Biology Reviewer

2nd Quarter
Biomolecules
- Chemical compound found in living organisms
- Building blocks of life
- 4 main types
1. Carbohydrates

Simple Sugars
o
Easily broken down
o
Easily digested

Complex Sugars
o
Take the longest to digest
o
Starches & grains
o
Three or more linked sugars

Common Monosaccharides
o
Glucose: produced during photosynthesis and is used in cellular respiration (main source
of energy
o
Fructose: sweetest and found in fruits
o
Galactose: found in milk; usually a combination of fructose and glucose

Common Disaccharides
o
Sucrose: fructose + glucose; found in sugar/sugarcane
o
Lactose: glucose + galactose; found in milk

Common Polysaccharides
o
Glycogen: storage form of glucose for animals (liver & muscle tissue)
o
Starch: plant storage form of carbohydrates (very good source of energy)
o
Cellulose: made by plants; gives it strength and rigidity (major component of wood)
2. Lipids

Great source of stored energy (long-term energy)

4 main types
o
Triglycerides

Glycerol & fatty acids

Main type of fat

Saturated fat: more difficult to break down (animal fat)

Unsaturated fat: healthy; easily broken down; found in plants (oil)

o
Phospholipids

Constructed like fat

Makes up plasma membrane

o
Waxes

Protection

Structural support
o
Steroid

For muscle increase

From cholesterol

Hormones

Examples: Anabolic and sex steroids

3. Nucleic Acids

Genetic info and protein synthesis

Nucleotide (monomer)

DNA
o
Two strands of nucleotides wound around each other to form a double helix
o
Controls production of protein
o
Makes codes for adenine (A), guanine (G), cytosine (C) and thymine (T)

RNA
o
Found in nucleus and cytoplasm
o
Stores and transfers genetic information
4. Proteins

Built from amino acids

Major structural molecules for growth and repair

ALL CELL MEMBRANES HAVE PROTEIN

Make up antibodies in the immune system that fight bacteria
Make up enzymes for helping in chemical reactions
Make up non-steroid hormones
Types
o
Structural: tendons, cartilage, hair, nails
o
Contractile: muscles
o
Transport: hemoglobin
o
Hormonal: insulin
o
Enzyme: catalyzes reaction in cells

They form peptide bonds

Keratin: skin, teeth, hair, nails

Myosin: ATP production

Collagen: connects & supports skin, bone, tendons, cartilage & muscles

Elastin: helps skin become flexible and tight

Hemoglobin: protein-based component of red blood cells in charge of transferring oxygen from
the lungs to the rest of the body
Biomolecule Reactions
1. Dehydration Reaction/ Condensation

2 molecules are chemically bonded through the use of enzymes and a loss of water
glucose + glucose + enzyme = maltose + enzyme + water
A H + B OH
A B + HO
2.

Hydrolysis

Bond between monomers are broken by the enzyme and the addition of water
sucrose + water + enzyme = glucose + fructose + enzyme
A B + HO
A H + B - OH
Chitin
polysaccharides that serves as an armor/ cell wall for fungi and arthropods including all crustaceans
and insects
Insulin
hormone produced in pancreas
regulates blood sugar
acts like a key opening up cells so they can take in sugar and use it as an energy source
Antigen
often a protein, sometimes a polysaccharide
outer covering of parasites/ toxins
stimulates the immune system to react such as to produce antibodies
Cellular Transport

All cells have a cell membrane

o
Controls what enters and exits the cell
o
Selectively permeable (has holes)
o
Maintains homeostasis
o
Protection and support for the cell

Structure
o
Lipid Bilayer = 2 layers of phospholipids

Phosphate head
Polar
Hydrophilic (water loving)

Fatty acid tails

Non-polar
Hydrophobic (water fearing)

Protein embedded membrane

Types of transport
o
Passive Transport (uses no energy): molecules move from a high concentrated area to a
low concentrated area

Diffusion
Molecules are spread around an area coming from a packed and tight
area (random movement)

Movement continues until all molecules are evenly spaced (equilibrium)

*Molecules still move but remain spread out in the state of
equilibrium

Facilitated Diffusion
Diffusion with the help of transport proteins
Transport proteins are selective and specific
Transports larger/ charged molecules

Osmosis
Diffusion of water through a selectively permeable membrane
o
Active Transport (uses energy): molecules move from a low concentrated area to a
high concentrated area actively

Protein Pumps
Transport proteins that require energy to do work
Example
Sodium-Potassium Pump
Moves potassium ions into and sodium ions out of a cell
along a protein (or enzyme) channel
Moves 3 sodium ions outside for each 2 potassium ions
that move in
o
Bulk Transport

Endocytosis (uses energy)

Taking bulky material into a cell
Cell membrane in-folds around a food particle
Cell eating occurs
Forms food vacuole and digests food
Three types
Phagocytosis
Material taken is large
Common in ammonia and white blood cells
Pinocytosis
Opposite of phagocytosis
Vesicles form around a liquid or very small particles
Plasmocytosis
Shrinking of cytoplasm due to osmosis

