Pilot Revision Notes 05 12 2012 PDF

Pilot Revision Notes
WARNING this data may be out of date, check with

your instructor that you have the very latest version.
Topics Covered
Metrology
Air Law
Principles of Flight
Aircraft General
Airmanship
Navigation
Metrology
Buys Ballots Law
Fronts: warm, cold, occluded, stationary
Cloud types
Thermals
Lapse rates
Local met: anabatic & katabatic flows, valley winds, sea breeze, wind gradient
Precipitation
Pressure gradient
Anticyclones and depressions
Turbulent air
Synoptic charts and mass air flows
Predict conditions from Forecasts & charts
Terms and meanings fronts, millibars, isobars, CAVOK
Coriolis Force
Standard Atmosphere 1mb=/30ft
ISA pressure = 1013.2mb
Fronts
A front is a boundary between two different airmasses with
different density. Airmasses dont like to mix and the
boundary between the two (the front) is where active
weather can take place.
Fronts are very common in depressions.
A depression starts along the jet stream.
Jet streams form high in the upper troposphere between

two air masses of very different temperature. The greater
the temperature difference between the masses, the faster
the wind blows in the jet stream.
Polar Jet Stream (light blue)

Subtropical Jet stream (yellow)
Fronts
The jet stream is like the traffic on a busy
motorway, it sometimes slows down and
bunches up (convergence), after which it eases
and speeds up again and flows freely
(divergence).
Where it bunches, the high altitude pressure
increases, causing a downward flow of air the
start of an anticyclone (high pressure system)
Where it eases, it speeds up causing a reduction

in pressure the start of a depression (low
pressure system)
As the low pressure winds up, it twists the
airmasses and causes the characteristic low with
fronts. Since the vast majority of low pressure
systems move West to East, the first frontal
system to make its effect on the UK will be the
warm front.
Warm Front
The normal warm front has a shallow slope as the
warm air mass overides the cooler air (due to the
lower density of the warmer air). The slope is typically
1:50 to 1:400 and the frontal zone effect may extend
500 miles ahead of the frontal transition on the
ground. This means that the forthcoming warm front
may be seen in advance.
High cloud such as Cirrus and Cirrostratus will shut off
the solar activity usually cutting off thermals. Then the
cloud base will lower with Altostratus and
Nimbostratus giving drizzle as the front approaches.
Rain possibly beginning 5 to 10 hours before the
passage of the front. The winds may strengthen and
back. At the front, the rain eases off, the wind will
veer and the temperature and humidity will rise. We
are now in the warm sector.
Warm Sector
The warm sector is the area between the leading warm front and its following cold front.
It often drizzles in the warm sector. The warm sector gets its name from the fact that the
cold front usually follows a warm front.
Warm Sector
Following the warm sector is the cold front.
Cold Front
When a mass of cold air meets a mass of warm air, it
tries to go under it. The cold air pushes under the warm
air acting as a wedge. The slope of the wedge is steep,
about 1:30 to 1:100 Cold fronts move quickly, about
20mph and strong updraughts can be produced about
100 miles ahead of a front.
The cold front is often dramatic with heavy showers. At

the front, the temperature drops, the air is drier and the
wind often veers to the Northwest direction. Behind the
cold front, there is often a complete clearance of cloud,
but this very quickly gives way to high Cumulus cloud
and shower clouds. Good soaring days are found after
cold fronts have gone through and the pressure starts to
rise again. The rising pressure raises cloud base, and the
cooler air means a ready supply of thermals.
Occluded Fronts
An Occluded front is where the faster cold front has caught up with the warm front ahead.
Occluded fronts can have some of the characteristics of a warm front, or a cold front but on a
milder scale. Occlusions are generally slow moving and represent the final stages of a frontal
system. The weather produced by an occlusion can range from that of the two frontal systems to
prolonged periods of precipitation.
Cold Occlusion
The cold front is denser than the cold air
ahead and lifts the warm front up and
over the very cold air.
Warm Occlusion
Cool air behind cold front is not dense
enough to lift cold air ahead of warm front.
Cold front rides up and over the warm front.
Cloud Types
Clouds are classified as high, medium or low according to the height of their base. They are also
classified by their structure and formation. There are 10 basic cloud types.
High Cloud Types

High - Altitude range 15,000 to 40,000ft
These are composed mainly of ice crystals and known as Cirro types.
Cirrus (Ci) wispy high cloud
Cirrocumulus (Cc) cell pattern (mackerel sky)
Cirrostratus (Cs) thin veil cloud
Medium Cloud Types

Medium - Altitude range 6,500 to 23,000ft
Known as Alto clouds
Altostratus (As) is an even layer of cloud at medium

height.
Altocumulus (Ac) is a medium layer with a cell

pattern. In an unstable atmosphere, Ac may produce
virga, or precipitation which does not reach the
ground.
Altocumulus Castellanus are excellent indicators of

upper air instability. These in the morning may
indicate Cbs later in the day
Low Cloud Types

Low - Altitude range 0 to 8,000ft
Nimbostratus (Ns) is
a deep layer of rain
cloud.
Cumulus (Cu) individual

heaped clouds. Large
Cu may give showers.
Stratocumulus (Sc) is
greyish/whitish cloud
consisting of rolls or
cells. Weather is light
rain, drizzle or snow.
Cumulonimbus (Cb)
heavy showers or
thunderstorms. Tops
can pass 30.000ft.
Heavy rain, hail
Stratus (St) is
a low lying
layer of cloud,
may give
drizzle.
Lenticular lens
shaped clouds indicate
presence of wave
activity. They show top
of wave.
Why Clouds Form

The amount of moisture that air can hold depends on its temperature, with warmer air holding
more moisture than colder air. The amount of moisture in the air can be measured by Relative
humidity (RH)
Relative Humidity is; the amount of water vapour in the air/amount of water vapour required to
saturate it at that temperature. This is expressed as a percentage. Dry air has RH of 0%. Air about
to form cloud has a RH of nearly 100%
Clouds may be formed in many ways, but all rely on the fact that the air is cooled to a point
where it cannot hold its moisture.
Ways Clouds are formed

Orographic Lift
Air may be flowing along and be forced to rise
upwards when it reaches an obstruction such as a
mountain chain. As the air rises, it will cool and it
may be cooled passed its dew point temperature.
It will condense and Orographic cloud will form on
the windward side of hills.
Frontal Wedging
Occurs when moving warm air encounters a cold body of air
and is forced upward.

Cloud formed by turbulence and mixing
As air flows over the surface of the earth,
frictional effects cause variations in local wind
strengths. Eddies are set up which cause the
lower level air to mix. The more friction and the
stronger the wind, the more mixing. As the air
mixes, it may rise and if it cools enough, layer
cloud above the friction area may result.
Convergence
A pile up of horizontal air,
causing it to rise like in the
Intertropical convergence
Zone

Convection
The action of the sun will heat the ground. This
in turn heats the air layer closest to the ground
which will become warmer and thus less dense.
It may rise and as it does so, it will cool.
Eventually it may reach an altitude where its
temperature reaches the dew point and the
water vapour condenses to form cloud.
Cumulus cloud is formed this way.
Cloud Base is the term given to indicate the height that the base of the cloud is ASL. It can be
calculated from the dew point and the ground temperature.
Cloud base in feet = (air temperature dew point) x 400
i.e. Temp of 23 C with dew point of 12 C gives a cloud base of 4,400ft
Lapse Rates
By understanding convection and the reasons for thermals, we can also understand many other
parts of the atmosphere and cover such things as, Inversions, stability and Instability, Cbs and cloud
base.
As you rise higher in the atmosphere, the following (normally) decrease ;
Temperature Pressure Density
The change in temperature with height is called the Lapse Rate.
The Standard atmosphere (a theoretical model of the average atmosphere) has the following
conditions:Environmental Lapse Rate (ELR) = 2C/1000ft
Pressure change = 1mb per 30ft
Standard pressure = 1013.2mb
Standard temperature =15C
Lapse Rates
Thermal Production
As the sun heats the ground, the ground in turn heats up a layer of air close to the ground. A bubble
of warm air starts to form and is less dense the surroundings since it is warmer. It may un-stick and
start to rise through the atmosphere. As the density and the pressure of the surrounding air
decreases with altitude, the thermal will expand adiabatically and hence it cools. (an adiabatic
process is one where no heat is lost to, or gained from the surroundings)
As air expands it cools. The thermal will cool at a

known rate and its rate of cooling or lapse rate is
the Dry Adiabatic Lapse Rate (DALR) = 3C/1000ft
If we plot the course of a thermal leaving the

ground with a temperature of 25C, after 5000ft
the thermal has cooled to 10C and has reached
equilibrium with the surroundings i.e. it stops
rising.
Lapse rates
Inversion
An Inversion is when the temperature increases as you go higher in the atmosphere, rather than
decreases. It can be of two types.
High level caused by a high pressure system

warming the upper air
Low level (ground) caused by air chilled in

contact with a cold ground which has lost heat
through convection
Inversions may put a lid on our maximum altitude in a thermal.
Lapse Rates
Stability & Instability
We often hear the terms stability and instability referring to the atmosphere. Using the
lapse rate graphs we can understand the terms. Thermals will rise to a point where they
are in equilibrium with the surroundings. If the ELR is such that the equilibrium is never
reached, then the thermals will keep rising indefinitely. i.e. The 2 lines diverge. This is
unstable.
Unstable ELR > DALR (3C/1000ft)

Stable
ELR < DALR (3C/1000ft)
Paraglider pilots often seek out unstable air to fly in whereas Paramotorists often prefer
stable air.
Adiabatic Lapse Rate Illustrated
Lapse Rates
Cumulus cloud formation
A rising thermal may contain moisture. As it rises, it cools and may rise to a point where it
reaches the dew point. At that, the water vapour condenses to form cloud. We have reached
cloud base. As the water condenses, something else happens. Latent heat will be released. The
latent heat is the extra energy required when a substance changes state, i.e. From water to
water vapour, extra heat is required to effect the change of state. This extra heat is stored and
released when the water vapour condenses back into liquid. This in effect gives a boost to the
thermal and acts as a source of heat, hence the lapse rate in clouds will be lower than in a dry
thermal. The lapse rate in clouds is known as the Saturated Adiabatic Lapse Rate (SALR)
This has a range of values depending on the moisture content but is typically;
Saturated Adiabatic Lapse Rate (SALR) 1.1-2. 8C/1000ft
The thermal in a cloud will keep on rising until an inversion is reached or the cloud runs out of
moisture. This determines the cloud top height. If the airmass is very unstable, and there is a
constant supply of warm moist air and powerful thermal development, then the conditions may be
right for the formation of Cumulonimbus (Cb)
Lapse Rates
The trigger temp is the temperature on the
ground at and beyond which thermals will rise
past the inversion layer. Different ground types
absorb solar energy better than others. Dark
surfaces are better than lakes or forests etc for
the production of a thermal.
On the day shown in the graph, clouds have
formed with the cloud base at dew point and
the cloud tops limited by a lack of moisture, or
by the inversion above.
Note if the dew point had been lower, then the thermal would have risen as a Blue thermal
(no cloud) and could have been cut off lower.
The SALR has a steeper gradient and thus is very unstable. If the air is very moist and the SALR is
less than 1. 5C/1000ft then the possibility exists of the moist air rising at a steeper gradient and
therefore escaping the effects of the inversion and high Cus or Cbs may result
Meteorological Terms
Adiabatic - A thermodynamic process where no heat leaves or enters the system
Advection - transfer of air mass properties by motion.
Air mass - huge body of air in which horizontal changes in temp are small.
Anabatic wind. Wind blowing upslope.
Anafront - a front where warm air is ascending over cold air.
Anticyclone - area of high pressure
Backing - winds changes direction anti clockwise
CAVOK Visibility 10km or more, no cloud below 5000ft AGL at aerodrome and no cumulonimbus cloud at any level. No
significant weather at, or in the vicinity of the aerodrome.
Convection - transfer of heat by motion of a substantial volume of air.
Dew point - temperature at which air must be cooled to become saturated with water vapour.
DALR - Dry Adiabatic lapse rate, about 3C per 1000ft
ELR - Environmental lapse rate. This is 2C per 1000ft for the ISA.
Inversion - a layer of air where the temperature increases with height.
Isobars Lines joining places of equal pressure. Usually shown 4mb apart on surface pressure charts.
Isothermal layer An area of the atmosphere where the temperature does not change with height.
Isotherm - a line of constant temperature
Katabatic wind - wind that flows down slope
Katafront -a front where the warm air sinks down above the frontal surface which will eventually weaken and destroy the
front.
SALR - Saturated adiabatic lapse rate, about 1. 5C per 1000ft
Stability - the tendency of the atmosphere to stay as it is. Unstable air, where the ELR is greater than the DALR means
that a thermal will diverge from the atmospheric temperature lapse rate.
Standard atmosphere (ISA) has a ELR of 2C per 1000ft
Super adiabatic lapse rate A lapse rate greater than 3C per 1000ft
Tephigram - an aerological diagram with the x.y co-ordinates Temperature and entropy. The diagram is used for plotting
the values of temp and humidity at specific pressure levels obtained from upper air soundings.
Veering - wind which changes direction clockwise.
Pressure Systems
Low pressure
Low pressure systems are the source of a great deal of active weather in the UK. The majority of our
weather systems form out in the Atlantic along the frontal boundary between the arctic airmass and
the warmer tropical maritime air to the south.
Formation of a Low (depression)
When two airmasses of different density lie
side by side they induce a strong current of
air to flow along the cold side of the front at
very high altitudes. This jet is formed due the
extreme pressure differences at altitude
causing a close bunching of high altitude
isobars. The jet is several miles deep and
travels at speeds of about 100 to 200 mph.
Disturbances cause the jet to snake around
and this results in areas of divergence and
convergence.
Pressure Systems
The area of convergence will cause downward flowing air. This results in an increase in
pressure at ground level and a downward movement of air. Similarly, at the area of
divergence, the surface pressure will fall and an area of low pressure will start to form.
The jet stream divergence will cause an area of low pressure to start to form along the
frontal zone.
Cold Airmass
Jet Stream
Warm Airmass
Low pressure forms under the jet

stream divergence
The Life of a Depression

The jet stream divergence will cause an area of low
pressure to start to form along the frontal zone.
The low pressure will draw the 2 edges of

the front together, effectively increasing
the temperature and pressure differentials
thus aiding the formation of the low.
As the air rises it is given a twist by the Coriolis force.

