynamic Equations

Since transported quantities are shared in homogeneous multiphase flow, it is sufficient so

ANSYS CFX-Solver, Release 10.0: Theory

Multiphase Flow Theory: Hydrodynamic Equations

Inhomogeneous Hydrodynamic Equations

ANSYS CFX-Solver, Release 10.0: Theory

Multiphase Flow Theory: Hydrodynamic Equations

for all = 1,......, N P

Homogeneous Hydrodynamic Equations

The homogeneous model for momentum transport assumes:

and is given by (Eqn. 462) and the momentum equation:

The following points should be noted:

The inter-phase transfer terms have all cancelled out.

ANSYS CFX-Solver, Release 10.0: Theory

Multiphase Flow Theory: Multicomponent Multiphase Flow

Multicomponent Multiphase Flow

Interphase Momentum Transfer Models

ANSYS CFX-Solver, Release 10.0: Theory

Multiphase Flow Theory: Interphase Momentum Transfer Models

Interphase Drag (p. 121 in "ANSYS CFX-Solver, Release 10.0: Theory")

Lift Force (p. 127 in "ANSYS CFX-Solver, Release 10.0: Theory")

ANSYS CFX-Solver, Release 10.0: Theory

Multiphase Flow Theory: Interphase Momentum Transfer Models

The drag exerted by a single particle on the continuous phase is,

which can be written as:

This is the form implemented in ANSYS CFX.

ANSYS CFX-Solver, Release 10.0: Theory

Multiphase Flow Theory: Interphase Momentum Transfer Models

Sparsely Distributed Solid Particles

Densely Distributed Solid Particles

24- ( 1 + 0.15Re' 0.687 ), 0.44

ANSYS CFX-Solver, Release 10.0: Theory

Multiphase Flow Theory: Interphase Momentum Transfer Models

Densely Distributed Solid Particles: Gidaspow Drag Model

0.7 < r c < 0.8 .

ANSYS CFX-Solver, Release 10.0: Theory

Multiphase Flow Theory: Interphase Momentum Transfer Models

The Ishii-Zuber correlation gives:

C D ( dist ) = min ( C D ( ellipse ), C D ( cap ) )

where the terminal velocity UT is given by:

ANSYS CFX-Solver, Release 10.0: Theory

Multiphase Flow Theory: Interphase Momentum Transfer Models

C D ( dist ) = min ( C D ( ellipse ), C D ( cap ) )

C D = max ( C D ( sphere ), C D ( dist ) )

Densely Distributed Fluid Particles: Ishii-Zuber Drag Model