Exocytosis
Forces material out of cell in bulk
Membrane surrounding the material fuses with cell membrane
Cell changed shape and requires energy
Three Types of Solution
1. Hypotonic Solution
a. Low solute concentration; high water concentration
b. Result: water moves from the solution to inside the cell. Cell swells and bursts open
(Cytolysis)
c. Swelling of plant cells = turgor pressure (plant cells in this condition: turgid)
*plant cells dont burst; cytoplasm expands while the vacuole gains water
2. Hypertonic Solution
a. High solute concentration; low water concentration
b. Result: water moves from inside the cell to the solution. Cell shrinks and loses water.
(Plasmolysis)
c. Red blood cells in this condition: crenate
d. Plant cells in this condition: large central vacuole loses water
3. Isotonic Solution
a. Equal concentrations of solute and water
b. Result: water moves equally in both directions and the cell remains the same size (dynamic
equilibrium)
Rainforest

A forest that grows in constantly wet conditions

Receives more than 2000 mm of rain evenly spread throughout the year

Two types
o
Temperate: 50/40 inches of rain each year
o
Tropical: 80/400 inches of rain each year

Four parts of a rainforest

o
Forest Floor

Lowest part; receives the least amount of sunlight

o
Understory

Shaded by the canopy and emergent layer

o
Canopy

Plenty of sunlight can enter

o
Emergents/Emergent Layer

Highest part/ layer of a rainforest; receives the most sunlight

Importance
o
Keeps the temperature, humidity and wind level stable
o
Gives us raw materials that we use everyday
o
Maintains the biodiversity of life
Philippine Biodiversity Status

Endangered Species: species present in small numbers and are at risk of extinction

Endemic Species: organism exclusively present at a certain place

Causes of bird extinction

o
They are vulnerable to being shot
o
Their habitats are destroyed
o
Theyre trapped for pets and/or food

Examples of endangered species in the Philippines

o
Negros bleeding heart pigeon
o
Deer (Panay Islang)
o
Water buffalos
o
Philippine tarsier
o
Bearcat (Palawan)
o
Pilandok/ mouse deer
o
Dugong/ sea cow
o
Golden-capped fruit bat (largest bat)
o
Philippine bamboo bat (smallest bat)
o
Kagwang/ Flying Lemus
o
Visayan warty pig
o
Saltwater crocodile
o
Peacocks
o
Mindoro pigeon
o
Seahorses
o
Sulu Hornbill
o
Philippine red-vented cock
o
Cebu black shama
o
Cebu flowerpecker
o
Butanding (largest fish in the world)
o
Turtles: Loggerhead & Philippine green turtle
Energy

Two basic forms

o
Kinetic: Energy in motion
o
Potential: Stored energy

Follows two laws

o
Law of Conservation of Energy

Energy is neither created nor destroyed but can be changed from one form to
another
o
Law of Entropy

Energy cant be transformed without the loss of usable energy

Energy in living things

Chemical energy from food/nutrients

Can be stored by forming chemical bonds and released by breaking them

Two types
o
Exergonic Reaction: releases energy
o
Endergonic Reaction: absorbs energy
Adenosine Triphosphate (ATP)

Energy currency of a cell

High energy compound
Breaking the bond between the last two Phosphate groups will release a large amount of energy
Phosphate group can easily be removed
adenine + ribose (adenosine) + 3 Phosphate groups
Functions
o
Chemical work: synthesis/ production of macromolecules that make up the cell
o
Transport work: pumping of substances across the cell membrane
o
Mechanical work = permission for muscles to contract, cilia and flagella to beat and
chromosomes to move
Oxidation Reduction (Redox)

Oxidation: losing electrons

Reduction: gaining electrons

Occurs in photosynthesis and cellular respiration

In most living things, when you gain electrons, you gain hydrogen ions as well

Examples:
o
Rusting of iron = oxidation
o
Burning/combustion = reduction
Electron Transport Chain

Series of membrane bound carriers that pass electrons from one carrier to another

Each time electrons are transferred, energy used to produce ATP is released

ATP Synthase Complex (carrier protein) + enzyme = synthesis of ATP molecules by means of
hydrogen ions that flow down their electrochemical gradient
Photosynthesis: 6CO + 6HO + energy
CHO + 6O

Water is oxidized and carbon dioxide is reduced

Reactants: Carbon dioxide, water and energy (ATP)

Products: Glucose and oxygen

NADP (nicotinamide and dinucleotide phosphate) is a coenzyme reduced during photosynthesis

NADP + 2e + H
NADPH

Occurs in plants, algae and some protists (Euglena)

Anabolic, endergonic, carbon dioxide requiring process that uses photons and water to produce
organic macromolecules

Leaves
o
Stoma (Stomata)

Pores of a plants cuticle

Exchanging of gases occur here

Chlorophyll molecules

Located in the thylakoid membrane

Harvest photons by absorbing certain wavelengths (blue 420nm & red 660nm)
*plants only reflect green wavelengths, not absorb
2 Main Reactions in Photosynthesis
o