This coriolis force is exactly the same as the force
which causes the water going down the plughole to
spin. The force is zero at the equator and is the
reason behind low pressure spinning anti clockwise
in the Northern hemisphere and the reverse in the
southern hemisphere.
The Life of a Depression

As the air is continually extracted at the top
of the system, so the surface pressure drops
increasing the circulation and the winds
speeds. The anticlockwise circulation is
gradually spread up to the upper levels and
the upward movement of ward moist air
will eventually cause condensation and the
release of latent heat to further power the
process.
The cold front moves faster than the warm

front and catches it up. With an occlusion
forming where the cold front has caught the
warm front The spiraling air in the
depression further twists the fronts round to
give the classic hook shape of the
depression.
Low Pressure (Depression)

Associated weather
The weather associated with a depression is usually poor. Associated frontal systems can bring rain
and cloud. A depression may arrive at our shores at any stage of development and it may or may
not have frontal systems. It may have a weak warm front and an active cold front or vice versa. A
system with an active cold and an active warm front is very rare. It may have a decaying occlusion,
but the general outlook is worsening weather.
High Pressure (Anticyclone)

High pressure systems are formed in a similar way to lows, and areas of high pressure can
mean areas where there arent any lows. In an anticyclone, the air is descending and being
warmed by compression as it descends. Since warmer air can hold more moisture, then
clouds are less willing to form. This results in clear skies at night and little tendency for any
overdevelopment. Clear skies at night allow the warmed Earths surface to radiate heat back
out to space and can result in misty mornings.
High Pressure (Anticyclone)

Associated weather
In summer, a high pressure system always means an improvement with lighter winds and less
cloud. In winter a high pressure can mean persistent fog and low cloud or it may lead to clear skies,
depending on the source and track of the airmass at low level.
High pressure settles in layers, and after some days of high pressure, the layers become shallower
and more compressed. Wind speeds within the layers can increase. Waves can develop in the
surfaces between the layers. High pressure areas can start off being good for smooth
Paramotoring, but become increasingly rough, windy and turbulent at the Earths surface and at
the surfaces between the layers.
High pressures move slowly and can lead to the production of inversions due to the warmed upper
air. The atmosphere becomes stable (cooler air at the bottom) and leads to poor thermal
production. Inversions can lead to poor air quality with pollen, dust etc. being trapped in the
inversion layer(s). Highs can persist for days and then they become blocking highs which will often
divert the path of a low pressure system around the UK.
Buys Ballots Law

In meteorology, Buys Ballot's law may be expressed as follows: In the Northern Hemisphere, if a
person stands with his back to the wind, the low pressure area will be on his left.
Local Met
Valley winds
Mountains tend to form a barrier to winds at low level. The air tends to flow up and down the
valley Imagine a valley with hills on both sides. In the morning, the effect of the sun is to heat up
the mountains first since the valley will be cooler and still in shade;
Local Met
Valley Winds (midday)
As time reaches midday, both slopes are in sun
and powerful anabatic winds are produced up
both slopes
Lifty
Lifty
Very Sinky
Midday valleys suck
This can be DANGEROUSLY strong
This causes the winds at low level to rush up the valley to replace the air flowing up the slopes. The
valley wind flows into the valley in the afternoon and evening. As the sun goes down and the slopes
start to cool off with the altitude, katabatic winds flow down slope
Local Met
Valley Winds (evening)
In the evening, as the wind turns katabatic on the slopes, it can rush down the hill and force upwards,
over the valley centre, great areas of lifting air. This is the evening restitution lift or magic lift and can
give easy soaring for quite a while in huge areas of lifting air. As time goes on, the valley winds will
slow down from travelling up the valley and then turn to the evening and night time valley winds
where they flow down the valley.
Local Met
Sea breezes
In summer, the land tends to warm up quickly, but the sea remains much at the same
temperature. Thermal activity may result in a general lessening of the pressure over the land with
the results that air flows in from the sea to replace the lifting air over the land. This is a sea
breeze. It can kill convection and shut off any thermals near the coast. In winter, the sea
temperatures are relatively stable and warmer than the cold land. The sea breeze is reversed and
sometimes leads to Cumulus formation over the sea as cold land air is blown over the sea, to have
its base warmed by the sea to produce unstable conditions over water.
Local Met
Sea Breeze Front
When a sea breeze sets up, it could be in opposition to the normal wind. In this case, a sea breeze
front may be formed. This front works its way inland and can penetrate as far as 30-40 miles
inland. This is characterised by hanging curtain cloud and a stepped cloud base. This is due to
the moist sea air having a lower cloud base. It needs a fairly light wind, warm day and some
instability to set up the sea breeze front. The evidence of a front may also be apparent even with
no surface geostrophic wind. The cool moist air flowing inland will meet the warm dry land
airmass and this is also a cold
front of sorts. Sea breeze fronts rarely occur between October and April.
Geostrophic wind
blowing parallel to
isobars. The normal
wind
Local Met
This animation sequence shows how the valley winds change direction during the
day coupled with a sea breeze effect.
Local Met
Wave Lift
Another type of lift is the wave lift. The requirements for wave are;
Wind to be in a fairly constant direction
Wind to be increasing with height
A shallow unstable layer with a stable layer above it works well
An obstruction upwind such as a range of hills is needed to start the waves off.
Local Met
Fog
Fog is cloud at ground level. There are several types of fog.
Radiation Fog
Conditions suitable for radiation fog are;
A cloudless night, allowing the earth to cool and thereby causing the air in contact with it to
become cool.
Moist air that requires little cooling to reach dew point.
Light winds to reduce mixing.
Local Met
Advection Fog
A warm moist air mass flowing across a significant colder surface will be cooled from below. If its
temperature is reduced to the dew point, then fog will form. Advection fog can persist in stronger
winds than radiation fog.
Local Met
Sea Fog
Sea fog is advection fog and may be caused by
An air flow off a warm land moving over a cold sea.
Warm tropical air moving over a cold ocean or meting a cold air mass
Local Met
Hill Fog
Hill fog is caused when moist air is uplifted over a hill and cools as it is forced upwards. As it cools
it condenses to form hill fog or Orographic cloud.
Local Met
Precipitation Fog
A Some of the rain falling into cool air evaporates if the rain is warmer than the air.
B The added vapor increases the dew point to the air's temperature.
C Vapor condenses into tiny fog droplets.
Local Met
Wind Shear
Wind shear refers to winds blowing at different speeds and/or directions close to each other.
Vertical wind shear - wind changes at

different heights.
Horizontal wind shear wind changes at

the same height.
Vertical wind shear , where it occurs near the surface is also called wind gradient
Local Met
Wind Gradient
In common usage, wind gradient, more specifically wind speed gradient is the vertical gradient of
the horizontal wind speed in the lower atmosphere. It is the rate of increase of wind strength with
unit increase in height above ground.
Where wind gradient exists, we are required to effect pitch changes and/or power changes to
remain on our desired glide angle.
Local Met
Venturi Effect
When air or fluid is forced through a narrower section of pipe the pressure decreases while the
velocity increases. Daniel Bernoulli
Local Met
Venturi Effect Examples
Local Met
Terrain Effects
Just like a river or a stream, wind flows around obstructions disturbing the natural flow. We call this
disturbance Mechanical Turbulence. This turbulence, on the downwind side of the obstruction we
call ROTOR. Rotor can have very dramatic effects on your flight!
Local Met
Other types of Turbulence
Convective Turbulence
Wake Turbulence
Cumulonimbus
Coriolis Force & Wind

Spiral Winds
When there is no friction, wind in geostrophic balance will flow along curved contour lines of
pressure. We call a wind that flows parallel to curved contours a gradient wind; it differs from the
geostrophic wind by the addition of a centrifugal force that causes the wind to flow along a curved
rather than straight path. When there are closed contours around low and high pressure centers,
the wind will circulate around these centers.
Wind in geostrophic balance flowing (A) along parallel and (B) curved isobars.

In the diagram below representing the Northern Hemisphere, the green arrows represent the
pressure gradient forces for lows and highs (pointing into the lows, pointing out of the highs). For
geostrophic balance, the Coriolis forces must point outward from the lows, and inward into the
highs. The winds that produce this configuration of Coriolis forces flow counterclockwise around
lows and clockwise around highs.
Frictionless circulation around closed isobars in the Northern Hemisphere.

Effect of Friction on Wind.
So far, we have discussed the behavior of wind when no friction is acting on it. True geostrophic
and gradient winds can be expected above the boundary layer, or friction layer, of the earth
(above about 1-2 km, up to 950 mb). The height of the boundary layer can vary depending on the
type of terrain, wind, and vertical temperature profile.
Within the boundary layer, the turbulent friction that the Earth exerts on the air slows the wind
down. This slowing causes the wind to be non-geostrophic, or ageostrophic. This reduction in
wind speed automatically reduces the Coriolis force, and the pressure gradient force becomes
more dominant. As a result, the total wind deflects slightly towards lower pressure, and crosses
parallel isobars rather than following them.
Friction causing geostrophic

wind to cross parallel isobars
toward low pressure.

In a similar manner, the friction induced deflection toward low pressure causes wind to cross
circular isobars associated with low and high pressure cells near the earths surface. As a result,
wind spirals into a low at the surface, and spirals out of a high at the surface.
Friction causing wind in geostrophic balance to cross concentric, closed isobars toward
low pressure (away from high pressure).

The flow of air into a low pressure cell is called cyclonic. Cyclonic circulation is counterclockwise in
the Northern Hemisphere and clockwise in the Southern Hemisphere. The flow of air into a high
pressure cell is called anti-cyclonic. Anticyclonic circulation is clockwise in the Northern
Hemisphere, and counterclockwise in the Southern Hemisphere.
(A) Anticyclonic circulation out of a high pressure cell in the Northern Hemisphere (B) Cyclonic
circulation into a low pressure cell in the Northern Hemisphere.
Synoptic Chart
Understand the symbols, isobars, pressure systems, wind directions and associated weather that you
could expect when checking a synoptic chart.
Pick out features such as;

Areas of high pressure and low pressure
Isobars
Frontal systems
Remember about the coriolis force and its effect on both high and low pressure systems
Synoptic Chart
The surface wind around a
high pressure points away
from the high pressure
area by again about 30due
to the friction. The wind
speed also decreases in
both cases
The surface wind around a low

pressure points to the low
pressure by about 30 over
land due to the friction. This
effect is less over the sea
where the friction is less.
Synoptic Chart
Pressure Gradient
The change of pressure over distance is the pressure gradient. Closely packed isobars on a synoptic
chart indicate a steep pressure gradient. Air flows from high to low pressure and the steeper the
pressure gradient (the closer the isobars) the stronger the flow will be. Close isobars = strong winds.
On the UK synoptic charts, with isobars spaced at 4mb intervals, more than 4 isobars between Lands
End and John O Groats usually means its too strong for flying.
Synoptic Chart
Clouds and rain
Rain or precipitation can consist of different types of precipitation. It may be rain, fine drizzle,
snow or hail.
Continuous rain or snow is associated with Nimbostratus and alto stratus clouds and intermittent
rain or snow with altostratus or stratocumulus.
Rain and snow showers are associated with cumuliform clouds such as cumulonimbus, cumulus
and alto cumulus, with the very heavy showers coming from the cumulonimbuss
Fine drizzle and snow is associated with stratus and stratocumulus.
Weather Forecasts
There are many different weather forecasts on the internet. Some good ones are...
Metoffice aviation forecasts
214 spot wind forecast
215 briefing chart
Airmet
Balloon Forecast
Synoptic charts
TAF and METAR
Meteoblue
Meteogram Air
XC Weather
Wind for different locations
Netweather.TV
Jet stream forecasts
Weatheronline
Expert charts many variations available
There are many more...
Air Law
Topics
ANO (order and regulations) contained in CAP393 and digest CAP85
Collision avoidance and priorities, overtaking etc
Low flying rules, congested area, gatherings etc
Airspace classification
NOTAMs
Display flying
TMA-CTR-CTA-ATZ-MATZ dimensions and altitudes
SPHG definition
Following a landmark
VMC IMC VFR IFR
Cloud Visibility
Night / Day
Radios
Aeronautical charts and their symbols
Danger and Prohibited areas and chart markings
Flight Levels, QNH QNE QNF QFE
1:250,000 or 1:500,000 what do they show?
ANO (order and regulations)

UK Aviation law documents and Promulgation methods
Aviation law in the UK is enacted by parliament and published in statutory documents. The
main one for UK pilots is the Air Navigation Order (ANO). Another is the Air Navigation
Regulations. These are published in CAP393. The authority responsible for Civil Aviation in the UK is
the CAA (Civil Aviation Authority). They provide an Aeronautical Information Service (AIS) to collect
and disseminate information. This is done through 3 documentation channels.
Aeronautical Information Publication (UK AIP) or the UK Air Pilot

This contains essential information or instructions of a lasting nature. The UK AIP is published in 3
volumes with a regular amendment service. The booklet CAP85 which is available from the BHPA,
is the digest.
NOTAMs
Notification to Airmen. These contain information on any aeronautical facility, hazard etc.
which might be of use to pilots. They are in 2 classes;
Class I - for urgent matters.
Class II - for less urgent matters.
Aeronautical Information Circulars
Or AIC's. These are published monthly and concern advanced warnings of operational changes or
changes of an administrative matter. i.e. corrections or changes to the Airspace charts. Depending on
the type of AIC, then the colour of the paper it is printed on changes.
Royal Flights
A "Royal Flight" is a civil or military flight over the UK carrying one or more of the principal
members of the Royal Family. The special conditions relevant to the flight change with the type
of aircraft.
Fixed Wing.
Royal flights are conducted where possible in existing airspace. Where this is
not possible then "Purple Airspace" is set up. This airspace is 1Rule 21 (IFR Rules only). Details
are sent by Notam. The airway set up is 10nm wide. Vertical limits are set up in the Notam.
Some controlled airspace has been specified (in rule 21 in the rules of the air) as being
restricted to pilots holding valid IFR rating and in aircraft equipped to fly IFR. Definitely not
paragliders!
Helicopter flights.
No special procedures are set up. Pilots should keep a good look out and
keep well clear. In the event of close proximity, normal collision avoidance rules will apply.
Glider Radios
There are 3 types of radio commonly in use in paragliding.
Airband radio - The airband radio is AM and has 720 channels, of which gliders are
allocated 5. The airband radio must be type approved. This means that the maker must have
submitted a radio of the same type to the CAA who have then taken it to bits and said its OK to
use.
Without taking a RT test, glider pilots are limited to 5 frequencies (129.9, 129.975, 130.1,
130.125, 130.4 and the International Distress frequency of 121.5). The British Gliding
Association recommend that certain frequencies be allocated certain tasks such as ground to
air etc. Radios used by glider pilots in this way must be type approved and lockable to those
frequencies only.
Recently the CAA approved the allocation of 118.675 for exclusively our use. This is Ok for our
use anywhere in the UK FIR up to 5,000ft asl. The radio must be an approved type and a
license held for the radio, and the radio locked to the allotted frequencies in flight.
Glider Radios
2m Amateur radio
In the UK Radio Amateurs have use of many frequency bands including 144 to 146 MHz on FM.
All of this band is in use. A lot of pilots use the frequencies just below this range for flying use.
It is illegal to use a 2m set from the air, whether you are a licensed amateur or not.
PMR (Personal Mobile Radio)
These are unlicensed approved transceivers using UHF frequencies around 446mhz. The
frequencies are interleaved between other frequencies and the sets must be capable of 500mw
output. They are designed to have less than 5km range at the ground level, but using them fro
the air increases their range considerably, taking their use outside the terms of the approval.
ONLY AIR-BAND 118.675 and the other 5 glider frequencies are fully legal for us to use within
the terms of the approval.
Phonetic Alphabet
A
B
C
D
E
F
G
H
I
J
K
L
M
N
O
P
Q
R
S
T
U
Alpha
Bravo
Charlie
Delta
Echo
Foxtrot
Golf
Hotel
India
Juliett
Kilo
Lima
Mike
November
Oscar
Papa
Quebec
Romeo
Sierra
Tango
Uniform
AL FAH
BRAH VOH
CHAR LEE
DELL TAH
ECK OH
FOKS TROT
GOLF
HOH TELL
IN DEE AH
JEW LEE ETT
KEY LOH
LEE MAH
MIKE
NO VEM BER
OSS CAH
PAH PAH
KEY BECK
ROW ME OH
SEE AIR RAH
TANG GO
YOU NEE FORM
V
W
X
Y
Z
Victor
Whiskey
X-ray
Yankee
Zulu
0
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
Decimal
Hundred
Thousand
VIK TAH
WISS KEY
ECKS RAY
YANG KEE
ZOO LOO
ZERO
WUN
TOO
TREE
FOWER
FIFE
SIX
SEVEN
AIT
NINER
DAYSEEMAL
HUN DRED
TOUSAND
Air Charts
Airspace in the UK is shown on air charts. These must be used for any cross country flight to ensure
you don't transgress airspace. Charts can be bought from most shops advertising in Skywings or direct
from the CAA Chart room. Remember to ask for the 3 free charts
RAC 5-0-1 UK airspace restrictions and hazardous areas
RAC 5-0-1.1 UK AIAA
RAC 3-0-1 UK ATS Airspace classification
Note that none of the charts below carry information on small arms ranges. These are shown on the
RAC 5-0-1 and should be copied onto the airspace chart you use. Also, none of the flying charts will
contain any information on royal flights or air displays.
CAA Chart Room

Room T1120,
CAA House
45-59 Kingsway
London WC2B 6TE
Phone 0171 832 5568/9
Air Charts
UK Topographical Air chart
Scale is 1:250,000 or about 1" for 4 miles. The revision cycle is 2-3 years. This covers the UK
in about 18 sheets. These only show airspace that has a lower limit below 5,000ft 3amsl or
Flight level 55 and so are of limited use if your flight goes above that altitude. Make sure you know the
symbols and the airspace markings on this map
Air Charts
ICAO Aeronautical Charts
Scale is 1:500,000 or about 1" for 8 miles. The revision cycle is 1-2 years. Sometimes called the half
million map. This covers the UK in about 3 sheets. These show all airspace and are the standard map
to use.
Make sure you know the symbols and the airspace markings on this map
Air Charts
UK Low level charts
Scale is 1:500,000. The revision cycle is 1-2 years. This covers the UK in 2 sheets. (None for
Scotland). These only show airspace that has a lower limit below 5,000ft amsl or Flight level 50.
Zones, Airways etc.

The air above the UK is split into a number of different types of airspace -some we can fly in and some
we can't. A brief diagram showing the airspace levels is shown below.
Airspace in the UK is classified by

the letters A through G.
Class A requires flights to be
conducted under IFR only. All
others can legally be flown in
under VFR BUT for all practical
purposes PPG can only fly VFR in
classes E to G
Airspace
Class A controlled airspace
Boundaries shown on 1:500,000 charts as below.
The L10 refers to the airway, the A in the
box shows it is class A airspace, and the
FL45+ means
it starts from flight level 45 and goes up past
flight level 195.
Class A airspace covers;
All Control areas (Airways)
Channel Islands CTR and CTA
Cotswold CTA
Daventry CTA
London TMA
London CTA
Manchester TMA
Shanwick Oceanic Control Area
Worthing CTA.
This airspace is closed to gliders due to the need to

operate an aircraft to IMC in this airspace. Airways
are 10nm wide and have an identifying colour and
number i.e. Amber 3.
Airspace
Class B controlled airspace
There is no class B airspace in the UK at present
Class C controlled airspace

All airspace in the UK above FL195 that is not a class A airway is classified as C. Flights can be
VMC but a flight plan must be filed.
Within class C space there are 8 Temporary Reserved Areas (TRA) in the UK. Gliders may fly
here but you would need oxygen. These are wave soaring areas for glider pilots.
If you ever get this high, you are probably in very serious trouble!
Airspace
Class D controlled airspace
Boundaries shown on 1:500,000 charts as below
The boundary between 2 areas of class D.
Assuming you are flying in the direction of the red
arrow, you are leaving the CTA (control area)
which extends from 2500ft to 3500ft into another
area of class D, the
CTR or control zone (zones start from Zero
remember) which extends from surface to 3,500ft
So if you are flying at 2000ft you enter the
airspace here.
An ATC clearance is required in order for glider
pilots to fly in class D. Although in
theory, this can be obtained by radio, telephone
or letter of agreement, in practice this could
prove difficult to obtain. Remember, Paramotors
and Paragliders are all forms of Glider.
Airspace
Class E controlled airspace
Flying up the page, you are entering an area of class E, probably in Scotland
from 2,000ft to 6,000ft. Areas of the Scottish TMA and the Belfast TMA are
notified as Class E and permit all aircraft including gliders to enter, without
ATC clearance whilst maintaining VMC.
Airspace
Class F controlled airspace
Centreline shown on 1:500,000 charts as below
An advisory route from Flight level 50 to 150. Only the centre line is shown.
An Advisory Route (ADR) is a route used by airline type traffic but without the full
protection of an airway. Depicted by a centre line on charts, it is nominally 10nm wide.
Gliders may cross Class F airspace.
In class F airspace it is possible for gliders to fly in conditions less than the VFR minima.
In this case IFR flight rules apply including the minimum height rule which states that
when above 3,000ft AMSL you must not fly at a height of less than 1,000ft above the
highest obstacle within 5nm of the aircraft unless it is landing.
Airspace
Class G controlled airspace
Open FIR (Flight Information Region) is the uncontrolled airspace not subject to the
above
classifications. You are responsible for collision avoidance and not some guy in a
control room. In class G airspace it is also possible for gliders to fly in conditions less
than the VFR minima. In this case IFR flight rules also apply. So in class F and G you
are not actually breaking the law by entering cloud and long as you are high enough
but it is not a good idea.
Airspace
Speed Limitations
Below FL100, an airspace speed limit of 250kt applies. This limit may be lower when published or
when ATC requires it.
Flight plan requirements
A flight plan is required for flight in all controlled airspace except Class E. In certain circumstances,
the flight plan requirement may be satisfied by passing flight details on RTF.
ATC Clearance & ATC Instructions
a) ATC clearance is required for flight in all controlled airspace except Class E, and in compliance
with ATC instructions is mandatory.
b) In Class E controlled airspace, pilots of VFR flights are strongly recommended to make their
presence known to the appropriate ATC unit and comply with ATC instructions.
c) Outside controlled airspace, an aircraft receiving a service from an ATC unit is expected to
comply with ATC instructions unless the pilot advises otherwise.
Airspace
ATZ Aerodrome Traffic Zones
The airspace surrounding most aerodromes listed in the UK is designated an ATZ. The
dimensions are;
From ground level to 2,000ft above aerodrome level
Within the area bounded by a circle of radius:
2nm, where the length of the longest runway is 1850m or less
2.5nm where the length of the longest runway is 1850m or longer
The centre of the circle is the mid point of the runway.
ATZ look like this on a

chart.
The number alongside the symbol on the chart

shows the aerodrome height above sea level
ATZ require radio

contact to enter, so in
the main we stay away
Airspace
MATZ Aerodrome Traffic Zones
A MATZ is the airspace surrounding certain military aerodromes. They extend;
From the surface up to 3,000ft above aerodrome level within a radius of 5nm; and
With a stub (or stubs) , width 4nm, extending out a further 5nm along final approach path(s) for the
main runway(s) between 1000 and 3000ft above aerodrome level.
Better shown on the diagram they have the characteristic "pan-handle".
Not all MATZ are this size and shape.
A MATZ is NOT controlled and is accessible to PPG, but will usually contain an ATZ within it, and be
busy during the week with military traffic. Best avoided.
MATZ look like this on a