Mesophyll cells

Chloroplasts are located here

Organelle where photosynthesis takes place

A. Light

Reactions (light-dependent)
Occurs in the thylakoid membrane
Produces chemical energy from photons in the form of ATP and NADPH
Electrons in chlorophyll must be replaced so that the cycle may continue; comes from
oxygen and HO (photolysis)

Two types
o
Cyclic Electron Flow
Uses Photosystem I only and the electron transport chain (ETC)
Generates ATP only
Both active forms of chlorophyll function in photosynthesis due to their
association with proteins in the thylakoid membrane
Process
1. An electron is ejected from the photosystem reaction center after
being energized by light
2. It passes through ferrodoxin, cytochrome, b6f complex,
plastocyanin (pC) then back to the reaction center
3. Energy released: ATP
o
Non-Cyclic Electron Flow
Uses photosystems I & II and ETC
Generates O, ATP and NADPH
Electron does not go back to the reaction center
Process
1. A photon ehects a high energy electron from PS II
2. The electron lost from it does NOT return to PS II but is replaced by
an electron from the splitting of water and production of O
3. Electron travels from PS II to plastoquinone, b6f complex,
plastocyanin (pC) then to PS I
4. ATP is produced
B. Dark Reactions (light independent; Calvin Cycle)

Processed in Calvin Cycle

o
RuBP = ribulose 1, 5 biphosphate
o
PGA = 3 phosphoglycerate
o
PGAP = 1, 3 biphosphoglycerate
o
PGAL or G3P = phosphoglyceraldehyde/ glyceraldehyde 3 phosphate

Chemical Reactions in Photosynthesis

Photolysis (12HO
6O + 24H + 24e)
o
Splitting of water molecules
o
12 molecules of water = 6 oxygen molecules are released (accompanied by the release of
24 hydrogen atoms and 24 electrons)
o
Oxidation occurs

Conversion of carbon dioxide to glucose (CO + 24H + 24e

CHO + 6HO)
o
CO + hydrogen ions + electrons = glucose + HO
o
Reduction occurs

Water is converted to hydrogen ions & electrons, NADPH is formed (electron carrier) (NADP + HO
NADPH )
o
NADP is reduced to NADPH = ATP
Cellular Respiration: CHO + 6O 6CO + 6HO + energy

Transforming glucose to energy

Molecules involved
o
NAD (nicotinamide adenine dinucleotide)

Carrier energy/ coenzyme

Reduced to NADH when it picks up 2 electrons and 1 hydrogen ion

o
FAD (Flavin adenine dinucleotide)

Reduced to FADH
o
Acetyl CoA

Important in metabolism

Passes on carbon atoms within the acetyl group to be oxidized for energy
production

Exergonic reaction

Catabolic reaction: larger glucose breaks into smaller molecules

Occurs in the mitochondria

1 glucose = 686 kcal
1 ATP = 7.3 kcal
1 glucose = 36 ATP
Mitochondrion Structure

Smooth outer membrane

Folded inner membrane

Folds called cristae

Space inside cristae: matrix

Anaerobic Respiration (no oxygen required)

Occurs in cytoplasm

Uses the anaerobic respiration pathway

2 types
o
Lactic Acid Fermentation
o
Alcohol Fermentation

Example: glycolysis
Aerobic Respiration (oxygen is required)

Uses the aerobic respiration npathway

Examples: Krebs cycle, electron transport chain, oxidation of pyruvate

Two Ways of Making ATP
1. Substrate-level phospholyration (glycolysis and Krebs cycle)

Production of ATP by adding a phosphate group with the help of an enzyme

2. Oxidative Phospholyration

Electron transport chain via chemiosmosis

4 Stages of Cellular Respiration
1. Glycolysis
a. Splitting of sugar
b. Occurs in the cytosol
c. Inefficient because 1 glucose makes 2 ATP
glucose + 2 NAD + 2 ATPs + 4 ADPs + 2 Phosphate groups 2 pyruvate + 2 NADH + 2
ADPs + 4 ATPs

d.

Products
Net 2 ATPs
2 NADHs
2 pyruvate

2.

Oxidation of pyruvate
a. Pyruvate becomes Acetyl CoA through oxidation
b. Products
2 NADHs

3.

Krebs Cycle
a. Fermentation
Humans: lactic acid fermentation
Yeast: alcohol fermentation
b. 10 NADHs combined (each produce 3 ATPs)
c. Products
6 NADH
2 ATP
2 FADH

4.

Electron Transport Chain and Oxidative Phospholyration

a. Uses 10 NADHS (each NADH = 3 ATPs)
b. Uses 2 FADH (each FADH = 2 ATPs)

Vocabulary
Polymers: chains of subunits
Polymerization: monomer polymer macromolecule
Concentration gradient: difference between two regions
Tonicity: solute concentration of a solution outside a cell and its effect on cellular fluid volume
Reactants: substances that participate in the reaction
Products: result of the reaction
Metabolism: chemical reactions that occur in the cell
Chemiosmosis: production of ATP due to a hydrogen ion gradient across a membrane (ATP synthase
complex)
Photophospholyration: process of converting energy from a light excited electron into an ADP molecule