chart.
Altimeter Settings
Vertical distances are hard to measure accurately. Most altimeters work by measuring the
change in air pressure as you gain height. Pressure reduces about 1 millibar (1mb) per 30ft of height
gained. At higher levels this relationship is not linear but good enough for us. Note that millibar is the
same as hectopascal. Hectopascal might be used in more metricated countries it means the same but in the UK, the millibar is used for the moment. Pressure also changes as air pressure systems lows and highs - move across the country. Since the air pressure in Scotland may be quite a bit
different from the South of the UK, the UK is split into Altimeter Setting Regions (ASR's). These are
shown on the air chart. An airline pilot flying from one region to another will check the altimeter
setting and readjust if necessary to take account of the general change in air pressure as he flies
across the UK.
There are different systems of height representation...
Picture shows boundary between Barnsley & Chatham
Altimeter Setting Regions (ASR)
Altimeter Settings
QNH
QNH is given by Air traffic control as a pressure reading that the pilot sets on his expensive
altimeter. The altimeter then displays his height above Sea level. The ATC will broadcast the
regional QNH to aircraft to take account of pressure changes caused by atmospheric conditions to
make sure the pilot does not crash into a hill unexpectedly!
So QNH is a pressure setting given by ATC and is the current pressure reading at Mean Sea
Level.
Atmospheric Pressure (Q) at Nautical Height (aviation radiotelephony code)
Altimeter Settings
Imagine a pilot is flying from a high pressure to a low pressure area. If the pilot keeps to the same
displayed altitude on his altimeter as he flies into the low what happens? As the pressure outside the
aircraft falls, the altimeter will show a higher altitude (lower pressure = higher altitude) and so the
pilot will descend to keep the displayed altitude the same. The pilot does not know he is descending
since he is watching his altimeter and its reading the same. Unfortunately for him, he is descending!!.
If you are not in contact with any particular ATC, then you would set your altimeter to the regional
pressure setting you are flying in eg. Chatham, Barnsley etc. Note that military aircraft will set the
Regional Pressure Setting (RPS) on their altimeter when outside the immediate area of the
aerodrome!
Altimeter Settings
QFE
If our pilot is landing at a small airfield then QNH might not be accurate enough for him to land
without hitting some houses maybe. The pilot needs the pressure setting for the airfield. ATC might
say "QNH is 1015mb, QFE is 1000mb". I.e. the air pressure at this airfield is 1000mb. So by setting the
altimeter to this, we get the height above the airfield.
So QFE is a pressure setting by ATC and is the current pressure reading at the airfield now.
In general, when we say QNH it is the height above sea level, and when we say QFE is it the height
above "the field", maybe takeoff or landing - its up to you.
Atmospheric Pressure (Q) at Field Elevation (aviation radiotelephony code)
Altimeter Settings
QNE
This one is the strange one. QNE refers to the height indicated on a pressure altimeter when the
aircraft is on the ground at an aerodrome and the pressure setting of 1013.2mb (remember this) is
set on the sub scale. i.e. it is the height of the 1013.2mb pressure level. Note that this is the only
reference which is a height, the others are pressure settings.
It is used when the height of the aerodrome is beyond the range of adjustment of the Boeings
altimeter scale. It is sometime displayed on some altimeters but erroneously. The setting on the
altimeter you might have would display flight level.
Atmospheric Pressure (Q) at Nautical Elevation (aviation radiotelephony code)
Altimeter Settings
Flight Level
Shown on charts as FL something. FL65 is flight level 65 which is 6,500ft. Why have it?
Airlines flying everywhere would have to keep adjusting their altimeter every 10 minutes to make
sure that the height they should be at is the height that are indeed at and not at the height
displayed by their altimeter which has drifted out of alignment in the last 5 minutes due to rapidly
changing air pressure outside the cabin. Since all aircraft, once they are high enough can forget
about the ground - its more important to keep away from each other so they all use the same
pressure setting on their altimeters. The International Standard Atmosphere (ISA) sea level
pressure of 1013.2mb is used and then vertical position is called flight level.
As an aircraft climbs away from the airport, once past the transition altitude, he retunes his
altimeter to 1013.2mb (Standard)and so every else who does the same can keep accurate relative
distances apart. In the UK the transition altitude is 3,000ft AMSL (it rises to 4,000, 5,000 & 6000'
AMSL in (LTMA) and some CTA's) (currently under consultation by CAA to raise to 18000ft winter
2013/14)
It is worth remembering that flight levels go up in regions of high pressure and the reverse in
regions of low pressure. Thus in a deep depression, any airspace that starts at flight level 45, could
have its airspace lower limit reduced to 3,500 ft - worth knowing!
Altimeter Settings
When descending,
change from QNE
to QNH when
passing the TL
TL
TA
Transition Level
X
Height
QFE
Elevation
Transition Altitude
When climbing,
change from QNH
to QNE when
passing the TA
If remaining below
the TA, keep the
QNH setting
Flight Level
Altitude
QNH
QNE
1013.2 mb
M.S.L
Rules of the Air

The rules are established under article 64 of the ANO. The rules apply to all aircraft in the UK and to
all UK registered aircraft wherever they may be.
Collision avoidance rules (Rule 17)
A constant relative bearing means a collision risk exists.

Regardless of anything else it is the duty of the pilot to take all possible measures to see that he
does not collide with another aircraft.
An aircraft must not fly close to another to create a risk of collision
Aircraft must not fly in formation unless they all agree to do so

An aircraft which is obliged to give way to another aircraft must avoid passing under, or over or
ahead of the other aircraft (unless well clear)
The aircraft with right of way should maintain course and speed
For this purpose, a glider and any aircraft towing it are considered 1 aircraft under the command
of the tug pilot.
Rules of the Air

Approaching Head On
When 2 aircraft are approaching head on, each must turn right. When gliders are hill soaring,
the aircraft with the hill on his right cannot turn right, so he has to keep going in a straight line
and the aircraft with the hill on the left has to give way. In this way it is common and good
practice where soaring aircraft have the same speed (i.e. big gliders) to see circuits set up,
where the gliders with the hill on the right are close into the hill and a general anti clockwise
circuit is set up. This is not so common in mixed company (Hg's and PGs) due to the different
speed ranges.
Remember Right
is Right
Rules of the Air

Overtaking
An aircraft which is being overtaken has right of way. For gliders, they may overtake on both sides
but when hill soaring, overtake on the hill side to avoid forcing the overtaken aircraft into the
hillside.
Rules of the Air

Converging aircraft
An aircraft in the air must give way to other converging aircraft as follows;
Flying machines give way to airships, gliders and balloons
Airships give way to gliders and balloons
Gliders give way to balloons
Subject to the above, when 2 aircraft, when 2 aircraft are converging at the same height, the
aircraft which has the other on the right must give way ("on the right in the right").
Rules of the Air

Right hand traffic rule (rule 19)
An aircraft flying in sight of the ground and following a road, railway, canal, coast or other
feature shall keep the line feature on its left, except where instructed to do otherwise by ATC. This
ensures separation.
It might not matter much to us,
but be aware that when you
cross such a feature, where that
light aircraft may be coming
from!
Landing
In the case of two or more flying machines, gliders, or airships approaching any place for landing, the
lower aircraft has the right of way. (although it must not cut in front of, or overtake another which is
on final approach.
A flying machine must, after landing, move clear of the landing area as soon as possible. In the
absence of airfield instructions, this is to the left by convention.
Rules of the Air

Lights on aircraft (rule 9 to 15)
At night, aircraft must display lights as are specified for the particular category of aircraft.. No other
lights that would impair the effectiveness of the required lights should be displayed. A glider may
show either the basic lights for a flying machine (red on port wing, green on starboard wing and
white on tail) or a steady red light visible in all directions.
Night
Night is defined for the rules of the air as being;
From 30 minutes after sunset
Until 30 minutes before sunrise
Flying at night is IMC. We may not presently fly at night.
Rules of the Air

Low flying rules (rule 5)
Flight over congested areas The 1000ft rule
A congested area in relation to a city, town or settlement means any area which is substantially
used for residential, industrial, commercial or recreational purposes.
An aircraft flying over a congested area of a city, town or settlement shall not fly below such height
as would permit the aircraft to land clear of the congested area in the event of a power unit failure.
Except with the written permission of the CAA, an aircraft flying over a congested area of a city,
town or settlement shall not fly below a height of 1000 feet above the highest fixed obstacle within
a horizontal radius of 600 metres of the aircraft.
Rules of the Air

Flying over open air assemblies
Except with the written permission of the CAA, an aircraft shall not fly over an organised open-air
assembly of more than 1000 persons below the higher of the following heights;
1000 feet, or such height as would permit the aircraft to land clear of the assembly in the event of a
power unit failure.
Landing and taking off near open air assemblies

An aircraft shall not land or take off within 1000 meters of an organised, open-air assembly of more
than 1000 persons except;
At an aerodrome, in accordance with procedures notified by the CAA or;
At a landing site which is not an aerodrome, in accordance with procedures notified by the CAA and
with the written permission of the organiser of the assembly.
Rules of the Air

The 500ft Rule
An aircraft must not fly closer than 500ft to any person, vessel, vehicle or structure with the
following exceptions - Several exemptions apply to powered aircraft here, but the one for gliders are
the exemptions when landing or taking off and when hill soaring. NB although a paramotor is classified
as a glider, it is not Hill soaring if its engine is producing enough thrust to climb, or maintain level
flight.
Remember, the 500ft rule is

distance, not height.
Rules of the Air

VMC/VFR (Visual Meteorological Conditions/Visual Flight Rules)
In the UK an aircraft shall always be flown in accordance with either VFR or IFR. When you are in
VMC you are flying under VFR and responsible for avoiding collisions with other
aircraft using the principle of see and avoid.
Commercial pilots may elect to still fly IFR even if there is sufficient VMC
You are flying in IMC when you cannot comply with any of the VMC cases.
VMC = Visual Meteorological flying conditions. This refers to the amount of visual observance it is
possible to keep. In these conditions we fly under VFR or Visual Flight Rules. Note the different
types of visibility that are required in different types of airspace.
The most stringent is full VMC which is 8km flight visibility, 1500m horizontal/1000ft vertical
clearance from cloud.
The least VMC or VFR minima is 1500m flight visibility, clear of cloud and in sight of the surface,
which is at under 3,000ft in class F and G airspace when flying less than 140kts
Rules of the Air

IMC/IFR (Instrument Meteorological Conditions/Instrument Flight Rules)
When flying in IMC you must fly under IFR. IFR rules applicable in uncontrolled airspace
(class F and G) are rules 29 (minimum height rule) and rule 30 (Quadrantal rule). These are
explained below. The extra rules for IFR in controlled airspace is about filing flight plans and
reporting positions to ATC so we can forget about that. In class A airspace it is mandatory to fly IFR
which is why they are closed to us (apart from airways crossing).
In conditions that are not VMC, the conditions then become IMC and then we fly under IFR.
Note that in class F and G as mentioned before, it is permissible to fly in IMC conditions and enter
cloud. In that case we then fly under IFR rules. Anybody may fly their hang or
paraglider under IFR as long as they are;
Not carrying a paying passenger (including a student under instruction)
Outside controlled airspace (class F and G only)
Not flying for payment.
We may therefore, under the above conditions legally fly in and out of VFR as conditions
changes. Before you enter cloud however, think about who might be in there with you and do you
really want to do it!.
Minimum Height Rule
The minimum height which is an IFR rule (rule29) then states we should not fly less than 1000ft
above the highest obstacle within 5nm. i.e. cloud base should be at least 1000ft above the biggest
hill around.
Rules of the Air

Quadrantal rule
In flight levels above 3000ft (TA), pilots in must select cruising altitudes according to the
Quadrantal rule. These refer to the magnetic track of the aircraft and state which level to fly at
below 19,500ft. This is not much use in cloud however since gliders will be circling and climbing
(the only reason they are in there!)
Compasses
Compasses
For any XC flying a compass (even as a back up to your GPS) is a must. Note that a 1 error in track will
put you out a mile in 60 miles.
Deviation
Deviation is the effect that the airframe has on the compass. This can lead to errors if
uncorrected. Some compasses for gliders have internal magnets used to correct for this.
Variation (or Declination)
This is the difference between real North and the
North that the compass points to very slowly.
The exact declination depends upon your location. At
Oxford in 2009 it was 2 20 West, whilst at Plymouth
it was 3 12 West. You can obtain current declination
predictions here
http://magnetic-declination.com/
Current air charts have the declination printed on
them.
Isogonals
Isogonals are lines joining points of equal magnetic variation.
Warning Signals
Warning Signals
These are flags, lights and rockets used to advise aircraft in the air from the ground.
In the UK, by day or night, a series of projectiles fired from the ground at intervals of 10s, each
showing, on bursting red and green lights or stars, indicates to a pilot that he is about to enter or is in,
an active Danger Area, Restricted area or Prohibited area and that immediate action should be taken;
To leave the area by the shortest route and without changing level or;
To change course to avoid it.
Aerodrome signals and markings

The ones in the main for gliders are; A double white cross and/or 2 red balls on a mast indicate that
Gliding is taking place at this aerodrome
A yellow cross on the ground indicates the tow

rope dropping zone for aero towing
Common Abbreviations and Initials
AGL Above ground Level

AIAA Area of Intense Aerial Activity
AMSL Above mean Sea Level
ANO Air navigation Order
ASR Altimeter setting Region
ATC Air traffic Control
ATZ Aerodrome Traffic Zone
CTA Control Area
CTR Control Zone
FIR Flight Information Region
FL Flight Level
HIRTA High Intensity Radio Transmission Area
IFR Instrument Flight Rules

IMC Instrument Meteorological conditions
MATZ Military Air traffic Zone
QFE Query Field Elevation
QNH Query Nautical Height
SRA Special Rules Area
SRZ Special Rules Zone
TMA Terminal maneuvering Area
VFR Visual Flight Rules
VMC Visual meteorological Conditions
Airspace Restrictions & Hazards

These are depicted on air charts.
Prohibited area
A prohibited area is defined airspace in which flight is prohibited. These include certain
nuclear installations and certain areas in Northern Ireland.
Prohibited area
044 extends up to
3,500ft. Active all
the time
P044/3.5
P230/10.0
Prohibited area
230 extends up to
10,000ft. Active in
published hours
(see NOTAM)

Prohibited & Restricted Areas
Prohibited and Restricted Areas established under the Regulations may be temporary or
permanent. When time permits, details of temporary Prohibited and Restricted Areas are
promulgated by Supplements to the UK AIP or AIC but in the case of Emergency Restriction of Flying
Regulations, the information will be promulgated by NOTAM and are on Freephone 0500 354802.
Permanent Prohibited and Restricted Areas are tabulated at ENR 5-1-1-1 and 5-1-2-1/8.
http://www.nats-uk.ead-it.com/public/index.php.html
Prohibited area 106

extends up to 2,500ft.
Active all the time

Danger Areas
These include weapons ranges for guns, missiles and rockets. Entry into some danger areas is
prohibited by military bye-law. A crossing service may be available but will involve the use of radio.
Danger areas of those with an upper limit of 500ft are NOT notifies in the UK air pilot and so you
need to reference the hazards air chart. A danger area is defined airspace in which activities
dangerous to flight may occur. They are shown as;
Solid red outline if they are active in published hours
Pecked red outline if they are inactive unless notified by Notam class 1.
Danger area 119 is

active up to
5,000ft. all the
time
D119/5.0
D044/3.2
Danger area 044 is

active up to 3,200ft.
Active in published
hours (see NOTAM)
Air Chart Symbols

Air Navigation Obstructions
Details of structures which reach a height of 300ft AGL are shown on air charts. Obstructions over
500ft AGL are lit. Heights are in ft ASL and (AGL)
Air Chart Symbols

Glider Launching Sites
Air Chart Symbols

Aerodromes
Air Chart Symbols

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Principles of Flight
Chord
Bernoullis theorem
Lift, upper & lower surfaces
Drag Parasitic, induced form & skin friction
Airspeed parasitic drag =v(tas)squared and induced drag =sqr(v(tas))
Stall
Wing loading in a turn
Polar curve
Forces diagram
Power and thrust (trim & angle of attack)
Airspeed at altitude
Effects of atmosphere on carburetion
Engines 2 or 4 stroke
Spark plugs, belts, gearboxes
Propellers, balance, vibration, materials, damage
How Lift is Produced

Bernoulli and Venturi
In the 19th century, a scientist named Daniel Bernoulli discovered that the internal pressure
of a fluid (liquid or gas) reduces the faster the fluid flows. If you take a tube, and make the
tube smaller in diameter in the middle, this creates a
"necked-down" section called a venturi. When air is forced through the pipe, as much air
has to come out the exit as goes in the tube entrance. The air in the venturi section must
travel faster to get through. Bernoulli found that the pressure at the venturi section was less
than at the two ends of the pipe. This is because the speed of the air through the venturi
section is travelling faster than at the ends of the tube.

The Airfoil
Lift is the major force that keeps us in the air. It is produced by the wing moving through the
air. In simple terms, Bernoullis law explains the lift, or upward force that permits airfoils to
generate lift. The upper surface of a airfoil is more curved than the lower; air, travelling
across the wing is made to travel faster and thus its pressure on the upper surface is
reduced.
Streams of pulsed smoke in a wind tunnel show the air above an airfoil is moving faster than
that below. Bernoullis principle of increasing the speed of a fluid reducing its pressure
results in a pressure differential between the upper and lower surfaces.

The Airfoil
The air just ahead of the wing is moving not just left to right but also upward. This is called
upwash. Similarly, the air just aft of the wing is moving not just left to right but also downward,
this is called downwash. Downwash behind the wing is relatively easy to understand; the whole
purpose of the wing is to impart some downward motion to the air. The upwash in front of the
wing is a bit more interesting. Air is a fluid, which means it can exert pressure on itself as well as
other things.
The air pressure strongly affects the air, even the air well in front of the wing.
Along the span of the leading & trailing edge of the wing there is something called a stagnation line,
which is the dividing line between air that flows over the top and bottom of the wing.

The Airfoil
Consequently, a pressure difference between the lower and upper surfaces is created. This results
in LIFT being produced. The amount of lift depends on the airfoil design and the speed of the air
over its surfaces. Lift is a force generated at 90 to the angle of the undisturbed airflow or relative
wind. About 2/3rds of the lift results from the reduced pressure above the wing and 1/3rd from
the increased pressure below it. The majority of the lift being in the front top surface of the wing.
The lift is proportional to the angle at which the airflow meets the wind, the angle of attack.
Angle of Attack
The air passing by the surfaces of the wing (opposite to the direction the wing is travelling) is called
the Relative Wind. The angle which the wings chord makes with this Relative Wind is called the
Angle of Attack. An increase in angle of attack increases both lift and drag.
The amount of lift generated is proportional to the speed at which the airflow meets the wing and
sufficient lift can be generated by high airspeeds with low angle of attack or low airspeed with high
angle of attack.
If the angle becomes too great, it will pass the Critical Angle of Attack. This is a point where the
airflow over the wing becomes so disturbed that the wing ceases to
produce lift. The wing then enters into a Stalled condition.
The chord line is the

straight line passing
through the centre of the
curvature of the leading
and trailing edges of an
aerofoil.
Stall
Aerodynamics of the Stall
A stall occurs because of the airs inability to make sudden changes in velocity (speed or direction).
The air has mass, therefore it wants to continue in its initial direction due to inertia.
The air can no longer make

sudden changes to flow
smoothly over the upper
surface. It breaks away at the
rear and creates turbulence.
The further the nose is raised,

the more the break point
moves towards the leading
edge. At the stall, the drag
increases and the lift
decreases.
Stall
Stall Speed
The stall speed of the wing at any G is equal to the stall speed of the wing at 1G times the square
root of the G. During 45-60 degree banked turns, we can experience 2+Gs.
So the stall speed of the wing in this turn is the stall speed of the wing at 1 G times the square root
of 2 which is 1.41. That is a 41% increase in stall speed while in this turn. It is here that the student
is introduced to the concept of accelerated or high speed stall. In many cases, this knowledge
is left there and is never correlated to the dangers we can encounter in our future flying activities.
Imagine you are pleasure flying around the local beauty spot doing turns around a point to
photograph it. To keep on the point, it is necessary to increase the bank, perhaps to as much as 6075 degrees. If the G loading reaches 4 the wing will now have a new stall speed equal to the stall
speed at one G times the square root of 4, or twice the 1G stall speed. So with a 1G (normal flight)
stall speed of 12 knots, the new stall speed will be 24 knots. Thats a 100% increase!
Stall
Stall Speed
So, if the wings speed is not above the new stall speed, and you are 500ft above the ground,
what do you think the outcome will be? Yes, the wing will stall; Normally the wing will stall on
the inner or lower wing first resulting in a spin. A spin very close to the ground is hardly ever
recoverable.
A bank angle of 60 degrees will double the wing loading and need a 40% increase in speed.
A bank angle of 75 degrees may result in a wing loading of 4G and require a doubling of the
speed
Spin
Put your hands up if you know how to get out of a spin
A spin is a stall on one side of the wing resulting in the centre of rotation in the turn moving
within the wingspan. It can be induced in a number of ways but must be responded to by
immediately raising the controls.
Aeronautical Terms
Angle of attack The measured angle between the airfoil chord and the Relative Wind in front
of the aerofoil.
Aspect ratio This is the ratio of the span of the wing, divided by the chord. Glider wings are
usually high aspect ratio wings. The reason for this is that for a given amount of lift produced by
a wing, the lower aspect ratio wing disturbs a shorter width of air, but it must deflect it more
vigorously. As a result, the tip area experiences larger losses in the form of swirls at the tip.
Centre of pressure - Even though the lift of an airfoil is distributed along its surface, the
resultant force of all the lift forces can be considered to be at single point along the wing known
as the Centre of Pressure. Centre of pressure can move depending on the angle of attack and
the amount of reflex on certain types of wing.
Centre of gravity - The resultant forces of all the weight can be considered to be at the centre
of gravity. Centre of gravity can move by the point weight shifting. The C of G is where the
aircraft would balance. It can also be called the centre of mass.
Chord - The straight line passing through the centre of the curvature of the leading and trailing
edges of an aerofoil.
Washin An increase in the angle of attack from root to tip. A twist in the wing by design.
Vortices
When the wing is flying it produces a startling vortex which is left spinning gently behind as you
fly off. The standing tubular vortex your wing carries whenever it flies is created as the wing flies
through the air. At the wingtips, the high pressure below the wing and the low pressure above
causes a flow of air around the tip.
As the wing moves forward, this flow rolls off the tips in two spinning tubes which extend
outwards and downwards. These vortices are a source of drag which will be described later.
Keeping the standing vortex trapped at high angles of attack is the problem, because the
molecules are accelerated more fiercely and the vortex becomes unstable. Finally at the stalling
angle, the vortex leaves the wing and forms the end vortex which dies away.
Unfortunately the process of generation of lift cannot be accomplished without the generation
of drag and the measure of the efficiency of the wing can be expresses as the lift generated
(good) against the drag generated (bad). Dividing the lift by the drag gives us a number the
Lift/Drag Ratio the bigger the number for us, the better
Stability
Pendulum Stability
Most of the stability comes from the pendulum effect. The weight of the pilot is great compared
to the weight of the canopy. The lift comes from the canopy and the weight from the pilot. Roll
stability and pitch stability come mainly from the pendulum effect.
Pitch stability can be influenced by the aerodynamic section used, some are more pitch stable
than others. The curve of the glider (viewed from the front) also affects the roll stability due to
the direction the lift is acting in relation to the position of the pilot.
Wash-in
Wash-in is a built in twist in the wing increasing the angle of attack from the root to the tip.
Standard Paragliders are built for stability and wash-in is often built in the tips. This has the
effect of increasing the lift in this part of the wing and hence increase the tension in the wing
across the span i.e. makes the wing feel more solid. It also tends to reduce the tendency for tip
deflations. Advanced Paragliders can have neutral or washout built in to increase the
performance. This can also make the tips loose in turbulence. Wash-in can also limit the
extent of a collapse. As the collapse progresses across the span it encounters increasing angle of
attack once past the centre.
Stability
Reflex Profile
Simply put, it is an aerofoil which in case of decreased angle of attack automatically tends to
have it increased again. In other words, it always stays in neutral position regarding its load.
One of the most distinct features of the paragliders equipped with reflex airfoil as opposed to
classic paragliders is their substantially increased stability. With such a big margin of stability,
reflex canopies can be safely flown at much higher speeds than classic paragliders at high
speeds.
Stability
Reflex Profile Steering
Stability
Measuring Reflex
In reflex-airfoil paragliders releasing
trimmers and activating speed system
results in shifting pilots weight towards
leading edge, so that A and B rows carry
almost all of it while C and D rows get
relieved.
The opposite happens in classic paragliders.

With increasing airspeed, load on the A and
B rows decreases, while more is carried by C
and D lines. In some extreme cases full
acceleration can lead to total unloading of
the A risers, with subsequent frontal
collapse.
Drag
Drag is result of us flying in a fluid (air) and cannot be totally removed. There are several types of
drag.
Induced
Induced drag is a by product of lift. The majority of induced is formed at the wingtips where the
wingtip vortices are shed, as the area of low pressure above the wing and the high pressure
below the wing slide off the wingtip and mix in a swirling trailing tip vortex. The important thing
is that induced drag is reduced with angle of attack and hence airspeed. High aspect ratio wings
reduce induced drag. Winglets on 747s reduce induced drag at slow speed. Condors have
extended feathers at the tips that do funny things with tip vortices and they all help reduce
induced drag.
It varies as a square root of the airspeed. Doubling your airspeed cuts your induced drag by four
times.
Drag
Parasitic
Parasitic drag is a friction drag and varies with the square of the speed. i.e. doubling your speed
quadruples your parasitic drag. There are three types of parasitic drag.
Form Drag
Caused by solid non-lifting items in the airstream. i.e. You, lines, motor, cage, prop etc
Profile Drag
Caused by the lifting surfaces. It consists of skin friction drag and leading edge form drag.
The more streamlined the airfoil shape, the less profile drag.
Interference Drag
Interference drag is when the airflow around the aircraft interfere with each other. Not a
big problem on hang gliders or paragliders.
Drag
Total Drag
Add all the drag components up to get
the total drag. Different parts of the drag
are important at different speeds. We
can plot a graph as below. Notice that
the induced drag decreases the faster
you go, and the parasitic drag increases.
The total drag has a minimum, and this
occurs at the airspeed at which you
should fly for maximum efficiency. Most
paragliders are trimmed to fly at this
speed when the controls are fully up.
Forces on a glider
We need to understand the forces only so we can make the right decision when applying
throttle or brake inputs. We will look at three states.
Gliding Flight
Level Flight
Climbing Flight
Lets agree some terms for the forces
Weight - (the glider, pilot, machine ...everything) Weight is a force that acts towards the centre
of the Earth.
Aerodynamic Resultant - (the force that keeps you in the air)
Lift - a component of the Aerodynamic Resultant Lift is defined as acting at right angles to the
direction of travel.
Drag - a component of the Aerodynamic Resultant. Drag is defined as acting to oppose the
direction of travel.
Thrust - is a force that acts in the direction of travel
Apparent Weight - - is weight plus any additional components of the other forces that combine
to oppose the aerodynamic resultant
Forces on a glider
In level flight;
Weight = Lift and Thrust = Drag.
The aerodynamic load and the

aerodynamic resultant are equal
and opposite when you are
travelling along a straight
trajectory at a steady speed.
The red arrows are equal and
opposite along the line of
resolution that joins the centre
of pressure and the centre of
gravity.
Why do we Care?
Keeping the prop disc in line with your direction and flying
the glider at its most efficient speed (trim speed) will
reduce fuel consumption dramatically
Forces on a glider
With the motor off (no thrust) the
trajectory is the Glide Path of the
wing
When you turn off the thrust, the only force left to
oppose the aerodynamic resultant is the weight.
Why do we care?
The ratio of lift to drag IS our glide path!
We can steepen the glide path by adding drag
(brakes) and land in the field not in the hedge.
Or reduce drag and fly further on a shallower path
and over the hedge.
Forces on a glider
To get the same Aerodynamic Load in climbing flight, you have to increase thrust
Increase the thrust to more than

the drag and you start to climb. The
more you thrust the steeper you
climb (up to a point!).
Why do we care?
what do you want?
Fastest climb rate?
Steepest climb angle?
Most fuel efficient climb?
Brakes and throttle combine differently to choose
between these options.
The important point to remember is that increasing thrust increases the
rate of climb, it does NOT increase speed!
Climb Options
Best rate of ClimbBest rate of climb (VY) is performed at an airspeed where the most excess
power is available over that required for level flight. This condition of climb will produce the most
gain in altitude in the least amount of time (maximum rate of climb in feet per minute). The best
rate of climb made at full allowable power is a maximum climb. It must be fully understood that
attempts to obtain more climb performance than the airplane is capable of by increasing pitch
attitude will result in a decrease in the rate of altitude gain.
Best Angle of ClimbBest angle of climb (VX) is performed at an airspeed that will produce the
most altitude gain in a given distance. Best angle-of climb airspeed (VX) is considerably lower
than best rate of climb (VY), and is the airspeed where the most excess thrust is available over
that required for level flight. The best angle of climb will result in a steeper climb path, although
the airplane will take longer to reach the same altitude than it would at best rate of climb. The
best angle of climb, therefore, is used in clearing obstacles after takeoff.
Polar Curves
Polar curves are graphical representations of the performance of our wing. They can be used to
determine what speed we should fly at for any given conditions to maximize our glide over the
ground.
They are drawn with airspeed along the X axis and sink rate up the Y axis.
Polar Curves
The curve is a series of plots taken for a particular aircraft and for a series of airspeeds. At each
airspeed the sink rate is taken and then it is possible to plot the polar curve. The sharp increase
in sink rate at slow speeds is the point just before the stall.
Minimum Sink is the highest point on the graph below. For this wing it occurs about 30kph
Polar Curves
Maximum Glide
Max glide in still air obtained by drawing a tangent to the graph from the origin. The point of
intersection can be read off in sink rate and airspeed. This wing has a best glide of around 40kph
Polar Curves
Speed to fly (in sinking air)
In the previous examples, the polar curves showed performance relative to the air mass in which
the glider was flying. It was valid relative to the ground only in still air.
In sinking air, you must raise the origin of the graph by an amount equal to the airmass sink rate,
and then draw a tangent to the original curve from that point.
Lets assume an airmass sink rate of 3m/s and move the
origin up 3m/s. Now the tangent to the original occurs at
around 62kph! Remember that the glider sink rate is the
sum of its own sink rate plus the sink rate of the airmass
it is flying in. In this case it is 6.2m/s (airmass sink rate of
3m/s plus glider sink rate 3.2m/s = 6.2m/s)
Polar Curves
Speed to fly (in lift)
Move the origin down. In this example the air is rising at 2.5m/s so we start the tangent line at
2.5 and see that we need to fly a little less than minimum sink for most efficient flight; around
28kph
Polar Curves
Speed to fly (in a headwind)
For a headwind we displace the origin to the right, using the airspeed scale to determine how far
we move it. The example here shows the speed to fly in a headwind of 15kph it is around 50kph
for the most efficient speed.
Polar Curves
Speed to fly (in a tailwind)
For a tailwind, we displace the origin to the left
Polar Curves
We can also combine vertical and horizontal airmass movement as in the graph below combining
sink rate and a headwind.
We can deduce that we should speed up in sink and a headwind, and slow down in thermals and
a tailwind.
Motorised Flight
Power and Thrust
The Forces diagrams show us that thrust is a pitch control. With no thrust, we are in
Gliding flight. The thrust we need for level flight is directly linked to the Lift to Drag
ratio of our wing (which we find from experimenting measuring the sink rate at
different airspeeds for our configuration and all up weight). On a wing that has a lift
drag ratio of 1:5 when flown by a pilot and motor combo of 100kg, the thrust required
for level flight is 20kg (one fifth of the all up weight).
Any additional thrust applied will result in climbing flight. The attitude of the aircraft
(angle of travel relative to the horizon) is set by the thrust.
Climb rate is determined by how fast you fly up the path set by the thrust. Speed of the
aircraft is determined by the lift to drag ratio. Reducing drag will increase speed. The
polar curve shows us the speed at which the wing flies most efficiently (lowest L/D)
and is the Max Glide speed.
Motorised Flight
Power and Thrust
We can fly at faster speeds than the Max Glide but this requires more power. We can
thus increase our climb rate by increasing speed. (trimmers and lowering the angle of
attack) but will have to expect to provide ever increasing amounts of thrust, for ever
decreasing increases in climb rate.
So many different wing designs and trimmer/riser configurations make theoretical
claims a bit difficult to generalise. Your best climb rate and your most efficient climb
rate can be measured and added to your measured polar curve data for your wing and
motor set up.
The most important things to remember here are that;
Trimmers, speed systems, and brake positions all control the speed of the aircraft.
Power (and how much thrust you apply) Controls your pitch angle.
Airspeed, Pressure, Temperature, Humidity

At Altitude
Pressure reduces with altitude. The air is less dense. We have seen that lift is produced by moving
an airfoil through the air creating a pressure differential between the upper and lower surfaces,
and that moving the wing faster increases the amount of lift produced.
At higher altitudes the less dense air means that the wing must move faster to generate the same
amount of lift as it did at a lower altitude (for the same all up weight). You can expect to have to
run further or accelerate faster when taking off from high altitude launch decks.
Atmospheric Pressure
The same thing happens when the air pressure falls. Taking off on a day when the pressure is very
low, you may find you are running out of field and still not taking off, or you have taken off and
appear to be flying faster than usual.
At higher altitudes the less dense air means that the wing must move faster to generate the same
amount of lift as it did at a lower altitude (for the same all up weight). You can expect to have to
run further or accelerate faster when taking off from high altitude launch decks.
Airspeed, Pressure, Temperature, Humidity

Temperature
Air density is also affected by temperature. Warm air is less dense than cold air. Increases in take
off distance increase with temperature and airspeed will also increase. Climb rate will be reduced
when temperatures rise.
Humidity
In addition, air with higher humidity is less dense, providing lower lift and lower propeller
efficiency (this is somewhat offset by decreased drag). Pilots must take humidity into account
when calculating takeoff distances because high humidity will require longer runways and will
decrease the climb gradient.
Air Density decreases:

With Air Temperature Increase
With Altitude Increase
With Humidity Increase
With Barometric Pressure Decrease
With lower air density:

The engine develops less power.
The propeller produces less thrust.
The wings produce less lift.
This results in:

Longer takeoff run
Poorer climb performance
Longer landing distance
Adverse launch Conditions

1) High density altitude (high altitude
runway, low pressure, high
temperature)
2) Runway conditions - mud, soft field,
slush, snow, tall grass, rough surface,
uphill launch direction
3) Low or nil wind
4) High gross weight or overload
5) High Humidity
Favorable Launch Conditions

1) Low density altitude (low altitude
runway, low temperature, high
pressure)
2) Downhill launch direction
3) Nice Breeze
4) Low weight
5) Low Humidity
Engines
Two Stroke Engines
2-stroke, two-cycle, or 2-cycle engines complete a power cycle in only one crankshaft revolution
and with two strokes (or up and down movements) of the piston. They also need to be supplied
with oil in the fuel supply. They rely on this to lubricate the moving internal parts. Fuel to oil ratio
is specified by the engine manufacturer e.g 50:1 or 2%
Mixing fuel to the correct ratio is important to prevent seizure of moving parts (too little oil) and
excessive carbon deposits (too much oil).
Two-stroke engines often provide high power-to-weight ratio, usually in a narrow range of
rotational speeds called the "power band", and, compared to 4-stroke engines, have a greatly
reduced number of moving parts.
A two-stroke engine, in this case with an expansion chamber illustrates the effect of a
reflected pressure wave on the fuel charge. This feature is essential for maximum charge
pressure (volumetric efficiency) and fuel efficiency. It is used on most high-performance
engine designs.
Engines
Four Stroke Engines
Air is drawn into the engine through the carburettor, where fuel is added. The resultant fuel-air
mixture is then ducted to the top of the engine, ready to be drawn into the cylinder. The four
strokes are;
1) Induction the piston moves downwards, drawing the fuel-air
mixture through a valve into the top of the cylinder.
2) Compression the inlet valve closes and the piston moves upwards,
compressing the fuel-air mix which causes it to become quite hot. As
the piston approaches the top of the stroke (known as top dead
centre TDC), the spark plug ignites the mixture causing it to explode
and expand.
3) Ignition/Power with all the valves closed, the expanding gasses
force the piston downwards again.
4) Exhaust an exhaust valve opens, and the piston moves upwards
again, pushing the spent gasses out of the cylinder.
The inlet and exhaust valves are opened and closed by a series of rods connected to the
camshaft, which makes the mechanics of the four stroke slightly more complicated and all
these moving parts need to be lubricated, necessitating a system for pumping oil to them and
adding even more complexity. So, although the four stroke engine is a simple concept, it is
mechanically complex.
Engine Performance
Altitude
The higher the altitude, the richer your motor will run, making it sometimes necessary to re-jet
the motor in order to lean it out. The higher you fly the fuel volume remains the same but less
air is available, so the mixture gets richer and power output will reduce.
Temperature
When the temperature goes up, the air density decreases, thus you have less air available for
combustion and your fuel air ratio becomes richer. The same works in reverse, as the
temperature goes down, you end up with more air per cubic foot, and without re-jetting your
carburettor, the engine will run leaner.
Air Density or Pressure
As the air density increases, your engine will lean out. As the air density goes down, the engine
runs richer. As the pressure falls, the engine will run richer, losing power, as the air density rises
the engine will lean out and there is a danger of engine seizure
Humidity
Humidity is how much moisture is in the air. As humidity increases the fuel/air ratio will become
richer. An engine runs fine in the dry morning air may run rich later if the humidity increases.
The bottom line is to make sure to pay close attention to your jetting on cold, dry days with high
pressure as these are seizing conditions
On high humidity, low pressure days, expect much less power, due to rich mixture.
Engine Performance
Spark Plugs, Belts, Gearboxes and Clutches
Engines run up to 10,000 revolutions a minute. Propellers spin at around 2000 to 3000rpm. A
reduction drive is needed to reduce the output shaft speed. Typically this will be between 2:1
and 4:1. This can be a gearbox or reduction pulley with belt drive. Most engines run
anticlockwise when viewed from the back. Belt drives make the propeller run the same way,
but gearboxes usually reverse the propeller direction. This means that often a propeller
designed for a belt driven machine cannot be used on a gearbox type reduction and vice-versa.
(They will still produce thrust, but greatly reduced and not enough to fly/climb with)!
Many machines with gearboxes are also fitted with centrifugal clutches that disconnect the
propeller at idle speeds. A propeller spinning freely in the airstream (at idle or not) generates
drag and reduces your glide performance.
Spark plugs are designed to run at a particular temperature range and an engine manufacturer
will specify a particular plug for their motor. It is important to use the correct plug. Some plugs
are longer than others, and a long plug fitted in an engine that needs a short one could result in
the plug colliding with the piston and causing considerable damage.
Propellers
Balance, Vibration, Materials, Damage
Propellers spin up to 3000rpm. The tips are between 400mm and 700mm from the hub and so
are travelling at very high speed. Any imbalance between bladed will result in damaging
vibration. A prop must be checked regularly for balance as small nicks and dents can affect the
balance.
A prop needs to be balanced span wise (end to end) and chord wise. A chord wise imbalance
and produce a damaging vibration at a particular engine speed and the vibration can be very
destructive.
Propellers are usually made from either laminated wood or composite materials such as
polyester and glass fibre or epoxy resins and carbon/kevlar fibres. Whatever they are made of,
they must be repaired by highly skilled people with detailed knowledge of the materials and
balancing procedures. Unskilled DIY propeller repairs are potentially very dangerous not only
for the pilot but particularly for bystanders and general public being overflown. Other than
dressing our minor nicks, propellers should never be repaired.
Airmanship & Navigation

Objective: To be able to fly SPHG safely and legally in the UK
Topics;
SISSAA midweek flying notification procedure CANP
Military low flying avoid which altitude?
Accident and incident reporting
Airfield choice
Site assessment
Airfield protocols
Take off run lengths
Airspeed, groundspeed, windspeed, drift, heading, track
Speed to fly stall, level, climbing
Carb Icing
Fuel tank venting
Calculate fuel use
Calculate time of flight
Chart use, North, magnetic/true Isogonals deviation variation/declination.

Flight Planning
We are all required by law to ensure that our flights can be made safely. This means that even if you
only plan some ridge-soaring at your local site, you should be aware of any local airspace
restrictions and you should take the steps outlined below. If you plan to fly cross-country then your
flight planning will obviously need to include checking a great swathe of the country for possible
restrictions.
NOTAMs (Notice To Airman)

Whenever you fly you should call Freefone 0500 354802 to check on Royal flights, Red Arrows
displays and other Temporary Restricted Airspace (RA[T]).
You should also check the NOTAMs for any other activities that may affect your flight. You can
subscribe to a NOTAM service or to a twice-weekly Temporary Navigational Warning information
bulletins (TNWs) postal service; or you can use the Web to access all the NOTAMs for that day at
www.ais.org.uk (there's no need to register, just enter the username: 'BHPAuser' and password
'password'). If you use the postal service, you should be aware that details may have changed after
the bulletins were printed and posted.

Midweek Flying Procedure
Additionally, if you are flying midweek (non-English Bank Holiday) you should let the military pilots
know. There are two linked systems for this.
Five hundred of the busiest flying sites have allocated Site Codes. (The codes for your club's sites
will be in your club site guide.) On these sites it is possible to activate a temporary avoidance zone
around the notified site (1nm diameter/1000ft agl) by contacting the Low Flying Booking Cell by
20:00 the day before. (Later submissions will still be passed on to military pilots, but as a warning
rather than creating a temporary avoidance zone.)
CANP (Civil Aircraft Notification Procedure)
For all other sites the standard CANP should be used if five or more gliders are likely to be
operating. This does not establish an avoidance area but it does ensure that military pilots will be
alerted to your presence. Because it can take up to four hours to get the information out to all the
military pilots before they take off, the notification procedure should be started as soon as possible
- ideally the evening before.

In both cases take the following steps:
Use Freephone 0800 515544, or Fax 0800 3892225, or e-mail cas-aslfoslfbc@mod.uk. Provide the
following details:
1) Activity. Hang/paragliding/PPG (If the site is one of those with a site code then state
'Hang/paragliding Avoidance Area' here.)
2) Location: Site grid reference (2 letter 6 figure) and name. (If the site is one of those with a site
code then state that first.)
3) Area of operation. (With the notification system this is a maximum of 2nm radius. With the
avoidance area system it is always 1nm diameter.)
4) Date and time flying will start / finish.
5) Expected number of gliders.
6) Contact telephone number (ideally a mobile that will work on the site).
7) Normal contact details (if different to (6)).
You will be given a unique Reference Number to note.

The Low Flying Booking Cell is manned Monday to Thursday 0700-2300 (Local) and Friday 07001700 (Local). The LFBC is now closed at weekends. If you use the fax or e-mail contact out-of-hours
you will be called back by phone with the Reference Number when the office is next manned and
the associated notification has been passed to military pilots. You can only assume that you have
avoidance/notification status once you have received this.
If at any stage it becomes clear that the site won't be used after all you should cancel by calling
0800 515544, quoting the Reference Number and amending the details.
The personnel manning the Low Flying Booking Cell are a helpful bunch whose sole aim is keeping
us all safe. If your flying situation doesn't exactly match the criteria above it is still worth giving
them a call for advice - they might still be able to do something to help.
Last updated: 22 June 2012

Accident and Incident Reporting
Reporting
Almost anything that causes or could have caused injury or damage, or is simply unusual or
inexplicable is considered reportable. Moreover, failure to submit a BHPA incident report form
promptly, may jeapardise an instructors legal standing and insurance cover in the event of a claim
of negligence. But most importantly, the incident report could probably contribute to saving
another pilot from injury.
Investigating and Reporting
Under European Union legislation (Directive 94/56) the BHPA is authorised and empowered,
under delegated powers afforded by the Department of Transport (Air Accident Investigation
Branch AAIB) to record, investigate, and report all hang gliding and paragliding (including
paramotor) incidents.
Under this legislation it is also the duty of every pilot (whether or not they are BHPA members) to
report incidents. Non BHPA members may elect to report incidents directly to the AAIB. The
attention of all qualified members and accident inspectors in particular is drawn to the legislation.
The purpose of accident investigation is to identify any lessons which might be learned, with
obviously, the aim of preventing any repetition.

BHPA Reportable incidents are;
1) Those involving injury, whether to participants or others.
2) Those involving damage to property, whether or not it is third party.
3) Those for which an insurance or legal claim might arise.
4) Those involving the use of non standard hang gliding, paragliding or training
5) Those in which equipment has broken or failed to function, or has malfunctioned.
6) Anything that might highlight safety points or was unusual.
7) Those from which the sport may learn.
Mandatory Reporting
It is a legal requirement and your duty as a BHPA member to report air incidents. Fatal or potentially
fatal incidents must be reported to the BHPA, Air Accident Investigation Branch (AAIB) and Police
immediately. Serious incidents should be reported to the BHPA as soon as possible and in all cases
an incident report should be submitted to the BHPA within 48 hours using the following form.
BHPA Technical Officers: 0116 289 4316

BHPA Office: 0116 289 4316 or office@bhpa.co.uk
AAIB (24 hours): 01252 512299
Legally reportable incidents must be reported to AAIB. This can be via the BHPA or directly to the
AAIB. Additionally, accidents involving death or serious injury must also be reported to the police.

Military Low Flying Activity
Military fixed-wing aircraft (except light aircraft and helicopters) are considered to be low flying
when less than 2,000 ft MSD (Minimum Separation Distance). The lowest height at which fixed wing
military aircraft normally fly is 250 ft MSD. However, in three specially designated areas, known as
Tactical Training Areas (TTA) located in Mid- Wales, in the Borders/SW Scotland and in the North of
Scotland, a small number of flights may be authorised to fly down to 100 ft MSD. Military light
propeller aircraft and helicopters are considered to be low flying below 500 ft MSD.
In practice, most military low flying takes place between 250 ft and 600 MSD, decreasing in intensity
up to 1,000 ft MSD and reducing further in the 1,000 ft to 2,000 ft height band. However,
occasionally military aircraft perform high energy maneuvers between 250 ft and 2,000 ft during
which they rapidly change height, speed and direction.

Military Low Flying Activity
Most low flying takes place in the UK Flight Information Regions (FIR), outside Controlled Airspace,
where ground radio and radar coverage is not adequate to provide a radar service to military
aircraft at low level. It would be impractical for military jet aircraft to avoid each other by contacting
ATC units. With the exception of the HRA, military low flying is only conducted in Visual
Meteorological Conditions (VMC), where pilots not only fly with visual reference to the surface, but
also apply the see and avoid principle regarding other aircraft. The exception to this rule is low
flying in the Highlands Restricted Area (HRA), when active which is regularly conducted in limited
visibility using terrain following radar.
The Low Flying Booking Cell disseminates the information notified from the Civil Aircraft
Notification Procedure (CANP), to all military flying units via a military NOTAM network.

Civilian Low Flying
Civilian pilots engaged in low level aerial work may be subject to aircraft maneuvering limitations
and/or restricted lookout. CANP exists to provide military aircrew with information on aircraft
below 1,000ft AGL engaged in crop spraying, photography, surveys or helicopter under slung load
work close to a declared site. Military aircraft at speeds in excess of 140kts will avoid laterally, or by
overflying with a separation of not less than 500 ft the notified CANP area of operation.
Recreational activities notified under CANP will not normally be provided with CANP avoidance
areas. However, where five or more aircraft (gliders, hang and paragliders, free balloons, PPG or
microlights) plan to operate at a site which is not normally used, or will be outside the published
hours, the Low Flying Booking Cell will issue a warning to military pilots.
The Low Flying Booking Cell should be contacted not less than 4 hours beforehand, but preferably
earlier. This minimum period of 4 hours for notification is required so that aircrew can be advised
during their flight planning. Notifications with less than 4 hours notice will generally be accepted
but as the notice period diminishes, so does the likelihood of the message getting through!

To reduce the risk of confliction with low flying military aircraft, pilots of civil aircraft on Visual Flight
Rules (VFR) flights midweek are advised to fly above 2,000 ft AGL if possible. In particular they
should avoid operating in the 250 to 1,000 ft AGL height band.
When departing from aerodromes in the FIR, pilots should climb above 1,000 ft as soon as possible,
and delay descent below 1,000 ft for as long as possible when approaching such aerodromes.
Where an ATZ is established, fly circuits and procedures within the ATZ (military pilots are directed
to avoid ATZs) At aerodromes without an ATZ, military pilots will apply the see and avoid principle.
Other areas of intense activity
AIAAs, (Areas of Intense Aerial Activity) airspace within which military or civil aircraft, singly or in
combination with others, regularly participate in unusual maneuvers.
ATAs, (Aerial Tactics Areas) airspace of defined dimensions designated for air combat training within
which high energy maneuvers are regularly practiced by aircraft formations.
Conclusion
In UKLFS airspace, as elsewhere in the FIR, de-confliction depends on pilots seeing and avoiding
other aircraft. Civilian pilots can make a considerable contribution to flight safety by flying above
1000ft whenever possible and remaining aware that some military flying occurs in the 1000 to
2000ft height band.
Avoid operating in the 250-1000ft height band

SPHG Definition
In the Air Nagivation Order, Section 1, Part33 (interpretation)
'Glider' means:
(a) a non-power-driven, heavier-than-air aircraft, deriving its lift in flight chiefly from
aerodynamic reactions on surfaces which remain fixed under given conditions
of flight;
(b) a self-sustaining glider; and
(c) a self-propelled hang-glider;
and any reference in this Order to a glider includes a reference to a self-sustaining
glider and a self-propelled hang-glider;
'Self-propelled hang-glider' means an aircraft comprising an aerofoil wing and a
mechanical propulsion device which:
(a) is foot launched;
(b) has a stall speed or minimum steady flight speed in the landing configuration
not exceeding 35 knots calibrated airspeed; and
(c) has a maximum unladen mass, including full fuel, of 70kg;

Foot launch or Wheels?
The key difference between a trike and an SPHG is that it is foot lunched
This means the flight must have originated from the pilot having used his feet to support part, or all
the weight of the aircraft during the take off. The definition includes parafoil and flex-wing
types. The latter often use wheels or skids to support the rear of the unit during take off.
A trike that can also be foot launched is only a SPHG in flight, if that flight originated in a foot
launch.

Site Assessment
Choosing your field;
Clear air upwind is essential for parafoil wings. Turbulence makes inflation difficult and hazardous.
Overshoot is needed in case of engine failure.
You need a Land-ahead area of at least 300 metres.
Using a field for more than 28 days in a year may necessitate planning approval for change of use
The land owners consent for access is often needed.
You are legally entitled to land anywhere in an emergency.
Remember the 6 Ss when choosing a launching or landing site
1) Size
2) Shape
3) Surface
4) Slope
5) Surroundings
6) Stock

Rotor
Rotors and mechanical turbulence are created as the wind passes anything in its path that it cannot
pass smoothly over. When the wind passes over these objects, it will swirl violently. The stronger
the wind, the potential increases for dangerous rotors. The sharper the edges of the obstructions,
the stronger the turbulence will be.
The following are all common rotor triggers:

Horizontal edges, Vertical edges, Mountain tops, Trees, Buildings, Rocks

Noise
Noise from a paramotor is a combination of engine noise and propeller noise. The tips of the
propeller operate close to the speed of sound! Particular frequencies travel further and louder than
others (like the bass notes from an open air concert)
Whether your noise causes a nuisance is up to the listener to decide. There are laws governing the
volume of noise, the regularity and duration, but paramotors rarely breach these. The main
problem is the mototony of a very slow moving droning whining object passing you and clearly
having more fun that you are!
Wind
Be aware of your sound footprint. Higher revs make more noise (climb at lower revs). The higher
you are, the wider your footprint. Noise spreads outward and downwind. Fly a thoughtful path.

The Signal Square & Other Visual Signals to Aircraft
The Signal Square, or signal area, contained symbols to indicate visually to over-flying aircraft
conditions on the aerodrome. It had pre-War origins, and was intended for aircraft that carried no
radio communications equipment. Ground signals are still used at aerodromes to this day the
landing T and the gliding-in-operation symbol being the most common ones, but the general use of
the signal square had fallen into disuse by the late 1950s when VHF air-ground communications had
been largely introduced.
The square was marked out on the ground in the vicinity of the control tower and the wind- sock. It
had sides 40 feet long, with a white-painted border. The surface inside the square was smooth and
level. It was usually blackened to provide a contrasting background to the symbols that conveyed
the information. The were four basic signals; the red square signal, the dumb bell signals, the
landing T, and the right hand circuit indicator. All of these objects were made of timber and painted
black on the reverse side. They were made of a series of hinged sections so that they could be
folded up when not in use, and would not be visible from the air.
Signals square key
Additional signals on military fields
Signs for aircraft on the ground
Ground signals used outside the signals square

Runway Length
How long a runway you need depends on several factors. Generally nil wind take offs require more
space as you have to achieve a higher ground speed in order to achieve correct airspeed for flight.
Higher loads, require higher airspeed, so require longer runs.
Low pressure, high humidity, high temperature, Higher altitude, cause power loss if not corrected
by carburettor adjustment and lower power usually means a longer run.

Airspeed, Ground speed, Wind speed.
A wing will fly at a particular airspeed that is built into its design. It must have air flowing over it at
that speed to generate lift.
Ground speed (your speed over the ground) is affected by the wind speed and its direction. You
always fly at the airspeed of your glider, and your ground speed is the difference between your
airspeed and the wind speed in your direction.
40
Ground Speed
Airspeed
30
Wind Speed 10
Always the same Airspeed
30
Airspeed
Wind Speed 10 20 Ground Speed
Flying downwind seems a lot

faster but your airspeed is
always the same.

Heading This is the angle from True North of the direction you are pointing.
Track This is the angle from True North that you are actually travelling in.
Drift This is the difference between heading and track and is properly called the wind correction
angle. (WCA)
Using the 1 in 60 to estimate WCA
The two/three step technique described below approximates the sine/cosine relationships and
produces results near enough to the trig calculations.
1. First find the crosswind component of the forecast wind velocity by estimating the (acute) angle at
which the wind meets the required track, dividing that by 60 and multiplying the rest by the wind
speed. However if the relative angle exceeds 60 just use 60 for example:
a) Track = 045 Wind/Velocity = 075/20 :Relative angle = 30 : 30/60X20 = 10 crosswind
b) Track = 045 Wind/Velocity = 135/20 :Relative angle = 90 : 60/60X20 = 20 crosswind
c) Track = 045 Wind/Velocity = 195/20 :Relative angle = 30 : 30/60X20 = 10 crosswind
2. Then use the 1 in 60 rule to estimate the wind correction angle by dividing the crosswind
component by the TAS and multiplying the result by 60 e.g.
(a & c) crosswind = 10 TAS = 75 : 10/75 x 60 = 8
Or (b) crosswind = 20 TAS = 75 : 20/75 x 60 = 16
WCA = Relative angle[60 max] x Wind speed / TAS
Example (a) Track = 045 TAS = 75 w/v= 075/20 Relative angle = 30
WCA = 30x20/75 = 8

Drift Correction
In the following example, an airplane drifted 8 NM after flying 65 NM. Three steps are required to
find the wind correction angle needed to arrive at the destination.
Step 1 - The drift in degrees

Solve triangle CAD
8/65=ANGLE/60 or ANGLE=480/65=7.3 degrees
Step 2 - Correction in degrees to destination
Remaining distance AB - AC = 100-65=35
Solve triangle CBD
8/35=ANGLE/60 or ANGLE=480/35=13.7Degrees
Step 3 Add angle CAD to angle CBD to find heading to fly
7.3+13.7=21 degrees
Stall Speed
It is misleading to talk about stall speed without further definition. The stall occurs at a particular
Angle of Attack, not a particular speed. The speed Vs below which the stall will occur depends on
the load factor. If the aircraft reaches the critical AoA under a load higher than 1G, the stalling speed
will be higher than a stall at 1G.
This latter stall is called an accelerated stall and is usually more pronounced than a stall at 1G. The
load factor normally increases in a turn, thus when turning, the stalling speed is higher than normal
and the pilot must maintain a reasonable airspeed margin above that accelerated stall speed
throughout the turn.
Bank Cosin Load Factor
Vs multiplier
Load Factor in a Turn
Angle
e
[g]
The table shows the increase in stall speed at various
10
0.98
1.02
1.01 [+1%]
bank angles in correctly executed level turns. The load
20
0.94
1.06
1.03 [+3%]
factor or g =1/cosine of the bank angle and the Vs
multiplier = the square root of the load factor. The
30
0.87
1.15
1.07 [+7%]
table shows that once you reach bank angles of 30 or
40
0.77
1.30
1.14 [+14%]
more, the aircraft stall speed increases rapidly; 7%
45
0.71
1.41
1.19 [+19%]
increase at 30, 19% at 45,and 41% at 60.
50
0.64
1.56
1.25 [+25%]
Thus, Level turns involving bank angles exceeding 2054
0.59
1.70
1.30 [+30%]
30 should not be made at low levels, including take
60
0.50
2.00
1.41 [+41%]
offs and landing operations. Even so, the airspeed
should be increased to allow an appropriate safety
70
0.34
2.94
1.71 [+71%]
margin for gentle turns, a safe speed near the
75
0.25
4.00
2.00 [+100%]
ground is 1.5 x Vs

Cruise Airspeeds
Vbr best range, or Vmd minimum drag, is the
speed that provides maximum L/D by producing
minimum drag and thus the best power-to-speed ratio.
This speed might utilise about 55% power and is usually
flown at the lowest altitude where the throttle is fully
open to obtain that speed. Vbr/Vmd decreases as the
aircraft weight decreases from MTOW. wind conditions
have to be taken into account, and the fuel saving may
not be that significant compared to flying at a speed
10% faster. Also, the engine manufacturer's operating
recommendations should be followed concerning a
particular rpm for long periods.
Best rate of climb (VY) is performed at an airspeed
where the most excess power is available over that
required for level flight. This condition of climb will
produce the most gain in altitude in the least amount of
time (maximum rate of climb in feet per minute). The
best rate of climb made at full allowable power is a
maximum climb. It must be fully understood that
attempts to obtain more climb performance than the
airplane is capable of by increasing pitch attitude will
result in a decrease in the rate of altitude gain.
Remember airspeed is controlled by the angle of attack, not by the throttle. Trimmers, brakes and
accelerator systems control the airspeed.
Carburetor Icing
Carburetor icing occurs when there
is humid air, and the temperature drop in
the venturi causes the water vapor to
freeze. (When air pressure drops, so
does the temperature and the venturi
lowers the air pressure) The ice will form
on the surfaces of the carburetor throat,
further restricting it. This may increase
the Venturi effect initially, but eventually
restricts airflow, perhaps even causing a
complete blockage of the carburetor.
Icing may also cause jamming of the
mechanical parts of the carburetor, such
as the throttle, typically a butterfly valve.
Aircraft powered by carbureted engines are equipped with carburetor heat systems to overcome
the icing problem. In cars, carburetor icing can occasionally be a nuisance. The inlet manifold and
parts of the carburetor often have warm water from the cooling system or exhaust gas circulating
through them to combat this problem. Motorcycles can also suffer from carburetor icing, although
some engine designs are more prone to it than others. Air-cooled engines may be more prone to
icing.

Be Able to Calculate Flight Time and Fuel Requirements
1. How long does it take to complete an out and return flight to a turn point to the North
30km away with a 15kph southerly wind? Your gliders airspeed is 30kph.
2. If your fuel consumption is 3.5 litres per hour, how much fuel (to the nearest 0.1L)
would you consume for the same flight?
Answers shown on next slide, so please work out your own answers first.

Be Able to Calculate Flight Time and Fuel
Requirements
1. How long does it take to complete an out
and return flight to a turn point to the
North 30km away with a 15kph southerly
wind? Your gliders airspeed is 30kph.
2. If your fuel consumption is 3.5 litres per
hour, how much fuel (to the nearest 0.1L)
would you consume for the same flight.?
Answer...
Outward leg GS = 45kph, time = 40mins
Return leg GS = 15kph, time = 2 hours
Total = 2 hrs 40 mins
Outward leg 40 mins = 3.5 x .6667 = 2.3
Return leg 2 hours = 3.5 x 2 = 7.0
Total = 9.3 litres of fuel consumed
End of Current Notes

Good Luck
Hope you are now well prepared for the exam. The BHPA exam is currently 1 hour 30mins to
answer 100 multiple choice questions.
There are 4 sections and each section has a pass mark requirement of 70% in each.
Metrology
Air Law
Principles of Flight and Aircraft General
Airmanship & Navigation.
No reference materials are allowed in the exam, but candidates may use a calculator and a ruler.

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WARNING this data may be out of date, check with

A depression starts along the jet stream.

Jet streams form high in the upper troposphere between

Polar Jet Stream (light blue)

Where it eases, it speeds up causing a reduction

Following the warm sector is the cold front.

The cold front is often dramatic with heavy showers. At

High Cloud Types

Cirrus (Ci) wispy high cloud

Cirrocumulus (Cc) cell pattern (mackerel sky)

Cirrostratus (Cs) thin veil cloud

Medium Cloud Types

Altostratus (As) is an even layer of cloud at medium

Altocumulus (Ac) is a medium layer with a cell

Altocumulus Castellanus are excellent indicators of

Low Cloud Types

Cumulus (Cu) individual

Why Clouds Form

Ways Clouds are formed

Ways Clouds are formed

Ways Clouds are formed

As air expands it cools. The thermal will cool at a

If we plot the course of a thermal leaving the

High level caused by a high pressure system

Low level (ground) caused by air chilled in

Inversions may put a lid on our maximum altitude in a thermal.

Unstable ELR > DALR (3C/1000ft)

Adiabatic Lapse Rate Illustrated

Low pressure forms under the jet

The Life of a Depression

The low pressure will draw the 2 edges of

As the air rises it is given a twist by the Coriolis force.

The Life of a Depression

The cold front moves faster than the warm

Low Pressure (Depression)

High Pressure (Anticyclone)

High Pressure (Anticyclone)

Buys Ballots Law

This can be DANGEROUSLY strong

Vertical wind shear - wind changes at

Horizontal wind shear wind changes at

Coriolis Force & Wind

Coriolis Force & Wind

Frictionless circulation around closed isobars in the Northern Hemisphere.

Coriolis Force & Wind

Friction causing geostrophic

Coriolis Force & Wind

Coriolis Force & Wind

Pick out features such as;

The surface wind around a low

Fine drizzle and snow is associated with stratus and stratocumulus.

ANO (order and regulations)

Aeronautical Information Publication (UK AIP) or the UK Air Pilot

CAA Chart Room

Zones, Airways etc.

Airspace in the UK is classified by

This airspace is closed to gliders due to the need to

Class C controlled airspace

ATZ look like this on a

The number alongside the symbol on the chart

ATZ require radio

MATZ look like this on a